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A NEW
Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, &c.
K.
K TT" the tenth letter, and feventh confonant, of our
II J-Vj alphabet ; being formed by the voice, by a
Kampfena. guttural exprefiion of the breadth through the mouth,
together with a depreffion of the lower jaw and open¬
ing of the teeth.
Its found is much the fame with that of the hard c,
or qu : and it is ufed, for the moft part, only before <?,
i, and «, in the beginning of words; as ken, kill, know,
&c. It ufed formerly to be always joined withe at
the end of words, but is at prefent very properly omit¬
ted, atleaft in words derived from the Latin : thus, for
publick, mufick, &c. we fay, public, mujic. See. How¬
ever, in monofyllables, it is Itill retained, as jack, block,
mock, &c.
Though it is feldom ufed in words derived from the
French, as being altogether wanting in that language,
yet we meet with rifk, burle/k, &c. in very good au¬
thors, inftead of rifque, burlefque} and indeed the
former orthography is certainly moft agreeable to the
genius of the Englifh language.
As a numeral, K denotes 250 ; and with a line over
it, K, 250000.
KiEMPFERIA, galangal ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The galanga, or common galangal,
.hath tuberous, thick, oblong, flefhy roots; crowned
with oval, clofe-fitting leaves, by pairs, four or five
inches long, without footftalks; and between them
clofe-fitting white flowers, with purple bottoms, grow¬
ing fingly. 2. The rotunda, or round zedoary, hath
thick, flelhy, fwelling, roundifti, cluftering roots,
fending up fpear-fliaped leaves, fix or eight inches
long, near half as broad, on upright footftalks; and
between them, immediately from the roots, rife whitifh
flowers, tinged with green, red, yellow, and purple,
centres. Both thefe are perennial in root; but the
leaves rife annually in fpring, and decay in winter.
They flower in fummer : each flower is of one petal,
tubulous below, but plain above, and divided into fix
parts; they continue three or four weeks in beauty,
but are never fucceeded by feeds in this country.
Culture. Both thefe plants muft be potted in light
rich mould, and always kept in the hot-houfe, giving
in plenty of water in fummer, but more fparingly in
winter. They are propagated by parting the roots Kalendav.
fpring, juft before they begin topulh forth new leaves.  
Ufes. The firft fpecies is cultivated with great care
by the inhabitants of Siam for the fake of its root; the
ufe of which, fays Kempfer, is to remove obftru&ions
of the hypochondria, to warm the ftomach, difeufs fla¬
tulencies, and to ftrengthen the bowels and the whole
nervous fyftem. The root was formerly ufed in this
country in bitter infufions; but is now laid afide, on
account of its flavour being difagreeable.
KALENDAR, a diftribution of time, accommo¬
dated to the ufes of life; or a table, or almanac,
containing the order of days, weeks, months, feafts,
&c. happening throughout the year. Sec Time,
Month, Year, &c.
It is called kalendar, from the word kalends, an¬
ciently wrote in large characters at the head of each
month. See Kalends.
The days in k'alendars were originally divided into
oftoades, or eights; but afterwards, in imitation of the
into hebdomades, orfevens; which cAiftom, Seali-
ger obferves, was not introduced among the Romani
till after the time of Theodofius.
There are divers kalendars, according to the diffe¬
rent forms of the year, and diftributions of tirpe, efla-
blilhed in different countries. Hence the Roman, the
Jewifh, the Perfian, the Julian, the Gregorian, &c.
kalendars.
The ancient Roman kalendar is given by Ricciolus,
Struvius, Danet, and others; by which we fee the
order and number of the Roman holidays and work¬
days.
The three Chriftian kalendars are given by Wolfius
in his Elements of Chronology.
The Jewilh kalendar was fixed by rabbi Hillel
about the year 360, from which time the days of their
year may be reduced to thofe of the Julian kalendar.
The Roman Kalendar, owed its origin to Ro¬
mulus ; but it has undergone various reformations fince
his time. That legiflator diftributed time into feveral
periods, for the ufe of the people under his com¬
mand: but as he was much better verfed in matters of
war than of aftranomy, he only divided the year into
ten months, making it begin in the fpring, on the
firft of March ; imagining the fun made his courfe
22 T 2 thro’
K A L [ 4008 ] K A L
Kalendar. thro* all the feafons in 304 days.
Romulus’s kakndar was reformed by Numa, wlio
added two months more,-January and February ; pla¬
cing them before March: fo that his year confided of
355 days, and began on the firft of January. He chofe,
however, in imitation of the Greeks, to make an in¬
tercalation of 45 days, which he divided into two parts;
intercalating a month of 22 days at the end of each
two years; and at the end of each two years more,
another of 23 days ; which month, thus interpo-
fed, he called Mavccdonius, or the intercalary Fe¬
bruary.
But thefe intercalations being ill obferved by the
pontiffs, to whom Numa committed the care of them,
occafioned great diforders in the conftitution of the
year; which Caefar, as fovereign pontiff, endeavour¬
ed to remedy. To this end, he made choice of Sofi-
genes, a celebrated aftronomer of thofe times; who
found, that the difpenfation of time in the kalendar
could never be fettled on any fare footing, without ha¬
ving regard to the annual courfe of the fun. Accord-
ingly, as the fun’s yearly courfe is performed in 365
days fix hours, he reduced the year to the fame num¬
ber of days: the years of this corre6lion of the kalen¬
dar was a year of confufion ; they being obliged, in
order to fwallow up the 65 five days that had been im¬
prudently added, and which occafioned the confufion,
to add two months befides the Marcedonius, which
chanced to fall out that year; fo that this year con-
fifted of 15 months, or 445 days. This reformation
was made in the year of Rome 708, 42 or 43 years
before Chrift.
The Roman kalendar, called a\[o Julian kalendar, from
its reformerjulius, is difpofed into quadriennial periods;
whereof the firft three years, which he called communes,
confift of 365 days; and the fourth, bijfextile, of 366;
by reafon of the fix hours, which in four years make
a day, or fomewhat lefs, for in 134 years an interca¬
lary day is to be retrenched. On this account it was,
that pope Gregory XIII. with the adviceof Clavius and
Ciaconius, appointed, that the hundredth year of each
century ftiould have no biffextile, excepting in each
fourth century: that is, a fubtraClion is made of three
biffextile days in the fpace of four centuries; by reafon
of the i t minutes wanting in the fix hours whereof the
biffextile confifts.
The reformation of the kalendar, or the Jlyle,
as we call it, commenced on the fourth of O&ober
1582, when ten days were thrown out at once; fo many
having been introduced into the computation fince the
time of the council of Nice, in 325, by the defetft of
11 minutes.
Julian Cbrijlian Kalendar, is that wherein the
days of the week are determined by the letters A, B,
C, D, E, F, G, by means of the folar cycle; and the
new and full moons, efpecially the pafchal full moon,
with the feaft of Eafter, and the other moveable feafts
depending thereon, by means of golden numbers,
rightly difpofed through the Julian year. See Cycle,
and Golden Number.
In this kalendar, the vernal equinox is fuppofed to
be fixed to the 21 ft day of March; and the cycle of 19
years, or the golden numbers, conftantly. to indicate
the places of the new and full moons; yet both are er¬
roneous. And hence arofe a very great irregularity in
the time of Eafter. To {hew this error the more ap* Kalendar
parently, let us apply it to the year 1715. In this j
year, then, the vernal equinox falls on the tenth of
March; and therefore comes too early by 11 days. The
pafchal full-moon falls on the 7th of April; and there¬
fore too late, with regard to the cycle, by three days.
Eafter, therefore, which firould have been on the 10th
of April, was that year on the 17th. The error here
lies only in the metemptofis, or poftpofition of the
moon, through the defedt of the lunar cycle. If the
full moon had fell on the 1 ith of March, Eafter would
have fallen on the 13th of March; and therefore the er¬
ror arifing from the anticipation of the equinox, would
have exceedingly augmented that arifing from the
portpofition. Thefe errors, in courfe of time, were fo
multiplied, that the kalendar no longer exhibited any
regular Eafter. Pope Gregory XIII. therefore, by the
advice of Aloyfius Lilius, in 1582, threw 10 days out m
of the month of Odlober, to reftore the equinox to its
place, viz. the 21 ft of March ; and thus introduced the
form of the Gregorian year, with fuch a provifion, as
that the equinox ftiould be conftantly kept to the 21ft
of March. The new moons and full moons, by ad¬
vice of the fame Lilius, were not to be indicated by
golden numbers, but by epadls. The kalendar, how¬
ever, was ftill retained in Britain, without this cor-
re&ion: whence there was a difference of 11 days be¬
tween our time and that of our neighbours. But by
24 Geo. II. c. 23. the Gregorian computation is efta-
blifhed here, and accordingly took place in 1752.
Gregorian Kalendar, is that which, by means of
epa&s, rightly difpofed thro’ the feveral months, de¬
termines the new and full moons, and the time of Ea¬
fter, with the moveable feafts depending thereon, in
the Gregorian year.
The Gregorian kalendar, therefore, differs from the
Julian, both in the form of the year, and in that epa&s I
are fubftituted in lieu of golden numbers: for the ufe
and difpofition whereof, fee Epact, in the APPEN¬
DIX.
Though the Gregorian kalendar be preferable to |
the Julian, yet it is not without its defe&s (perhaps, '
as Tycho Brahe and Caflini imagine, it is impofiible
ever to bring the thing to a perfect juftnefs.) For, firft,
the Gregorian intercalation does not hinder, but that !
the equinox fometimes fucceeds the 21ft of March, as
far as the 23d; and foretimes anticipates it, falling on ■
the 19th ; and the full moon, which falls on the 20th of j
March, is fometimes the pafchal; yet not fo account- '
ed by the Gregorians. On the other hand, the Gre-
gorians account the full moon of the 22d of March, the
pafchal; which yet, falling before the equinox, is not '
pafchal. In the firft cafe, therefore, Eafter is celebra¬
ted in an irregular month; in the latter, there are two
Eafters in the fame eeclefiaftical year. In like manner,
the cyclical computation being founded on mean full-
moons, which yet may precede or'follow the true ones
by fome hours, the pafchal full-moon may fall on Sa¬
turday, which is yet referred by the cycle to Sunday:
whence, in the firft cafe, Eafter is celebrated eight
days later than it ftiould be; in the other, it is celebra¬
ted on the very day of the full moon, with the Jews
and Quartodeciman heretics; contrary to the decree
of the council of Nice. Scaliger and Calvifius /hew o-
ther faults in the Gregorian kalendar, arifing from the
negli- '
K A L [ 4009 ] K A i.
Kalendar. negligence and inadvertency of the authors: yet is this
kalendar adhered to by the Romanifts throughout Eu¬
rope, &c. and ufed wherever the Roman breviary is
ufed.
Reformed, or Corrected, Kalendar, is that which,
fetting afide all apparatus of golden numbers, epacts,
and dominical letters, determines, the equinox, with
the pafchal full-moon, and the moveable feaits depend¬
ing thereon, by aftronomical computation, according
to the Rudolphine Tables.
This kalendar was introduced among the Proteftant
ftates of Germany in the year 1700, when 11 days
were at once thrown out of the month of February;
fo that in 1700, February had but 18 days: by this
means, the corre&ed ftyle agrees with the Gregorian.
This alteration in the form of the year, they admitted
for a time; in expeftation that, the real quantity of
the tropical year being at length more accurately de¬
termined by obfervation, the Romanifts would agree
with them on forae more convenient intercalation.
Coriftniftion of a Kalendar, or Almanac. 1. Com¬
pute the fun’s and moon’s place for each day of the
year; or take them from ephemerides. 2. Find the
dominical letter, and, by means thereof, dillribute the
the kalendar into weeks. 3. Compute the time of Fa¬
lter, and thence fix the other moveable feafts. 4. Add
the immoveable feafts, with the names of the martyrs.
5, To every day add the fun’s and moon’s place, with
the riling and fetting of each luminary; the length of
day and night; the crepufcula, and the afpefts of the
planets. 6. Add, in the proper places, the chief phafes
of the moon, and the fun’s entrance into the cardinal-
points; i.e. the folftices and equinoxes; together with
the rifing and the fetting, efpecially heliacal, of the
planets and chief fixed ftars. See Astronomy.
The duration of the crepufcula, or the end of the
evening and beginning of the morning twilight, to¬
gether with the fun’s rifing-and fetting, and the length
of days, may be transferred from the kalendars of one
year, into thofe of another; the differences in the fe-
veral years being too fmall to be of any confideration
in civil life.
Hence it appears, that the conftruSion of a kalen¬
dar has nothing in it of myftery, or difficulty, if tables
of the heavenly motions be at hand.
Some divide kalendars or almanacs into public and
private, perfeft and imperfedt; others into heathen
and Chriftian.
Public almanacs are thofe of a larger fize, ufually
hung up for common or family ufe ; private are thofe
of a fmaller kind, to be carried about either in the
hand, infcribed on a ftaff, or in the pocket; perfedt,
thofe which have the dominical letters as well as
primes and feafts infcribed on them; imperfedt, thofe
which have only the primes and immoveable feafts.
Till about the fourth century, they all carry the marks
of heathenifm; from that age to the feventh, they are
generally divided between heathenffm and Chriftia-
nity.
Almanacs are of fomewhat different compofition,
fome containing more points, others fewer. The effen-
tial part is the kalendar of months and days, with the
rifings and fetting of the fun, age of the moon, &c.
To thefe are added various parerga, aftronomical, a-
ftrological,, meteorological, chronological, and even
political, rural, medical, &c. as calculations, and ac- Kalendar,
counts of eclipfes, folar ingreffes, afpedts, and conft- Ka)enda'
gurations of the heavenly bodies, lunations, htliocen- ‘
trical and geocentrical motions of the planets, prog-
nollics of the weather, and predidlions of other events,
tables of the planetary motions, the tides, terms, inte-
reft, twilight, equation, kings, &c.
Gelalean ox Jellaleean Kalendar, is a corredfion
of the Perfian kalendar, made by order of fultan Ge-
laleddan, in the 467th year of the Hegira; of Chrill
1089.
Kalendar, is alfo applied to divers other compofi-
tions refpedting the 12 months of the year.
In this fenfe, Spencer has given the fliepherd’s ka¬
lendar; Evelyn, and Miller, the gardener’s kalendar*
&c.
Kalendar, is ufed for the catalogue, or fafti, an¬
ciently kept in each church, of the faints, both uni-
verfal, and thofe particularly honoured in each churchy
with their bilhops, martyrs, &c. Kalendars are not to
be confounded with martyrologies; for each church
had its peculiar kalendar, whereas the martyrologies
regarded the whole church in general, containing the
martyrs and confeffors of all the churches. From all
the feveral kalendars were formed one martyrology:
fo that martyrologies are pofterior to kalendars.
Kalendar, is alfo extended to an orderly table, or
enumeration of perfons or things.
Lord Bacon willies for a kalendar of doubts. A late
writer has given a kalendar of the perfons who may
inherit eftates in fee-fimple.
Kalendar, Kalcndarinm, originally denoted a-
mong the Romans, a book containing an account of
moneys at intereft, which become due on the kalends
of January, the ufual time when the Roman ufurera
let out their money.
Kalendar Months, the folar months, as they ftand
in the kalendar, viz. January 31 days, &c.
AJlronomical Kalendar, an inttrument engraved
upon copper-plates, printed on paper, and palled on
board, with a brafs Aider which carries a hair, and
Ihews by infpedlion the fun’s meridian altitude, right
afcenfion, declination, rifing, fetting, amplitude, &c.
to a greater exadtnefs than our common globes wilb
flvew.
Kalendar ofPrijoners. See Calendar.
KALENDAR-^ro^er/, a fort of devout fraternities,
compofed of ecclefiaftics as well as lay-men; whole
chief bufinefs was to procure maffesto be faid, and alms
diftributed, for the fouls of fuch members as were de-
ceafed. They were alfo denominated kalend-brothcrs,
becaufe they ufually met on the kalends of each
month, though in fome places only once a-quarter.
KALENDARIUM festum. The Chriftians re¬
tained much of the ceremony and wantonnefs of the
kalends of January, which for many ages was held a
feaft, and celebrated by the clergy with great indecen¬
cies, under the names fefum kalendarum, or kypodiaco-
norum, or fultorum, that is, the feaft of fools : fome-
times alfo libertas decembrica. The people met malked
in the church ; and in a ludicrous way proceeded to
theele&ion of a mock pope, or bilhop, who exercifed
a jurifdidtion over them fuitable to the feftivity of the
occafion. Fathers, councils, and popes, long labour¬
ed to reftrain this licence, to little purpofe. We find!
K A L [ 4010 ] K A M
Kalenders. the feaft of the kalends in ufe as low as the clofe of the
Kalends- 15th century. Du Cange.
KALENDERS. See Calenders.
KALENDS, olCalends, in theRoman chronology,
the firftday of every month.—The word is formed from
xoaso, I call, or proclaim ; becaufe, before the publi¬
cation of the Roman fafti, it was one of the offices of
the pontifices to watch the appearance of the new
moon, and give notice thereof to the rex facrificulusi
upon which a facrifice being offered, the pontiff fum-
moned the people together in the capitol, and there,
with a loud voice, proclaimed the number of kalends,
or the day whereon the nones would be; which he did
by repeating this formula, as often as there were days
of kalends, Calo Juno Novella. Whence the name
calenche was given thereto, from calo, calare. This is
the account given by Varro. Others derive the appel¬
lation hence, That the people being convened on this
day, the pontifex called, or proclaimed, the feveral
feafts or holidays in the month ; a cuftom which con¬
tinued no longer than the year of Rome 450, when
C. Flavius, the curule asdile, ordered the fafli, or ka-
lendar, to be fet up in public places, that every body
might know the difference of times, and the return of
the feftivals.
The kalends were reckoned backwards, or in a re¬
trograde order. Thus, v. g. the firft of May being the
kalends of May; the laft, or 30th of April, was the
pridie kalendarum, or fecond of the kalends of May ;
the 29th of April, the third of the kalends, or before
the kalends: and fo back to the 13th, where the ides
commence ; which are, likewife, numbered invertedly
to the fifth, where the nones begin; which are num¬
bered after the fame manner to the firft day of the
month, which is the kalends of April. See Ides, and
Nones.
The rules of computation by kalends, are included
iii the following verfes :
Prima dies menjis cujufque ejl dilla kalendte :
Sex Maius nonas, Oftober, Julius, <b Mars ;
Quatuor at reliqui : habet tdus quilibet otto.
Inde dies reliquos omnes die ejfe kalendas;
Shtas retro numerous dices a menfefsquente.
To find the day of the kalends anfwering to any day
of the month we are in ; fee how many days there are
yet remaining of the month, and to that number add
two: for example, fuppofe it the 22d day of April;
it is then the 10th of the kalends of May. For April
contains 30 days: and 22 taken from 30, there re¬
mains eight; to which two being added, the fum is ten.
The reafon of adding two is, becaufe the laft day of
the month is called fecundo kalendas, the laft but one
tertio kalendas, &c.
The Roman writers themfelves are at a lofs for the
reafon of this abfurd and whimfical manner of compu¬
ting the days of the month : yet it is ftill kept up in
the Roman chancery ; and by fome authors, out of a
vain affe&ation of learning, preferred to the common,
more natural, and eafy manner.
Kalends, are alfo ufed in church-hiftory to de¬
note conferences anciently held by the clergy of each
deanry, on the firft day of every month, concerning
their duty and condudl, efpecially in what related to
the impofition of penance.
Kalends of January, in Roman antiquity, was a
folemn feftival confecrated to Juno and Janus ; where- Kalends
in the Romans offered vows and facrifices to thofe II
deities, and exchanged prefents among themfelves, asKamc atka
a token of friendfhip.
It was only a melancholy day to debtors, who were
then obliged to pay their interefts, &c. Hence Ho¬
race calls it trifles kalendse ; Lib. i. Serm. Sat. 3.
KALI, in botany. See Salsola.
KALISH, a province of Lower Poland, with the
title of a palatinate. It is bounded on the weft by
the palatinate of Bofnia, on the eaft by that ofSyrad,
on the north by Regal Pruffia, and on the fouth by
Silefia. Kalifii is the capital town.
Kalish, a town of Lower Poland, and capital of
a palatinate of the fame name, where the jefuits have
a magnificent college. It is feated on the river Prof-
na, in a morafs, which renders it difficult of accefs,
E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 52. 20.
KALMIA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. Of
this genus there are two fpecies ; both of them hardy
evergreen ffirubs, growing four or five feet high ; ad¬
orned with oval and fpear-fhaped entire leaves, and
monopetalous five-parted flowers, of a pale or bright
red colour, in clofe round bunches, appearing in
June and July. They may be propagated either by
feeds, fuckers, or layers ; and though natives of A-
merica, will fucceed any where in the open ground ia
this country.
KALMUCKS, a tribe of Tartars, called alfo E-
luths, inhabiting the larger half of what the Europeans
call JVeflern Tartary. Their territory extends from the
Cafpian fea, and the river Task or Ural, in 72 degrees
of longitude from Ferro, to mount Altay, in no de¬
grees, and from the 40th to the yzd degree of north
latitude ; whence it may be computed about 1930
miles in length from weft to eaft, and in breadth from
north to fouth about 650 miles where broadeft. It is
bounded on the north by Ruffia and Siberia, from
which it is feparated by a chain of mountains ; on the
eaft by mount Altay ; on the fouth by the coun¬
tries of Karazm and the two Bukharias, from which
it is alfo feparated partly by a chain of mountains,
and partly by fome rivers.-—For a defeription of the
country, the manners, &c. of the inhabitants, fee
Tartary.
KAMAKURA, a famous ifland of Japan, about
three miles in circumference, lying on the fouth coaft
of Niphon. It is here they confine their great men
when they have committed any fault. The coaft of
this ifland is fo fteep, that they are forced to be lifted
up by cranes.
KAMINIECK, a very ftrong town of Poland, and
capital of Podolia, with two caftles, and a bilhop’s
fee. It was taken by the Turks in 1^72, who gave
it back in 1690, after the treaty of Carlowitz. It is
feated on a craggy rock, in E. Long. 27. 30. N. Lat.
48. 58.
KAMTCHATKA, Kamschatcka, or Kamchat¬
ka ; a large peninfula on the north-eaftern part of
Afia, lying between 51 and 62 degrees of north la¬
titude, and between 173 and 182 degrees of eaft
longitude from the ifle of Ferro. It is bounded on
the eaft and fouth by the fea of Kamtchatka, on the
weft by the feas of Ochotlk and Penlhinlk, and on
Kamchatka
When firft
vifittd by
the Ruf¬
fians.
Subdued by
them.
t
K A M
the north by the country of the KorJafcs.
This peninfula was not difcovered by the Ruffians
before the end of the laft century. It is probable,
however, that fome of that nation had vifited Kanat-
chatka before the time above mentioned. For when
4011 ] K A M
chatka, and rendered it an important part of the Ruf- ^Kameha^a
fian commerce.
The face of the country throughout the peninfula ^0.“n‘rydc'‘
is chiefly mountainous. It produces, in fome parts, *CK c ’
birch, poplars, elders, willows, underwood, and ber-
Volodomir Atlaffoff entered upon the conqueft of ries of different forts. Greens and other vegetables
this peninfula in 1697, he found that the inhabitants are raifed with great facility ; fuch as white cabbage,
had already fome knowledge of the Ruffians. A conv
mon tradition as yet prevails among them, that, long
before the expedition of Atlaffoff, one Feodotoff and
his companions had refided among them, and had in¬
termarried with the natives: and they ftill (hew the
place where the Ruffian habitations ftood. None of
the Ruffians remained when Atlaffoff firft vifited
Kamtchatka. They are faid to have been held in
great veneration, and almoft deified, by the natives ;
who at firft imagined that no human power could hurt
them, until they quarrelled among themfelves, and
the blood was feen to flow from the wounds which
they gave each other; and foon after, upon a fepara-
tion taking place, they were all killed by the natives.
—-Thefe Ruffians were thought to be the remains of
a (hip’s crew who had failed quite round the north-
eaftern promontory of Afia called Tfchukutjkoi-Noft.
The account we have of this voyage is as follows.—
In 1648, feven kotches or veffels failed from the mouth
of the river Kovyma or Kolyma, lying in the frozen o-
turneps, radifties, beet-root, carrots, and fome cu¬
cumbers. Agriculture is in a very low ftate ; owing
chiefly to the nature of the foil and the fevere hoar-
frofts: for though fome trials have been made with
refpeft to the cultivation of grain ; and oats, barley,
and rye, have been fown ; yet no crop has ever been
procured fuffxcient in quantity or quality to anfwerthe
trouble of raifing it. Hemp, however, has of late
years been cultivated with great fuccefs.—Every year
a veffel belonging to the crown fails from Ochotflc to
Kamtchatka laden with fait, provifions, corn, and
Ruffian manufa&ures; and returns in June or July
of the following year with (kins and furs. 4
Many traces of volcanoes have been obferved in this Volcanoes,
peninfula ; and there are fome mountains which are
in a burning ftate at prefent. The moft confiderable
of thefe is fituated near the middle of the peninfula.
In 1762, a great noife was heard iffuing from the in-
fide of that mountain, and flames of fire were feen to
burft from different parts. Thefe flames were imme-
cean in about 72 degrees north latitude, and 173 or diately fucceeded by a large ftream of melted fnow-
174 eaft longitude from Ferro, in order to penetrate
into the eaftern ocean. Four of thefe were never more
heard of; the remaining three were commanded by
Simon Deftmeff, Gerafim Ankudinoff, two chiefs of
the Coffacs, and Feodotoff Alexeeff, head of the Pro-
myftilenics, or wandering Ruffians, who occafionally
vifited Siberia. Each veffel was probably manned
with about 30 perfons. They met with no obftruc-
tions from the ice, but Ankudinoff’s veffel was wreck¬
ed on the promontory above mentioned, and the crew
were diftributed on board the two remaining veffels.
water, which flowed into the neighbouring valley, and'
drowned two natives who were there on a hunting
party. The afhes and burning matters thrown from
the mountain were fpread over a furface of 300 verfts.
In 1767, was another difeharge, but lefs confiderable.
Every night flames of fire were obferved dreaming
from the mountain; and confiderable damage was done
by the eruption which attended them. Since that year
no flames have been feen ; but the mountain emits a
conftant fmoke. s
Kamtchatka is divided by the Ruffians into four di- Populatior
Thefe two foon after loft fight of each other, and ftridts; and the government of the whole is dependent
never afterwards rejoined. Deflineff was driven about upon, and fubjeft to, the infpe&ion of the chancery of
by tempeftous winds till Oftober, when he was (hip-
wrecked on the northern part of Kamtchatka. Here
he was informed by a woman of Yakutlk, that Feo-
dotoff and Gerafim had died of the feurvy ; that part
of the crew had been flain ; and that a few had e-
fcaped in fmall veffels, who had never afterwards been
heard off; and.thefe were probably the people who, as
we have already mentioned, fettled among the Kamt-
chatkans.
As the inabitants of this country were neither nu¬
merous nor warlike, it required no great force to fub-
due them ; and in 1711 the whole peninfula was fi¬
nally reduced under the dominion of the Ruffians.-
Ochotfk. The whole Ruffian force ftationed in this-
peninfula, amounts to no more than 300 men. The
prefent population of Kamtchatka is very fmall, a-
mounting to fcarce 4000 fouls. Formerly the inhabi¬
tants were more numerous; but in 1768, the fmall-
pox carried off 5368 perfons. There are now’ only a-
bout 700 males in the whole peninfula who are tribu¬
tary, and few more than 100 in the neighbouring
illands, called the KurilIJles, who are fubjeft to Ruffia.
The fixed annual tribute confifts in 279 fables, 464
red foxes, 50 fea-otters with a dam, and 38 cub ot¬
ters. All furs exported from Kamtchatka pay a duty
of 10 per cent, to the crown ; the tenth part of the
cargoes bought from the neighbouring illands is alfo
For fome years this acquifition wms of very little con- u w
fequence to the crown, excepting the fmall tribute of delivered into the cuftoms.
furs exafted from the inhabitants. The Ruffians in- The natives of Kamtchatka are as wild as thecoun- Manners,
deed occafionally hunted, in this peninfula, foxes, try itfelf. Some of them have no fixed habitations, of thrr
wolves, ermines, fables, and other animals, whofe but wander from place to place, with their herds ofnaUves*
(kins form an extenfive article of commerce among the rein-deer; others have fettled habitations, and refide
eaftern nations. But the fur-trade carried on from upon the banks of the rivers, and the (hore of the
thence was very inconfiderable, until the feries of Penfchinfka fea, living upon fifh and fea-animals, and
iflands mentioned in the next article were difcovered ; fuch herbs as grow upon the (hore : the former dwell
fince which time the quantities of furs brought from in huts, covered with deer-fltins; the latter in places
thefe iflands have greatly increafed the trade of Kami* dug out of the earth j both in a very barbarous man-
A K M [ 401
Kamtchatkaner. Their difpofitions and tempers are rough; and
they are entirely ignorant of letters or religion. The
natives are divided into three different people, namely,
the Kamtchatkans, Koreki, and Kuriles. The Kamt-
chatkans live upon the fouth fide of the promontory
of Kamtchatka : the Koreki inhabit the northern parts
cm the coaft of the Penchinfka fea, and round the ea-
ftern ocean, almoft to the river Anadir, whofe mouth
lies in that ocean almoft in 68°N. Lat.: the Ku¬
riles inhabit the iflands in that fea, reaching as far
as thofe of Japan. The Kamtchatkans have this par¬
ticular cuftom, that they endeavour to give every thing
a name in their language which may exprefs the pro¬
perty of it; but if they do not underftand the thing
quite well themfelves, then they take a name from
fame foreign language, which perhaps has no relation
to the thing itfelf; as, for example, they call a prieft
bogbeg, becaufe probably they hear him ufe the word
logbcg, God ; bread they call brightatin augfb, that
is, Ruffian root; and thus of feveral other words to
which their language is a ftranger.
It appears probable, that the Kamtchatkans lived
formerly in Mungalia, beyond the river Amur, and
made one people with the Mungals j which is farther
confirmed by the following' obfervations, fuch as the
Kamtchatkan having feveral words common to theMun-
gal Chinefe language, as their terminations in ong,
ing, oang, chin, cha, ching, kfii, kfung j it would
be ft ill a greater proof, if we could fhew feveral words
and fentences the fame in both languages. The Kamt-
clntkansand Mungals alfo are both of a middling ftature,
are fwarthy, have black hair, a broad face, a fharp
nofe, with the eyes falling in, eye-brows fmall and
thin, a hanging belly, (lender legs and arms; they
are both remarkable for cowardice, boafting, and fla-
viftinefs to people who ufe them hard, and for their
obftinacy and contempt of thofe who treat them with
gentlenefs.
Although, in outward appearance, they refemble
the other inhabitants of Siberia, yet the Kamtchat¬
kans differ in this, that their faces are not fo long as
the other Siberians ; their cheeks ftand more out, their
teeth are thick, their mouth large, their ftature mid¬
dling, and their ftioulders broad, particularly thofe
people who inhabit the fea coaft.
Before the Ruffian conqneft, they lived in perfeft
freedom, having no chief, being fubjeft to no law, nor
paying any taxes; the old men, or thofe who were re¬
markable for their bravery, bearing the principal au¬
thority in their villages, though none had any right to
command or infliA punifhment.
Their manner of living is flovenly to the laft degree:
they never wafh their hands nor face, nor cut their
nails; they eat out of the fame difh with the dogs,
which they never wafh; they never comb their heads,
but both men and women plait their hair in two locks,
binding the ends with fmall ropes. When any hair
ftarts out, they few it with threads to make it lie
clofe; by this means they have fuch a quantity of
lice, that they can ferape them off by handfuls, and
they are nafty enough even to eat them. Thofe that
have not natural hair fufficient, wear falfe locks, fome-
times as much as weigh ten pounds, which makes their
heads look like a haycock.
They place their chief happinefs in idlenefs, and
2 ] K A M
fatisfying their natural lull and appetites; which in-Kamtchatk*
dine them to finging, dancing, and relating of love-fto-
ries ; and they think it more eligible to die than to lead
a difagreeable life ; which opinion often leads them to j-am,chat-
felf-murder. This was fo common after the conqueft,kans incti-
that the Ruffians had great difficulty to put a flop toned to
it. They have no notion of riches, fame. Or honour ;raurder*
therefore covetoufnefs, ambition, and pride, are un¬
known among them. On the other hand, they are
carelefs, luftful, and cruel: thefe vices occafion fre¬
quent quarrels and wars among them, fometimes with
their neighbours, not from a defire of increanfig their
power, but from fome other caufes; fuch as the car¬
rying off their provifions, or rather their girls, which
is frequently pradtifed as the moft fummary method of
procuring a wife. Their trade is almoft entirely con¬
fined to procuring the immediate neceffaries and cori-
venieucies of life. They fell the Koreki fables, fox
and white dog fkins, dried muftirooms, and the like,
in exchange for cloaths made of deer-lkins and other
hides. Their domeftic trade confifts in dogs, boats,
difhes, troughs, nets, hemp, yarn, and provifions:
and this kind of barter is carried on under a great fhew
of friendfhip; for when one wants any thing that
another has, he goes freely to vifit him, and without
any ceremony makes known his wants, although per¬
haps he never had any acquaintance with him before :
the hoft is obliged to behave according to the cuftom
of the country, and give his gueft what he has occa¬
fion for ; but he may afterwards return the vifit, and
muft be received in the fame manner. They fill al¬
moft every place in heaven and earth with different
fpirits, and offer them facrifices upon every occafion.
Some carry little idols about them, or have them pla¬
ced in their dwellings; but, with regard to God, they
not only negleft to worfhip him, but, in cafe of
troubles and misfortunes, they curfe and blafpheme
him.
It is very diverting to fee them attempt to reckon Cann®t
above ten : for having reckoned the fingers of both number a-
hands, they clafp them together, which fignifies ten ; bove twen-
then they begin with their toes, and count to twenty jty*
after which they are quite confounded, and cry, Met-
cha ? that is, Where fhall I take more ? They reckon
ten months in the year, fome of which are longer and
fome fhorter; for they do not divide them by the
changes of the moon, but by the order of particular
occurrences that happen in thofe regions. They com¬
monly divide our year into two, fo that winter is one
year, and fummer another : the fummer year begins
in May, and the winter in November. They do not
diftinguifh the days by any particular appellation, nor
form them into weeks or months, nor yet know
how many days are in the month or year. They
mark their epochs by fome remarkable thing or other,
fuch ais the arrival of the Ruffians, or the firft expedi¬
tion to Kamtchatka.
If any one kills another, he is to be killed by theTheirhws.
relations of the perfon flain. They burn the hands of
people who have been frequently caught in theft; but,
for the firft offence, the thief muft reftore what he
hath ftolen, and live alone in folitude, without expeft-
ing the affiftance of others. They never have any dif-
putes about their land, or their huts, everyone having
land and water more than fufficient for his wants.
They
K A M [ 4013 ] K A M
Kamchatka They think themfelves the happieft people in the world, comes on, when they can more eafily remove it ; and Kamchatka
and look upon the Ruffians who are fettled among this without any guard, only taking away the ladders,
them with contempt. However, this notion begins to If thefe buildings were not fo high, the wild beads
change; for the old people, who are confirmed in would undoubtedly plunder them ; for, notwithftand-
their cuftoms, drop off, and the young ones, being ing all their precaution, the bears fometimes climb
converted to the Chriftian religion, adopt the cuftoms up and force their way into their magazines, cfpeci-
of the Ruffians, and defpife the barbarity and fuper- ally in the harveft, when the filh and berries begin to
ftition of their anceftors. grow fcarce.
In every oftrog, or large village, by order of her The fouthern Kamtchatkans commonly build their
imperial majefty, is appointed a chief, who is foie villages in thick woods, and other places which are na-
judge in all caufes, except thofe of life and death ; and turally ftrong, not lefs than 20 verfts from the fea ;
not only thefe chiefs, but even the common people, and their fummer habitations are near the mouths of
have their chapels for worlhip. Schools are alfo e- the rivers; but thofe who live upon the Penchinfka
reded in almoft every village, to which the Kami- fea, and the eaftern ocean, build their villages very
chatkans fend their children with great pleafurc : fcy near the fhore. They look upon that river near which
this means it is to be hoped, that barbarity will be their village is fituated, as the inheritance of their
in a (hort time rooted out from amongft them. tribe. IT
Under the name of cjirog, is underftood every ha- In order to kindle fire, they ufe a board of dry Method of
lo bitation confiding of one or more huts, all furrounded wood with round holes in the fades of it, and a fmall kindling
Manner of by an earthen wall or palifado The huts are built round ftick; this they rub in a hole till it takes fire; ie‘‘
building in the following manner : they dig a hole in the earth and inftead of tinder they ufe dry grafs beat foft.
their huts, about five feet deep, the breadth and length proportion- Thefe inftruments are held in fuch efteem by the Kamt-
ed to the number of people defigned to live in it. In chatkans, that they are never without them, and they
the middle of this hole they plant four thick wooden value them more than our fteels and flints; but they
pillars; over thefe they lay balks, upon which they are exceffively fond of iron inftruments, fuch as hatch-
form the roof or ceiling, leaving in the middle a fquare ets, knives, or needles: nay, at the firft arrival of the
opening which ferves them for a window and chimney ; Ruffians, a piece of broken iron was looked upon as a
this they cover with grafs and earth, fo that the out- great prefent; and even now they receive it with
ward appearance is like a round hillock ; but within thankfulnefs, finding ufe for the leaft fragment, either
they are an oblong fqnare, with the fire in one of the to point their arrows or make darts, which they do by
long fides of the fquare: between the pillars, round hammering it out cold between two ftones. As fome
the walls of their huts, they make benches, upon of them delight in war, the Ruffian merchants are for-
which each family lies feparately ; but on that fide bid to fell them any warlike inftruments: but they arc
oppofite to the fire, there are no benches, it being ingenious enough to make fpears and arrows out of the
defigned for their kitchen-furniture, in which they iron pots and kettles which they buy ; and they are
drefs their vi&uals for themfelves and dogs. In thofe fo dexterous, when the eye of a needle breaks, as to
huts where there are no benches, there are balks laid make a new eye, which they will repeat until nothing
upon the floor, and covered with mats. They adorn remains but the point. lt,
the walls of their huts with mats made of grafs. They The Kamtchatkans make their boatsof poplar-wood; Conftruc-
enter their huts by ladders, commonly placed near but the Kuriles, not having any wood of their own,tion i
the fire-hearth ; fo that, when they are heating their make ufe of what is thrown on (hore by the fea, and boats'
huts, the fteps of the ladder become fo hot, and the is fuppofed to come from the coafts of Japan, China,
fmoke fo thick, that it is almoft impoffible for a ftran- or America. The northern inhabitants of Kamtchat-
ger to go up or down without being burnt, and even ka, the fettled Koreki and Tfchukotlkoi, for want of
ftifled to death ; but the natives find no difficulty in proper timber and plank, make their boats of the
it; and though they can only fix their toes on the fkins of fea-animals. They few the pieces together
fteps of the ladder, they mount like fquirrels ; nor do with whales beards, and caulk them with mofs or
the women hefitate to go through this fmoke with nettles beat fmall. Thefe boats hold two perfons ;
their children upon their flioulders, though there is one of which fits in the prow, and the other in the
another opening through which the women are allowed ftern. They puth them againft the ftream with poles,-
to pafs ; but if any man pretend to do the fame, he which is attended with great trouble : when the cur-
would be laughed at. The Kamtchatkans live in rent is ftrong, they can fcarcely advance two feet ia
thefe huts all the winter, after which they go into ten minutes; notwithftanding which, they will carry
others called balagans: thefe ferve them not only to thefe boats, fully loaded, fometimes 20 verfts, and,
to live in during the fummer, but alfo for magazines, when the ftream is not very ftrong, even 30 or 40
They are made in the following manner : nine pillars, verfts. The larger boats carry 30 or 40 pood ; when
about two fathoms long, or more, are fixed in the the goods are not very heavy, they lay them upon a
ground, and bound together with balks laid over them, float or bridge refting upon two boats joined toge-
which they cover with rods, and over all lay grafs, ther. They ufe this method in tranfporting their pro-
faftening fpars, and a round fliarp roof at top, which vifions down the ftream, and alfo to and from the
they cover with bramble, and thatch with grafs. They iflands.
fatten the lower ends of the fpars to the balks with Their cloaths, for the moft part, are made of the Of their
ropes and thongs, and have a door on each fide, one Ikins of deer, dogs, feveral fea and land animals, and clothes,
dire&ly oppofite to the other. They make ufe of the even of the Ikins of birds, thofe of different animals
fame kind of huts to keep their filh, &c. till winter being frequently joined in the fame garment. They
Vot. VI. 22 U make
K A M [ 4014 ] K A M
Knn:hatka make the upper garment after two fafhions ; fome- The women do all their work in mittins; they for- Kamchatka
— times cutting the Ikirts all of an equal length, and merly never waflred their faces, but now they ufe
fometimes leaving them long behind in form of a train, both white and red paint: for white paint they make
with wide fleeves of a length to come down below the ufe of a rotten wood ; and for red a fea-plant, which
knee, and a hood or caul behind, which in bad wea- they boil in feal’s fat, and, rubbing their cheeks with
ther they put over their heads below their caps; the it, make them very red. They drefs moft in the win¬
opening above is only large enough to let their heads ter time, efpecially when they either receive or pay
pafs : they few the fliins of dogs feet round this ope- vifits.
ning, with which they cover their faces in cold ftormy The common deaths for a Kamtchatkan and his fa-
weather ; and round their fleirts and fleeves they put a mily will not coft him lefs than too rubbles ; for the
border of white dog-fkin ; upon their backs they few coarfeft worfted dockings, which coft in Ruflia 20
the fmall fttreds of Ikins of different colours. They kopeeks, cannot be bought here for lefs than a ruble;
commonly wear two coats; the under coat with the and all other things are fold in the fame proportion,
hair fide inwards, the other fide being dyed with al- The Kuriles are more able to buy good cloaths than
der ; and the upper with the hair outwards. For the the Kamtchatkans; for they can purchafe for one fea-
upper garment they choofe black, white, or fpeckled beaver, as much as the Kamtchatkans can for twenty
fleins, the hair of which is moft efteemed for the beau- foxes ; and one beaver cofts the Kuriles no^more trou-
ty of its colour. ble than five foxes do the Kamtchatkans ; for he muft
Men and women, without diftindlion, ufe the above- be a good hunter who catches more than ten foxes in
mentioned garments, their drefs only differing in their the winter ; and a Kurile thinks himfelf unlucky if he
under-cloathing and in the covering of their feet and doth not catch three beavers in the feafon ; betides
legs. The women have an under-garment, which they which, great numbers are thrown upon the ftiore by
commonly wear at home in the houfe, confiding of a ftorms. I4
breeches and waiftcoat fewed together. The breeches The Kamtchatkans divide their fiftr into fix parts ; Theirdiet.
are wide, like thofe of the Dutch fleippers, and tie be- the fides and tail are hung up to dry ; the back and
low the knee; the waiftcoat is wide above, and drawn thinner part of the belly are prepared apart, and ge-
round with a firing. The fummer habits are made of nerally dried over the fire ; the head is laid to four in
dreffed ikins without hair; their winter-garment is pits, and then they eat it like fait fifli, and efteem it
made of deer or ftone-ram ikins with the hair on. The much, though the ftink is fuch that a ftranger cannot
undtefs or houfehold habit of the men, is a girdle bear it; the ribs and the fleih which remain upon
of leather, with a bag before, and likewife a leathern them they hang up and dry, and afterwards pound for
apron to cover them behind; thefe girdles are fewed ufe ; the larger bones they likewife dry for food for
with hair of different colours. The Kamtchatkans ufed their dogs: in this manner all thefe different people
formerly to go a-hunting and fiihing during the fum- prepare the yokola, which is their principal food, or,
mer in this drefs; but now this faihion is changed, one may fay, houihold bread; and they eat it for the
and they wear linen ihirts, which they buy from the moft part dry.
Ruffians. Their fecond favourite food is caviar, or the
The covering of their feet and legs is made of Ikins roes of fifli, which they prepare three different ways,
ef different forts: in the fummer-time, during the They dry the roe whole in the air; or take it out of
rains, they wear the (kins of feal with the hair out- the (kin which invelopes it, and, fpreading it upon a
wards; but their moft common covering is the (kin of bed of grafs, dry it before the fire ; or, laftly, make
the legs of the rein-deer, and fometimes of the legs rolls of it with the leaves of grafs, which they alfo
of other beads, the (haggieft they can find, to preferve dry. They never take a journey or go to hunting
them againft the cold. But the bulkins which both without dry caviar; and, if a Kamtchatkan has a
the Cofl'acs and Kamtchatkans ufe in their fined drefs, pound of this, he can fubfift without any other provi-
are made in the following manner : the foie is of white fion a great while : for every birch and alder tree
feal (kin, the upper part of white fine leather, the hind furnifties him with bark, which, with his dried caviar,
quarters of white dog (kin; what comes round the makes him an agreeable meal; but they cannot eat
legs is of dreffed leather, or dyed feal-lkin; the upper either feparately, for the caviar (licks like glue to the
parts are embroidered. Thefe bufltins are fo extraor- teeth ; and it is almoft impofiible to fwallow the bark,
dinary, that if a bachelor is obferved to wear them, chewed ever fo long by itfelf. There is dill a fourth
he is immediately concluded to be upon a fcheme of method, which both Kamtchatkans and Koreki ufe
courtfliip. in preparing their caviar: the firft having covered the
They wear the fame fort of caps as the people of bottom of a pit with grafs, they throw the frefti ca-
Yakutlki. In fummer they have a fort of hats of birch viar into it, and leave it there to grow four : the Ko-
bark tied about their head. The kuriles ufe in the reki tie theirs in bags, and leave it to four; this is
fummer-time caps made of platted grafs. The wo- efteemed their moft delicate diflr.
mens head-drefs is the perukes that we formerly men- There is a third fort of diet* called by the Kamt-
tioned ; and thefe were fo dear to them, that when chatkans ebupriki, which is prepared in this manner :
they came to be Chriftians, they were with difficulty in their huts, over the fire- place, they make a bridge
prevailed upon to quit this drefs for one more decent : of (lakes, upon which they lay a heap of fifli, which
however, at prefent, round the Rufs fettlements, all remains there until the hut becomes as warm as a bag-
rs entirely changed, the women wearing fliirts, ruffles, nio. If there is no great thicknefs of fifli, one fire
waiftcoats, caps, and ribbands; which change no- ferves to drefs it ; but fometimes they are obliged to
body now complains of, except the very old people, make two, three, or more fires. Fifli dreffed in this
man-
K A M [ 4015 j K A M
Kamchatka manner Is half loaded, half fmoaked, but has a very-
agreeable tafte, and may be reckoned the bed of all
the Kamtchatka cookery : for the whole juice and fat
Is prepared with a gradual heat, and kept in by the
fkin, from which they may, when done enough, be
eafily feparated; and as foon as It is thus drefled,
they take out the guts, and fpread the body upon a
mat to dry: this they afterwards break fmall, and, put¬
ting It Into bags, carry it along with them for pro-
vifion, eating it like the yokola.
The Kamtchatkans have a difli which they edeem
very much, called huigul: it is fidi laid to grow four
in pits; and, though the frcell of it is intolerable,
yet the Kamtchatkans edeem it a perfume. This fidi
fometimes rots fo much in the pits, that they cannot
take it out without ladles ; in which cafe indeed they
ufe it for feeding their dogs.
As for the flefh of land and the larger fea animals,
they boil it in their troughs, with feveral different
herbs and roots; the broth they drink out of ladles
and bowls, and the meat they take out upon boards,
and eat in their hands. The whale and fea-horfe
fat they alfo boil with roots.
There is a principal dilh at all their feads and en¬
tertainments, calledye/rfgvz, which they make by pound¬
ing all forts of different roots and berries, with the ad¬
dition of caviar, and whale and feal’s fat.
Before the conqued, they feldom ufed any thing
for drink but plain water, unlefs when they m&de
merry; then they drank water which had dood fome
time upon mufhrooms. At prefent they drink fpirits
as fad as the Ruffians. After dinner they drink wa¬
ter : and when they go to bed at night, fet a veffel of
water by them, with the addition of fnow or ice to
keep it cold, and always drink it up before morning.
In the winter-time, they amufe themfelves frequently
by throwing handfuls of fnow into their mouths: and
the bridegrooms, who work with the fathers of their
future brides, find it their harded talk to provide fnow
for the family in fummer-time; for they mud bring it
from the highed hills, be the weather what it will,
otherwife they would never be forgiven.
Method of Kamtchatkans commonly travel in fledges
travelling drawn by dogs. The animals ufed for this purpofe
with dogs, differ very little from the common houfe-dogs ; they
are of a middling fize, of various colours, though there
feem to be more white, black, and grey, than of any
other. In travelling, they make ufe of thofe that are
cadrated, and generally yoke four to a fledge. They
drive and direft their dogs with a crooked dick about
four feet long, which they fometimes adorn with dif¬
ferent coloured thongs ; this is looked upon as a great
piece of finery. They drive their fledge fitting upon
their right fide, with their feet hanging down ; for it
would be looked upon as a difgrace for a man to fit
down at the bottom of the fledge, or to make ufe of
any perfon to drive him, nobody doing this but the
women. It is very difficult to travel in thefe fledges ;
for unlefs a man keeps the exadled balance, he is
liable every moment, from the height and narrownefs
of them, to be overturned : in a rugged road this
would be very dangerous, as the dogs never dop till
they come to fome houfe, or are intangled by fome-
thing upon the road ; efpecially in going down deep
hills, when they run with all their force, and are
fcarcely to be kept in ; for which reafon, in defcend- Kamchr:
ing any great declivity, they unyoke all the dogs ex-
cept one, and lead them foftlydown. They likewife
walk up hills; for it is as much as the dogs can do to
drag up the fledge empty. After a deep fnow, be¬
fore it has been hardened by a frod, there is no tra¬
velling with dogs till a road be made, which is effec¬
ted by a man going before upon fnow-fhoes, whom
they call brodovjhika. The fnow-fhoes are made of
two thin boards, feparated in the middle, bound to¬
gether at the ends, and with the fore part bent a lit¬
tle upwards. The brodovfhika, having one of thefe
fhoes upon each foot, leaves the dogs and fledge, and
going on clears the road for fome way; then return¬
ing, leads forward the dogs and fledge fo far as the
road is made; a method which he muff continue till
he comes to fome dwelling-houfe. This is very labo¬
rious; and it happens fo often, that no driver ever fets
out without his fnow-fhoes. When a ftorm of driven
fnow furprifes them, they are obliged with all hafte to
feek the flielter of fome wood, and day there as long
as the tempeft lafts, which fometimes is a whole week.
If they are a large company, they dig a place for
themfelves under the fnow, and cover the entry with
wood or brambles. Sometimes they hide themfelves
in caves or holes of the earth, wrapping themfelves up
in their furs; and when thus covered, they move or
turn themfelves with the greateft caution, left they
fliould throw off the fnow; for under that they lie as
warm as in their common huts: they only require a
breathing-place ; but their cloaths muff not be tight
or hard girt about them, for then the cold is infuffer-
able. Another danger attending travelers is, that in
the fevereft froft feveral rivers are not quite frozen
over ; and as the roads for the moft part lie clofe upon
the rivers, the banks being very fleep, fcarce a year
paffes without many being drowned. A difagreeable
circumflance alfo to thofe who travel in thefe parts,
is their fometimes being obliged to pafs through cop-
fes, where they run the rifle of having their eyes
fcratched out, or their limbs broken ; for the dogs
always run moft violently in the worft roads, and, to
free themfelves, very often overturn their driver. The
beft: travelling is in the month of March or April,
when the fnow is turned hard, or frozen a little at
top ; however, there is ftill this inconvenience attend¬
ing it, that fometimes travellers are obliged to lodge
two or three nights in defert places ; and it is difficult
to prevail upon the Kamtchatkans to make a fire, ei¬
ther for warming themfelves or dreffing vidluals, as
they and their dogs eat dried fifh, and findthemfefves fo
warm wrapped in their furs, that they want no other
heat; nay, all the people of this climate bearcold fo well,
that they fleep in the open air as found as others in a
warm bed, and awake next morning perfeftly refrefh-
ed and alert. This feems to be fo natural to all here,
that fome of them have been feen to lie down with their
backs uncovered againft a fire, and notwithftanding
the fire has been burnt out long before morning, they
continued to fleep on very comfortably, and without
any inconvenience.
IJlands in the Sea of Kamtchatka. So many of
thefe have been difeovered by the Ruffians, that the
exiftence of almoft a continued chain of iflands between
the continents of Afia and America is now rendered
22 U 2 extremely
Copper-
iiland de-
liribcd.
K A M [40
Kamchatka extremely probable. Many further dlfcoverles of great
' importance to fcience, however, remain yet to be made,
and may in part be expe&ed on the return of the Bri-
tiih navigators who lately failed to thefe dillant re¬
gions. The iflands already known are the Kuril ifles,
which ftretch fouthweft towards the coafts of China or
Japan, and are almoll uninhabited ; thofe called Z?e<?r-
ings, and Copper-iflands, the Aleutian ifles, and Fox-
iflands, or Lyffie OJirova, lie almoft: dire&ly eaft, ftretch-
ing nearly to 230° of Longitude eaft from Ferro. The
firft projedl of making difcoveries in that tempeftuous
fea which lies between Kamtchatka and America, was
fet on foot by Peter the Great of Ruflia. Captains
Beering and Tfchirikoff were employed in the under¬
taking ; the former of whom was fhipwrecked and died
on the ifland which is ftill called by his name. As this
lies at no great diftance from Kamtchatka, the inha¬
bitants of the latter foon ventured over to it, as the
fea-otters and other animals of that kind were accu-
,6 ftomed to refort thither in great numbers.
Mednoi Oltroff, or Copper-ifland, which lies in full
fight of Beering’s ifland, was next vifited. This ifland
has its name from the great quantity of copper with
which the north-eaft coaft of it abounds, the only fide
which is known to the Ruffians. It is waflied up by
fea, and covers the fliorcs in fucb abundance that many
fhips might be loaded with it. Perhaps an India tra¬
der might make a profitable voyage from thence to
China, where this metal is in high demand. This cop¬
per is moftly in a metallic or malleable ftate, and many
pieces feem as if they had formerly been in fufion.
The ifland is not high ; but has many hillocks, each
of which has the appearance of having formerly been
a volcano. With this kind of hillocks all the iflands
in the fea of Kamtchatka abound, infomuch that not
a Angle ifland, though ever fo final], was found with¬
out one; and many of them confifted of nothing elfe.
In fliort, all the chain of iflands above-mentioned may,
without any ftretch of imagination, be confidered as
thrown up by fame late volcanoes. The apparent no¬
velty of every thing feems to juftify this conjedhire:
nor can any obje&ion be derived from the vegetable
productions with which thefe iflands abound; for the
fummer after the lower diftriCt of Zutphen in Holland
was gained from the fea,it was covered over with wild
muftard.—All thefe iflands are fubjeft to frequent and
violent earthquakes, and abound in fulphur. We are
not informed whether any lava is found upon them;
but a party-coloured ftone as heavy as iron, probably
a lava, is mentioned as being found there. From this
account it is by no means improbable that the copper
abovementioned has been melted in fome eruption.
Beering’s ifland is fituated due eaft from Kamtchat¬
ka, in the 185th degree of longitude, andCopper-ifland
about one degree more to the eaftward, and in the la¬
titude of 540 north. The former is from 70 to 80
verfts long, and ftretches from north-weft to fouth-eaft
in the fame dire&ion as Copper-ifland. The latter is
about 50 verfts in length. About 300 verfts eaft-by-
fouth of Copper-ifland, lie the Aleutian ifles; of which
Attak is the neareft: it is rather larger than Beering’s
ifland, and ftretches from weft to fouth-eaft. From
thence, about 20 verfts eaftwards, is fituated Semitftii,
extending from weft to eaft; and near its extremity is
another fmall ifland. To the fouth of the ftrait which
Veering’s
.Hand and
the Aleu¬
tian ifles.
16 ] K A M
feparates the two latter iflands, and at the diftance of Kamchatka
40 verfts from both of them, lies Shimiya in a fimilar '
pofition, and not above 25 verfts in length. All thefe
iflands lie between 54 and 55 degrees of north lati¬
tude. 18
The Fox-iflands are fituated eaft-north-eaft from the Fox-iflands,
Aleutians: the neareft of thefe, Atchak, is about 800
verfts diftant; it lies in 56° north latitude, and ex¬
tends from weft-fouth-weft, towards eaft-north-eaft.
It greatly refembles Copper-ifland, and is provided
with a commodious harbour on the north. From thence
all the other iflands of this chain ftretch in a direction
towards north-eaft by eaft. The next to Atchak is
Amlak, and about 15 verfts diftant; it is nearly of the
fame fize, and has an harbour on its fouth fide. Next
follows Saugagamak at about the fame diftance, but
fomewhat fmaller; from thence is 50 verfts to Amuchta,
a fmall rocky ifland; and the latter to Yunakfan, an¬
other final! ifland. About 20 verfts from Yunakfan
there is a clufter of five fmall iflands, or rather moun¬
tains, Kigalgift, Kagamila, Tfigulak, Ulaga, and
Tana-Unok ; and which are therefore called by the
Ruffians Pat Sopki, or the Five Mountains. Of thefe
Tana-Unok lies mo ft to the nbrth-eaft, towards which
the weftern point of Umnak advances within the di-
ftsnce of 20 verfts.
Umnak ftretches from fouth-weft to north-eaft ; it
is 150 verfts in length, and has a very confiderable bay
on the weft end of the northern coaft, in which there
is a fmall ifland or rock, called Adugak ; and on the
fouthfide Shemalga, another rock. The weftern point
of Aghun Alafhka, or Unalafhka, is feparated from the
eaft end of Umnak by a ftrait near 20 verfts in breadth.
The pofition of thefe two iflands is fimilar; but Ag-
hunalaihka is much the largeft, and is above 200 verfts
long. It is divided towards the north-eaft into three
promontories, one of which runs out in a wefterly di
reftion, forming one fide of a large bay on the north-
coaft of the ifland: the fecond ftretches out north-eaft,
ends in three points, and is conne&ed with the ifland
by a fmall neck of land. The third or moft foutherly
one is feparated from the laft-mentioned promontory
by a deep bay. Near Unalalhka towards the eaft lies
another fmall ifland called Shirkin. About 20 verfts
from the north-eaft promontory of Aghunalaftika lie
four iflands: the firft, Akutan, is about half as big as
Umnak; a verft further is the fmall ifland Akun; a
little beyond is Akunok; and laftly Kigalga, which is
the fmalleft of thefe four, and ftretches with Akun and
Akunok almoft from north to fouth. Kigalga is fitua¬
ted about the 61ft degree of latitude. About too verfts
from thence lies an ifland called Unimak, upon which
a Ruffian navigator (Captain Krenitzin) wintered;
and beyond it the inhabitants faid there was a large
trail of country called Alajhka, of which they did not
know the boundaries.
The Fox-iflands are in general very rocky, without
containing any remarkably high mountains: they are
deftitute of wood; but abound in rivulets and lakes,
which are moftly without fifli. The winter is much
milder than in Siberia; the fnow feldom falls before
the beginning of January, and continues on the ground
till the end of March. There is a volcano in Amuchta;,
and fulphur is produced on another ifland, in fome o-
thers are fprings hot enough to boil provifions. Sub
phu-
K A M [ 4017 ] K A M
Kamchatka phureous flames alfo are fometimes feen at night upon
the mountains of Unalafhka and Akutan.
Manners ^ie Fox iflands are tolerably populous in propor-
&c. of the tion to their fize. The inhabitants are entirely free,
inhabitants, and pay tribute to no one ; they are of a middle fta-
ture, and live, both in fummer and winter, in holes
dug in the earth. No figns of religion were found a-
mong them. Several perfons indeed pafs for forcerers,
pretending to know things paft and to come ; and are
accordingly held in high efteem, but without recei¬
ving any emolument. Filial duty and refpeft to¬
wards the aged are not held in eftimation by thefe
iflanders. They are not, however, deficient in fideli¬
ty towards each other ; they are of a lively and cheer¬
ful temper, though rather impetuous, and naturally
prone to anger. In general, they do not obferve any
rules of decency; but follow all the calls of nature
publicly, and without the lead referve. Their prin¬
cipal food confifts in filh and other fea-animals, fmall
fhtll-filh, and fea-plants; their greateft delicacies are
wild lilies and other roots, together with different
kinds of berries. When they have laid in a ftore of
provifions, they eat at any time of the day without di-
ftindtion ; but in cafe of neceflity, they are capable of
fading feveral days together. They feldom heat their
dwellings: but when they are defirous of warming
themfelves, they light a bundle of hay, and ftand over
it; or elfe they fet fire to train-oil, which they pour
into a hollow done. They feed their children when
very young with the coarfed flefh, and for the mod
part raw. If an infant cries, the mother immediately
carries it to the fea-fide, and, be it fummer or winter,
holds it naked in the water, until it is quiet. This
cudom, it is faid, is fo far from doing the children
eny harm, that it hardens them againd the cold ; and
accordingly, they go barefooted through the winter
without the lead inconvenience. They are alfo trained
to bathe frequently in the fea ; and it is an opinion ge¬
nerally received among the iflanders, that by thefe
means they are rendered bold and fortunate in fifh*
ing.
The men wear fhirts made of the fkins of cormo¬
rants, fea-divers, and gulls ; and, in order to keep
out the rain, they have upper garments of the blad¬
ders and other intedines of fea-lions, fea-calves, and
whales, blown up and dried. They cut their hair in
a circular form quite clofe to their ears ; and fhave al¬
fo a round place on the top. The women, on the
contrary, let the hair defcend over the forehead as low
as the eyebrows, and tie the remaining partin a knot
upon the top of the head. They pierce the ears, and
hang in them bits of coral, which they get from the
Ruffians. Both fexes make holes in the griftles of
their nofeSjand in the under-lips, in which they thruft
pieces of bone, and are very fond offuch kind of orna¬
ments. They mark alfo and colour their faces with
different figures. They barter among one another fea-
otters, fea-bears, clothes made of birds-fkins and of
dried inteftines, fldns of fea-lions and fea-calves for
the coverings of their canoes, wooden mafks, darts,
thread made of finews and hair of reindeer.
Their houfehold utenfils are fquare pitchers and
large troughs, which they make out of the wood dri¬
ven afhore by the fea- Their weapons are bows and
arrows pointed with flint, and javelins of two yards in
length, which they throw from a fmall board. In- Kamchatka
dead of hatchets, they ufe crooked knives of flint or ~
bone. Some iron knives, hatchets, and lances, were
obferved among them, which they had probably got
by plundering the Ruffians.
According to the reports of the oldeft inhabitants
ofUmnak and Unalaflca, they have never been enga¬
ged in any war, either amongft themfelves or with
their neighbours, except with the people of Alafh-
ka, the occafion of which was as follows. The foti
of the toigon or chief of Umnak had a maimed hand ;
and fome inhabitants of Alaflika, who came to vifit up¬
on that ifiand, faftened to his arm a drum, out of
mockery, and invited him to dance. The parents
and relations of the boy were offended at this infult:
hence a quarrel enfued ; and from that time the people
have lived in continual enmity, attacking and plunder¬
ing each other by turns. According to the reports of
the iflanders, there are mountains upon Alaflika, and
woods of great extent at fome diftance from the coaft.
The natives wear cloaths made of the flcins of reindeer,
wolves, and foxes; and are not tributary to any of
their neighbours. The inhabitants of the Fox-Iflands
feem to have no knowledge of any country beyond A-
lafhka, which is one of the moft eafttrly iflands yet dif-
covered in thefe feas, and is probably not far diftant
from the continent of America.
Feafts are very common among thefe iflanders 5 and
more particularly when the inhabitants of one ifland are
vifiled by thofe of the others. The men of the vil¬
lage meet their guefts, beating drums, and preceded
by the women who fing and dance. At the conclu-
fion of the dance, the. bolls invite them to partake of
the feafts ; after which ceremony, the former return
firft to their dwellings, place mats in order, and ferve
up their bell provifion. The guefts next enter, take
their places, and,, after they are fatisfied, the diver-
fions begin. Firft, the children dance and caper, at
the fame time making a noife with their fmall drums,
while the owners of the huts of both fexes fing. Next,
the. men dance almoft naked, tripping after one ano¬
ther, and beating drums of a larger fize : when thefe
are weary, they.are relieved by the women, who dance
in their cloaths, the men continuing in the mean time
to fing and beat tlieir drums. At laft the fire is put
out which had been kindled for th? ceremony. The
manner of obtaining; fire is by rubbing two pieces of
dry wood againft each other, or moft commonly by
ftriking two flints together, and letting the fparks fall
upon fome fea-otter’s hair mixed with fulphur. If any
forcerer is prefent, it is then his turn to play his tricks
in the dark,.; if not, the g.uefts immediately retire to
their huts, which are made, on that occafion, of their
canoes and mats. The natives who have feveral wives
do not with-hold them from their guefts; but where the
owner of the hut has himfelf but one wife, he then
makes the offer of a female fervant.
Their.huntingrfeafon is principally from the end of
October to the beginning of December; during which
time they kill great numbers of young fea-bears for
their cloathing. They pafs all December in feaftings
and diverfions fimilar to thofe abovementioned : with
this difference, however, that the men dance in woodea
mafles, reprefenting various fea-animals, and painted
red, green, or black, with coarfe-coloured earths found
up--
K A R [ 40
Kamchatka upon tliefe iflands.
H During thefe feftivals, they vifit each other from
Karle. v;]iage to village, and from ifland to ifland. Thefeafts
concluded, malks and drums are broken to pieces, or
depofited in caverns among the rocks, and never after¬
wards made ufe of. In fpring, they go out to kill old
fea-bears, fea-lions, and whales. During fummer,
and even in winter when it is calm, they row out to fea,
and catch cod and other filh. Their hooks are of bone ;
and for lines they make ufe of a Hiring made of a long
tenacious fea-weed, which is fometimes found in thofe
feas near 160 yards in length.
Whenever they are wounded in any encounter, or
bruifed by any accident, they apply a fort of yellow
root to the wound, and fall forfome time. When their
head achs, they open a vein in that part with a ftone-
lancet. When they want to glue the points of their
arrows to the (hafts, they (trike their nofe till it bleeds,
and ufe the blood as glue.
Murder is not punilhed among them ; for they have
no judge. The following ceremonies are ufed in the
burial of the dead. The bodies of poor people are
wrapped up in their own cloaths, orin mats; then laid
in a grave, and covered over with earth. The bodies
of the rich are put, together with their cloaths and
arms, in a fmall boat made of the wood driven a-
(hore by the fea: this boat is hung upon poles placed
croflwife ; and the body is thus left to rot in the open
air.
The cuftoms and manners of the inhabitants of the
Aleutian ides are nearly fimilar to thofe of the inhabi¬
tants of the Fox-iflands. The former indeed are ren¬
dered tributary and entirely fubjeft to Ruffia ; and
moft of them have a (light acquaintance with the
Ruffian language, which they have learned from the
crews of the different veffels who have landed there.
KANISCA, a very ftrong town of Lower Hun¬
gary, capital of the county of Selawar. It was taken
by the imperialifts in 1690. It is feated on the river
Drave, in E. Long. 17. 37. N. Lat. 46. 23.
KAOLIN, the name of an earth which is ufed as
one of the two ingredients in oriental porcelain. Some
of this earth was brought from China, and examined
by Mr Reaumur. He found that it was perfectly un-
fufible by fire, and believed that it was a talky earth;
but Mr Macquer obferves, that it is more probably of
an argillaceous nature, from its forming a tenacious
pa lie with the other ingredient called petuntfe, which
has no tenacity. Mr Bomare fays, that by analyfing
fome Chinefe kaolin, he found it was a compound
earth confiding of clay, to which it owed its tenaci¬
ty ; of calcareous earth, which gave it a meally ap¬
pearance ; of fparkling crydals of mica; and of fmall
gravel, or particles of quartz crydals. He fays, that
he has found a fimilar earth upon a ftratum of gra¬
nite, and conje&ures that it may be a decompofed gra¬
nite. This conje&ure is the more probable, as kao¬
lins are frequently found in the neighbourhood of gra¬
nites. See Porcelain.
KAOUTCHOUCK. See Caoutchouc.
KARAT. SccCaract.
KARLE, a Saxon word ufed in our laws, fome¬
times (imply fora man ; and fometimes, with an addi¬
tion, for a fervant or clown. Thus the Saxons call a
18 ] K E E
feaman lufcarle, and a domedic fervant hufeark. Karmatiaas
From hence comes the modern word churl. t
KARMATIANS, a fed of Mohammedans who Keel- ,
occafioned great diforders in the empire of the Arabs. "
See Bagdad, n° 49.
KASTRIL, or Kestril. See Falco.
KAUFFBEUREN, a free and imperial town of
Germany, fituated in the river Wardach, in E. Long.
10. 53. N. Lat. 47. 57.
KAY, Quay, or Key. See Key.
KEBLA, an appellation given by the Mahometans
to that part of the world where the temple of Mecca
is fituated, towards which they are obliged to turn
themfelves when they pray.
KECKERMAN (Bartholomew), a native of Dant-
zick, and profeffor of philofophy there about the be¬
ginning of the 17th century, compofed fyftems of al-
moft all the fciences, in which he (hews more method
than genius.
KEDAR, (anc. geog.), a diftrift in the defart of
the Saracens, (fo called from Cedar, the fon of I(h-
mael, according to Jerome, who in another place fays
that Kedar was uninhabitable), on the north of Ara¬
bia Felix. Kedareni, the people ; who dwelt in tents
like the other Scenites (Pfalm cxx.), were rich in
cattle (Ifaiah lx.), of a fwarthy complexion (Can¬
ticles i.), and excellent at the bow (Ifaiah xxi.)
KEDES, (anc. geog.), a city of refuge and Levi-
tical in the tribe of Naphthali, on the confines of Tyre
and Galilee; (Jofephus). Jerome calls it a facerdo-
tal city, fituated on a mountain 20 miles from Tyre,
near Paneas, and called Cidijfus, taken by the king
of Affyria.—Another YLedes in the tribe of Iffachar,
(1 Chron. vii. 72.) which feems to be called Aj/fu/r,
(Joffiua xix.)
KEDGE, a fmall anchor, ufed to keep a (hip Hea¬
dy whilft (he rides in a harbour or river, particularly
at the turn of the tide, when (he might otberwife drive
over her principal anchor, and entangle the (lock or
flukes with her (lack-cable, fo as to loofen it from the
ground. This is accordingly prevented by a kedge-
rope that hinders her from approaching it. The hed¬
ges are particularly ufeful in tranfporting a (hip;
i. e. removing her from one part of the harbour to
another, by means of ropes which are faftened to
thefe anchors. They are generally furniffied with an
iron (lock, which is eafily difplaeed for the conve¬
nience of (lowing them.
KEDRON, or Cedron, (anc. geog.) a town,
which, from the defeat and purfuit of the Syrians
(1 Macc. xvi.) appears to have flood on the road
which led from the Higher India to Azotus: in this
war it was burnt by the Jews.
Kedron, or Cedron, (anc. geog.) St John calls it
a brook, but Jofephus a deep valley, between Jerufa-
lem and mount Olivet to the eaft ; called alfo Kedron,
from its blacknefs. A brook only in winter, or in
rainy weather, according to Maundrel.
KEEL, the principal piece of timber in a (hip,
which is ufually firft laid on the blocks in building.
If we compare the carcafs of a (hip to the (keleton of
the human body, the keel may be confidered as the
back-bone, and the timbers as the ribs. It therefore
fupports and unites the whole fabric, fince the ftem
K E E [ 3019 ] K E I
and ftern-poft, which are elevated on its ends, are, in
Ktxlfan. fome meafure. a continuation of the keel, and ferve to
connedt and inclofe the extremities of the Tides by tran-
foms; as the keel forms and unites the bottom by
timbers.
The keel is generally compofed of feveral thick
pieces placed lengthways, which, after being fearfed
together, are bolted, and clenched upon the upper fide.
When thefe pieces cannot be procured large enough
to afford a fufficient depth to the keel, there is a ftrong
thick piece of timber bolted to the bottom thereof,
called the falfe keel, which is alfo very ufeful in pre-
ferving the lower fide of the main keel. In our largeft
fhips of war, the falfe keel is generally compofed of two
pieces, which are called the upper and the lower falfe
keels. See lAwsuw-Frame.
The loweft plank in a Ihip’s bottom, called the
garboard-Jlreak, has its inner-edge let into a groove or
channel, cut longitudinally on the fide of the keel: the
depth of this channel is therefore regulated by the thick-
nefs of the garboard-(freak.
Keel is alfo a name given to a low flat-bottomed veffel,
ufed in the river Tyne to bring the coals down from
Newcaftle and the adjacent parts, in order to load the
colliers for tranfportation.
Hauling, a punifhment inflided for various
offences in the Dutch navy. It is performed by
plunging the delinquent repeatedly under the (hip’s
bottom on one fide, and hoifting him up on the other,
after having paffed under the keel. The blocks, or
pullies, by which he is fufpended, are faffened to the
oppofite extremities of the main-yard, and a weight of
lead or iron is hung upon his legs, to fink him to a
competent depth. By this apparatus he is drawn clofe
up to the yard-arm, and thence let fall fuddenly into
the fea, where, palling under the (hip’s bottom, he is
hoifted up on the oppofite fide of the veffel. As this
extraordinary fentence is executed with a ferenity of
temper peculiar to the Dutch, the culprit is allowed
fufficient intervals to recover the fenfe of pain, of
which indeed he is frequently deprived during the
operation. In truth, a temporary infenfibility to his
fufferings ought by no means to be conflrued into a
difrefpedf of his judges, when we confider that this
puniihment is fuppofed to have peculiar propriety in
the depth of winter, whilit the flakes of ice are
floating on the flream; and that it is continued till
the culprit is almolt fuffocated for want of air, be¬
numbed v.’ith the. cold of the water, or (tunned with
the blows his head receives by ftriking the (hip’s
bottom.
KEELSON, a piece of timber which may be pro¬
perly defined the interior or counter-part of the keel,
as it is laid upon the middle of the floor-timbers, im¬
mediately over the keel, and, like it, compofed of fe¬
veral pieces fcarfed together. In order to fit with
more fecurity upon the floor-timbers and crotches, it
is notched about an inch and a half deep, oppofite to
each of thofe pieces, and thereby firmly fcored down
upon them to that depth, where it is fecured by
fpike-nails. The pieces of which it is formed are.
only half the breadth and thicknefs of thofe of the
keel.
The keelfon ferves to bind and unite the floor-timbers
to the keel. It is confined to the keel by long bolts.
which, being driven from without through feveral of Keeper,
the timbers, are fore-locked or clenched upon rings on Keili»
the upper-fide of the keelfon.
KEEPER of the Great Seal, is a lord by his office,
and ftyled lord keeper of the great feal of Great Britain ;
he is always one of the privy-council. All grants,
charters and commiffions of the king under the great
feal, pafs through the hands of the lord-keeper: for,
without that feal, many of thofe grants, &c. would be
of no force; the king being, in the interpretation of
the law, a corporation, and therefore paffes nothing
but by the great feal, which is alfo faid to be the
public faith of the kingdom, being in the higheft
efteem and reputation.
Whenever there is a lord-keeper, he is invefted with
the fame place, authority, pre-eminence, jurifdidfion,
or execution of laws, as the lord-chancellor of Great-
Britain is vefted with.
The lord-keeper is conftituted by the delivery of
the great feal, &c.
Keeper of the Privy-feal, is alfo a lord by his
office, through whofe hands all grants, pardon?, &c.
pafs before they come to the great feal; and even
fome things pafs his hands which do not pafs
the great feal at all. This officer is alfo one of the
privy-council, yet was anciently called clerk of the
privy-feal. His duty is to put the feal to no grant,
&c. without a proper warrant; nor with warrant where
it is againft law, or inconvenient, but (hall firft ac¬
quaint the king therewith.
KEIL, a very important fortrefs of Germany, feated
on the banks of the Rhine, built by the French after
a defign of marlhal Vauban, for the defence of
Stralburg. It was ceded to the empire in 1697, by
the treaty of Ryfwick. The French retook it in
1703, and it was reftored to the empire by the treaty
of Reftadt. E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 48. 40.
KEILL (Dr John), a celebrated aftronomer and
mathematician, was born at Edinburgh in 1671, and
ftudied in the univerfity of that city. In 1694 he went
to Oxford ; where, being admitted of Baliol-college,
he began to read le&ures according to the Newtonian
fyftem in his private chamber in that college. He is
faid to have been the firft who taught Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s principles by the experiments on which they are
founded: and this, it feems, he did by an apparatus of
inftruments of his own providing, by which means he
acquired a great reputation in the univerfity. The
firft fpecimen he gave the public of his (kill in mathe¬
matical and philofophical knowledge, was his Eran;i~
nation of Dr Burnet'’s theory of the earth, with /?e-
marks on Mr Whi/lon’s theory: and thefe theories being
defended by their refpediive inventors, drew from Mr
Keill An examination of the reflexions on the theory of
the earth, together with A defence of the remarks on
Mr Whifton’s new theory. In 1701, he publiftied his
celebrated treatife, intitled, Introduclio ad veram phy~
ficamj which only contains 14 ledbures ; but in the
following editions he added two more. This work
has been tranflated into Englifh, under the title of
An introduction to natural philofophy. Afterwards,
being made fellow of the Royal Society, he publiftied,
in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, a paper of the laws
of attradiion; and being offended at a paffage in the
AX a eruditorum of Leipfic, warmly vindicated, againft
Keill
II
Keith.
K E I [ 4020 ] K E L
Mr Leibnitz, Sir Ifaac Newton’s right to the honour
of the firft invention of his method of fluxions. In
1709 he went to New-England, as treafurer of the
Palatines. About the year 1711, feveral obje&ions
being urged againft Sir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy, in
fupport of Des Cartes’s notions of a plenum, Mr Keill
publilhed a paper in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
on the rarity of matter, and the tenuity of its compo-
fition. But, while he was engaged in this difpute,
queen Anne was pleafed to appoint him her decy-
pherer; and he continued in that place under king
George I. till the year 1716. He had alfo the de¬
gree of do&or of phyfic conferred on him by the uni-
verfity of Oxford, in 1713. He died in 1721. He
publiflied, befides the works already mentioned, /«-
troduftio ad veram ajlrommiam, which was tranf-
hited into Englifh by Dr Keill himfelf; and an edi¬
tion of Commandinus’s Euclid, with additions of his
own.
Keill (James), M. D. an eminent phyfician, and
brother of the former, was born in Scotland, about
the year 1673; and having travelled abroad, read lec¬
tures of anatomy with great applaufe in the univerfities
of Oxford and Cambridge, by the latter of which he
had the degree of do&or of phyfic conferred upon him.
In 1700 he fettled at Northampton, where he had
confiderable pra&ice as a phyfician; and died there of
a cancer in the mouth, in 1719. He publifhed, 1. An
Englifh tranflation of Lemery’s chemiftry. 2. An
account of animal fecretion, the quantity of blood in
the human body, and mufcular motion. 3. A treatife
on anatomy. 4. Several pieces in the Philofophical
TranfadHons.
KEISERSBERG, a towm of Alface in France,
and in the bailiwic of Haguenau, which has belonged
to the French ever fince the year 1548. It is feated
in a pleafant country, in E. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat.
48. 10.
KEISERSLAUERN, a town of Germany, in the
Lower Palatinate, belonging to the eleftor Palatine ;
leated on the river Louter, in E. Long. 7. 51.
N. Lat. 49. 22.
KEISERTOUL, a town of Switzerland, in the
county of Baden, with a bridge over the Rhine, and
a caftle. It belongs to the bifhop of Conftance, and
is fituated in E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 47. 10.
KEISERWERT, a town of Germany in the circle
of Weftphalia, the diocefe of Cologne, and the duchy
of Berg; fubjefl to the eledor Palatine. The forti¬
fications are demolifhed. It is feated on the Rhine, in
E. Long. 6. 49. N. Lat. 51. 16.
KEITH (James), field-marflial in the Pruflian
fervice, was the younger fon of William Keith, earl-
marfhal of Scotland; and was born in 1696. He was
dtfigned by his friends for the law; but his inclination
led to arms, and the firft occafion of drawing his
fword was rather an unhappy one. When he was 18
years old, the rebellion broke out in Scotland; and,
through the inftigation of his mother, he joined
James’s party: he was wounded at the battle of
Sheriff-muir, and made his efcape to France. Here
he applied bimfelf to military ftudies; and going to
Madrid, he by the intereft of the duke of Liria ob¬
tained a commiffion in the Irifh brigades, then com¬
manded by the duke of Ormond. He afterwards at¬
tended the duke of Liria when he went ambaflador to Kellington
Mufcovy; and, being by him recommended to the II
czarina, was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-ge- Kelff>' .
neral,- and invefted with the order of the black eagle.
He diftinguifhed himfelf by his valour and conduct in
the Ruffian fervice, and had no inconfiderable fhare in
the revolution that raifed Elizabeth the daughter of
Peter the Great to the throne: he alfo ferved in fe¬
veral embaffies; but finding the honours of that coun¬
try but a fplendid kind of flavery, he left that court,
and entered the Pruffian fervice. The king of Pruffia
made him field-marflial of the Pruffian armies, and
governor of Berlin ; and diftinguiflied him fo far by
his confidence, as to travel in difguife with him over a
great part of Germany, Poland, and Hungary. In
bulinefs, he made him his chief counfellor; in his di-
verfions, his chief companion. The king was much
pleafed with an amufement which the marlhal invented
in imitation of the game of chefs. The marflial or¬
dered feveral thoufand fmall ftatues of men in armour
to be ca'ft by a founder; thefe he would fet oppolite
to each other, and range them in battalia, in the fame
manner as if he had been drawing up an army; he would
bring out a party from the wings or centre, and {hew
the advantage or difadvantage refulting from the dif¬
ferent draughts which he made. In this manner the king
and the marflial often amufed themfelves, and at the
fame time improved their military knowledge. This
brave and experienced general, after many important
fervices in the late wars of that illuftrious monarch,
was killed in the unfortunate affair of Hohkerchen, in
the year 1758.
KELLINGTON, or Kilkhampton, a town of
Cornwall in England, which fends two members to
parliament. W. Long. 4. 38. N. Lat. 50. 36.
KELP, in the glafs-trade, a term ufed for a fort of
potafhes made ufe of in many of the glafs-works,
particularly for the green glafs. It is the calcined
aflies of a plant called by the fame name; and in fame
places, of fea-thongs or laces, a fort of thick-leaved
fucus or fea-wrack *. This plant is thrown on the * See
rocks and fliores in great abundance, and in the fum-
mer months is raked together and dried as hay in pkndix
the fun and wind, and afterwards burnt to the allies
called kelp.
KELSO, a town of Roxburghfliire in Scotland,
pleafantly fituated on the river Tweed, in W. Long.
1. 20. N. Lat. 55. 38. Of this town Mr Pennant
gives the following defeription. “ It is built much
after the manner of a Flemifli town, with a fquare and
town-houfe. It contains about 2700 fouls, has a very
confiderable market, and great quantities of corn are
fold here weekly by fample. The parifli-church is
darkfome and inconvenient, being part of that belong¬
ing to the abbey; but a new one is building, in an
oflagonal form, 82 feet in diameter, fupported by a
circle of pillars.
“ The abbey of Tyronenfians was a vaft pile, and, to
judge by the remains, of venerable magnificence. The
walls are ornamented with falfe round arches, inter-
fe&ing each other. Such interfe&ions form a true
Gothic arch; and may as probably have given rife
to that mode, as the arched fliades of avenues. The
fteeple of the church is a vaft tower. This houfe was
founded by David I. when earl of Cumberland. He
firft
K E M [ 4021 ] KEN
Kellb, firft placed it at Selkirk, then removed it to Roxburgh,
KemP‘s- and finally, when he came to the crown, fixed it here
in 1128. Its revenues were, in money, above 20001.
Scots a-year. The abbot was allowed to wear a mitre
and pontifical robes; to be exempt from epifcopal ju-
rifdidion, and permitted to be prefent at all general
councils.
“ The environs of Kelfo are very fine: the lands
confift of gentle rifings, inclofed with hedges, and ex¬
tremely fertile. They have much reafon to boaft of
their profpe&s. From the Chalkheugh is a fine view
of the forks of the rivers, Roxburgh-hill, Sir John
Douglas’s neat feat, and, at a diftance, Fleurus; and
from Pinnacle-hill is feen a vaft extent of country,
highly cultivated, watered with long reaches of the
Tweed, well wooded bn each margin. Thefe borders
ventured on cultivation much earlier than thofe on the
weft or eaft, and have made great progrefs in every
fpecies of rural oeconomy. Turnips and cabbages,
for the ufe of cattle, cover many large tra&s ; and
potatoes appear in vaft fields. - Much wheat is railed
in the neighbourhood, part of which is fent up the frith
of Forth, and part into England.
“ The fleeces here are very fine, and fell from 12
to 14 ihillings the ftone of 241b. and the picked
kind from 18 to 20. The wool is fent into York-
fhire, to Linlithgow, or into Aberdeenihire, for the
flocking manufadure ; and fome is woven here into
a cloth, called plains, and fold into England to be
drefled. Here is alfo a confiderable manufadture of
white leather, chiefly to fupply the capital of Scot¬
land.
“ From what I can colledt, the country is greatly
depopulated. In the reign of James VI. or a little
before the Union, it is faid that this county could
fend out 15,000 fighting men: at prefent it could not
raife 3000. But plundering in thofe times was the
trade of the borderers, which might occafion the mul¬
titude of inhabitants.”
Over the Tweed at Kelfo is a fine ftone bridge of
fix arches: but the river does not in this place divide
the kingdoms of Scotland and England from each
other; for the Scots poffefs the country for fijveral
miles to the fouthward.
KEMPIS (Thomas a), a pious and learned regular
canon, was born at the village of Kemp, in the diocefe
of Cologn, in 1380; and took his name from that vil¬
lage. He performed his ftudies at Deventer, in the
community of poor fcholars eftablifhed by Gerard
Groot; and there made a great progrefs in the fciences.
In 1399, he entered the monaftery of the regular ca¬
nons of Mount St Aggies, near Zwol, of which his bro¬
ther was prior. Thomas a Kempis there diftinguilhed
himfelf by his eminent piety, his refpeft for his fupe-
riors, his charity to his brother canons, and his conti¬
nual application to labour and prayer. He died in
1471, aged 70. The beft editions of his works, which
confift of fermons, fpiritual treatifes, and lives of holy
men,are thofe of Paris, in 1549, and of Antwerp, in
1607. The famous and well-known book De Imiia-
tione Chrijli, which has been tranflated into almoft all
the languages of the world, though it has almoft al¬
ways been numbered among the works of Thomas a
Kempis, is alfo found printed under the name of Ger-
fon; and on the credit of foipe MSS. has been fince af-
' Vol. VI.
fcribed to the abbot Gerfon of the order of -St Bene- Kemptea
did. This has occafioned a violent difpute between KJJdaj
the canons of St Auguftine and the Benedidines: but   Ll.
while devout Chriftians find fpiritual comfort in the
work, the name of the writer is of fmall importance.
KEMPTEN, a free and imperial town of Germany,
in Lower Suabia, and in Algow, and alfo in the ter¬
ritory of the abbot of Kempten, who is a prince of
the empire, and has a voice in the diet. The inhabi¬
tants are Proteftants; and it has been feveral times ta¬
ken, but has always recovered its liberty. It is feated
on the river Iller. E. Long. to. 33. N. Lat. 47. 47.
Kempten, a territory in the circle of Suabia, in
Germany, between the bifhopricof Augfburg, and the
barony of Walburg. It is about 17 miles long and
broad; and has no confiderable place but the towns of
Kempten and Kauffbeuren, which are imperial.
KEN (Thomas), an eminent Englifti bilhop in thtf
17th century, was bred at Winthefter fchool, whence
he went to Oxford; and in 1669, was made a prebend
of Winchefter. In 1675, the year of the jubilee, he
travelled to Rome; and ufed to fay, He had reafon to
give God thanks for his travels, having returned more
confirmed of the purity of the reformed religion than
he was before. He was appointed by king Charles II.
to attend the lord Dartmouth at the demolifliing of
Tangier ; and at his return was made chaplain to his
majelly, as he was fome time after to the princefs of
Orange, then refiding in Holland. In 1685, he was
coufecrated bilhop of Bath and Wells. The month
following he attended king Charles II. at his death;
and gave clofe attendance at the royal bed for three
whole days and nights, watching proper intervals to
fuggeft pious and proper thoughts on fo ferious an
occafion. In the following reign he zealoufly oppofed
the progrefs of Popery; and in June 1688, he, with
five other bilhops and the archbilhop of Canterbury,
was committed prifoner to the Tower of London for
fubfcribing a petition to his majefty againft the declara-
tion-of indulgence. Upon the Revolution, however, he
refufed to take the oaths to king William and Queen
Mary, on which account he was deprived of his bi-
fhopric. Her majefty queen Anne beftowed on him
a yearly penfion of 2001. to his death in 1710. He
publilhed feveral pious books. His charity was fo
great, that when he was bilhop of Bath and Wells, ha¬
ving received a fine of 4000I. he gave a great part of
it to the French Proteftants.
KENDAL, a town of Weftmoreland, feated in a
valley, among hills, on the weft fide of the river Can
or Ken, over which there are two ftone bridges, and
one of wood, which leads to the caftle, now in ruins.
It is a large handfome place ; and has two long ftreets,
which crofs each other. The church is a fpacious ftruc-
ture, fupported by five rows of pillars, and 12 chapels
of cafe belonging to it. The free-fchool (lands on the
fide of the church-yard; and is well endowed, having
exhibitions to Queen’s-college in Oxford. It is noted
for its manufa&ures of cotton, druggets, hats, and (lock¬
ings.—The caftle is remarkable for being the birth¬
place of Catharine Par, the laft wife of Henry VIII.
The different branches of the woollen manufa6ture
were eftablifhed here by certain Flemings as far back
as the reign of Edward III. who encouraged them to
fettle both at Kendal and Colchefter. W. Long. 2.40.
22 X ‘ N.
KEN
Kenks,
Kennel.
[ 4°
N. Lat. 54.. 15.
KENKS, in the fea-language, doublings in a rope
or cable, when handed in and out, fo that it does not
run eafy; or when any rope makes turns or twills, and
does not run free in the block, then it is faid to make
kenks.
KENNEL, a place or little houfe for hounds; and,
in a metaphorical fenfe, ufed for the pack of hounds
itfelf. To make a complete kennel, three conveni¬
ences ought to be obferved, viz. a fweet air, frelh wa¬
ter, and the morning-fun; for which the following rules
may be inftru&ive.—'l^he court fhould be large; for
the more fpacious it is, the better it will be for the
hounds to refrelh themfelves in : and it Ihould be well
walled, or fenced about, to prevent their getting out,
but not fo high as to keep out the fun or wind. The
water, if poflible, Ihould run through fome part of the
court or yard ; or, for want thereof, have a well with
a ftone trough about a foot and a half high, always-
kept with frelh water, to the end the hounds rhay
drink when they pleafe; and at one end of the tfough
there mull be a hole to let out the water for cleanfmg
it. Let the kennel be built in the higheft part of the
court, in which there Ihould be two rooms, one of tyhich
Ihould be larger than the other, with a large chimney
to make a fire when need requires. This room Ihould
be raifed about three feet from the ground, and in the
floor there Ihould be two gutters for the conveyance
of the urine. There mull be difperfed up and down
fmall bedlleads raifed a foot from the floor, with holes
pierced through the planks for drawing away their
urine. The other room mull be for the huntfman to
keep his poles, whips, falves, and the like necefla-
ries; there Ihould alfo be a copper for the boiling,
drefling, and ordering of their food, when they come
home wet and weary. Be careful not to give them any
drink in veflels of copper; and as to the proportion
and quality of allowance for food, it mud be ordered
with relation to the nature of the hounds and their
fizes: three bulhels of oats, with a bulhel and a half
of wheat-bran, will ferve ten couple and a half of mid-
dling-fized hounds a week, giving them fometimes beef
broth, whey, flipt-milk, chippings of bread, bones, and
fometimes a little horfe-flelh; for change of food creates
a good appetite, and preferves health. The oats and
wheat-bran mult be boiled and thickened with milk
and butter-milk, with fome chippings, or fome broken
meat boiled therein. With regard to horfe-flelh, thofe
heft Ikilled this way, think, of all their foods (provided
it be given with difcretion), horfe-flelh the bell, and
hotteft. As for dogs that are accuftomed to hunt
the hare, it is not good to give them any meat, be-
caufe it is faid to with-draw their fcent or affe&ions
from the chace, as their flelh is not very fweet, nor
their fcent very llrong. If the huntfman perceives, that
through long and frequent chaces the hounds fall a-
way, he mull be more careful in feeding and cherilh-
ing them with fome good broth of boiled oxen or
ftieeps hearts. On fuch days as the hounds do not hunt,
the bell times to feed them are early, before fun-riling,
and late in the evening, after fun-fet; and on the days
they hunt, they ought to be rewarded as they come
home, be it when it will, with a good fupper; for no¬
thing is a greater difcouragement to a hound than to
22 ] KEN
go to fleep with an empty belly after hard labour. If Kennet.
you have more dead flelh than you have prefent occa-
lion for, it may be preferved a week or ten days fweet,
by burying it under ground.
To Kennel, a term applied by fox-hunters to a fox
when he lies in his hole.
KENNET (Dr White), a learned Englilh writer
and bifhopof Peterborough, in the 18th century, bred
at St Edmund-hall, Oxford ; where he foon diftinguilh-
cd himfelf by his vigorous application to his ftudies,
and by his tranflations of feveral books into Englilh,
and other pieces which he publilhed. In 1695, our
author publilhed his Parochial Antiquities. A fermon
preached by him on the 30th of January 1 703, at
Aldgate, expofed him to great clamour. It was print¬
ed under the title of compaffionate inquiry into the
caufej of the civil war. In 1706, he publilhed his
Cafe of Impropriations, and two other trafts on the
fame fubjedl. In 1706, he publilhed the third volume
of The Complete Hillory of England, (the two for¬
mer volumes compiled by Mr Hughes). In t 709, he
publilhed A Vindication of the Church and Clergy of
England from fome late reproaches rudely and unjull-
ly call upori' them ; and A true Anfwer to Dr Sache-
verel’s Sermon. When the great point in Dr Sache-
verell’s trial, the change of the miniltry, was gained,
and very ftrange addrelfes were made upon it, there
was to be an artful addrefs from the bilhop and
clergy of London, and they who would not fubferibe
it were to be reprefented as enemies to the queen and
the minillry. Dr Kennet fell under this imputation.
He was expofed to great odium as a low-church man,
on account of his conduft and writings. When he was
dean of Peterborough, a very uncommon method was
taken to expofe him by Dr Walton, re£lor of the
church of White chapel: for in the altar-piece of that
church, which was intended for a reprefentation of
Chrift and his 12 apoftles eating the paflbver and lall
fupper, Judas the traitor was drawn fitting in an el¬
bow chair, drelled in a black garment, with a great
deal of the air of Dr Kennet’s face. It was generally
faid, that the original Iketch was for a bilhop under
Dr Walton’s difpleafure ; but the painter being ap-
prehenlive of an action of Scandalum Magnatum, leave
was given to drop the bilhop, and make the dean.
This giving general offence, upon the complaint of o-
thers (for Dr Kennet never law it, or feemed to re¬
gard it), the bilhop of London ordered the pidure to
be taken down. In 1713, he prefented the fociety for
propagating the gofpel with a great number of books,
fuitable to their dtfign ; publilhed his Bibliotheca A~
mericana Primordia, and founded an antiquarian and
hiftorical library at Peterborough. In 1715, he pub¬
lilhed a fermon, intitled, The Witchcraft of the pre¬
fent Rebellion, and afterward feveral other pieces. I11
1717, he was engaged in a difpute with Dr William
Nicholfon, bilhop of Carlifle, relating to fome altera¬
tions in the bilhop of Bangor’s famous fermon ; and
dilliked the proceedings of the convocation againft that,
bifliop. Upon the death of Dr Cumberland bilhop of
Peterborough, he was promoted to that fee, to which
he was confecrated in 1718. He fat in it more than
ten years, and died in 1728. He was an excellent phi-
lologift, a good preacher, whether in Englilh or La-
KEN [ 3023 ] K E N
Kennet, tin, and well verfed in the hiftories and antiquities of dered; as appears from their claim to the poll of ho- Ken
Kent' our nation. nour in our land-armies, and the privileges granted to 
Kennet (Bafil), a learned Englilh writer, and bro- their havens, in conlideration of their undertaking the
ther to the preceding, was educated in Corpus Chrifti defence of our channel.
college in the univerfity of Oxford, where he became As to the climate of this county, it varies, accord-
fellow. In 1706, he went over chaplain to the Englifh ing to the fituation of places. In the low flat lands,
fa&ory at Leghorn ; where he met with great oppofi- and efpecially in the marihes, the air is heavy, moift,
tion from the Papifts, and was in danger from the in- and unhealthy ; and yet not to fuch a degree as it has
qnifnion. He died in the year 1714. He publifhed been fometimes reprefented; for, with a little care and
Lives of the Greek Poets; the Roman Antiquities; a caution, ftrangers, as well as natives, quickly reconcile
volume of Sermons preached at Leghorn; A tranfla- their conftitutions to the temperature even of thefe
tion into Englifh of Puffendorf’sTreatife of the Law of parts, and live in them without much inconveniency
Nature and Nations. He was a man of meft exemplary or apparent danger. But, in reference to the reft of
integrity, generofity, piety, and modefty. the county, the air is as thin, pure, and wholefome, as
KENT, one of the counties of England, fituated in any part of Britain. There is no region more hap-
at the fouth-eaft corner of the ifland, and from thence pily or more beautifully diverfified in regard to foil, fo
enjoying many advantages. The capacious aeftuary that every kind thereof is, fomewhere or other, to be
of the Thames wafhes its northern parts, as the fea met with in its bounds; and in no fhire are any of
does the fouth-eaft ; whence fome, with no great im- thefe foils more fertile than they are in this. The
propriety,, have ftyled it aIn point of tx- WeJd yields variety of fine limber, particularly of
tent, this is the fifth fhire in South Britain, little lefs chefnut; the middle part has very rich arable land,
in its dimenfions than the province of Holland; larger annually bearing every fpecies of grain in immenfe
in fize than the duchy of Juliers in Germany; and al- plenty, and thefe excellent in their feveral forts. There
moft exaftly equal to that of Modena in Italy. Kent are alfo many beautiful orchards, which produce a va-
is, with great appearance of truth, fuppofed to be fo rietyof fine fruits, and more efpecially apples and cher-
ftyled from the ancient Britifh word kant, fignifying a ries, which were introduced here from Flanders, by
corner, or, when applied to a country, an head-land, one Richard Harris, who was the king’s fruiterer, in
It is certain, that the Romans beftowed the name of the reign of Henry VIII. The flat country is re-
on the province, and on its moft confpicucus nowned for its meadows; and Rumney-marfh has
promontory the north Foreland; and, from the di- hardly its equal. We may, from this concifedefaip-
itriA they inhabited, the people were called Cantii; tion, very eafily collect, that the natural products of
which has prevailed even to our times, when and Kent are numerous, and of great value. In the
the men of Kent, are the common appellatives. It is bowels of the earth they find, in feveral places, a rough
however, probable, that thefe Cantii were not the ori- hard ferviceable ftone for paving, which turns to fome
ginal inhabitants, but a latter colony from the oppo- advantage ; but not fo much as their exquifite fullers-
iite continent, eftabliftied here, like the Belgae, not earth, rich marl, and fine chalk, which are there in
long before the Roman invafion. At the time of Ce- abundance. If we except iron ore, indeed, they have
far’s coming, this fpacious and fertile region was di- no mines; but there are prodigious heaps of copperas-
vided into four principalities, or, as they are, accord- ftones thrown on the coaft. The ifle of Shepey, and
Campbells n'Z t0 t^ie mann£rs °f thofe days, commonly called, all the adjacent fhore as far as Reculver, is juftly fa-
Political kingdoms. It was his obfervation of thefe people, that mous for its wheat. Thanet is in no lefs credit for its
Survey. they were particularly diftinguifhed by their civility barley, or rather was fo ; for now it produces, thro*
and politenefs ; a character which their defeendants the painful induftry and fkilful hufbandry of its inha-
have preferved. When that w’ife people became ma- bitants, copious crops of good wheat as well as bar-
fters of the fouthern parts of the ifland, this province ley. Horfes, black cattle, and fneep, they have in great
received the moft confpicuous marks of their attention, numbers, and remarkable in point of fize; and hop-
as appears from the ttations which they fo prudently grounds in all parts of the county, which turn to very
eftablifhed, while their government flourifhed in its confiderable account. To which we may add, w'tld,
full vigour. The care they took of the ports on the or, as fome call it, dyers-’weed, which is a very profit-
fea-coaft as foon as it came to be in danger, and the able commodity, and of which there grows much in the
feveral fortrefles which they erefted for the defence of neighbourhood of Canterbury; alfo madder, which is,
their fubje&s againft the fudden attempts of barba- or has been, occafionally cultivated. The rivers and
rous invaders, are evidences of the fame kind. Thefe fea-coafts abound with filh of different kinds. The ex¬
forts, fo prudently difpofed, and fo well fecured, were cellency of its oyfters on the eaftern fhore, is celebra-
under the dire&ion of a particular great officer, called ted by the Roman poets. Thofe of Feverfham and
Littoris Saxonici Comes, i. e. the Count of the Saxon Milton are not only in great efleem at the Lon-
fliore ; which office feems to have been preferved by don market, but are likewife fent in great quantities
the Britifh monarchs who governed here, after the Ro- to Holland.
mans quitted the ifle. The Saxon kings of Kent dif- The many rich commodities produced in this coun-
charged this truft in their regal capacity, from the ty, is the reafon why moft of our writers have repre¬
middle of the fifth to the beginning of the ninth cen- fented it as in a manner void of manufadlures ; which,
tury. Under the northern princes, this poll was again however, as appears upon a ftritfc and impartial exa-
revived, though with a change of title, in the I.ord mination, is very far from being the cafe. Ofiron-works
Warden of the Cinque Ports. Indeed, under all govern- there were anciently many ; and there are ftill fome,
ments, the people of Kent have been efpecially confi- where kettles, bombs, bullets, cannon, and fuch like.
KEN [ 4044 ] K E R
Kent, are made. At Deptford, Sir Nicholas Crifpe had,
  in his life-time, a very famous copperas work; as,
indeed, there that ingenious gentleman, one of the
greateft improvers and one of the moft public-fpirited
perfons this nation ever bred, introduced feveral other
inventions. Copperas was alfo formerly made, toge-
* phUofiph. ther with brimftone, in the ifle of Shepey *. But the
Tranfau. original, and for many ages the principal manufacture
N° xlii. 0f this county, was broad cloath of different colours,
p^ios<5— eftdbH(hed chiefly at Cranbrook by king Edward III.
1°'5S‘ who brought over Flemings to improve and perfedt
(the trade being introduced long before) his fubje&s
in that important art. At this, and other places, it
flourilhed fo much, that even at the clofe of queen
Elifabeth’s reign, and, according to fome accounts,
much later, the beft for home confumption, and the
largeft quantities for exportation, were wrought here ;
many fulling-mills being ere&ed upon almoft every ri¬
ver, and the greateft plenty of excellent fullers-earth
affording them Angular afiiftance; infomuch, that it
is dill a tradition, that the yeomenry of this county,
for which it has been ever famous, were moftly the-
dependents of rich clothiers, who laid out the money
acquired by their induftry in the purchafe of lands,
which they tranfmitted, with their free and independ¬
ant fpirit, to their pofterity. The Duke of Alva’s
perfecution of the Proteftants in the Low Countries,
drove a multitude of Walloons over hither, who brought
with them that ingenuity and applicaiion for which
they had been always diftinguilhed. Thefe diligent
and adtive people fettled a manufadtory of flannel or
baize at Sandwich. By them the filk-looms were fet
up at Canterbury, where they ftill fubfift; and they
alfo introduced the making of thread at Maidftone,
where it yet remains, and merits more notice and en¬
couragement than hitherto it has met with.
Upon the rivert Dart, at the confluence of which
with the Thames Hands the town of Dartford, was
fet up, in the reign of queen Elifabeth, the firft mill
for making white paper, by Mr John Spilman, a Ger¬
man, upon whom, long after, king James conferred
the honour of knighthood; but king Charles more
fenfibly beftowed upon this Sir John Spilman a patent,
and a penfion of 2001. a-year, as a reward of his in¬
vention, and for the fupport of the manufadlure. A-
bout the year 1590, Godfrey Box, a German, eredt-
ed upon the fame river the firft flitting-mill which was
ever ufed for making iron-wire ; and alfo the firft bat¬
tery-mill for making copper-plates. Other new in¬
ventions, requiring the affiftance of water, have been
fet up on other ftreams ; and a great variety of ma¬
chines of this fort ftill fubfift in different parts of this
county. But thefe things are now fo common, that
it would be both tedious and ufelefs to infift upon
them. Amongft thefe, we may reckon the making
gunpowder in feveral places. That manufadlure,
however, which is now the glory of this county, and
indeed of Britain, is (hip-building ; more efpecially
at the royal yards ; as at Woolwich, which was fet¬
tled by Henry VIII. and fome confiderable (hips
built there. At prefent, there is not only a moft
complete eftablilhment for the building and equipping
men of war, a rope-walk, foundery, and magazines
but alfo many private docks, in which prodigious bu-
linefs is carried on, and multitudes of people employed.
KEPLER (John), one of the greateft aftronomers Kepler,
of his age, was born at Wiel, in the country of Wirt - Kerckgnrg
emberg, in 1571. In the year 1595, he wrote an
excellent book, which was printed at Tubingen the
year following, under the title of Prodronnis differta-
tionum de proportions orbium aelejlium, deque caufis at-
lorum numeri, magnitudinis, viotuumque periodicorum
genuinis et propriis, <bc. Tycho Brahe having fettled
in Bohemia, and obtained from the emperor all forts
of conveniencies for the perfe&ing of aftronomy, was
fo paffionately defirous of having Kepler with him,
and wrote fo many letters to him on that fubjed, that
he prevailed upon him to leave the univerfity of Gratz,
and remove into Bohemia with his family and library,
in the year 1600. Kepler in his journey was feized
fo violently with the quartan ague, that he could not
do Tycho Brahe all the fervices of which he was be¬
fore capable. He was even a little diffatisfied with
the refervednefs which Tycho Brahe (hewed towards
him ; for the latter did not communicate to him all
he knew; and as he died in 1601, he did not give
time to Kepler to be very ufeful to him, or to receive
any confiderable advantage under him. From that
time Kepler enjoyed the title of Mathematician to the
emperor., all his life; and gained more and more repu¬
tation by his works. The emperor Rodolphus or¬
dered him to finifh the tables of Tycho Brahe, which
were to be called the Rodolphine Tables. Kepler ap¬
plied himfelf to it vigoroufly : but unhappy are thofe
learned men who depend upon the good-humour of
the intendants of the finances. The treafurers were fo
ill-affe&ed toward our author, that he could not publifh
thefe tables till 1627. He died at Ratifbon, where,
he was foliciting the payment of the arrears of his pen¬
fion in 1630.
The principal works of this great aftronomer are, r.
Prodromus differtationum, above mentioned, to which he
has alfo given the title of Myfterium Cofmograpkicum ;
which he efleemed more than any other of his works,
and was for fome time fo charmed with it, that he faid
he would not give up the honour of having invented what
was contained in that book for the eleftorate of Sax¬
ony. 2. Harmonia mundi, with a defence of that
treat ife. 3. De cometis, libri tres. 4. Epitome a-
Jlronomise Copernicantc. 5. AJlronomia nova. 6. Chi-
lias logarithmorum, fee. 7. Novo Jlereometria do-
liorum vinariorum, fee. 8. Dioptrics. 9. De vero
natali anno Chrijli. IO. Ad Vitellionem Paralipome-
na, quibus AJlronomine pars optica traditur, fee. 11.
Somnium Lunarifve AJironomia ; in which he began
to draw up that fyltem of comparative aftronomy
which was afterwards purfued by Kircher, Huygens,,
and Gregory. His death happened while the work
was printing : upon which James Bartfchius, his fon-
in-law, undertook the care of the impreflion ; but
was alfo interrupted by death : and Lewis Kepler his
fon, who was then a phyfician at Konigfberg in Pruf-
fia, was fo much ftartled at thefe difafters, that it was-
with the utmoft difficulty he could be prevailed upon,
to attempt to finifh it, left it (hould prove fatal to.
him : he completed the talk, however, without recei¬
ving any perfonal injury.
KERCKRING (Theodore), a famous phyfician-
of the 17th century, was born at Amfterdam, and ac¬
quired a great reputation by his difeoveries and hi&
works-
K E R [ 4045 ] K E R
Kerman, worlss. He found out the fecret of foftening amber
without depriving it of its tranfparency ; and made ufe
~ of it in covering the bodies of curious infers, in order
to preferve them. He was a member of the Royal
Society of London ; and died in 1693 at Hamburg,
where he had fpent the greatelt part of his life, with
the title of refident of the grand duke of Tufcany.
His principal works are, 1. Spicilegiinn anatomicum.
2. Anthropogenic ichnographia. There is alfo attri¬
buted to him an anatomical work, printed in 1671,
in folio.
KERMAN, the capital city of a province of that
name in Perfia, feated in E. Long. 56. 30. N. Lat.
30. o. The province lies in the fouth part of Perfia,
on the Perfian gulph. The fheep of this country, to¬
wards the latter end of the fpring, fhed their wool,
and become as naked as fuckling pigs. The principal
revenue of the province confifts in thefe fleeces.
KERMES, in zoology, the name of an infeft pro¬
duced in the excrefcences of a fpecies of the oak.
Kermes, among the Arabians, fignifies a fmall
worm ; and *ox**v among the Greeks, whence the La¬
tin word coccuniy both which mean a kernel or grain :
for which reafon, among the later Greeks, inftead
of the word x^xo*, the word o-xax»g, a nvorm, is fubfti-
tuted ; for thefe grains are full of fmall worms, the
juice of which affords the fcarlet colour and dye.
Hence the worm is taken for the grain itfelf.
The kermes appears at firft wrapped up in a mem¬
branaceous bladder, of the fize of a pea, fmooth and
fhining, of a brownifh red colour, and covered with a
very fine afh-coloured powder. This bag teems with
a number of reddifh eggs or infers, which, being
rubbed with the fingers, pour out a crirnfon liquor.
It is only met with in warm countries in the months
of May and June. In the month of April this infedl
becomes of the fize and (hape of a pea ; and its eggs
fome time after'burft from the womb, and, foon turn-
ino- into worms, run about the branches and leaves of
the tree. They are of two fexes, and the females
have been hitherto defcribed : but the males are very
different from the former ; and are a fort of fmall flies
like gnats, with fix feet, of which the four forward
tire fliort, and the two backward long; divided into
four joints, and armed with three crooked nails.
There are two feelers on the head, a line and a half
long, which are moveable, ftreaked, and articulated.
The tail at the back part cf the body is half a line
long, and forked. The whole body is covered with
two tranfparent wings, and they leap about in the
manner of fleas. The harveft of the kermes is greater
or lefs in proportion to the feverity of the winter.
The women gather them before fun-rifing, tearing
them off with their nails, for fear there fhould be any
Jofs from the hatching of the infefts. They fprinkle
them with vinegar, and lay them in the fun to dryj
where they acquire a red colour.
Kermes Mineral^ fo called from its colour, which
refembles that of vegetable kermes, is one of the moft
important antimonial preparations, both with regard
to its chemical phenomena and to its medicinal ufes.
The ufe of kermes-mineral was not eftablifhed in
medicine before the beginning of this century. Some
chemifls, indeed, arnongft others Glauber and Lemeri,
had before that time mentioned in their works feveral Ker.me
preparations of antimony which approach more or lefs
to kermes; but thefe preparations being little known,
were confounded with many others which are entirely
negle&ed, although much praifed by their authors.—
The fame of kermes was occafioned by friar Simon,
apothecary to the Chartrcux friars. He received
this preparation from a furgeon called La Li-
gerie, who had procured it from a German apothe¬
cary who had been a fcholar of the famous Glauber.
Friar Simon, from the commendations given to this
new remedy by La Ligerie, adminiflered it toaChar-
treux friar, who was dangeroufly ill of a violent pe-
ripneumony, by which the friar was fuddenly, and as
it had been miraculoully, cured. From that time the
friar-apothecary publifhed the virtue of his remedy.
Several other remarkable cures were performed by
means of kermes. The public believed in its medici¬
nal qualities, and called it powder of Chartreux; be-
caufe it was prepared only in the apothecary’s fliop
belonging to thefe monks. The reputation of kermes
extended itfelf more and more ; till at length the duke
of Orleans, then regent of France, procured the pub¬
lication of the procefs by La Ligerie.
Thisprocefsconfifts in boiling, during two hours, puJ-
verifed crude antimony in the fourth part of its weight of
the liquor of nitre fixed by coals, and twice its weight of
pure water : at the end of this time the liquor is to be
decanted and filtrated, while boiling, through brown
paper. It continues clear while it is boiling hot;
but when it cools, it becomes turbid, acquires a red
brick colour, and again becomes clear by the depofi-
tion of a red fediment, which is the kermes. The
boiling may be thrice repeated, and each time the
fame quantity of water is to be added to the antimony,
and a fourth part lefs of the liquor of fixed nitre. The
feveral fediments from thefe three boilings are to be
added together, wafhed with clean water till the wa¬
ter acquires no tafte ; and the kermes is then to be
dried. La Ligerie dire&s, that aquavitte fhall be
once or twice poured upon it and burnt, and the ker¬
mes dried again.
We now proceed to explain the nature of kermes,
and the phenomena of its preparation Crude an¬
timony is compofed of regulus of antimony and com¬
mon fulphur, united naturally with each other, as
in almolt all metallic minerals. The fixed alkali
with which the crude antimony is boiled, although
it is diluted with much water, adts upon the ful¬
phur of the antimony, and forms with it liver of ful- •
phur; and as this compound is a folvent of all metal¬
lic matters, it dtfiblves a certain quantity of the re-
gulu& of antimony. In this operation then a combi¬
nation is formed of fixed alkali, of fulphur, and of re¬
gulus of antimony. Of thefe three fubftances the
fixed alkali only is foluble in water, and is the inter¬
mediate fubftance by which the fulphur and regulus
are fufpended in the water. But we are to obferve,
that the alkali becomes impregnated by this operation,
and by boiling, with a larger quantity of regulus,
and efpecially of fulphur, than can be fufpended in
cold water; hence the deco&ion of kermes, which is
clear, limpid, and colourlefs while boiling hot, be¬
comes turbid and dtpofues a fediment while it cools.'
■ This-
K E R [ 4046 ] K E R
Kcrmes. This compound, therefore, like certain falls, may be
  kept diffolved in larger quantity by hot than by cold
water, and much of it is therefore depofited by cool-
in£-
Further, while the kermes is precipitating, the
whole antimoniated liver of fulphur, which is diffolved
by the boiling liquor, may be divided into two parts;
one of which, that is the kermes, being overcharged
with the regulus, and particularly with the fulphur,
contains but a little alkali, which it draws along with
it during its depofition. The other part, as it con¬
tains much more alkali, remains diflblved even in the
cold liquor, by means of this larger quantity of al¬
kali. All thefe propofitions are to be explained and
demonftrated by the following obfervations.
Firft, when the deco&ion of kermes is cold, and
has formed all its fediment, if, without adding any
thing to it, it be heated till it boil, it again entirely
re-diffolves the kermes ; the fediment difappears; the
liquor becomes clear, and by cold is again rendered
•turbid and depofites fediment as before. Thus the
kermes may be made to precipitate and to re diffolve
as often as we pleafe.
Secondly, by digefting kermes in aqua-regia, which
dilfolves its alkali and regulus, the fulphur is feparated
pure. The acids of aqua-regia form a nitre and a
febrifugal fait of Sylvius with the alkali of the ker¬
mes ; and if a certain quantity of kermes be melted
with black flux after having deftroyed its fulphur by
roalling, a true regulus of antimony may be obtained
from it.
Thefe experiments, which were made by Mr Geof-
froy, and the detail of which is found in memoirs
given to the Academy in the years 1734 and 1735,
upon the analyfis of kermes, (hew evidently the pre¬
fence of fulphur, of fixed alkali, and of regulus of
antimony, in this compound. From Mr Geoffroy’s
experiments we find, that 72 grains of kermes contain
about 16 or 17 grains of regulus, 13 or 14 grains
of alkaline fait, and 40 or 41 grains of common ful¬
phur.
Thirdly, by repeating the boiling of the liquor up-
cn the antimony, more and more kermes will be form¬
ed each time by cooling, as at firft; and this experi¬
ment may be repeated a great many times. Mr Geof-
froy fays, that he repeated it 78 times, without any
other addition than that of pure water to fupply that
which was loft by evaporation; and that each time a
confiderable quantity of kermes was formed by cool¬
ing. This experiment proves, that the alkali tranf-
forms the antimony into kermes by overcharging it-
felf with regulus and fulphur, and at each precipita¬
tion the kermes does not retain and take with it but
a very fmall quantity of alkali.
Fourthly, if any acid be poured upon the liquor in
which the kermes has been formed, and from which
it has been entirely feparated by cooling, Mr Beaume
hasobferved, that this liquor is again rendered turbid,
and that a fecond fediment is formed of a yellow red-
dilh colour, which is nothing elfe than golden fulphur
of antimony; that is, regulus of antimony and ful¬
phur mixed together, but in very different propor¬
tions, and with very different ftrengths of union, from
thofe in which they are found in the crude antimony.
After this precipitation, in the liquor a neutral fait
is left, which is formed by the contained alkali and Kermes.
the precipitating acid. From this experiment we find, ~
that in the liquor from which the kermes has been
depofited, a confiderable quantity of antimoniated li¬
ver of fulphur remains, which differs from kermes by
containing a much larger proportion of alkali; fo that
it can keep diffolved the regulus and fulphur with
which it is united, even when the liquor is cold.
In the procefs for feveral antimonial preparations, a
kermes, or compounds like it, are formed. This al¬
ways happens when crude antimony is treated by fu-
fion with a quantity of alkaline fait, fo that an anti¬
moniated liver of fulphur refults from it, overcharged
with regulus and fulphur; that is, containing more of
thefe two fubftances than it can keep diffolved in cold
water. If any of thefe combinations be boiled in wa¬
ter, a matter analogous to kermes is always depofited
by cooling. This happens, for inftance, to the fcoria
of the regulus of antimony, and in an operation de-
feribed by Mr Geoffrey to abridge the procefs for ma¬
king kermes by fufion.
To make kermes by fufion, Mr Geoffroy fufes two
parts of antimony with one part of alkaline fait; he
powders this matter while yet hot, and keeps it du¬
ring two hours in boiling water; he then filtrates it,
and receives the liquor into more boiling water, from
which, when it cools, about fix gros of kermes is de¬
pofited, when an ounce of antimony has been ufed.
This method of making kermes is much more ex¬
peditious, but lefs perfeft; for, as the author con-
feffes, the kermes produced is not fo fine and foft as
that made in the ordinary method.
Mr Lemeri the elder mentions alfo, in his Treatife
concerning Antimony, an operation from which his
fon pretends that kermes may be obtained. This ope¬
ration confifts in digefting, and afterwards boiling,
powdered crude antimony in a very pure liquor of fixed
nitre. This liquor, if it be in fufficient quantity, is
capable of diffolving, quickly and entirely, powdered
crude antimony; and we cannot doubt but that, by
cooling, a confiderable quantity of a fubftance very ana¬
logous to kermes will be produced. Neverthelefs, none
of thefe (hort methods of making kermes isdire&ed by
difpenfatories, or by the beft books for deferibing the
preparations of chemical remedies.
Kermes is ufed in medicine only; and from it An¬
gularly excellent effeds may be produced, when admi-
niftered by able phyficians. In kermes are united the
exciting and evacuant virtues of the emetic preparations
of antimony, with the tonic, dividing, aperitive, and
refolving properties of the liver of fulphur ; that is to
fay, that it is capable of anfwering two principal indi¬
cations in the treatment of many acute and chronic
difeafes. Properly managed, it may become an eme¬
tic, purgative, a diuretic, a fudorific, or an expecto¬
rant, as is required, and it is always attenuating and
refolving. When feven or eight grains are taken at
once, it chiefly a£ts upon the primae viae, generally as
an emetic and as a purgative. Adofe of three or four
grains is feldom emetic, and more frequently purga¬
tive. When taken in thefe quantities as an evacuant,
a little of it paffes alfo into the viae fecundae & tertiae.
When it is adminiftered in fmaller dofes, it paffes al-
moft entirely into the laCteal, blood, and lymphatic
veffels. In thefe it occafions fuch fpafms and ofcilla-
tions
Kern,
Kerry.
K E R [ 4027 ] K E T
tions as It does in the prim® vise ; fo that it increafes
all fecretions and excretions, but particularly thofe of
urine, fweat, and expeftoration, according to thedofe,
to the nature of the difeafe, and to the difpofition of
the patient. It produces very good effects in thofe
difeafes of the bread which proceed from fullnefs and
cbftru&ion.
Kermesmay be adminiftered in lin&ufes, in oily or
in cordial potions, in any vehicle ; or incorporated in
a bolus, with other fuitable remedies. One precaution,
hitherto little obferved, is very neceffary; that is, not
to join it with acid matters, if it is intended to as
kermes. Anti-acid andabforbent fubftances ought to
be joined with it, if the patient has an acid in the
primas viae, or an acefcent difpofition ; for as thefe
acids faturate the alkali by which the kermes is ren¬
dered an antimoniated liver of fulphur, and by which
alone it differs from golden fulphur of antimony, they
accordingly render the kermes entirely fimilar to the
golden fulphur of antimony, the properties of which
are very different from thofe of kermes.
KERN, or Kerne, a term in the ancient Iri/h mi¬
litia, fignifying a foot-foldier.—Cambden tells us, the
armies of Ireland confided of cavalry, caWedgalhglaf-
fes ; and infantry, lightly armed, called kernes.—The
kernes bore fwords, and darts; to the laft were fitted
cords, by which they could recover them, after they
had been lanched out.
Kernes, in our laws, fignify idle perfons, or vaga¬
bonds.
KERRY, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Munfter, bounded on the north by the river Shannon,
which divides it from Clare; on the eaft, by Limerick
and Cork; on the fouth, by another part of Cork; and
on the weft, by the Atlantic ocean. This county is
diverfified with high hills and fruitful vales; and in the
middle there is a lake called Lough Lean, which is fe-
veral miles in compafs, and falls into the ocean thro’ a
little river of the fame name. Some of the mountains
produce very fruitful paftures, whofe grafs is high and
ood. The (beep and cattle feed there in the fummer;
ut in the winter the ground becomes fo fpungy and
boggy, that it will not bear a man. The coaft of this
county has feveral gulphs and promontories. That on
the north has the name of the county; and is covered
with fuch high mountains, that they may be feen at
50 miles off. Thefe are cv\\e<\ Brandon Hills, Near
its extremity are two good havens; that on the north is
called Smirovick, and that on the fouth Dingle. The
town fo called has a good haven ; from whence it has
its name, and is covered with a large rock. The bay
of Dingle is long, broad, entering feveral miles into
the country, and has two or three good havens; that
ofVentry is four miles to the weft of Dingle, and that
of Caftlemagne is at the bottom of the bay. Ardart
is the capital town, and is a biftiop’s fee. The fecond
promontory is Clancar, or Glencart, feated between
the bay of Dingle and that of Maire ; it has a long
chain of mountains, and Lough-Lean communicates
as well with the bay of Dingle as of Maire, by two
fmall rivers which form an ifland. There, is a fmall
ifland hereabouts called Valencia, defended by a fort.
The bay of Maire has'its name from a fmall river; and
is narrower than that of Dingle, tho’ it runs farther
into the country.
KESSEL, a town of Upper Guelderland, in the
Netherlands, with a handfome caftle. It is the chief
town in the territory of the fame name, and feated on _
the river Meufe, between Ruremond and Venlo, it be¬
ing about five miles from each. It was ceded to the
king of Pruffia, by the treaty of Utrecht. E. Long.
6. 13. N. Lat. 41. 22.
KESSELDORF, a village of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, three miles below Drefden,
remarkable for the battle gained by the king of Pruf¬
fia over the Saxons, on the 15th of December 1745.
KESWICK, a town of Cumberland, fituated on
the fide of a lake, in a fruitful plain, almoft encom-
paffed with mountains, called the Ternvent Fells. It
was formerly a town of good note, but now is much
decayed. However, it is ftill noted for its mines and
miners, who have a convenient fmelting-houfe on the
fide of the river Denvent, the dream of which is fo ma¬
naged, as to make it work the bellows, hammers, and
forge, as alfo to faw boards. There is a vvork-houfe
here for employing the poor of this parifti, and that
of Crofsthwait. -W. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 54. 30.
KETTLE, in the art of war, a term the Dutch
give to a battery of mortars, becaufe it is funk under
ground.
KiTTLE-Dra/wr, are formed of two large bafins of
copper or brafs, rounded at the bottom, and covered
over with vellum or goat-Ikin, which is kept fail by a
circle of iron, and by feveral holes fattened to the bo¬
dy of the drum, and a like number of fcrews to fcrew
up and down, and a key for the purpofe. The two
bafins are kept fall together by two ftraps of leather
which go through two rings, and are faftened the
one before and the other behind the pommel of thfe
kettle-drums faddle. They have each a banner of filk
or damalk, richly embroidered with the fovereign’s
arms, or with thofe of the colonel, and are fringed
with filver or gold ; and, to preferve them in bad wea¬
ther, they have each a cover of leather. The drum-
fticks are of crab-tree or of any other hard wood, of
eight or nine inches long, with two knobs on the ends,
which beat the drum-head and caufe the found. The
kettle-drum with trumpets is the moft martial found of
any. Each regiment of horfe has a pair.
Drummer, a man on horfeback appointed
to beat the kettle-drums, from which he takes his
name. He marches always at the head of the fqua-
dron, and his poll is on the right when the fquadron
is drawn up.
KETTLEWELL (John), a learned divine, born
in 1653, was defcended from an ancient family in the
North-riding ofYorkttiire, bred in Edmund-Hall Ox¬
ford, and elefted fellow of Lincoln-college. In 1675,
he went into orders; but after the revolution was de¬
prived of his living, on account of his refufal to take
the oaths to king William and queen Mary. He died
of a confumption in 1695. He publiftied feveral
works, which were collefted and reprinted together in
1718, in 2 vols folio. He was a man of great can¬
dour, meeknefs, piety, and charity.
KETCH, a veffel equipped with two malts, viz.
the main-maft and mizen-maft, and ufuatly from 100
to 250 tons burden.—Ketches are principally ufed as
yachts, or as bomb-veffels; the former of wl>ich are
employed to convey princes of the blood, ambaffadors,
or.
KelTel
(1
Ketch.
KEY [ 4028 ] KEY
Kevels or other great perfonages, from one part to another ;
II and the latter are ufed to bombard citadels, towns,
Kcy° or other fortrefles. The bomb-ketches are therefore
furnilhed with all the apparatus neceflary for a vigo¬
rous bombardment; they are built remarkably ftrong,
as being fitted witU a greater number of riders than
any other veflel of war; and indeed this reinforce¬
ment is abfolutely necefiary to fuftain the violent (hock
produced by the difcharge of their mortars, which
would otherwife in a very (hort time (hatter them, to
pieces.
KEVELS, in (hip-building, a frame compofed of
two pieces of timber, whofe lower ends reft in a fort
of ftep or foot, nailed to the (hip’s fide, from whence
the upper ends branch outward into arms or horns, fer-
ving to belay the great ropes by which the bottoms of
the main-fail and fore-fail are extended.
KEW, a village of Surry in England, oppofite to
Old Brentford, 10 miles weft from London. Here is
a feat which belonged to the late prince of Wales.
Of late years a confiderable extent of ground has been
taken into the gardens of Kew, which are agreeably
laid out in lawns, walks, and groves, embelliftied with
temples, alcoves, and a very lofty brick tower, in the
Chinefe ftyle of architc&ure. On Kew-green are a
great number of elegant country-houfes, belonging to
the royal family, and other perfons of diftin&ion.
KEXHOLM, that part of Finland which borders
upon Ruffia. The lake Ladoga croffes it, and di¬
vides it into two parts. By the treaty between Ruffia
and Sweden in 1721, the Swedes were obliged to
abandon the beft part to the Ruffians. The country
in general is full of lakes and marflies, thinly inha¬
bited, and badly cultivated. The lake abovementioned
is 120 miles in length, and full of fi(h.
Kexholm, or Carelgorod, a town of Ruffia, in a
territory of the fame name, not very large, but well
fortified, and has a ftrong caftle. The houfes are
built with wood. It formerly belonged to the Ruf¬
fians, after which the Swedes had poffeffion of it for a
whole century; but it was re-taken by the Ruffians
in 1710. Near it is a confiderable falmon-filhery. It
is feated on two iflands on the north-weft fide of the
lake Ladoga, in E. Long. 30. 25. N. Lat. 61. 12.
Near it is another town called New Kexholm.
KEY, an inftrument for the opening of locks.
See Lock.
L. Molinus has a treatife of keys, De clavihus vete-
rum, printed at Upfal: he derives the Latin name
clavis, from the Greek y-xau, claudo, “ I (hut;” or from
the adverb clam, “ privatelyand adds, that the ufe of
keys is yet unknown in fome parts of Sweden.
The invention of keys is owing to one Theodore of
Samos, according to Pliny and Polydore Virgil: but
this muft be a miftake, the ufe of keys having been
known before the fiege of Troy; mention even feems
made of them in the 19th chapter of Genefis.
Molinus is of opinion, that keys at firft only ferved
for the untying certain knots, wherewith they an¬
ciently fecured their doors: but the Laconic keys, he
maintains, were nearly akin in ufe to our own; they
confided of three (ingle teeth, and made the figure of
an E; of which form there are dill fome to be feen in
the cabinets of the curious.
There was another key called made in the
manner of a male-fcrew; which had its correfponding Key,
female in a bolt affixed to the door. Ai?^ is, hence, Keyfer*
become a general name for feveral things ferving to '
(hut up or clofe others.
Key, or Key-Jlone, of an Arch or Vault, is the iaft.
done placed a-top thereof; which being wider and
fuller at the top than bottom, wedges, as it were, and
binds all the reft. The key is different in the diffe¬
rent orders : in the Tufcan and Doric, it is a plain
ftone, only proje&ing ; in the Ionic, it is cut, and
waved fomewhat after the manner of confoles ; in the
Corinthian and Compofite, it is a confole, enriched with
fculpture, foliages, &c.
Key is alfo ufed for ecclefiaftical jurifdi&ion; par¬
ticularly for the power of excommunicating and ab-
folving. The Romanifts fay, the pope has the power
of the keys, and can open and (hut Paradife as he
pleafes; grounding their opinion on that expreffion of
Jefus Chrift to Peter, “ I will give thee the keys of the
“ kingdom of heaven.” In St Gregory we read, that it
was the cuftom heretofore for the popes to fend a
golden key to princes, wherein they inclofed a little
of the filings of St Peter’s chains, kept with a world
of devotion at Rome ; and that thefe keys were worn
in the bofom, as being fuppofed to contain fome won¬
derful virtues.
Key is alfo ufed for an index or explanation of a
cipher. See Cipher.
Keys of an Organ, Harpjichord, <&c. thofe little
pieces in the fore-part of thofe inftruments, by means
whereof the jacks play, fo as to (trike the firings.
Thefe are in number 28 or 29. In large organs there
are feveral fets erf the keys, fome to play the fecondary
organ, fome for the main-body, fome for the trumpet,
and fome for the echoing trumpet, &c.; in fome there
are but a part that play, and the reft are only for or¬
nament. There are 20 flits in the large keys, which
make half-notes. See the article Organ, &c.
Key, in mufic, a certain fundamental note or tone,
to which the whole piece, be it in cantata, fonata,
concerto, &c. is accommodated, and with which it
ufually begins, but always ends.
Key, or Quay, a long wharf, ufually built of ftone,
by the fide of a harbour or river, and having feveral
ftorehoufes for the convenience of lading and dif-
charging merchant-drips. It is accordingly furniftred
with polls and rings, whereby they are fecured ; to¬
gether with cranes, capfterns, and other engines, to
lift the goods into or out of the veffels which lie
along-fide.
The verb cajare, in old writers, according to Scali-
ger, fignifies to keep in, or refrain ; and hence came
our term key or quay, the ground where they are made
being bound in with planks and pofts.
Keys are alfo certain funken rocks, lying near
the furface of the water, particularly in the Weft-
Indies.
KEYSER’s pills, a celebrated mercurial medi¬
cine, the method of preparing which was purchafed
by the French government, and has fince been pub-
publifhed by M. Richard.
The firft, and what, according to Mr Keyfer, is the
moft effential operation, confifts in feparating the mer¬
cury very exaftly from all heterogeneous matter, by
reducing it to an sethiops. This is effe&ed by means
of
KEY [ 4029 ] KID
Keyfer. of an hydraulic machine, a plan of which Mr Keyfer
intended to have given to government before his death:
but, although he did not live to accomplilh his refo-
lution, his family ftill offer to do it when defired. Ac¬
cording to the defcription given by M. Richard, this
machine confifts of a number of buckets, ki which mer¬
cury is triturated with water, till the water acquires a
black colour. This water, upon ftapding, depofits a
fediment, which, being dried by a proper heat, is the
sethiops required.
The fecond procefs confirts in revivifying the mer¬
cury by diftillation, in freeing it from all oily matters
by means of quick-lime, in detaching this quick-lime
by repeated walkings, and afterwards in drying it by
means of a fand heat.
The third operation confifts in the redu&ion of the
mercury purified by this procefs to a red calx, by
means of heat. In condufting this operation, Mr
Keyfer advifes, that the mercury be put into glafs
matraffes, a fmall quantity only in each. For the
proper degree of heat, he dire&s thofe who would
pradlife the operation, to confult Lemery, and other
chemifts.
The fourth operation is, the diffolution of the cal¬
cined mercury, obtained by the former procefs, in di¬
ddled vinegar, by means of triture. A pound of this
mercury may be diffolved in eight pints of vinegar, by
rubbing it, for an hour or two, in a mortar, which
fhould be kept folely for that purpofe. Care mud alfo
be taken that the vinegar be not diddled in a metallic,
but in a glafs veffel.
The fifth procefs confids in the intimate mixture of
this vinegar, impregnated with mercury, with manna.
Each pound of the vinegar, containing about two ounces
of mercury, will require two pounds of manna. They
mud be rubbed together upon marble dones, till they ac¬
quire a uniform confidence, which will be liquid to fuch
a degree as to pafs thro’ a hair-cloth, for feparating the
impurities of the manna. After being managed in this
manner, it mud be fpread upon a marble flab, and left
to dry there, without the affidance of fire, till it acquires
fuch a confidence as not to run off upon the table be¬
ing turned to its fide. It mud then be placed before
the fire, and at the fame time moved from one part of
the done to another, by means of a knife, furnifhed
with a large pliant blade. By this means, it is per-
fe£lly prepared for forming the pills.
The fixth and lad procefs confids in the formation
of the mafs thus prepared into pills. Thefe Mr Key¬
fer made to weigh either three grains, or a grain and
a half, the fird for robud, the lad for delicate condi-
tutions.
To this account given for the preparation of thefe
pills, Mr Keyfer has added fome reflections, by way
of fupplement. He obferves, that, by the purifica¬
tion of the mercury from didillation, a great quantity
of heterogeneous matter is feparated from it. This,
however, by no means frees it completely from all fo¬
reign matter. And, as mercury purified, upon being
calcined and diffolved in vegetable acid, is a much
more powerful medicine than mercury calcined with¬
out purification, he concludes, that repeated purifica¬
tions would render it dill more aftive.
Another remark which he gives, refpeCts the diffo¬
lution of the mercurius calcinatus in the diddled vine-
Vol. VI.
gar. He obferves, that the mercury thus diffolved
may be made to unite with running mercury, and to
form a very Angular product. He formerly mention-,
ed, that a pound of this mercurius calcinatus was to
be diffolved in eight pints of vinegar. If to this be ad¬
ded two pounds of running mercury, and the agita¬
tion continued, a fubdance will arife to the furface in
the form of cream. This being removed by the affift-
arice of a wooden fpoon, more will continue to rife as
long as the agitation is continued. The cream being
dried, and incorporated with manna, in the propor¬
tion of one part of the cream to eight of manna, forms
a very ufeful purgative, and is faid to be an effeftual
remedy againd recent venereal complaints, particularly
againd chancres.
Mr Richard concludes his account of Keyfer’s pills
with obferving, that hecondders it to be, without ex¬
ception, the mod effectual remedy for the venereal dif-
eafe hitherto difeovered. But, before entering upon
the detail, he remarks, that it is his opinion the pro¬
cefs may be much abridged, without diminilhing the
efficacy of the medicine. He judged it proper, how¬
ever, to deliver to the public the method of preparing
the pills in Mr Keyfer’s own words; and he has not
afterwards pointed cut the improvements he pro-
pofes.
KEYSLER (John George), a learned German an¬
tiquarian, was born at Thourneau, in 1689. After
dudying at the univerfity of Halle, he was appointed
preceptor to Charles Maximilian, and Chridian Charles,
the young counts of Giech Buchan ; with whom he
travelled through the chief cities of Germany, France,
and the Netherlands, gaining great reputation among
the learned as he went along, by illudrating feveral
monuments of antiquity, particularly fome fragments
of Celtic idols lately difeovered in the cathedral of Pa¬
ris. Having acquitted himfelf of this charge with
great honour, he procured, in 1716, the education of
two grandfons of Baron Berndorff fird minifter of date
to his Britannic majedy as ele&or of Brunfwick Lu¬
nenburg. However, obtaining leave, in 1718, to vj-
fit England, he was eleded a fellow of the Royal So¬
ciety for a learned effay De Dea Nehelennia numine
veterum Walachorum topico : he gave alfo an explana¬
tion of the ancient monument on Salifbury plain
called Stone-henge, with A differtation on the confecra-
ted mijletoe of the Druids. Which detached effays,
with others of the fame kind, he publilhed on his re¬
turn to Hanover, under the title of Antiquitates felec-
t.v Septentrionales et Celtic#, &c. He afterwards made
the grand tour with the young barons, and to this
tour we owe the publication of his travels; which were
tranflated into Englifli, and publidied in 1756, in
4 vols 410. Mr Keyfler, on his return, fpent the re¬
mainder of his life under the patronage of his noble
pupils, who committed their fine library and mufenm
to his care, with a handfome income. He died in 1743.
KIAM, a great river of China, which takes its rife
near the wedern frontier, erodes the whole kingdom
eadward, and falls into the bay orgulph of Nanking,
a little below that city.
K1BURG, a town of the canton of Zurich in
Switzerland, with a cadle; feated on the river Thecff,
in E. Long. 8. 50. N. Lat. 47. 20.
KIDDER (Dr Richard), a learned Englifh bi-
22 Y (hop,
Keyfler
Kidder.
K I G [ 4030 ] K I L
Kulder- fhop, was born in Suffex, and bred at Cambridge. In
minder, {je was inftalJed dean of Peterborough ; aad in
|]aria 1691, was nominated to the bifhopric of Bath and
   Wells, in the room of Dr Thomas Ken, who had been
deprived for not taking the oaths to king William and
queen Mary. He publifhed, 1. The young man’s
duty. 2. A demonltration of the Meffiah, 3 vols 8vo.
3. A commentary on the five books of Mofes, 2 vols
8vo, and feveral other pious and valuable tra&s. He
was killed, with his lady, in his bed, by the fall of a
flack of chimneys, at his houfe in Wells, during the
great ftorm in 1703. The bifhop, in the differtation
prefixed to his commentary on the five books of Mo¬
fes, having refle&ed upon Moniieur Le Clerc, fome
letters pafled between them in Latin, which are pu-
blilhed by Le Clerc in his Bibliotheque Choifte.
KIDDERMINSTER, or Keddkrminster, a
town of Worcellerfhire. It is governed by a bailiff,
12 capital burgeffes, and 24 common council-men.
It has a good free fehool, and two alms-houfes ; and
drives a confiderable trade in a manufaddure called
derminjier-fluff), and carets. It is feated under a
hill, on the river Stour, not far from the Severn ; and
is a compaft town, and well inhabited. W. Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 52. 28.
KIDNAPPING, the forcible abduftion or dealing
away of man, woman, or child, from their own coun¬
try, and fending them into another. This crime was
capital by the Jewilh law: “ He that dealeth a man
and fellcth him, or if he be found in his hand, (hall
xxh/fi furely be put to death So likewife in the civil law,
the offence of fpiriting away and dealing men and
children, which was called plagium, and the offenders
plagiarii, was punifhed with death. This i,s unque-
ftionably a very heinous crime, as it robs the king of
his fubje&s, banilhes a man from his country, and may
in its confequences be productive of the mod cruel and
difagreeable hardlhips; and therefore, the common
law of England has punifhed it with fine, imprifon-
ment, and pillory. And'alfo the datute 11 and 12
W. III. c. 7. though principally intended againd pi¬
rates, has a claufe that extends to prevent the leaving
of fuch perfons abroad as are thus kidnapped or fpi-
rited away ; by enacting, that if any captain of a
merchant-vcffel (hall (during his being abroad) force
any perfon on fhore, or wilfully leave him behind, .or
refufe to bring home all fuch men as he carried out, if
able and defirous to return, he (hall fuffer three months
imprifonment.
KIDNEYS, in anatomy. See there, n°362.
Kidney See Phaseolus.
KIEL, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Hol-
dein, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and the refi-
dence of the duke of Holdein Gottorp. It has a caftle,
and a univerfity founded in 1665 ; and there is a very
celebrated fair held here. It is feated at the bottom
of a bay of the Baltic Sea, called Killer^wick, at'the
mouth of the river Schwentin, in E. Long. 10. 17.
N. Lat. 54. 26.
KIGGELARIA, in botany, a genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the Africana. It hath
an upright woody ftem, and purplifh branches, grow-
sng 15 or 18 feet high; oblong, fawed, alternate
leaves; and dioecious, greenifti-white flowers, in du¬
ffers from the fides of the branches; fucceeded by Kilamey.
globular rough fruit, the fize of cherries, containing  
the feeds, which feldom ripen here. As this is a na¬
tive of warm climates, it muff be conftantly kept in a
(love in this country. It is propagated by. feeds, lay¬
ers, or cuttings, though moil readily by feeds.
KILARNEY, a fmall town in the county of Ker¬
ry in Ireland, which gives name to a lake, one of the
muff beautiful, perhaps, in the world. This lake, which
may not improperly be diftinguifhed into three, the
upper, lower, and middle, excepting one narrow val¬
ley on the fonth, through which a river runs into the
upper lake, is furrounded with one continued range of
lofty mountains, rocks, and precipices, the immenfe
declivities of which are covered with woods intermix¬
ed with ever-greens, from nearly their tops down to
the verge of the lakes ; add to this the number of ri¬
vulets cafcading from channels (kirted with trees of
every kind down the (ides of thefe enormous mountains,
fome of them to the height of 100 yards. Over the
lake are difperfed a great number of iflands of very dif¬
ferent extent ; and all of them of any lize, (; ne only
excepted, which is inhabited by an innumerable fight
of rabbits,) beautifully ornamented with trees of every
kind, with a molt delightful intermixture of ever¬
greens, as box, holly, yew, and' the arbutus or ftraw-
berry-tree. Hollies of a prodigious magnitude are
found here, fome of above two feet diameter in the
body of the tree. The arbutus grows i . great plen¬
ty and perfeftion on many of the iflands ; the larged
of them are about fix or feven inches in diameter, and
15 or 20 feet high. They appear in their greated
beauty and perfedlion about November. There is a
mod enchanting profpedl from fome of the furround¬
ing mountains, particularly from a very lofty one called
the Turk, becaufe its white chalky top looks like a
Turkifh turban. On the very fummit of one of the
Mangertou mountains, in the neighbourhood, is a
fmall round lake, of about a quarter of a mile diame¬
ter acrofs the top, called the devil's punch bowl. From
the furface of the lake to the top of the fides of this
vaff concavity or bowl, may be about 300 yards ; and
when viewed from the circular top, it really has a mod
allonifliing appearance. The depth of it, doubtlefs, is
vaftly great, but not, as the natives of it pretend un¬
fathomable. The difeharge of the fuperfluous waters
of this bowl, through a chafm or gap into the middle
lake, forms one of the fineff cafcadts in the world, vi-
fible for above 150 yards. The devil’s punch-bowl, aa
it is called in our maps, is by the natives in the neigh¬
bourhood termed Poulier Itifrin, that is, “ the hole
of hell.” The echoes among the hills in ihe foitthern
and more inclofed parts of the great lake, but efpe-
cially in the winding, deep, and intricate valley lead¬
ing from the lower to the upper lake, are equally de,-
Hghtful and aftonifhing. There are fome cannon pla¬
ced in the moft advantageous fituations by the lord"
Kenmare, a Roman Catholic nobleman, on purpofe
for the entertainment of travellers, who generally pro¬
vide themfelves with ammunition for loading them.
The reports, on the difeharge of thefe cannon, re-
femble the neareft of any thing in nature a moft vio¬
lent peal of thunder rolling among the mountains.
Here alfo mufical inftruments, efpecially the horn and
trumpet, afford the molt delightful and ravifhing en¬
ter- j
K I L [ 4031 ] K I L
KHafney, tertainment to the ear ; and to a fportfman nothing
Kilda. can eqUal the fpirit and elevating joy of a dag-hunt
" among the woods and mountains about the lake of Ki-
larny, where the cry of the hounds, the harmony of
the horns refounding from the hills on every fide, the
URmrtal (houts of joy along the valleys, and from the
Tides of the mountainsj re-echoing from hill to hill, and
from rock to rock, gives the higheft fatisfa&ion and
delight that can pofiibly arife from the chace. The
gentlemen who attend the hunt are generally in boats
on the lake, during the diverfion ; for to follow it by
land, either on foot or horfeback, is impra&icable.
Among the high craggy inaccefiible heights that
furround the lakes, there is one ftupendous and
frightful rock, the front of which, to the water, is
a mod horrible precipice, called the eagles nejl> from
its being feldom without a ned of them upon its
top. On the eadern fide is a rich and fertile plain
for two or three miles, through which defcends a river
into the lower lake ; and through a valley at the wed
end, the whole colle&ion of waters difcharge them-
felves into the fea. On the north-ead fide dands the
town of Kilarney, in a delightful fituation; and, in the
fummer-time, from the number of vifitors to the lake,
is a very cheerful lively town, it being as much the fa-
fhion in Ireland to vifit this lake at that feafon, as it
is elfewhere to go to drink the waters at the public
fpas, or to bathe in the fea. In the neighbourhood of
the lake are a great many feats and villas, ruins, &c.
Pearls of great value are fometimes found about the
lake ; falmon alfo are caught in great plenty and per-
feftion, and fold at the moderate price of one penny
per pound. The fifhery is the property of the earl of
Kenmare ; to whom alfo belongs a great part, if not
the whole, of the lake, with its beautiful idands. The
bowels of the peninfula, between the upper and lower
lakes, are fraught with mines of copper ; and even
filver, it is faid, hath been extra&ed from them. They
are prodigioufly deep, and have been worked a great
way under the lake.
KILDA (St), one of the Hebrides, or wedern
iflandsof Scotland. It lies in the Atlantic ocean, a-
bout 58. 30. N. Lat.; and is about three Ertglilh miles
in length from ead to wed, and its breadth from fouth
to north not lefs than two. The ground of St Kilda,
like much the greated part of that over all the High¬
lands, is much better calculated for padure than til¬
lage.—Redrained by idlenefs, a fault or vice much
more pardonable here than in any other part of Great
Britain, or difcouraged by the form of government
under which they live, the people of the ifland dudy
to rear up dieep, and to kill wild-fowl, much more
than to engage deeply in the more toilfome bufmefs
ofhuibandry. All the ground hitherto cultivated in
this idand lies round the village. The foil is thin, full
of gravel, and of confequence very rtiarp. This, tho’
naturally poor, is, however, rendered extremely fer¬
tile, by the Angular indudry of very judicious huf-
bandmen : thefe prepare and manure every inch of
their ground, fo as to convert it into a kind of gar¬
den. All the indruments of agriculture they ufe, or
indeed require, according to their fydem, are a fpade,
a mall, and a rake or harrow. After turning up the
ground with a fpade, they rake or harrow it very care¬
fully, removing every fmall done, every noxious root Kilda.
or growing weed that falls in their way, and pound*”
down every diff clod into dud. It is certain that a
fmall number of acres well prepared in St Kilda, in
this manner, will yield more profit to the huibandman
than a much greater number when roughly handled in
a hurry, as is the cafe in the other Wedern ides. The
people of St Kilda fow and reap much earlier than any
of their neighbours on the wedern coad ofScotland. The
heat of the fun, reflected from the hills and rocks in¬
to a low valley facing the fouth-ead, mud, in the fum¬
mer-time, be quite intenfe; and however rainy the
climate is, the corn mud, for thefe reafons, grow ve¬
ry fad, and ripen early.
The harved is commonly over at this place before
the beginning of September; and fhould it fall out
otherwife, the whole crop would be almod dedroyed
by the equino&ial dorms. All the idanders on the
wedern coad have great reafon to dread the fury of
autumnal tempeds : thefe, together with the exceffive
quantities of rain they have, generally, throughout
feven or eight months of the year, are undoubtedly
the mod difadvantageous and unhappy circumdances
of their lives.
Barley and oats are the only forts of grain known
at St Kilda ; nor does it feem calculated for any other.
Fifty bolls of the former, old highland meafure, are
every year brought from thence to Harris ; and all the
wedern idands hardly produce any thing fo good of
the kind. Potatoes have been introduced among that
people only of late, and hitherto they have railed but
fmall quantities of them. The only appearance of a
garden in this whole land, fo the natives call their
principal idand in their own language, is no more
than a very inconfiderable piece of ground, which is
inclofed, and planted with fome cabbages. On the
ead fide of the idand, at the didance of a quarter of
a mile from the bay, lies the village, where the whole
body of this little people (the number amounting in
1764 to no more than 88) live together like the inha¬
bitants of a town or city. It is certain that the inha¬
bitants were much more numerous formerly than at
prefent; and the idand, if under proper regulations,
might eafily fupport 300 fouls. Martin, who vifited
it about the end of the lad century, found 180 per-
fons there; but about the year 1730, one of the peo¬
ple coming to the idand of Harris, was feized with
the fmall-pox and died. Unluckily his clothes were
carried away by one of his relations next year; and thus
was the infe&ion communicated, which made fuch ha-
vock, that only four grown perfons were left alive. Their
houfes are built in two rows, regular, and facing one
another; with a tolerable caufeway in the middle, which
they call the Jlreet. Thefe habitations are made and
contrived in a very uncommon manner. Every one of
them is fiat in the roof, or nearly fo, much like the
houfes of fome oriental nations. That from any one
of thefe the St Kildians have borrowed their manner
of building, no man of fenfe will entertain a fufpicion.
They have been taught this leflbn by their own reafon, N
improved by experience. The place in which their
lot has fallen, is peculiarly fubj‘& to violent fqualls
and furious hurricanes: were their houfes raifed higher
than at prefent, they believe the firft winter-dorm
22 Y 2 would
K I L [ 4032 ] K I L
Jvihla. would bring tber^ down about their ears. For this
 reafon,.the precaution they take in giving, them roofs
much flatter than ordinary, feems to be not altogether
unneceffary. The walls of thefe habitations are made
of a rough gritty kind of ftones, huddled up together
in hafte, without either lime or mortar, from eight
to nine feet high. In the heart of the walls are the
beds, which are overlaid with flags, and large enough
to contain three perfons. In the fide of every bed is
an opening, by way of door, which is much too nar¬
row and low to anfwer that purpofe. All their
dwelling-houfes are divided into two apartments by
partition-walls. In the divifion next the door, which
is much the largeft, they have their cattle flailed du¬
ring the whole winter-feafon ; the other fervts for
kitchen, hall, and bed room.
It will be readily expeded, that a race of men and
women, bred in St Kilda, muft be a very flovenly ge¬
neration, and every way inelegant. It is indeed im-
poffible to defend them from this imputation. Their
method of preparing a fort of manure, to them indeed
ofvaft ufe, proves that th,ey are very indelicate. Af¬
ter having burnt a confiderable quantity of dried turf,
they fpread the allies with the nicefl care over the floor
©f that apartment in which they eat and flcep. Thefe
afhes, fo exadly laid out, they cover with a rich
friable fort of earth ; over this bed of earth they fcat-
ter a proportionable heap of that dull into which peats
are apt to crumble away : this done, they water, tread,
and beat the whole compoft into a hard floor, on which
they immediately make new fires very large, and ne¬
ver extinguilhed till they have a fufficient flock of new
allies on hand. The fame operations are repeated with
a never-failing punfluality, till they are juit ready to
fow their barley ; by that time the walls of their hoti-
fes arc funk down, or, to fpeak more properly, the
floors rifen, about four or five feet.
To have room enough for accumulating heaps of
this compoft one above another, the ancient St Kil-
dians had ingenuity enough to contrive their beds
within the linings of their walls ; and it was for the
fame reafon they took care to raife thefe walls to an
height far from being common in the other weftern
iflands. The manure produced in this way mult un¬
doubtedly be good, though probably rather lharp than
of long duration, as it is fcattered in fmall quantities
upon the furface of the ground. Be that as it will,
thofe who praiffife this art are abundantly lavilh in its
praifes. They call it a commodity inejlimablyprecious ;
and one may venture to affirm, that a genuine St Kil-
dian would fcruple to barter it away for all the dia¬
monds in Brafil and Golconda.
It is certain that cleanlinefs muft contribute greatly
to health, and of courfe longevity ; but in fpite of that
inftance of indelicacy now given, and many more
which might have been added, the people of this
ifland are not more fhort lived than other men. Their
total want of thofe articles of luxury, which have fo
natural a tendency to deilroy the conflitution of the
human body, and their moderate exercifes, will, to-
gether with fome other circumftances, keep the ba-
mce of life equal enough between them and thofe who
are abfoiute Itrangers to flovenlintfs.
Befides the dwelling-houfes already deferibed, there
are a prodigious number of little cells, difperfed over
all the ifland ; which confift entirely of ftones, without Kilda.
any the fmalleft help of timber. Thefe cells are from  
twelve to eighteen feet in length, and a little more
than feven in height. Their breadth at the founda¬
tion is nearly equal to the height. Every (tone hangs
above that immediately below, not perpendicularly,
but inclines forward, fo as to be nearer the oppofite
fide of the grotto, and thus by imperceptible degrees
till the two higheft courles are near enough to be co¬
vered by a Angle flag at the top. To hinder the rain
from falling down between the interftices above, the
upper part ot the building is overlaid with turf, which
looks like a fine greenfward while new. The inhabi¬
tants fecure their peats, eggs, and wild-fowl, within
thefe fmall repolitorus : every St Kildian has his ffiare
of them, in proportion to the extent of land he pof.
fefles, or the rent he pays to the fteward. From the
conftrutlion of thefe cells, and the toil they mult have
coll before they could have been finifhed, it ieems
plain, that thofe who put them together, were, if not
more ingenious than their neighbours in the adjacent
iflands, at leaft more induftnous than their own fuc-
ceflbrs.
The St Kilda method of catching wild-fowl is very
entertaining. The men are divided into fowling-par¬
ties, each of which confilts generally of four perlons
diltinguilhcd by their agility and fltill. Each party
mutt have at lealt one rope about thirty fathoms long;
this rope is made out of a Itrong raw cow-hide, faked
for that very purpofe, and cut circularly into three
thongs, all ol equal length ; thefe thongs being clofe-
ly twilled together, form a three-fold cord, able to
luflain a great weight, and durable enough to latk for
about two generations: to prevent the injuries it would
otherwife receive from the fharp edges of the rocks,
again It which they muft frequently flrike, the cord is
lined with Iheep-fkins, drefled in much the fame man¬
ner.
d his rope is a piece of furniture indifpenfably ne-
ceffary, and the molt valuable implement a man of
fubltance can be polfeffcd of in St Kilda. In the te-
ftament of a father, it makes the very firft article in
favour of his eldelt fon : fhould it happen to fall to a
daughter’s lhare, in default of male heirs, it is reckon¬
ed equal in value to the two belt cows in the ifland.
By the help of Inch ropes, the people of the great-
eft prowels and experience here traverl'c and examine
rocks prodigioufly high. Einked together in couples,
each having either end of the cord faltened about his
wailt, they go frequently through the moil dreadful
precipices : when one of the two defeends, his col¬
league plants himfeif on a ftrong flielf, and takes care
to have inch fure footing there, that if his ft!low-ad-
venturer makes a falfe Itep, and tumbles over, he may
be ab e to lave him.
The following anecdote of the prefent fteward of St
Kdda’s deputy, will give the reader a Ipecimen of the
dangers they undergo, and, at the fame time, of the
uncommon flrength of the St Kildians. This man,
Obfcrving his colleague'lofe his hold, and tumbling
down from above, placed himfeif fo firmly upon the
flielf'where he flood, that he fullained the weight of
his'friend, after falling the whole length of the rope.
Undoubtedly thefe are ftupendous adventures, and
equal to any thing in the feats of chivalry. Mr Mac¬
aulay
K I L [ 4033 ] K I L
Kildare aulay gives an Inftance of the dexterity of the inhabi-
I! tants of St Kilda in catching wild-fowl, to which he
Kilkenny. was an eyC.witnefs. Two noted heroes were drawn
out from among all the ableit men of the community :
one of them fixed himfelf on a craggy fhelf; his com¬
panion went down fixty fathoms below him ; and af¬
ter having darted himfelf away from the face of a mod
alarming precipice, having over the ocean, he began
to play his gambols; he fung merrily, and laughed
very heartily: after having performed feveral antic
tricks, and given all the entertainment his art could
afford, he returned in triumph, and full of his own
merit, with a large firing of fowls about his neck,
and a number of eggs in his bofom. This method of
fowling refembles that of the Norwegians, as deferi-
bed by bifhop Pontoppidan.
KILDARE, a town of Ireland, and capital of a
county of the fame name, with a bifhop's fee, and the
title of an earldom. W. Long. 7.0. N. Lat. 53. 10.
Kildare, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leintter, which is 37 miles in length, and 24 in breadth;
and is bounded on the eaft by Dublin and Wicklow,
on the weft by King and Queen’s county, on the
north by Eaft-Meath, and on the fouth by Cather-
logh. It is a rich plentiful country, and the capital
town is of the fame name. It contains near 9000 houfes,
too parities, 10 baronies, and four boroughs. It fends
10 members to parliament.
KILDERKIN, a liquid meafure, containing two
firkins.
KILIANUS (Cornelius), a native of Brabant, di-
ftinguifhtd himfelf as an excellent correftor of the prefs
at the printing-hoofe of Piantin for 50 jears. He
likewife wrote feveral books which are efteemed. His
apology for correflors againft authors, an epigram of
18 verfes, is a proof of his abilities in Latin poetry.
KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinfter, bounded on the fouth by the county of
Waterford, on the north by the Queen’s county ; on
the weft by the county of Tipperary, on the eaft by
the counties of Wexford and Catherlogh, and on the
north-weft by Upper Offory. The greateft length of
this country from north to fouth is 40 milts, the
breadth from eaft to weft 20 ; and it contains 10 ba¬
ronies. It is one of the moft healthful, pleafant, and
populous counties of Ireland. The members fent by
it to parliament are 16, viz. two for the county, two
for Kilkenny, and two a-piece for Irifti-town, or St
Kennis, Gowran, Thomaftown, Callan, Inniftiock,
and Knocktopher. This county is divided,,as it were,
into two parts, by the river Neor or Nura, which has
its fource in thofe lofty mountains called the Slieu-
bloom or Blandinckilh.
Kilkenny, the capital of a county of the fame name,
in Ireland, fituated in W. Long. 7. 15. N. Lat. 52. 30.
takes its name from the cell or church of Canic, who
was an eminent hermit in this country. It is the feat
of the biftiop of Offory, which was tranflated from A-
gabo, in Offory,(about the end of Henry lid’s reign,
by bifhop O’Dullany. The city is divided into the
Englifh and Irifti towns. The Englifh town is much
the newer and moft confiderable; the other, (which is
alfo called St Kenny's or Conic's, from the cathedral de¬
dicated to that faint, , which (lands upon an eminence
(where there is a moft delightful profpedl), being only
a kind of fuburbs. Both together make one. of the Kilkenny,
larged, moft wealthy, populous, and trading towns in “
the kingdom. Here are barracks for a troop of horfe
and four companies of foot; and a well endowed free-
fchool, called the college. The fupreme council of the
rebels under the pope’s nuncio fat at Kilkenny during
the time of the general maffacre. The city is pleafant-
ly fituated on the Neor, a navigable river that difeharges
itfelf into the harbour ®f Waterford. It is faid of Kil¬
kenny, that its air is without fog, its water without
mud, its fire without fmoke, and its ftreets paved with
marble. The two latter are, indeed, matter of fadt;
for they have, in the neighbourhood, a kind of coal,
that burns from firft to laft without fmoke, and pretty
much refembles the WeKh coal. Moft of the ftreets
alfo are adlually paved with a very good fort of black
marble, of which they have large quarries near the
town, which takes a fine polilh, and is beautifully in¬
termixed with white granite. The air too is good
and healthy, though not remarkably clearer than in
many other parts of the kingdom. Here is the ancient
feat of the Ormond family, which is an ornament to
the city ; and the neighbouring country is well culti¬
vated and very fertile.
About two miles from this city, in the neighbour¬
hood of the park-houfe of Donmore, formerly occu¬
pied by the duke of Ormond, are a number of caves
as curious, perhaps, as any mentioned in hiftory, ex¬
cept thofe of An riPAROs in the Archipelago : we (hall
prefent the reader with a defeription of them taken on
the fpot, by an ingenious gentleman of Dublin. “ Af¬
ter a difficult defeent of about too feet, the entrance
into this fubterranean world is gained. The appear¬
ance of the firft cavern is uncommonly awful; and gives
rife to an idea of a Gothic ftru&ure, grand in ruin.
The folemnity of this place is not a little increafed by
the gaiety of thofe feenes that prefent themfelves on
every fide previous to our entering it. The floor is
uneven, and Hones of various fizes are promifeuoufly
difperfed upon it. The (ides are compofed of ragged
work ; in fome parts covered with mofs, and in others
curioufly frofted ; and from the roof, which is a kind
of arch, feveral huge rocks projeft beyond each other,
that feem to threaten inllant ruin. The circumference
of this cave is not lefs than 2CO feet, and its height
about 59. Here, is a fmall but continual dropping of
water from the ceiling, and a few petrifa&ions refem-
bling icicles. This place has its inhabitants; for im¬
mediately on entering into it, you are furprifed with a
confufed noife, which is-occafioned by a multitude of
wild pigeons. Hence there is a paffage towards the
left, where, by a fmall afeent, a kind of hole is gained, ,
like to, but larger than, the mouth of an oven, which
introduces to a place, where, by the help of candles,
day-light being entirely excluded, a broken and fur-
prifing feene of monftrotis ftones, heaped on each other,
chequered with various colours, inequality of rocksover-
head, and an infinity of ftaladical ftones, prefents it¬
felf. It would be matter of much difficulty, or rather
impraflicable, to walk over this apartment, had not
nature, as if ftudious for the fafety of the curious,
caufed forts of branches to (hoot from the furface of
the rocks, which are remarkably fmooth, very unequal,
and always damp. Thefe branches are from four to
fix inches in length, and nearly as thick. They are
ufeful
K I L [ 4034 ] K I L
Kilkenny, ufeful ;n the fummits of the rocks to prevent flipping;
Killivrknkie anf} jn p1(jes are ladder whereby to defcend and
afcend with tolerable facility. This altoniftnng amfrac-
tuous paflage leads to a place far more curious than any
of the reft. On entering into it, one is almoft induced
to believe himfelf fituated in an ancient temple, deco¬
rated with all the expence of art; yet, notwithftand-
ing the beauty and fplendor that catches the eye on
every fide, there is fomething of folemnity in the fa-
fliion of the place, which muft be felt by the moft or¬
dinary fpeftator. The floor in feme parts is covered
with a cryftalline fubftance; the fides in many places
are incrufted with the fame, wrought in a mode not
unlike the Gothic ftyle of ornament; and the top is al¬
moft entirely covered with inverted pyramids of the
like elegantly white and lucid matter. At the points
of thefe ftaladtical ftreets are perpetually hanging
drops of pellucid water; for when one falls, another
■fucceeds. Thefe pendent gems contribute not a little
to^the glory of the roof, which, when the place is pro¬
perly illuminated, appears as if formed of the pureft
cryftal. Here are three extraordinary and beautiful
congelations, which, without the aid of a ftrong ima¬
gination, may be taken for an organ, altar, and crofs.
The former, except when ftriftly examined, appears to
be a regular work of art, and is of a confiderable fize;
the fecond is of a fimple form, rather long than fquare;
and the third reaches from the floor to the roof, which
muft be about 20 feet. Thefe curious figures are owing
to water that falls from the upper parts of the cave to
the ground, which coagulated into (tone from time to
time, until at length it acquired thofe forms which are
now fo pleafing ; or to an exfudation or exftillation of
petrifying juices out of the earth ; or perhaps they
partake of the nature of fpar, which is a kind of rock-
plant. The former feems to be the moft probable fup-
pofition ; as thefe figures, in colour and confidence,
appear exaftly like the icicles on the top, which are
only feen from the wet parts of the caverns ; and in
this place there is a greater oozing of water, and a
much larger number of petrifa&ions, than in any other.
When this curious apartment has been fufflciently ex¬
amined, the guides lead you for a confiderable way
through winding places, until a glimmering light a-
greeably furprifes. Here the journey of above a quar¬
ter of a mile, through thofe parts, is ended: but, upon
returning ipto the firft cavern, the entrance into other
apartments, lefs curious indeed, but as extenfive as thofe
we have deferibed, offers itfelf. The paflages into fome
of thofe are fo very low, that there is a neceflity of
creeping'f hrough them: by thefe we proceed until the
noife of a fubterranean river is heard, but farther none
have ventured.
KILLICRANKIE, a noted pafs of Argylefliire,
in the Highlands of Scotland. It is formed by the
lofty mountains impending over the water of Garrie,
which rufties through in a deep, darkfome, and horrid
channel beneath. In the laft century this was a pafs
of much danger and difficulty; a path hanging over
a tremendous precipice threaiened deftru&ion to the
leaft falfe ftep of the traveller: at prefent a fine road
formed by the foldiery lent by government, and en¬
couraged by an additional .6d. per day, gives an eafy
accefs to the remote Highlands; and the two Tides are
joined by a fine arch.
Near the north end of this pafs in its open and un- Killlcrank
improved ftate was fought, in the year 1689, the battle K-ll'i|gr&w
of Killicranky, between the adherents of James II. un¬
der Vifcount Dundee, and of William III. under ge¬
neral Mackay. Dundee’s army was very much infe¬
rior to that of Mackay’s. When he came in fight of
the latter, he found them formed in eight battalions,
ready for adtion. They contifted of 4500 foot, and
two troops of horfe. The Highlanders, under Dun¬
dee, amounted to little more than half that numberi
Thefe he ranged inftantly in order of battle. Maclean,
with his tribe, formed the right wing. The Macdon¬
alds of Sky, under their chieftain’s eldeft fon, formed
the left. The Camerons, the Macdonalds of Glengary,
the followers of Clanronald, and a few Irifti auxiliaries,
were in the centre. A troop of horfe were placed be¬
hind, under Sir William Wallace. The officers fent
by James from Ireland were diftributed through all the
line. His whole army flood in fight of the enemy for
feveral hours on the fteep fide of a hill, which faced
the narrow plain where Mackay had formed his line.
Dundee wiffied for the approach of night; a feafon
fuited for either vidtory or flight.
At five of the clock in the afternoon, a kind of flight
Ikirmilh began between the right wing of the High¬
landers and the left of the enemy. But neither army
wifhing to change their ground, the firing was difeon-
tinued for three hours. Dundee, in the mean time,
flew from tribe to tribe, and animated them to aftion.
At eight of the clock he gave the fignal for battle; and
charged the enemy in petfon, at the head of the horfe.
The Highlanders, in deep columns, ruftied fuddenly
down the hill. They kept their fhot till they were
within a pike’s length of the enemy ; and, having fired
their mufkets, fell upon them fword in hand. Mackay’s
left wing could not for a moment fuftain the (hock.
They were driven by the Macleans with great flaugh-
ter from the field. The Macdonalds, on the left of
the Highlanders, were not equally fuccefsful. Colonel
Hafting’s regiment of foot flood their ground. They
even forced the Macdonalds to retreat. Maclean, with
a few of his tribe, and Sir Evan Cameron at the head
of his clan, fell fuddenly on the flank of this gallant
regiment, and forced them to give way. The flaugh-
ter ended not with the battle. Two thoufand fell in
the field and the flight. The tents, baggage, artillery,
and provifions of the enemy, and even king William’s
Dutch ftandard, which was carried by Mackay’s regi¬
ment, fell into the hands of the Highlanders. The
viftory was now complete. But the Highlanders loft
their gallant leader. Perceiving the unexpected refin¬
ance of Colonel Hafting’s regiment, and the confufion
of the Macdonalds, Dundee rode rapidly to the left
wing. As he was raifing his arm, and pointing to the
Camerons to advance, he received a ball in his fide.
The wound proved mortal, and with Dundee fell all
the hopes of king James at that time.
KILLIGREW (William), eldeft fon of Sir Ro¬
bert Killigrew knight, was born in 1605. He was
gentleman-uftier of the privy-chamber to king Char. I.
and,on the reftoration, to Charles II. When the lat¬
ter married the princefs Catharine of Portugal, he was
created vice-charaberlain; in which ftation he continued
22 years, and died in 1693. He was the author of
four plays, which, though now thrown afide, were
much
Killigrew
K I L [ 4035 ] KIN
^ much applauded by the poets of that time, particular¬
ly by Mr Waller ; and in the decline of life he pub-
lilhed fome pious reflexions on the inftabiiity of hu¬
man happinefs, when our views are not direXed to a
future ftate.
Kill 1 grew (Thomas), brother of the former, was
born in 1611; and, in procefs of time, diftinguiihed
himfelf by his uncommon natural parts. He was
page of honour to king Charles I. and groom of the
bed-chamber to Charles II. with whom he fullered
many years exile ; during which he applied his leifure
hours to the ftudy of poetry, and to the compofition
of feveral plays. After the reftoration, he continued
in high favour with the king, and had frequently ac-
cefs to him when he was denied to the firft peers in the
realm ; and being a man of great wit and iivtlinefsof
parts, and having from his long intimacy with that
monarch, and being continually about his perfon du¬
ring his troubles, acquired a freedom and familiarity
with him, ^vhich even the pomp of majelty afterwards
could not check in him, he fometimes, by way ofjtft,
which king Charles was ever fond of, if genuine, even
though himlelf was. the objeX of the fatire, would ad¬
venture bold truths which fcarcely any one befides
would have dared even to hint at. One ftory in par¬
ticular is related of him, which, if true, is a ftrong
proof of the great lengths he would fometimes proceed
in his freedoms of this kjnd, which is as follows : —
When the king’s unbounded paffion for women had gi¬
ven his miftrefs fuch an afcendant over him, that, like
the effeminate Perfian monarch, he was much'fitter to
have handled a dilfaff than to wield a fceptre, and for
the converfation of his concubines utterly negleXed
the moft important affairs of date, Mr Killigrew went
to pay his Majefty a vifit in his private apartments,
habited like a pilgrim who was bent on a long journey.
The king, furprifed at the oddity of his appearance,
immediately afked him what was the meaning of it,
and whither he was going? “ To hell,” bluntly re¬
plied the wag. “ Prithee, (faid the king), what can
your errand be to that place?” “ To fetch back Oli-
verCrotnwell, (rejoined he), that he may take fome care
of the affairs of England, for his fuccefTor takes none at
all.” One more flory is related of him, which is not
barren of humour. King Charles’s fondnefs for plea-
furt, to which he almoft always made bufiuefs give way,
ufed frequently to delay affairs of confequence from his
majcfty s difappointing the council of his prefence when
met for the difpatch of bufjnefs, which negleX gave
great difguft and.offence to many of thofe who were
treated with this feeming difrefptX. On one of thefe
occafiohs the duke of Lauderdale, who was naturally
impetuous and turbulent, quitted the council-chamber
in a violent paflion ; and, meeting Mr Killigrew pre-
fently after, expreffed himftlf on the occafion in very
difrefpeXful terms of his majelty. Kdligtew begged
his.grace to moderate his paffion, and offered to lay
him a wager of tool, that he himfelf would prevail on
his majefty to come to council in half an hour. The
duke, furprized at the boldnefs of the affertion, and
warmed by his refentnunt againft the king, accepted
the wager ; on which Killigrew immediately went to
the king, and, without ceremony, told him what had
happened $ adding thefe words, “ I know that your
majefty hates Lauderdale, though the neceffity of your
affairs compels you to carry an outward appearance of
civility: now, if you choofe to get rid of a man who
is thus difagreeable to you, you need only go this once
to council; for I know his covetous difpofition fo per-
feXly, that I am well perfuaded, rather than pay this
hundred pounds, he would hang himfelf out of the way,
and never plague you more.” The king was fo pleafed
with the archnefs of this obfervation, that he immedi¬
ately replied, “ Well then, Killigrew, I pofitively will
•go;” and kept his word accordingly.—Killigrew died
in 1682, and was buried in Weftminfter-ahbey.
Killigrew (Anne), “ a Grace for beauty, and
a Mufe for wit,’ as Mr Wood fays, was the daughter
of Dr Henry Killigrew, brother of the two foregoing,
and was born a little before the reftoration. She
gave early indications of genius, and became eminent
in the arts both of poetry and painting. She drew
the duke of York, and his duchefs to whom fhe was
ipaid of honour, as well as feveral other portraits and
hiftory-pieces; and crowned all her other accomplilh-
ments with unblemifhed virtue and exemplary piety.
Mr Dryden feems quite lavilh in her praife, though
Wood affures us he has faid no more of her than (he
was equal if not fuperior to. This amiable young
woman died of the fmall-pox in 1685, and the year
after her poems were publifhed in a thin 410 volume.
KILMARNOCK, a populous and flouriftiing town
of Ayrlhire in Scotland, famous for its manufaXure
of broad cloth and hardware. It gave the title of
earl to the noble family of Boyd, refiding in this neigh¬
bourhood. This title was forfeited by the late earl,
who, by engaging in the' rebellion of 1745, was de¬
prived of his honours, and loft his life on the feaffold.
His fon, however, who ferved in the king’s army,
afterwards fucceeded to the earldom of .Errol, a title
much mure ancient and honourable.
KIMBOLTON, a town of Huntingdonftiire, feated
in a bottom; and noted for the caftle of Kimbolton,
the feat of the duke of Manchefter. W. Long. o. 1 c,
N. Lat. 52. 18.
KIMCHI (David), a Jewifh rabbi, famous asa com¬
mentator on the Old Teftament, lived at the clofe
of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. He
was a Spaniard by birth, fon of rabbi Jofeph Kimchi,
and brother of rabbi Mofes Kimchi, both men of
eminent learning among the J< ws : but he exceeded^
them both, being the beft Hebrew grammarian the
Jews ever had. He wrote a Grammar and DiXion-
ary of that language; out of the former of which
Buxtorf made ITis Thefaurus lingua Hebrex, and his
Lexicon lingux Hebrex out of the latter. His wri¬
tings have been held in fuch eftimation among the
Jews, that no one can arrive at .any reputation in
letters and theology without ftudying them.
KINDRED* in law, perfons related to one ano¬
ther, whereof the law reckons, three degrees or lines,
viz. the defcending, afcertding, and collateral line.
See Consanguinity and Descent.
Oi* there being no kindred in the defcending line,
the inheritance paffes in the collateral one.
KING, in the general acceptation of the. word, is
a perfon who has a fnpreme authority, with the power
of levying taxes, making laws, and enforcing an obe¬
dience
Killigrew
II
King.
KIN [ 3036 ] KIN
King, dience to them : but in Britain, which is a limited
monarchy, the power of the king is greatly reftrained;
which is fo far from diminifhing his honour, that it
adds a glory to his crown ; for while other kings are
abfolute monarchs over innumerable multitudes of
flaves, the king of Britain has the diftinguifhed glory
of governing a free people, the leaft of whom is pro-
tefted by the laws : he has great prerogatives, and a
Ijoundlefs power in doing good ; and is at the fame
time only reftrained from afting inconfiftently with
his own happinefs, and that of his people.
To underhand the royal rights and authority, we
muft confider the king under fix diftinft views, x. With
regard to his title. 2. His royal family. 3. His
councils. -4. His duties. 5. His prerogative. 6. His
revenue.
I. His title. For this, fee Hereditary Right,
and Succession.
IT. His royal family. See Royal Family.
III. His councils. See Council.
IV. His duties. By our conftitution, there are
certain duties incumbent on the king; in confidera-
tiohof which, his dignity and prerogative are eftabliihed
by the laws of the land : it being a maxim in the law,
that protedtion and fubjedtion are reciprocal. And
thefe reciprocal duties are what Sir William Black-
ftone apprehends were meant by the convention in
1688, when they declared that king James had broken
the original contradf between king and people. But
however, as the terms of that original contradl were
in fome meafure difputed, being alleged to exift prin¬
cipally in theory, and to be only deducible by reafon
and the rules of natural law, in which dedudtion dif¬
ferent underftandings might very confiderably differ ;
it was, after the revolution, judged proper to declare
thefe duties exprefsly, and to reduce that contradt to
a plain certainty. So that, whatever doubts might
be formerly raifed by weak and fcrupulous minds
about the exiftence of fuch an original contradf, they
muft now entirely ceafe; efpecially with regard to
every prince who hath reigned fince the year 1688.
The principal duty of the king is, To govern his
people according to law. Nec regibus infinita aut li¬
bera potejlas, was the conftitution of our German an-
ceftors on the continent. And this is not only con-
fonant to the principles of nature, of liberty, of rea-
ion, and of fociety ; but has always been efteemed an
exprefs part of the common law of England, even
when prerogative was at the higheft, “ The king,”
faith Brafton, who wrote under Henry III. “ ought
not to be fubjedf to man ; but to God, and to the law:
for the law maketh the king. Let the king there¬
fore render to the law, what the law has invefted
in him with regard* to others ; dominion, and power:
for he is not truly king, where will and pleafure rules,
and not the law.” And again : “ The king hath a
fuperior, namely God; and alfo the law, by which he
was made a king.” Thus Bratton : and Fortefcue
.alfo, having firft well diftinguiftied between a mo¬
narchy abfolutely and defpotically regal, which is in¬
troduced by conqueft and violence, and a political or
civil monarchy, which arifes from mutual confent,
(of which laft fpecks he afferta the government of
England to be), immediatelylaysit|down as a principle,
that “ the king of England muft rule his people ac¬
cording to the decrees of the laws thereof; infomuch ICing,
that he is bound by an oath at his coronation to the  "  
obfervance and keeping of his own laws.” But to
obviate all doubts and difficulties concerning this mat¬
ter, it is exprefsly declared by ftatute 12 & 13 W. III.
c. 2. “ that the laws of England are the birthright
of the people thereof ; and all the kings and queens
who (hall afeend the throne of this realm ought to ad-
minifter the government of the fame according to the
the faid laws, and all their officers and miuifters ought
to ferve them refpe&ively according to the fame : and
therefore all the other laws and ftatutes of this realm,
for fecuring the eftabliftied religion, and the rights
and liberties of the people thereof, and all other laws
and ftatutes of the fame now in force, are by his
majefty, by and with the advice and confent of the
lords fpiritual and temporal, and commons, and by 1
authority of the fame, ratified and confirmed accord-
ingiy”
And, as to the terms of the original contradl be¬
tween king and people, thefe, it is apprehended, are
now couched in the coronation-oath, which by the
ftatutc 1 W. & M. ft. 1. c. 6. is to be admiuiftered
to every king and queen who (hall fucceed to the im¬
perial crown of thefe realms, by one of the archbifhops
or bifhops of the realm, in the prefence of all the
people; who on their parts do reciprocally take the
oath of allegiance to the crown. This coronation-
oath is conceived in the following terms.
“ ’The archbijhop or bijbop Jhall fay. Will you fo-
lemnly promife and fwear to govern the people of this
kingdom of Britain, and the dominions thereto be¬
longing, according to the ftatutes in parliament a-
greed, and the laws and cuftoma of the fame ?—.
The king or queen Jball fay, I folemnly promife fo
to do.
“ j4rchbifl)op or bifoop. Will you to your power
caufe law and juflice, in mercy, to be executed in all
your judgments ?—King or queen. I will.
“ Archbifhop orbifhop. Will you to the utmoft of
your power maintain the laws of God, the true profef-
fion of the gofpel, and the Proteftant reformed reli¬
gion eftablifhed by the law ? And will you preferve
unto the bifhops and clergy of this realm, and to the
churches committed to their charge, all fuch rights
and privileges as by law do or (hall appertain unto
them, or any of them ?—King or queen. All this I
promife to do.'
“ -After this the king or queen, laying his or her
hand upon the holy gofpel, Jhall fay. The things which I
have here before promifed, I will perform and keep :
fo help me God. And then fhall kifs the book.*’
This is the form of the coronation-oath, as it is now
preferibed by our laws ; the principal articles of which
appear to be at leaft as ancient as the mirror of jufti-
ces, and even as the time of Brafton : but the word¬
ing of it was changed at the revolution, becaufe (as
the ftatute alleges) the oath itfelf had been framed in
doubtful words and expreffions, with relation to an¬
cient laws and conftitutions at this time unknown.
However, in what form foever it be conceived, this is
moft indifputably a fundamental and original exprefs
contradt ; though, doubtlefs, the duty of protection
is impliedly as much incumbent on the fovereign be¬
fore coronation as after: in the fame manner as alle¬
giance,
KIN [ 4037 ] KIN
King, glance to the king becomes the duty of the fubjeft im*
   mediately on the defcent of the crown, before he has
taken the oath of allegiance, or whether he ever takes
it at all. This reciprocal duty of the fubjeft will be
confidered in its proper place. At prefent we are on¬
ly to obferve, that in the king’s part of this original
contraft are exprefled all the duties which a monarch
can owe to his people, viz. to govern according to
law; to execute judgment in mercy; and to maintain
the eftablifhed religion. And, with refpedt to the lat¬
ter of thefe three branches, we may farther remark,
that by the ad of union, 5 Ann. c. 8. two preceding
ftatutes are reeited and confirmed ; the one of the par¬
liament of Scotland, the other of the parliament of
England: which enad ; the former, that every king
at his acceflion fliall take and fubfcribe an oath, to
preferve the Proteftant religion, and prelbyterian
church-government in Scotland ; the latter, that at his
coronation he (hall take and fubfcribe a fimilar oath, to
preferve the fettlement of the church of England, with¬
in England, Ireland, Wales, and Berwick, and the
territories thereunto belonging.
V. His prerogative. See Prerogative.
VI. His revenue. See Revenue.
Having in the preceding articles chalked out all the
principal outlines of this vail title of the law, the fu-
preme executive magifti ate, or the king’s majefty, con¬
fidered in his feveral capacities and points of view ; it
may not be improper to take a fhort comparative review
of the power of the executive magiftrate, or preroga¬
tive of the crown, as it flood in former days, and as it
Hands at prefent. And we cannot but obferve, that
mod of the laws for afcertaining, limiting, and re-
flraining this prerogative have been made within the
compafs of little more than a century pad ; from the
petition of right in 3 Car. I. to the prefent time. So
that the powers of the crown are now to all appearance
greatly curtailed and diminifhed fmce the reign of
king James I. particularly by the abolition of the ftar-
chamber and high-eommiffion courts in the reign of
Charles I. and by-the difclaining of martial law, and
the power of levying taxes on the fubjeft, by the fame
prince s by the difufe of foreft-laws for a century pall :
and by the many excellent provifions enadled under
Charles II.; efpecially the abolition of military te¬
nures, purveyance, and pre-emption ; the habeas cor¬
pus a& ; and the adl to prevent the difcontinuance of
parliaments for above three years : and, fince the re¬
volution, by the ftrong and emphatical words in which
our liberties are aflerted in the bill of rights, and aft
of fettlement; by the aft for triennial, fince turned in¬
to feptennial, ele&ions ; by the exclufionof certain of¬
ficers from the houfeof commons; by rendering the feats
of the judges permanent, and their falaries independent;
and by retraining the king’s pardon from obllru&ing
parliamentary impeachments. Befides all this, if we
confider how the crown is impoverilhed and dripped of
all its ancient revenues, fo that it greatly depends on
the liberality of parliament for its neceffary fupport
and maintenance, we may perhaps be led to think,
that the balance is inclined pretty ftrongly to the po¬
pular fcale, and that the executive magiilrate has nei¬
ther independence nor power enough left, to form that
check upon the lords and commons which the foun¬
ders of our conftitution intended.
VouVI.
But, on the other hand, it is to be confidered, that King,
every prince, in the firtt parliament after his accefiion,
has by long ufage a truly royal addition to his heredi¬
tary revenue fettled upon him for his life ; and has ne¬
ver any occafion to apply to parliament for fupplits,
but upon fome public neceflity of the whole realm.
This reftores to him that conftitutional independence,
which at his firft acceffion feems, it mud be owned, to
be wanting. And then, with regard to power, we
may find perhaps that the hands of government are
at lead fufficiently drengthened ; and that a Britifli
monarch is now in no danger of being overborne by
either the nobility or the people. The indruments of
power are not perhaps fo open and avowed as they for¬
merly were, and therefore are the lefs liable tojealous
and invidious refletdions ; but they are not the weaker
upon that account. In (hort, our national debt and
taxes (befides the inconveniencies beforementioned),
have alfo in their natural confequcnces thrown fuch a
weight of power into the executive fcale of govern¬
ment, as we cannot think was intended by our pa¬
triot ancedors ; who glorioufly druggled for the abo*
lition of the then formidable parts of the prerogative,
and by an unaccountable want of forefight edablifhed
this fydem in their dead. The entire colleftion and ma¬
nagement of fo vad a revenue, being placed in the hands
of the crown, have given rife to fuch a number of new
officers, created by and removable at the royal pleafure,
that they have extended the influence of government
to every corner of the nation. Witnefs the commif-
fioners, and the multitude of dependents on the cu*
floms, in every port of the kingdom; the commif*
fioners of excife, and their numerous fubalterns, in e»
very inland diAridt; the pod-maders, and their fcr-
vants, planted in every town, and upon every public
road ; the commiffioners of the damps, and thtir dt»
dributors, which are full as fcattered and full as nume¬
rous ; the officers of the falt-duty, which, tho’ 3 fpe-
cies of excife, and condu&ed the fame manner, are yet
made a didindl corps from the ordinary managers of
that revenue ; the furveyors of houfes and windws; the
receivers ofthe land-tax; the managers of lotteries; and
the commiffioners of hackney-coaches : all which are
either mediately or immediately appointed by the
crown, and removeable at pleafure without any reafon
affigntu : thefe, it requires but little penetration to fee,
mud give that power, on which they depend for fub-
fidence, an influence mod amazingly extenfive. To
this may be added the frequent opportunities of con¬
ferring particular obligations, by preference in loans,
fubfcriptions, tickets, remittances, and other nr.oney-
tranfatdions, which will greatly increafe this Influence;
and that over thofe perfons w'hofe attachment, on ac¬
count of their wealth, is frequently the mod defirable.
All this is the natural, though perhaps the unforefeeit,
confequence of erecting our funds of credit, and, to
fupport them, edablidiing our perpetual taxes : the
whole of which is entirely new fince the reftoration in
1660; and by far the greatedpart fince the revolution
in 1688. And the fame may be faid with regard to
the officers in our numerous army, and Ihe places
which the army has created. All which put together
give the executive power fo perfuafive an energy with
refpedt to the perfons themfelves, and fo prevailing an
interett with their friends and families, as will amply
22 Z make
KIN [ 3038 ] KIN
King, make amends for the lofs of external prerogative.
‘ But, though this profufion of offices fhould have no
effedt on individuals, there is ftill another newly ac¬
quired branch of power; and that is, not the in¬
fluence only, but the force, of a difeiplined army : paid
indeed ultimately by the people, but immediately by
the crown: raifed by the crown, officered by the
crown, commanded by the crown. They are kept on
foot, it is true, only from year to year, and that by the
power of parliament: but during that year, they mud
by the nature of our conftitution, if raifed at all, be at
the abfblute difpofal of the crown. And there need but
few words to demonftrate how great a truft is thereby
repofed in the prince by his people: A truft, that is
snore than equivalent to a thoufand little troublefome
prerogatives.
Add to all this, that, hefides the civil lift, the im-
menfe revenue of almdft feven millions fterling, which
is annually paid to the creditors of the public, or car¬
ried to the finking fund, is firft depofited in the royal
exchequer, and thence iffued out to the refpedive of¬
fices of payment. This revenue the people can never
refufe to raife, becaufe it is made perpetual by aft of
parliament: which alfo, when well coniidered, will ap¬
pear to be a truft of great delicacy and high importance.
Upon the whole, therefore, it feems clear, that,
whatever may have become of the nominal, the real
power of the crown has not been too far weakened by
any tranfaftions in the laft century. Much is indeed
given up ; but much is alfo acquired. The ftern com¬
mands of prerogative have yielded to the milder voice
of influence : the flavilh and exploded doftrine of non-
reliftance has given way to a military eftablilhment by
law; and to the difufe of parliaments has fucceeded
a parliamentary truft of an immenfe perpetual reve¬
nue. When, indeed, by the free operation of the
finking fund, our national debts fhall be leffened ;
when the pofture of foreign affairs, and the univerfal
introduftion of a well-planned and national militia, will
fuffer our formidable army to be thinned and regula¬
ted ; and when (in confcquence of all) our taxes fhall
be gradually reduced ; this adventitious power of the
crown will flowly and imperceptibly diminifh, as it
flowly and imperceptibly rofe. But, till that fhall hap¬
pen, it will be our efpecial duty, as good fubjefts and
good Englifhmen, to reverence the crown, and yet
guard againft corrupt and fervile influences from thofe
who are intrufted with its authority ; to be loyal, yet
free ; obedient, and yet independent; and above every
thing, to hope that we may long, very long, conti¬
nue to be governed by a fovereign, who, Jn all thofe
public afts that have perfonally proceeded from him-
felf, hath manifefted thehigheft veneration for the free
conllitution of Britain ; hath already in more than one
inftance remarkably ftrengthened its outworks; and
will therefore never harbour a thought, or adopt a
perfuaflon, in any the remoteft degree detrimental to
public liberty.
King (Dr John), a learned Englifh bifhop in the
17th century, bred at Weftminfttr-fchool, and after¬
ward at Chrift-church Oxford. He was appointed
chaplain to queen Elizabeth. In 1605, he was made
dean of Chrift-churcb, and was for feveral years vice-
ehancellor of Oxford. In 1611, he was advanced to
tke bifnopric of London. Befides his Lcftures upon
Jonah, delivered at York, he publifhed feveral fer- King,
mons. King James I. ufed to ftyle him the king of “r
of preachers; and lord chiefjuftice Coke often decla¬
red, that he was the bejl fpeaker in the Jiar-chamber in
his time. He was fo conftant in preaching after he
was a bilhop, that,unlefs he was hindered by want of
health, he omitted no Sunday whereon he did not vi-
fit fome pulpit in London or near it. Soon after his
death, the Papifts reported, that he died a member of
their church. But the falfity of this ftory was fuffi-
ciently expofed by his fon Mr Henry King, in a fermon
at St Paul’s crofs foon after ; by bifhop Godwin in the
appendix to his Commentarius de prafulibus Anglise,
printed in 1622 ; and by Mr John Gee, in his book
intitled, The foot out of the fnare.
King (Dr Henry), bifhop of Chichefter, eldeft
fon of the former, was born in 1591, and educated at
Oxford. He became an eminent preacher, and chap¬
lain to king James I. and Charles I. In 1638, he
was made dean of Rochefter ; and, in 1641, was ad¬
vanced to the fee of Chichefter. Upon the breaking
out of the civil wars, and the diffolution of epif-
copacy, he was treated with great feverity by the
friends to the parliament ; but recovered his bifhopric
at the reftoration. This worthy prelate, who had a
moft amiable charafter, died in 1699; and was inter¬
red at his cathedral of Chichefter, where a monument
was erefted to his memory. He publifhed, r. The
pfalms of David turned into metre. 2. Poems, ele¬
gies, paradoxes, and fonnets. 3. Several fermons, and
other works.
King (Dr William), a facetious Englifh writer in
the beginning of the 18th century, was well defeend-
ed, being allied to the noble families of Clarendon and
Rochefter. He was elefted a ftudent of Chrift-church
from Weftminfter-fchool in 1681, aged 18. He af¬
terward entered upon the law line, and took the de^
gree of doftor of civil law. He foon acquired a con-
fiderable reputation as a civilian, and was in great prac¬
tice. He attended the earl of Pembroke, lord lieute¬
nant of Ireland, into that kingdom, where he was
appointed judge-advocate, foie commiflioner of the
prizes, keeper of the records, vicar-general to the lord
primate of Ireland ; was countenanced by perfons of
the higheft rank, and might have made a fortune. But
fo far was he from heaping up riches, that he return¬
ed to England with no other treafure than a few mer¬
ry poems and humorous eflays, and retired to his Un¬
dents place at Ghrift-church. He died on Chriftmns-
day in 1712, and was interred in the cloifters of Weft-
minfter-abbey. His writings are pretty numerous. The
principal are, Animadverfions on a pretended account of
Denmark, wrote by Mr Molefworth, afterwards lord
Molefworth. The writing of thefe procured Dr King the
placeoffecretaryto princefsAnne of Denmark. 2. Dia¬
logues of the dead. 3. The art of love, in imitation of
0\\&De arte amandi. 4. A volume of poems. 5. Ufe-
ful tranfaftions. 6. An hiftorical account of the hea--
then gods and heroes. 7. Several tranflations.—As
to the charafter of Dr King, he naturally hated bu-
finefs, efpecially that of an advocate ; but made an ex¬
cellent judge when appointed one of the court of de¬
legates. His chief pleafure confifted in trifles; and he
was never happier than when he thought he was hid
from the world. Yet he loved company, provided
KIN [ 4039 ] KIN
they were fuch as tallied with his humour. He would
fay a great many ill-natured things, but never do one.
He was made up of tendernefs and pity, and tears
would fall from him'on the fmalleft occafion. His e-
ducation had been ftrift, and he was naturally of a re¬
ligious difpofition.
King (Dr William), archbifliop of Dublin in the
18th century, was defcended from an ancient family in
the north of Scotland, but born in the county of An¬
trim in the north of Ireland. In 1674, he went into
priefts orders. In 1679, was promoted by his pa¬
tron, Dr Parker, archbithop of Dublin, to the chan-
cellorthip of St Patrick. In 1687, Peter Manby, dean
of Londonderry, having publifhed at London in 410,
a pamphlet intitled Conftderations which obliged Peter
Manby dean of Londonderry to embrace the Catholic re¬
ligion, our author immediately wrote an anfwer. Mr
Manby, encouraged by the court, and afiitled by the
_moft learned champions of the church of Rome, pub-
liihed a reply under this title, A reformed catechifm,
in two dialogues concerning the Englijh reformation,
&c. in reply to Mr King's anfwer, &c. Our author
foon rejoined in A vindication of the anfwer. Mr
Manby dropped the controverfy; but difperfed a loofe
Iheet of paper, artfully written, with this title, A letter
to a friend, f jewing the vanity of this opinion, that
every men's fenfe and reafon are to guide him in matters
tf faith. This Dr King refuted in “ A vindication
of the Chriftian religion and reformation, againft the
attempts of a letter, &c.” In 1689, he was twice
confined in the tower by order of king James II. and
the fame year commenced do&or of divinity. In
1690, upon king’s James’s retreat to France after the
battle at the Boyne, he was advanced to the fee of
Derry. In 1692, he publilhed at London in 410,
“The fate of the proteftants of Ireland under the late
king fames's government, &c. “ A hiftory, (faysbi-
fhop Burnet,) as truly as it is finely written.’’ He had
by him at his death attefted vouchers of every particu¬
lar fadt alleged in this book, which are now in the
hands of his relations. However, it was foon attacked
by Mr Charles Lefly. In 1693, our author finding
the great number of Proteftant diflenters, in his dio-
cefe of Derry, increafed by a vaft addition of colonies
from Scotland, in order to perfuade them to confor¬
mity to the eftablilhed church, publilhed A difcourfe
concerning the inventions of men in the worfhip of God.
Mr Jofeph Boyfe, a diffenting minifter, wrote an an¬
fwer. The bifhop anfwered Mr Boyfe. The latter
replied. The bilhop rejoined. In 1702, he publilh-
ed at Dublin in 410, his celebrated treatife De ori-
gine mali. Mr Edmund Law, M. A. fellow of
Chrift’s-college in Cambridge, afterward publilhed a
complete tranflation of this, with very valuable notes,
in 410. In the fecond edition he has inferted, by way
of notes, a large colleftion of the author’s papers on the
fame fubjedl, which he had received from his relations
after the publication of the former edition. Our au¬
thor, in this excellent treatife, has many curious ob-
fervations. He afferts and proves, that there is more
moral good in the earth than moral evil. A fermon by
our author, preached at Dublin in 1709, was publilh-
ed under the title of Divine predeflination and fore¬
knowledge confjlent with the freedom of man's will.
This was attacked by Anthony Collins, efij; in a
pamphlet intitled, “ A vindication of the divine attri- K'nff-
butes ; in fome remarks on the archbifliop of Dublin’s
fermon intitled, Divinepredefination, 8cc." He pub-
lifhed likewife, A difcourfe concerning the confecration
of churches; fhewing what is meant by dedicating
them, with the grounds of that office. He died in 1729.
King (Dr William), late principal of St Mary’s-
hall Oxford, fon of the reverend Peregrine King, was
born at Stepney in Middlefex, in the year 1685. He
was made dodlor of laws in 171 5, was fecretary to the
duke of Ormond, and earl of Arran, as chancellors of
the univerfity; and was made principal of St Mary’s-
hall on the death of Dr Hudfon in 1719. When he
flood candidate for member of parliament for the uni-
verfny, he refigned his office of fecretary, but enjoyed
his other preferment, and it was all he did enjoy, to
the time of his death. Dr Clark, who oppofed him,
carried the election ; and after this difappointment, he,
in the year 1727, went over to Ireland, where he is
faid to have written an epic poem, called The toafi,
which was a political fatire, printed and given away
to his friends, but never fold. On the dedication of
Dr Radcliff’s library in 1749, he fpoke a Latin ora¬
tion in the theatre at Oxford, which was received with
the higheft acclamations; but it was otherwife when
printed, he being attacked in feveral pamphlets on ac¬
count of it. Again, at the memorable contefted elec¬
tion in Oxfordlhire 1755, his attachment to the old
intereft drew on him the refentment of the new, and
he was libelled in newfpapers and pamphlets, againft
which he defended himlelf in an Apology, and warmly
retaliated on his adverfaries. He wrote feveral other
things, and died in 1762. He was a polite fcholar,
an excellent orator, an elegant and eafy writer, and
efteemed by the firft men of his time for his learning
and wit.
King (Peter), lord high-chancellor of Great Bri¬
tain, was defcended of a good family of that name in
Somerfetfhire, and fon to an eminent grocer and falter
in the city of Exeter in Devonlhire. He was born at
Exeter in 1669, and bred up for fome years to his fa¬
ther’s bufinefs ; but his inclination to learning was fo
flrong, that he laid out all the money he could fpare
in books, and devoted every moment of his leifure
hours to ftudy : fo that he became an excellent fcholar
before the world fufpe&ed any fuch thing; and gave
the public a proof of his Ikill in church-hiftory,
in his Inquiry into the confHutton, difeipline, unity,
and worfhip, of the primitive church, that flourifjed
within the firfl $00 years after Chrift, London, 1691,
in 8vo. This was written with a view to promote the
fcheme of a comprehenfion of the diffenters. He af¬
terwards publiflied the fecond part of the Inquiry into
the confitution, &c.; and having defired, in his pre¬
face, to be /hewn, either publicly or privately, any mi-
ftakes he might have made, that requeft was firft com¬
plied with by Mr Edmund Elys; between whom and
our author there paffed feveral letters upon the fubjeft,
in 1692, which were publi/hed by Mr Elys in 1694,
8vo, under the title of Letters on feveralfubjefts. But
the moft formal and elaborate anfwer to the Inquiry ap¬
peared afterwards in a work entitled, Original draught
of the primitive church.
His acquaintance with Mr Locke, to whom he was
related, and who left him half his library at his death,
22 Z 2 was
KIN [ 3040 ] KIN
was of great advantage to him : by his advice, after
he had ftudied fome time in Holland, he applied him-
felf to the ftudy of the law ; in which profeffion his
learning and diligence made him foon taken notice of.
In the two laft parliaments during the reign of king
William, and in five parliaments during the reign of
queen Anne, he ferved as burgefs for Beer-Alfton in
Devonfitire. In 1702, he publifhed at London, in
8vo, without his name, his Hijlcry zf the apojiks creed,
with critical obfervations on its feveral articles ; which
is highly efieemed. In 1708, he was chofen recorder
of the city of London ; and in 1710, was one of the
members of the houfe of commons at the trial of Dr
Sacheverell. In 1714, he was appointed lord chief
juftice of the common-pleas j and, the April follow¬
ing, was made one of the privy-council. In 1715, he
was created a peer, by the title of Lord King, baron
of Ockham in Surry, and appointed lord high chancel¬
lor of Great Britain ; in which poft he continued till
1733, when he rtfigned ; and in 1734 died at Ock¬
ham in Surrey.
King at Arms, or of Arms, is an officer of great
antiquity, and anciently of great authority, whofe
bufinefs is to diredt the heralds, prefide at their chap¬
ters, and have the jurifdidtion of armoury.
In England there are three kings of arms, viz, gar¬
ter, clarencieux, and norroy.
Garter, principal YL\mg at arms, was inftituted by
Henry V. His bufinefs is to attend the knights of
the garter at their aflemblies, to marfhal the folemni-
ties at the funerals of the higheft nobility, and to car¬
ry the garter to kings and princes beyond the fea ; on
which occafion he ufed to be joined in commiffion with
fome principal peer of the kingdom. See Garter.
Clarencieux King at Arms, is fo called from the
duke of Clarence, to whom he firft belonged. His
office is to marfhal and difpofe the funerals of all the
inferior nobility, as baronets, knights, efquires, and
gentlemen, on the fouth fide of the Trent. SeeCuA-
IUNCIEUX,
Norroy King at Arms, is to do the fame on the
north fide of the river Trent.
Thefe two laft arc alfo called provincial heralds, in
regard they divide the kingdom between them into
provinces. By charter, they have power to vifit
noblemens families, to fet down their pedigrees, di-
ftinguifh their arms, appoint perfons their arms, and,
with garter, to direft the other heralds.
Anciently, the kings at arms were created, and fo-
lemnly crowned, by the kings of England themfclves;
but of later days, the earl maifhal has a fpecialcom-
iniffion, at every creation, to perfonate the king.
Lyon King at Arms, for Scotland, is the fecond
king at arms for Great Britain ; he is invefted and
crowned with great folemnity. To him belongs the
publifhing the king’s proclamations, marfhalling fu¬
nerals, reverfing arms, &c. See Lyon.
KiNG’s-^ewri. This court (the nature of which
was partly explained before) is divided into a craven
fide and a plea fide. See A7»g,.f-Bench. And on
the crown fide, or crown office, it takes cognizance of
all criminal caufes, from high treafon down to the moft
trivial mifdemeanour or breach of the peace. Into this
sour talfo indiftments from all inferior courts may be
removed by writ of certiorari and tried either at bar, Kingd:im.
or at nifiprius, by a jury of the county out of which ‘
the indictment is brought. The judges of this court
are the fupreme coroners of the kingdom. And the
court itfelfis the principal court of criminal jurifdiCiion
known to the laws of England. For which reafon,
by the coming of the court of King’s bench into any
county, (as it was removed to Oxford on account of
the ficknefs in 1665), all former commiffions of oyer
and terminer, and general gaol-delivery, are at once
abforbed and determined ipfo faflo : in the fame man¬
ner as, by the old Gothic and Saxon conftitutions,
fure vetujlo obtinuit, quievijfe omnia inferior a judicia,
dicente jus rege. Into this court of King’s bench hath
reverted all that was good and falutary of the far-
chamber. See StAR-Chamber.
KINGDOM, the territories or extent of country
fubjeCt to a king.
Kingdoms, in natural hiftory. Moft naturalifts
and chemifts divide all natural bodies into three great
clafies, which they call kingdoms. Thefe are the mi¬
neral, the vegetable, and the animal kingdoms.
This great and firft divifion is founded on thiscon-
fideration, that any plant or vegetable which is produ¬
ced, which grows, which is organized, which con¬
tains a feed, and which produces its like, feems to be
a being very diftindt and different from a ftone or a
metal, in which’ we at moft obferve only a regular ar¬
rangement of parts, hut not a true organization, and
which contains no feed by which it is capable of re-
produ&ion ; and another foundation of this divifion is,
that an animal differs no lefs from a fimple plant, by
fenfation, by the ufe ofitsfenfes, and by the power of
voluntary motion which itpofleffes, while thefe qualities
do not belong to any thing which is merely vegetable.
But notwithftandiog thefe fo diftin&ive marks,
philofophers pretend, that this divifion of natural bo¬
dies into claffes is only ideal. They affirm, that, by
obferving nature attentively, we may perceive, that
all her produ&ions are connedled together by an un¬
interrupted chain ; and that by furveying the feveral
beings, we muft be convinced, that any one being dif¬
fers very little from fome other two between which it
feems to be placed ; fo that we may defeend from the
mofl perfect animal to the rudeft mineral by infenfible
degrees, and without finding any interval from which
a divifion might be made. The opinions of natura-
liftsare therefore divided upon this fubjedt; and each
opinion feems to be founded upon obfervations, ana¬
logies, and reafonings, more or lefs conclufive.
If we avoid inveftigating extremes, however, the
diftindfive marks muft be acknowledged fufficiently
obvious to juifify the triple divifion above mentioned,
and to diferiminate the individuals of each.
Fora general view of the operations or condudf of
nature in thefe her three kingdoms, fee the article
Nature. For a particular confideration of them,— (in
the animal-kingdom), fee Zoology, Animal, Brute,
Bird, Ornithology, Fish, Comparative Ana¬
tomy, and the different animals under their refpec-
tive names ;— (in the vegetable kingdom), Botany,
Plant, Agriculture, Vegetation, Defolia¬
tion, Frondescentia, Gemmatio, Fruit, Leaf,
Germination, &c. and the different plants under
thek
KIN [ 4041 ] KIN
Hingiam. tlicir refpe<^ive names ;—(in the mineral kingdom).
Mineralogy, Metallurgy, and the different ilones
and metals under their refpedlive names.
In what remains of this article we (hall confider na¬
tural bodies only in a chemical view; that is to fay,
relatively to the feveral principles which we obtain in
the analyfis of thofe bodies. In the decompolltion of
all beings truly living, organifed, and containing with¬
in themfelves a feed by which they may be reproduced,
fuchfas vegetables and animals, we always obtain an
inflammable, fat, or oily fubftance ; and on the con¬
trary, we do not find the fmalleft trace of this principle
in any fubftance purely mineral, not even in fulphur,
which is the moft inflammable of all tbefe fubftances.
On the other fide, if we carefully examine and com¬
pare with each other the analogous principles obtain¬
ed from the three kingdoms ; fuch as the faline fub¬
ftances obtained in the analyfis of animals, vegetables,
and minerals ; we (hall eafily perceive, that all the fa-
line matter which comes from the vegetable or animal
kingdoms is altered by oil, while all the faline matter
which comes from the mineral kingdom is entirely free
from oil.
We ought to obferve here, that becaufe any matter
is found in one or more individuals of any kingdom,
we muft not therefore conclude, that it belongs to the
kingdom of fuch individuals; for we may be convinced,
from a flight obfervation of nature, that by a thoufand
combinations, and particular circumftancts, fubftances
of quite different claffes or kingdoms are daily found
mixed and confounded together. Thus, for example,
within the earth, and even at great depths, that is, in
the region appropriated to minerals, fometimes fub¬
ftances are found evidently oily, fuch as all bitumens:
but we at the fame time can prove, and all the obfer-
vations of natural hiftory prove, that thefe oily fub¬
ftances are only accidentally within the earth, and that
they proceed from the vegetable or animal bodies which
have been buried in the earth by feme of thofe great
revolutions which have happened from time to time
upon the furface of our globe. Aifo in decompofing
feveral vegetables and animals, falls are obtained ; fuch
as common fait, Glauber’s fait, and others, which con¬
tain nothing oily, and which are confequently matters
evidently mineral. But, on the other fide, we are cer¬
tain that thefe mineral falls are extraneous to the ani¬
mals and vegetables in which they are found ; that
they are only introduced into thefe living bodies, be-
eaufe they happen to be mixed with the matters which
have been applied to them as aliments, and that they
ought not to be numbered amongft their principles.
The proof of this is, that not only the quantity of
thefe mineral falls is not uniform in animals and vege¬
tables ; but alfo, that not a particle of fuch falls is con¬
tained in fome plants and animals equally ftrong and
healthy, and of the fame fpecies as thofe in which thefe
falls have generally been obferved.
In the fecond place, we obferve, that oils do only
exift in the proximate principles of vegetables and ani¬
mals; that is, in thofe of their principles which enter
immediately into their compofuion, when thefe prin¬
ciples have not been altered by further decompofitions,
and confequently when they (till preferve their animal
or vegetable chara&er; for by a natural putrefa&ien
continued during a long time, or by chemical opera¬
tions, not only the materials of which animal and ve- Kingdom,
getable bodies are formed may be deprived entirely of ——•
oil, but alfo this oil may itfelf be entirely deftrsyed or
decompofed. Thefe fubftances in that date contain
nothing by which they can be diftinguiflied from mi¬
nerals. The earths, for example, of vegetables and
animals, when they are deprived, by a fuflicient calci¬
nation, of all inflammable matter, have been thought
to become entirely fimilar to the calcareous and argil¬
laceous earths found within the globe, and which may
be confidered as mineral fubftances, although probably
they have been formerly a part of animal and vege¬
table bodies. See Bones, in the APPENDIX.
Hence we conclude, that, when we confider natural
bodies in a chemical view, we ought to divide them
into two great claffes. The firft clafs is of fubftances
inanimate, unorganised, and the principles of which
have a degree of fimplicity which is effential to them:
thefe are minerals. The other clafs contains all thofe
bodies which not only have been diftinftly organifed,
but which alfo contain an oily matter, which is no
where to be found in fubftances which have not made
part of animate bodies, and which, by combining with
all the other principles of thefe animate bodies, diftin-
guifhes thefe principles from thofe of minerals by a
lefs degree of fimplicity. This fecond clafs contains
vegetables and animals. We ought alfo to remark,
that the oil contained in vegetable and animal fub¬
ftances, renders them fufceptible of fermentation, pro¬
perly fo called, which cannot by any means take place
in any mineral.
We (hall now proceed to examine, if, by comparing
the principles obtained in the decompofition of vege¬
tables with thofe obtained in the decompofition of ani¬
mals, we can find fome effential chara&er by which
thefe two kingdoms may be chemically diftinguilhed,
in the fame manner as we have ften that both of them
may be diftinguiftied from minerals. From experiments
we indeed learn, that the principles of vegetables differ
evidently enough from thofe of animals; that in ge¬
neral the faline principles of the former are acid, and
are transformable in great meafure into fixed alkali by
incineration, while the principle of tlie latter are vola¬
tile alkalis, or eafily changeable into thefe; that vege¬
tables are much farther removed from putrefa&ion
than animals; laftly, that oils truly animal have a cha-
rafiier different from vegetable oils, and are in generah
more attenuated, or at haft more difpofed to be atte¬
nuated and volatilifed. But we muft at the fame time
confefs, that thefe differences are not clear and deci-
five, like thofe betwixt thefe two kingdoms and the
mineral kingdom; for we do not find any .effential prin-
ciple, either in animals or in vegetables, which is not
alio to be found in the other. In fome plants, chiefly
the cruciform, as much volatile alkali, as little fixed al¬
kali, and as much difpofition to putrify, are found as
in animal-matters ; and thence we conclude, that if
thefe two great clafles of natural bodies differ chemi¬
cally from each other, this difference proceeds only
from the quantities or proportions of their feveral prin¬
ciples and properties, and not from any thing diftindt
and peculiar; nor is it fimilar to the manner in which
both vegetable and animal fubftances differ from mine¬
rals, namely, by containing an oil, and poffeffing a fer¬
mentable quality. Befides, the degrees of the chemi-
KIN [ 4042 ] KIP
King’s cal differences betwixt thefe three great claffes of na¬
il tural bodies are found to be the fame, in whatever man-
Ring on. ner we conflcjer t}1em or compare them together. See
Chemistry, pafm.
Books of Kings, two canonical books of the Old
Teftament, fo called becaufe they contain the hiftory
of the kings of Ifrael and Judah, from the beginning
of the reign of Solomon, down to the Babylonifh cap¬
tivity, for the fpaceof near 600 years.—It is probable
that thefe books were compofcd by Ezra, who extrac¬
ted them out of the public records, which were kept
df what paffed in that nation.
Y%.wg'z-County, a county of the province of Lein-
ffet in Ireland, taking its name from king Philip of
Spain, huftand to queen Mary. It is bounded bn the
north by Weft Meath; on the fouth by Tipperary and
Queen’s county, from which it is divided by the Bar-
row ; and part of Tipperary and Galway on the weft,
from which it is feparated by the Shannon. The
length of it is about 40 miles, and the breadth about
So; Tiiis county was formerly full of bogs, but is
now well drained and inhabited. It contains 11 ba¬
ronies, and fends fix members to parliament, viz. two
. for the county, and four for Philip’s-town and Banatur.
King’s-£w'/. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medi¬
cine.
KINGHORN, a town the county of Fife in Scot¬
land, on the frith of Forth, diredtly oppofite to Leith.
Here is a manufafture of thread-ftockinfgs knit by the
women ; the men, being chiefly mariners, are employed
in coafting fhips, in the fifhery, or the paffage-boats
from hence to Leith, from which the town of King-
horn derives confiderable advantage. This place gives
a fecond title to the earl of Strathmore.
KINGSTON, a town of Surry in England, fitua-
ted in W. Long. o. 21. N. Lat. 51.28. It takes it
name from having been the refidence of many of the
Saxon kings, fome of whom were crowned here. It is
fituated on the river Thames, over which there is here
a wooden bridge of 20 arches, and here the fummer
affixes are generally held. Medals and coins of feveral
Roman emperors are often found about this place; and
eaft from it, upon a gravelly hill, was a burying-place
of the Romans. There are feveral fprings in the
neighbourhood, whence water is conveyed in leaden-
pipes under the Thames to Hampton-court. From
another fpring in a cellar near the town, flows a brook
fo large, that it has a bridge over it at Kingfton. The
town is large; and has a good market for corn, a free-
fchool erefted and endowed by queen Elizabeth, an
alms-houfe founded by alderman Cleave of London, a
fpacious church with eight bells. In this church the
pictures of Athelftan, Ethelred I. and II. Edwin, and
.Edward the Martyr, whowerecrowned here,and ofking
John, who gave the town its firft charter, are preferved.
Kingston, a town of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, and capital of King’s county. W. Long. 7.
20. N. Lat. 53. 15. It is otherwife called Philips-
Town.
Kingston, a town of Jamaica, in America, feated
on the north fide of the bay of Port-royal. It was built
after the great earthquake in 1692; and is now a
large thriving place, about a mile in length, and half
a mile in breadth. It is laid out into little fquares and
crofs-ftrects, and has one church. The Jews have two
fynagogues her6, and the Quakers a meetiilg-houfe. Kingto*
It is a place of good trade; and is much reforted to by K. ,
merchants and feamen, becaufe moft of the fhips come lpl’in^*
to load and unload their cargoes here. W. Long. 75.
52. N. Lat. 17. 40.
KINGTON, or Kyneton, a pretty large town in
Herefordfhire, with a good trade in narrow cloths.
W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 52. 10.
KINROSS, a town of the county of Fife in Scot¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 3.7. N. Lat. 56. 15. on
the weft fide of Lochleven, a frefh-water lake about 10
miles in compafs, abounding with pike, trout, perch,
and water-fowl. In the lake are two iflands.; on one
of which appear the ruins of a priory, heretofore pof-
feffed by the Culdees; the other is famous for the
caftle in which queen Mary was imprifoned by her re¬
bellious fubjefts. See {Hijlory of) Scotland.
KINSALE, a town of the county of Cork in Ire¬
land, fituated at the mouth of the river Ban, or Ban-
don, in W. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 51. 32. It is rec¬
koned the third town in the kingdom, and inferior on¬
ly to Cork in point of trade. Vaft quantities of pro- ' ,
vifions are (hipped off from hence to Flanders, Hol¬
land, France, and the Weft Indies. The port indeed
is barred, but fhips of any burden may get over the bar
at high water. On a point of land, called the old head
of Kinfale, is a light-houfe to guide fhips in the night
to the mouth of the river. The town is neat, well
built, wealthy, and extremely well fortified with lines
and outworks. About two miles below the town are
two ftrong forts, one on each fide the river, which fe-
cure it againft all attempts by lea. Kinfale gives the
title of baron to the very ancient family of Courcy.
KINTORE, a royal borough of Aberdeenfhire in
Scotland, fituated on the river Don, in W. Long. 2. 5.
N. Lat. 57. 38. It gives the title of earl to a branch
of the noble family of Keith, but in other refpedls is
inconfiderable.
KINTYRE, or Cantyre, from Cantierre, figni-
fying a “headland;” the fouthern divifion of the (hire
of Argyle in Scotland. It is a peninfula, ftretching 37
miles from north to fouth, and feven miles in bredath.
It is moftly plain, arable, and populous; inhabited pro-
mifcuoufly by Highlanders and Lowlanders; the lat¬
ter being invited to fettle in this place by the Argyle
family, that the lands might be the better cultivated.
It gives the title of marquis to the duke, and is by
Lochfyn divided from Argyle Proper. This loch is
an inlet from the fea, about 60 miles in length and
four in breadth, affording heretofore an excellent her-
ring-fifhery. There are many paltry villages in this
country, but no town of any confequence except Camp¬
beltown.
KIOF, or Kiow, a confiderable town of Poland,
and capital of the Ukrain, in the palatinate of the fame
name, with an archbifhop’s-fee and a caftle. It be¬
longs to Ruflia, and carries on a confiderable trade. It
is divided into the Old and New Town; and feated on
the river Nieper, in E. Long. 31.51. N. Lat. 50. 13.
KIPPING (Henry), in Latin a learn¬
ed German Lutheran, born at Boftock; where, after
having received the degree of mafter of arts, he was
met by fome foldiers, whopreffed him into the fervice. 1
This, however, did not prevent his following his ftu-
dies. One day while he was upon duty, holding his
mufket
Kirch
“ !l
Kirk.
KIR [ 4043 ] KIR
muflcet in one hand, and the poet Statius in the other,
a Swedifh counfellor, who perceived him in that atti¬
tude, came up to him, entered into difcourfe with him,
and then taking him to his houfe, made him his libra¬
rian, and procured him the under redor of the college
of Bremen, where he died in 1678. He wrote many
works in Latin ; the principal of which are, 1. A
treatife on the antiquities of the Romans. 2. Ano¬
ther on the works of Creation. 3. Several differtations
on the Old and New Teftam^nt, &c.
KIRCH (Chriftian Frederic), of Berlin, a cele¬
brated aftronomer, was bom. at Guben in 1694 ; and
acquired great reputation in the obfervatories of Dant-
zic and Berlin. Godfrey Kirch his father, and Mary
his mother, acquired confiderable reputation by their
aftronomical obfervations. This family correfponded
with all the learned focieties of Europe ; and their
aftronomical works are in high repute.
KIRCHER (Athanafius), a famous philofopher
and mathematician, was born at Fulde in 1601. In
1618 he entered into the fociety of the Jefuits ; and
taught philofophy, mathematics, the Hebrew and
Syriac languages, in the univerfity of Wirtfburg,
with great applaufe till the year 1631. He went to
France, on account of the ravages committed by the
Swedes in Franconia, and lived fome time at Avig¬
non. He was afterwards called to Rome, where he
taught mathematics in the Roman college, colle&ed
a rich cabinet of machines and antiquities, and died
in 1680.—The quantity of his works is immenfe;
amounting to 22 vols in folio, 11 in 410, and 3 in
8vo ; enough to employ a man for a great part of his
life even to tranfcribe them. Moft of them are rather
curious than ufeful; many of them vifionary and fan¬
ciful ; and if they are not always accompanied with
the greatell exa&nefs and precifion, the reader, it is
prefumed, will not be aftonifhed. The principal of
his works are, 1. Prshifionet magnetic*. 2. Primi-
ti* gnomonic* catoptric*. 3. An magna lucis o um¬
bra?. 4. Mufurgia uniuerfalis. 5. Obelifcus - Pam-
pbilius. 6. Oedipus JEgyptiacus, four volumes, folio.
7. Itinerarium extaticum. 8. Obelifcus TEgyptianus,
in four volumes, folio. 9. Mundus fubterraneus.
to. China illuftrata.
KIRCHMAN (John), an eminent German divine*
was born at Lubec, in 1575. He ftudied in.feveraj
places of Germany; in 1602 was made profeflbr of
poetry at Roftock, and in 1613 reftor of the uni¬
verfity at Lubec. He exercifed this la ft employment
with an extraordinary application, during the reft of
his life ; and died in 1643. He wrote feveral works;
the moft efteemed of which are, 1. Defyneribus Ro¬
ma norum. 2. De annulis liber Jingularis.
KIRIATHAIM, (anc. geog.), one of the towns
built by the Reubenites ; reckoned to the tribe of
Reuben (Joihua xiii.), 12 miles to the weft of Midaha,
The ancient refidence of the giants called Emim.
KIRIATH-arba. See Hebron.
KIRK, a Saxon term, fignifying the. fame with
church.
YLiKK-Ofinald, a market-town of Cumberland, 12
miles fouth of Carlifle.
YLiv.vl-Stjfionst an inferior church-judicatory in
Scotland, confifting of.the minifters, elders, and dea¬
cons of a parifti.
It regulates matters relating to public worfhip, ca*
techiling, vifitations, &c. and judges in cafe of forni¬
cation and lefler fcandals.
KIRKALDY, a town of the county of Fife in
Scotland, two miles to the north-eaft of Kinghorn.
It is a royal borough, the feat of a prelbytery, and
gives the title of baron to the earl of Melvill. The
town is populous, well built, and extends a mile in
length from eaft to weft, enjoying a tolerable fhare of
trade by exporting its own produce and manufa&ures
of corn, coal, linen, and fait. W. Long. 3. o. N.
Lat. 56. 8.
KIRKCUDBRIGHT, beginning at the middle
of Dumfries-Ihire in Scotland, makes a confiderable
part of Galloway, of which the earls of Nithifdale
were hereditary ftewards. The face of the country
exhibits the appearance of one continued heath, pro¬
ducing nothing but pafture for ftitep and fmall black
cattle, which are generally fold in England ; yet thefe
dnfky moors are interfedted with pleafant valleys, and
adorned with a great number of caftles belonging to
private gentlemen, every houfe being furrounded with
an agreeable plantation. It is watered by the river
Dee ; which, taking its rife from the mountains near
Carrick, runs through a traft of land about 70 miles
in length, and, entering the Irifh fea, forms the har¬
bour of Kirkcudbright, a fmall inconfiderable borough,
admirably fituated for the fifhery and other branches
of commerce, which are almoft totally negle&ed thro’
the poverty and indolence of the inhabitants. There
is no other town of any confequence is this llewartry.,
KIRSTEN I US (Peter), profeflbr of. phyfic at
Upfal, and phyfician extraordinary to the, queen of
Sweden, was born at Breflaw in 1577; He ftudied
Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Syriac, natural philofophy,
anatomy, botany, and other fciences. Being told that
a man could not diftinguiih himfelf in phyfic, unlefs
he underftood Avicenna, he applied himftlf to the
ftudy of Arabic ; and not only to read Avicenna, but
alfo Mefue, Rhafis, Abenzoar, Abukafis, and Aver-
roes. He vifittd Spain, Italy, England, and did not
return home from, his travels till.after feven years. He
was chofen by the magiftrates of Brellaw to have the
diredtion of tbeir-college, and of their fchools. A fit
of ficknefs having obliged him to refign that difficult
employment, with which he was alfo much difgufted,
he applied himfelf chiefly to the pradlice of phyfic,
and went with his family into Pruffia. Here he ob¬
tained the friendfhip and efteem of the chancellor
Oxenftiern, vvEom he accompanied into Sweden ;
where he was made profeflbr of phyfic in the univer¬
fity of Upfal, and phyfician to. the queen. He died
in 1640. It is faid in his epitaph, that heunderftood
26.languages. He wrote many works-; among which
are, 1. Liber fecundus Canonis Avicentue, typis Ara-
btcis, ex MSS. edit us, et ad verbum in Latinum, tran-
Jlatus, in folio, z, De vero ufu et abufu Medicin*.
3. Grammatica Arabic a, folio. 4. Vita quatuor L-
vangelifiarum, ex antiquijfimo codice MRS. Arabics
eruta, in folio. 5. Kota in Evangelium S. Matthai,
ex collatione textuum Arabicorum, Syriacorum, dEgyp-
tiacorum, Gracorum, <& Latinorum, in folio, &c.
He ought not to be confounded with George,Ker-
Jienius, another learned phyfician and naturalift, who
was born at Stettin, and died in 1660; and alfo wrote
feveral!
Kirkaldy
I
Kirfteniu*.
KIR [ 4044 ] KIT
Kit-kat feveral works which are efteemed.
| KIT-KAT club, an affociation of above 30 noble-
ltc en* men and gentlemen of diftihguifhed merit, formed in
1703, purely to Unite their zeal in favour of the pro-
tettant fucceflxon in the houfe of Hanover. Their
name was derived from Chriftopher Kat a paftry-cook,
near the tavern where they met in King's-ftreet Weft-
minder, who often fupplied them with tarts. Old
Jacob Tonfon was their bookfeller ; and that family
is in poflelfion of a piflure of the original members of
this famous club, painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller.
The defign of thefe gentlemen was to recommend and
encourage true loyalty by the powerful influence of
wit and humour; and Sir Samuel Garth diftinguidied
himfelf by the extempore epigrams he made on their
toafts, which were infcribed on their drinking-glaffes.
KIRKWALL, the capital of the Orkneys, litua-
ted in the ifland of Pomona, in W. Long. o. 25. N.
58. 33. It is built upon an inlet of the fea, near the
middle of the ifland, having a very fafe road and har¬
bour for (hipping. It is a royal borough, governed
by a provoft, four bailiffs, and a common-council. It
was formerly poffeffed by the Norwegians, who be¬
llowed upon it the name of Crucoviaca. From king
James III. of Scotland, they obtained a nevy char¬
ter, empowering them to ele& their own magi-
ftrates yearly, to hold borough-courts, arreft, impri-
fon, make laws and ordinances for the right govern¬
ment of the town ; to have a weekly market, and three
fairs annually at certain fixed terms: he moreover
granted to them fome lands adjoining to the town, with
the cuftoms and fliore-dues, the power of a pit and
gallows, and exempted them from the expence of
fending commiffioners to parliament. This charter
has been confirmed by fucceeding monarchs. At pre-
fent Kirkwall is the feat of juftice, where the fteward,
fheriff, and commiffary, hold their feveral courts of
jurifdi&ion : Here is likewife a public grammar-fchool,
endowed with a competent falary for the mafter. The
town confifts of one narrow ftreet about a mile in
length ; the houfes are chiefly covered with flate, tho*
not at all remarkable for neatnefs and convenience.—
The principal edifices are the cathedral church, and
the bi(hop’s palace. The former, called St Magnus,
from Magnus king of Norway, the fuppofed founder
of the town, is a large gothic ftrufture : the roof is
fupported by 14 pillars on each fide, and the fpire is
built upon four large columns. The gates are deco¬
rated with a kind of Mofaic work, of red and white
ftones elegantly carved and flowered. By the ruins of
the king’s caftle, or citadel, it appears to have been
a ftrong and (lately fortrefs. At the north end of
the town there is a fort of fortification built by the
Englifh in the time of Oliver Cromwell. It is fur-
rounded with a ditch and rampart, and dill mounted
with fome cannon for the defence of the harbour.
KITCHEN, the room in a houfe where the pro-
vifions are cooked.
Army Kitchen, is a fpace of about 16 or 18 feet
diameter, with a ditch furrounding it three feet wide;
the oppofite bank of which ferves as a feat for the men
who drefs the vi&uals. The kitchens of the flank com¬
panies are contiguous to the outline of the camp ; and
the intermediate fpace is generally diftributed equally
for the remaining kitchens ; and as each tent forms a Kitcfienii
mefs, each kitchen muft have as many fire-places as Kleift. 1,
there are tents in the company.
KiTCHEN-Gtfn/etf, a piece of ground laid out for
the cultivation of fruit, herbs, pulfe, and other vege¬
tables ufed in the kitchen. J
A kitchen-garden ought to be fituated on one fide
of the houfe, near the (tables, from whence the dung |
maybe eafily conveyed into it ; and after having built
the wall, borders fhould be made under them 5 which,
according to Miller, ought to be eight or ten feet
broad : upon thofe borders expofed to the fouth, ma¬
ny forts of early plants may be fown ; and upon thofe
expofed to the north, you may have fome late crops,
taking care not to plant any fort of deep-rooting
plants, efpecially beans and pcafe, too near the fruit-
trees. You (hould next proceed to divide the ground
into quarters : the bed figures for thefe is a fquare, or
an oblong, if the ground will admit of it ; otherwife
they may be of that (hape which will be moft advan¬
tageous to the ground : the fize of thefe quarter*
(hould be proportioned to that of the garden ; if they
are too fmall, your ground will be loft in walks, and
the quarters being incloifed by efpaliers of fruit-trees,
the plants will draw up (lender, for want of a more
open expofure. The walks (hould alfo be proportion¬
ed to the fize of the ground : thefe in a fmall garden
(hould be fix feet broad,-but in a large one ten ; and
on each fide of the walk there fhould be allowed a
border three or four feet wide, between it and the
efpalier ; and in thefe borders may be fown fome fmall
falads, or any other herbs that do not take deep root
or continue long : but thefe quarters (hould not be
fown or planted with the fame crop two years toge¬
ther. In one of thefe quarters, fituated neared to the
ftables, and bed defended from the cold winds, (hould
be the hot-beds, for early cucumbers, melons, &c.
and to thefe.there (hould be a paffage from the ftables,
and a gate through which a fmall cart may enter.
The moft important points of general culture confift
in well digging and manuring the foil; and giving a pro¬
per diftance to each plant, according to their different
growths: as alfo in keeping them clear from weeds;
for which purpofe, you (hould always obferve to
keep your dung-hills clear from them, otherwife their
feeds will be conllantly brought in and fpread with
the dung.
KLEIST (Edward Chriftian de), a celebrated
German poet, and a foldier of diftinguifhed bravery,
was born at Zeblin, in Pomerania, in 1715. At
nine years of age he was fent to purfue his ftudies at
Cron in Poland; and he afterwards ftudied at Dant-
zick and Konigfberg, Having finiftied his ftudies, he
went to vifit his relations in Denmark, who invited
him to fettle there; and having in vain endeavoured
to obtain preferment in the law, at 21 years of age
accepted of a poll in the Danifti army. He then ap¬
plied himfelf to the ftudy of all the fciences that have
a relation to military affairs, with the fame affiduity
as he had before ftudied civil law. In 1740, at the
beginning of the reign of Frederic king of Prufiia,
Mr de Kleift went to Berlin, and was prefented to
his Majefty, who made him Lieutenant of his brother
prince Henry’s regiment; and he was in all the cam¬
paign*
K L E [ 4045 ] K N E
Elcift. paigns which diftinguirtied the five firft years of the
^ king df Prufiia’a reign. In 1749 he obtained the poft
of captain; and in that year publilhed his excellent
poem on the Spring. Before the breaking out of the
laft war, the king chofe him, with fome other officers
at Potfdam, companion to the young prince Frede-
ric-William of Pruffia, and to eat at his table. In
the firft campaign, in 1756* he was nominated major
of Haufen's regiment ; which being in garrifon at
Leiplic, he had time to finiffi feveral new poems.
After the battle of Rofbach, the king gave him, by
an order in his own hand-writing, the infpe&ion of the
great hofpital/eftabl:fired at Leipfic. And on this
occafion his humanity was celebrated by the fick and
wounded of both parties, and his difintereftednefs was
equally admired by all the inhabitants of that city.
In 1758, prince Henry coming to Leipfic, Mr Kleift
defired to ferve in his army with the regiment of Hau-
fen, which was readily granted. Opportunities of
diftingnifiiing himfelf could not be wanting under that
great officer, and he always communicated his cou¬
rage to the battalion under his command. He alfo
ferved that prince at the beginning of the campaign of
I759> when he was with him in Franconia, and in all
the expeditions of that army, till he was detached with
the troops under general de Fink to join the king’s
army. On the 12th of Auguft was fought the bloody
battle of Kunerfdorf, in which he fell. He attacked
the flank of the Ruffians, and affifted in gaining three
batteries. In thefe bloody attacks he received twelve
contufions ; and the two firft fingers of his right hand
being wounded, he was forced to hold his fword in
the left. His poft of major obliged him to remain
behind the ranks; but he no fooner perceived the
commander of the battalion wounded and carried away,
than he inftantly put himfelf at the head of his troop.
He led his battalion in the midft of the terrible fire
of the enemies artillery, againft the fourth battery.
He called up the colours of the regiment; and, ta¬
king an enfign by the arm, led him on. Here he
received a ball in his left arm ; when, being no long¬
er able to hold his fword in his left hand, he took it
again in the right, and held it with the two laft fing¬
ers and his thumb. He ftill purtied forward, and was
within thirty fteps of the battery when his right leg
was (hattered by the wadding of one of the great guns;
and he fell from his horfe, crying to his men, “ My
boys, don’t abandon your king.” By the affift-
ance of thofe who furrounded him, he endeavoured
twice to remount his horfe; but his ftrength forfook
him, and he fainted. He was then carried behind
the line ; where a furgeon, attempting to drefs his
wounds, was (hot dead. The Coffacs arriving foon
after, (tripped Mr Kleift naked, and threw him into
a mirey place ; where fome Ruffian hufiars found him
in the night, and laid him upon fome ftraw near the
fire of the grand guard, covered him with a cloak, put
a baton his head, and gave him fome bread and wa-
, ter. In the morning one of them offered him a piece
of filver, which he refufed ; on which he toffed it up¬
on the cloak that covered him, and then departed with
his companions. Soon after the Coffacs returned, and
took all that the generous huffars had given him. Thus
he again lay naked on the earth ; and in that cruel
fituation continued till noon, when he was known by
Vol. VI.
a Ruffian officer, who caufed him to be conveyed in Knaref-
a waggon to Franckfort on the Oder; where he arri- bor{Jl,gh
ved in the evening, in a very weak ftate, and was in- K)Jeei
ftantly put into the hands of the furgeons. But the   -
fra&ured bones feparating, broke an artery, and he
died by the lofs of blood. The city of Franckfort be¬
ing then in the hands of the enemy, they buried this
Pruffian hero with all military honours: the governor,
a great number of the Ruffian officers, the magiftrates
of the city, with the profeffors and the ftudents, form¬
ed the proceffion, preceded by the funeral mulic. Mr
Kleift’s poems, which are greatly admired, are ele¬
gantly printed in the German tongue, in 2 volumes
8vo.
KNARESBOROUGH, a town in the Weft
Riding of Yorkfliire in England. It is an ancient
borough by prefeription, governed by a bailiff, who,
with the burgeffes, clefts the members of parliament,
and its market is excellent for corn. This town is
noted for its petrifj-ng well, and three medicinal
fprings; one being a kind of vitriolic fpaw, another
fulphureous, and the other a cold bath, being all within
a few miles. The adjacent fields afford great plenty
of liquorice. It is feated on a rough ragged rock, by
the river Nid, and is adorned with a caftle. W. Long.
1.6. N. Lat. 54. o.
KNAPDALE, one of the divifions of Argylefhire
in Scotland. It is parted from Cowal on the eaft by
Lochfyn, borders with Kintyre on the fouth, with
Lorn on the north, by Braidalbin on the north-eaft,
and on the weft by the Hebrides. Its length from
north to fouth does not exceed 20 miles, and the
breadth in fome places may amount to 13. It is
joined to Kintyre by a neck of land not above a
mile broad, over which the country people draw
their boats, to avoid failing round Kintyre. This
part of Knapdale abounds with lakes, fome of them
containing little iflands, on which there are caftles be¬
longing to different proprietors. The ground is more
adapted for pafturage than grain; but that on the fide
of Lochow is fruitful in both.
KNAPSACK, in a militafy fenfe, a rough leather
bag which a foldier carries on his back, and which
contains all his neceffaries. Square knapfacks are
moft convenient; and fhould be made with a divifion
to hold the (hoes, black-ball and brufties, feparate from
the linen. White goat-fkins are the beft.
KNAVE, an old Saxon word, which had at firft a
fenfe of fimplicity and innocence, for it (ignified a boy ;.
Sax. cnapa, whence a knave-child, i. e. a boy, diftin-
guifhed from a girl, in feveral old writers; afterwards
it was taken for a fervant-boy, and at length for any
fervant-man. Alfo it was applied to a minifter or
officer that bore the (hield or weapon of his fuperior;
as field-knapa, whom the Latins call armiger, and the
French efeuyer, 14 Edw. III. c. 3. And it was fome*
times of old made ufe of as a titular addition : as
Joannis C. filius WiUielmi C. de Derby, knave, dye.
22 Hen. VII. c. 37. The word is now perverted to
the hardeft meaning, viz. a falfe deceitfulfellc’w.
KNAVESHIP, in Scots law, one of the names of
the fmall duties payable in thirlage to the miller’s fer-
vants, called fequels.
KNEE, in anatomy, the articulation of the thigh
and leg bones.
23 A Kst*
Knee.
K N E [ 4046 ] K N I
Knee, in a fhip, a crooked piece of timber, having
two branches, or arms, and generally ufed to conneft
the beams of a (h-ip with her tides or timbers.
The branches of the knees form an angle of greater
or fmaller extent, according to the mutual fituation of
the pieces which they are defigned to unite. One
branch is fecurely bolted to one of the deck-beams,
whilft the other is in the fame manner attached to a
correfponding timber in the thip’s fide, as reprefented
by E in the plate of WIwshw-Frame.
Befides the great utility of knees in connefting the
beams and timbers into one compadl frame, they con¬
tribute greatly to the ftrength and folidity of the fitip,
in the different parts of her frame to which they are
bolted; and thereby enable her, with greater firmnefs,
to refift the effe&s of a turbulent fea.
In fixing of thefe pieces, it is occafionally necefiary
to give an oblique direftion to the vertical or fide
branch, in order to avoid the range of an adjacent
gun-port, or, becaufe the knee r.-ay be fo fhaped as to
require this difpofition ; it being fometimes difficult to
procure fo great a variety of knees as maybe neceffary
in the conftruftion of a number of (hips of war.
In France, the fcarcity of thefe pieces has obliged
their (hip-wrights frequently to form their knees of
iron.
Knees are either faid to be lodging or hanging.
The former are fixed horizontally in the (hip’s frame,
having one arm bolted to the beam, and the other
acrofs two or three timbers, as reprefented in the
Deck, PI. LXXXIII. The latter are fixed vertically,,
as we have defcribed above. See alfo Sniv-Buildingy
Deck, and Midship-Enriwi?.
Knee of the Head, a large flat piece of
timber, fixed edgeways upon the fore-part of a
fhip’s (lem, and fupporting the ornamental figure or
image placed under the bowfprit. See Ship-
Building.
The knee of the head, which may properly be de¬
fined a continuation of the ftem, as being prolonged
from the ftem forwards, is extremely broad at the
upper-part, and accordingly compofed of feveral pieces
united into one, YY, (Pieces of the Hull, inS»\v-Build-
ing Plates). It is let into the head, and fecured to
the (hip’s bows by ftrong knees fixed horizontally
upon both, and called the cheeks of the head. The
heel of it is fcarfed to the upper-end of the fore¬
foot; and it is faftened to the ftem above by a knee,
called a ftandard, exprefled by & in the plate.
Befides fupporting the figure of the head, this
piece is otherwife ufeful, as ferving to fecure the
boom, or bumkin, by which the fore-tack is extended
to windward ; and, by its great breadth, preventing
the (hip from falling to leeward when clofe-hauled, fo
much as (he would otherwife do. It alfo affords a
greater fecurity to the bowfprit, by increafing the
angle of the bob-ftay, fo as to make it adl more per¬
pendicularly on the bowfprit.
The knee of the head is a phrafe peculiar to (hip-
wrights; as tins piece is always called the cut-<water
by feamen, if we except a few, who, affefting to be
wifer than their brethren, have adopted this expreflion
probably on the prefumption that the other is a cant-
phrafe or vulgarifm.
Knees, in a (hip, thofe timbers wliich ex¬
tend from the fhip to the hatch-way, and bear up the Kneller |
deck on both fides. j j
KNELLER (Sir Godfrey), a painter, whofe fame
is well ellablifhed in thefe kingdoms.. He was born ]
at Lubeck in 164'j; and received his firft inftru&ions
in the fchool of Rembrandt, but became afterwards a
difciple of Ferdinand Bob When he had gained as
much knowledge as that fchool afforded him, he tra¬
velled to Rome, where he fixed his particular attention
on Titian and the Caracci. He afterwards vifited
Venice, and diftinguifhed himfelf fo effedualiy in that
city by his hiftorical pictures, and portraits of the noble
families there, that his reputation became confiderablc
in Italy. By the advice of fome friends he came at
laft to England, where it was his good fortune to gain
the favour of the duke of Monmouth : by his recom¬
mendation, he drew the pi&ure of king Charles II.
more than once; who was fo taken with his (kill in
doing it, that he ufed to come and fit to him at hi*
houfe in Covent-garden piazza. The death of Sir
Peter Lely left him without a competitor in England,
and from that time his fortune and fame were tho¬
roughly eftablilhed. No painter could have more in-
ceffant employment, and no painter could be more
diftinguiihed by public honour. He was ftace-painter
to Charles II. James II. William III. queen Anne,
and George I. equally efteemed and refpe&ed by
them all: the emperor Leopold made him a knight of
the Roman empire, and king George I. created him a
baronet. Moft of the nobility and gentry bad their
likeneffes taken by him, and no painter excelled him
in a fure outline, or in the graceful difpofition of his
figures: his works were celebrated by the beft poets
in his time. He built himfelf an elegant houfe at
Whitton nearHampton-court, where he fpent thelatter
part of his life; and died in 1726.
KNIFE, a well-known inftrument, made for cut-
ting All forts of knives are prohibited to be im¬
ported.
KNIGHT (eques), among the Romans, a perfon of
the fecond degree of nobility, following immediately
that of the fenators.
Part of the ceremony whereby this honour was con¬
ferred, was the giving of an horfe; for each had an
horfe at the public charge, and received the (Upend of
a horfeman to ferve in the wars.
When the knights were taken in among the fena¬
tors, they refigned the privilege of having an horfe
kept for them at the charge of the public; then it be¬
came neceflary, in order to be a knight, that they
(hould have a certain revenue, that their poverty might
not difgrace the order; and when they failed of the
prefcribed revenue, they were expunged out of the
lift of knights, and thruft down among the Plebeians.
Ten thoufand crowns is compouted to have been the
revenue required.
lire knights at length grow fo very powerful, that
they became a balance between the power of the fe-
nate and people: they negle&ed the exercifes of war,
and betook themfelves principally to civil employments
in Rome.
Knight, or Cnecht (Germ.), in feodal hiftory,
was originally an appellation or title given by the
ancient Germans to their youth after being admitted
to the privilege of bearing arms.
The
K N I [ 4047 1 K N I
Knight* The paffion for arms among the Germanic Rates,
hood‘ as defcribed by Dr Stuart *, was carried to extremity.
It was amidft fcenes of death and peril that the young
were ec^ucate^: It was by valour and feats of prowefs
ro/ejp. 45. ^lat t^e ambitious fignalized their manhood. All the
honours they knew were allotted to the brave. The
fword opened the path to glory. It was in the field
that the ingenuous and the noble flattered moft their
pride, and acquired an afcendancy. The ftrength of
their bodies, and the vigour of their counfels, fur-
rounded them with warriors, and lifted them to com¬
mand.
But, among thefe nations, when the individual felt
the call of valour, and wifhed to try his ftrength
againft an enemy, he could not of his own autlvority
take the lance and the javelin. The admiflion of their
youth to the privilege of bearing arms, was a matter
of too much importance to be left to chance or their
own choice. A form was invented by which they
were advanced to that honour.
The council of the diftridl, or of the canton to
which the candidate belonged, was afiembled. His
age and his qualifications were inquired into; and, if
he was deemed worthy of being admitted to the pri¬
vileges of a foldier, a chieftain, his father, or one of
his kindred, adorned him with the ftiield and the lance.
In confequence of this folemnity, he prepared todiftin-
guilh himfelf; his mind opened to the cares of the
public; and the domeftic concerns, or the offices of the
family from which he had fprung, were no longer the
obje&s of his attention. To this ceremony, fo Ample
and fo interefting, the inftitution of knighthood is in¬
debted for its rife.
Knighthood, however, as a fyftem, known under
the denomination of Chivalry, is to be dated only
from the nth century. All Europe being reduced
to a Hate of anarchy and confufion on the decline of
the houfe of Charlemagne, every proprietor of a manor
or lordlhip became a petty fovereign ; the manfion-
houfe was fortified by a moat, defended by a guard,
and called a cajils. The governor had a party of 700
or 800 men at his command; and with thefe he ufed
frequently to make excurfions, which commonly ended
in a battle with the lord of fome petty Rate of the
fame kind, whofe caftle was then pillaged, and the
women and treafures borne off by the conqueror.
During this Rate of univerfal hoftility, there was no
friendly communications between the provinces, nor
any high roads from one part of the kingdom to ano¬
ther : the wealthy traders, who then travelled from
place to place with their merchandize and their fami¬
lies, were in perpetual danger ; the lord of almoft
every caftle extorted fomething from them on the
road; and at laft, fome one more rapacious than the
reft, feized upon the whole of the cargo, and bore off
the women for his own ufe.
Thus caftles became the warehoufes of all kinds of
rich merchandize, and the prifons of the diftreffed fe¬
males whofe fathers or lovers had been plundered or
llain, and who being, therefore, feldom difpofed to
take the thief or murderer into favour, were in conti¬
nual danger of a rape.
But as fome are always diftinguiihed by virtue in
the moft general defeftion, it happened that many
lords infenfibly affociated to reprefs thefe fallies of vio¬
lence and rapine, to fecure property, and protcft the Knight-
ladies. Among thefe were many lords of great fiefs; hood-
and the affociation was at length ftrengthened by a
folemn vow, and received the fan&ion of a religious
ceremony. As the firft knights were men of the
higheft rank, and the largeft pofftflions, fuch having
moft to lofe, and the leaft temptation to tteal, the fra¬
ternity was regarded with a kind of reverence, even
by thofe againft whom it was formed. Admiffion into
the order was deemed the higheft honour; many ex¬
traordinary qualifications were required in a candidate,
and many new ceremonies were added at his creation.
After having fafted from fun-rife, confeffed himfelf,
and received the facrament, he was dreffed in a white
tunic, and placed by himfelf at a fide-table, where he
was neither to fpeak, to fmile, nor to eat; while the
knights and ladies, who were to perform the principal
parts of the ceremony, were eating, drinking, and
making merry at the great table. At night his ar¬
mour was conveyed to the church where the ceremony
was performed; and here having watched it till the
morning, he advanced with his fword hanging about his
neck, and received the benedi&ion of the prieft. He
then kneeled down before the lady who was to put on
his armour, who being aflifted by perfons of the firft.
rank, buckled on his fpurs, put an helmet on his head,
and accoutred him with a coat of mail, acuirafs, brace¬
lets, cuiffcs, and gauntlets.
Being thus armed cap-a-pee, the knight who dub¬
bed him ftruck him three times over the fhoulder, with
the flat fide of his fword, in the name of God, St Mi¬
chael, and St George. He was then obliged to watch
all night in all his armour, with his fword girded, and
his lance in his hand. From this time the knight de¬
voted himfelf to the redrefs of thofe wrongs which
“ patient merit of the unworthy takes;” to fecure mer¬
chants from the rapacious cruelty of banditti, and wo¬
men from ravilhers, to whofe power they were, by the
particular confufion of the times, continually expofed.
From this view of the origin of chivalry, it will be
eafy to account for the caftle, the moat, and the bridge,
which are found in romances; and as to the dwarf, he
was a conftant appendage to the rank and fortune of
thofe times, and no caftle therefore could be without
him. The dwarf and the buffoon were then introdu¬
ced to kill time, as the card-table is at prefent. It will
alfo be eafy to account for the multitude of captive
ladies, whom the knights, upon feizing a caftle, fet at
liberty; and for the prodigious quantities of ufelefs
gold and filver veffels, rich fluffs, and other mer¬
chandize, with which many apartments in thefe caftles
are faid to have been filled.
The principal lords who entered into the confrater¬
nity of knights, ufed to fend their fons to each other,
to be educated, far from their parents, in the myftery
of chivalry. Thefe youths, before they arrived at the
age of 21,were called bachelors, or has chevaliers, infe¬
rior knights, and at that age were qualified to receive
the order.
So honourable was the origin of an inftitution, com¬
monly confidered as the refult of caprice, and the
fource of extravagance; but which, on the contrary,
rofe naturally from the ftate of fociety in thofe times,
and had a very ferious effe& in refining the manners of
the European nations. Valour, humanity, courtefy,
23 A 2 juftice,
K N I [ 404$ ] K N I
Knight- juftlce, honour, were its charafteriftics: and to thefe
k°oti- were added religion; which, by infilling a large por¬
tion of enthufialiic zeal, carried them all to a roman¬
tic excefs, wonderfully fuited to the genius of the age,
and productive of the greateft and molt permanent ef-
fedts both upon policy and manners. War was carried
on with lefs ferocity, when humanity, no lefs than
courage, came to be deemed the ornament of knight¬
hood, and knighthood adiftinftion fuperior to royalty,
and an honour which princes were proud to receive
from the hands of private gentlemen: more gentle and
polilhed manners were introduced, when courtefy was
recommended as the molt amiable of knightly virtues,
and every knight devoted himfelf to the fervice of a
lady : violence and oppreffion decreafed, when it was
accounted meritorious to check and to punilh them :
a fcrupulous adherence to truth, with the molt religi¬
ous attention to fulfil every engagement, but particu¬
larly thofe between the fexes as more eafily violated,
became the dillinguilhing charafter of a gentleman,
becaufe chivalry was regarded as the fchool of honour,
and inculcated the moll delicate fenfibility with refpeft
to that point; and valour, fecondtd by fo many mo¬
tives of love, religion, and virtue, became altogether
irrefiftible.
That the fpirit of chivalry fometimes rofe to an ex¬
travagant height, and had often a pernicious tendency,
muft however be allowed. In Spain, under the influ¬
ence of a romantic gallantry, it gave birth to a feries
of wild adventures, which have been defervedly ridi¬
culed: in the train of Norman ambition, it extinguilh-
ed the liberties of England, and deluged Italy in blood;
and at the call of fuperdition, and as the engine of
papal power, it defolated Afia under the banner of the
crofs. But thefe ought not to be confidered as argu¬
ments againft an inllitution laudable in itfelf, and ne-
cefiary at the time of its foundation : and thofe who
pretend to defpife it, the advocates of ancient barba-
rifm and ancient rullicity, ought to remember, that
chivalry not only firft taught mankind to carry the ci¬
vilities of peace into the operations war, and to mingle
politenefs with the ufe of the fword; but roufed the
foul from its lethargy, invigorated the human cha-
rafter even while it foftened it, and produced ex¬
ploits which antiquity cannot parallel. Nor ought they
to forget, that it gave variety, elegance, and pleafure,
to the intercourfe of life, by making woman a more
efiential part of fociety; and is therefore entitled to
our gratitude, though the point of honour, and the re¬
finements in gallantry, its more doubtful effedls, fhould
be excluded from the improvement of modern man¬
ners. For,
To illutlrate this topic more particularly, we may
obferve, that women, among the ancient Greeks and
Romans, feem to have been confidered merely as ob-
je&s of fenfuality, or of domeftic conveniency: they
were devoted to a ftate of feclufion and obfcurity, had
few attentions paid them, and were permitted to take
as little (hare in the converfation, as in the general com¬
merce of life. But the northern nations, who paid a
kind of devotion to the fofter fex, even in their native
forefts, had no fooner fettled themfelves in the pro¬
vinces of the Roman empire, than the female charac¬
ter'began to afiume new confequence. Thofe fierce
barbarians, who feemed to third only for blood, who
involved in one undiftingnifhing ruin the monuments Knight-
of ancient grandeur and ancient ingenuity, and who ,100d-
devoted to the flames the knowledge of ages, always '
forbore to offer any violence to the women. They
brought along with them the refpedlful gallantry of
the north, which had power even to reftrain their fa-
vage ferocity; and they introduced into the weft of
Europe, a generofity of fentiment, and a complaifance
toward the ladies, to which the moft polifhed nations
of antiquity were ftrangers.—Thefe fentiments of ge¬
nerous gallantry were foftered by the inftitution of
chivalry, which lifted woman yet higher in the fcale
of life. Inftead of being nobody in fociety, fhe be¬
came its prinium mobile. Every knight devoting him¬
felf to danger, declared himfelf the humble fervant of
fome lady, and that lady was often the objedl of his
love. Her honour was fuppofed to be intimately con¬
nected with his, and her fmile was the reward of his
valour: for her he attacked, for her he defended, and
for her he (hed his blood. Courage, animated by fo
powerful a motive, loft fight of every thing but enter-
prife: incredible toils were cheerfully endured ; incre¬
dible aCtions were performed; and adventures feeming-
ly fabulous were more than realized. The effeCt was
reciprocal. Women, proud of their influence, became
worthy of the heroifm which they had infpired: they
were not to be approached but by the high-minded
and the brave; and men then could only be admitted
to the bofom of the chafte fair, after proving their fi¬
delity and affeftion by years of perfeverance and of
peril.
Again, as to the change which took place in the ope¬
rations of war, it may be obferved, that the perfeft hero
of antiquity was fuperior to fear, bnt he made ufe of
every artifice to annoy his enemy: impelled by animo-
fity and hoftile pafiion, like the favage in fhe American
woods, he was only anxious of attaining his end, with¬
out regarding whether fraud or force were the means.
But the true knight or modern hero of the middle ages,
who feems in all his rencounters to have had his eye on
the judicial combat, or judgment of God, had an equal
contempt for ftratagem and danger. He difdained to
take advantage of his enemy: he defin'd only to fee
him, and to combat him upon equal terms, trufting that
heaven would declare in behalf of the juft; and as he
profeffed only to vindicate the caufeof religion, of injured
beauty or oppreffed innocence, be was further confirm¬
ed in this cnthufiaftic opinion by his own heated ima¬
gination. Strongly perfuaded that the decilion muft
be in his favour, he fought as if under the influence of
divine infpiration, rather than of military ardour. Thus
the fyftem of chivalry, by a Angular combination of
manners, blended the heroic and fan&ified chara&ers,
united devotion and valour, zeal and gallantry, and re¬
conciled the love of God and of the ladies.
Chivalry flourifhed moft during the time of the
croifades. From thefe holy wars it followed, that
new fraternities of knighthood were invented : hence
the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, the Hofpitallers,
Templars, and an infinite number of religious or¬
ders. Various other orders were at length inftituted
by fovereign princes : the G-vter, by Edward III.
of England; the Golden Fleece, by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy ; and St Michael, by Lewis XI. of
France. From this time ancient chivalry declined to
an
Knight-
Service.
K N I
an empty name; when fovereign princes eftabliflied re¬
gular companies in their armies, knights-bannercts
were no more, though it was ftill thought an honour
to be dubbed by a great prince or viflorious hero; and
all who profeff-d arms without knighthood, aflumed
the title of efquire.
There is fcarce a prince in Europe that has not
thought fit to inftitute an order of knighthood ; and
the fimple title of knight, which the kings of Britain
confer on private fubje&s, is a derivation .from ancient
chivalry, although very remote from its fource. See
.Aftf/gV^-BATCHELOR.
Knight-Service, (fervitium militare, and in law-
French chivalry); a fpecies of Tenure, the origin and
nature of which are explained under the articles Chi¬
valry, and Feodal Syjlem, n° 13,—21.
The knights produced by this tenure differed moft
effentially from the, knights defcribed in the pre¬
ceding article; though the difference feems not to
have been accurately attended to by authors (a).
The one clafs of knights was of a high antiqui¬
ty ; the other was not heard of till the invention
of a fee. The adorning with arms and the blow
[ 4049 ]
K N I
out grants of their lands, and who were merely the Knight-
knights of tenure. It is no lefs true, that the foverelgn, Service,
without conferring nobility, might give even a fingle -
fee to a tenant; and fuch vaffals in capite of the crown,
as well as the vaffals of fingle fees from a fubjett, were
the mere knights of tenure. But the former, in ref]>e£l
of their holding from the crown, were to be called to
take upon themfelves the knighthood of honour; a
condition, in which they might rife from the ranks,
and be promoted to offices and command. And, as to
the vaffals in capite of the crown, who had many fees,
their wealth, of itfelf, fufficiently dillinguifhed them
beyond the ftate of the mere knights of tenure. In
fail, they poffefled an authority over men who were of
this laft defeription; for, in proportion to their lands,
were the fees they gave out, and the knights they com¬
manded.
By the tenure of knight-fervice, the greateft part
of the lands in England were holden, and that princi¬
pally of the king in capite, till the middle of the laft
century ; and which was created, as Sir Edward Coke
exprefsly teftifies, fora military purpofe ; viz. for de-
fence of the realm by the king’s own principal fub- Comment*
of the fword, made the atb of the creation of the an- je£ls, which was judged to be much better than to
cient knight ; the new knight was conftituted by an
inveftment in a piece of land. The former was the
member of an order of dignity which had particular
privileges and diftin&ions ; the latter was the receiver
of a feudal grant. Knighthood was an honour; knight-
fervice a tenure. The firft communicated fplendour
to an army ; the laft gave it ftrength and numbers.
The knight of honour might ferve in any ftation what¬
ever; the knight of tenure was in the rank of a fol-
dier.—It is true, at the fame time, that every noble
and baron were knights of tenure, as they held their
lands by knight-fervice. But the number of fees they
poffefled, and their creation into rank, feparated them
widely from the fimple individuals, to whom they gave
trull to hirelings or foreigners. The defeription hera
given is that of knight-fervice proper ; which was to
attend the king in his wars. There were alfo fome
other fpecies of knight-fervice ; fo called, though im¬
properly, becaufe the fervice or render was of a free
and honourable nature, and equally uncertain as to the
time of rendering as that of knight-fervice proper, and
becaufe they were attended with fimilar fruits and con-
fequences. Such was the tenure by grand ferjeanty,
per magntim fervitium, whereby the tenant was bound,
inflead of ferving the king generally in his wars, to do
fome fpecial honorary fervice to the king in perfon;
as to carry his banner, his fword, or the like ; or be
his butler, champion, or other officer, at his corona¬
tion.
(a) “ The terms knight and chivaler, (Dr Stuart* obferves), denoted both the knight of honour antllznight of tenure ; '‘View of Str¬
and chivalry was ufed to exprefs both knighthood and knight-fervice. Hence, it has proceeded, that thefe perfons and c\:y in Eu-
thefe ftates have been confounded.' Yet the marks of their difference are fo ftrong and pointed, that one muff: wonder ^/e,p.346,.
that writers fhould miftake them. It is not, however, mean and common compilers only who have been deceived. Sir
Edward Coke, notwithftanding his diftinguilhing head, is of this number. When eftimating the value of the knight’s
fee at L.20 per annum, he appeals to the ftatute de militihus, an. 1 Ed. II. and, by the fenfe of his illuftration, he con¬
ceives, that the knights alluded to there, were the fame with the pofTelTors of knight’s fees:- and they, no doubt, had
knight’s fees; but a knight’s fee might be enjoyed not only by the tenants in capite of the crown, but by the tenants
of a vafial, or by the tenants of a fub-vaflal. Now, to thefe the ftatute makes no allufion. It did not mean to annex
knighthood to every land-holder in the kingdom who had a knight’s fee ; but to encourage arms, by requiring the
tenants in capite of the crown to take to them the dignity. He thus confounds knighthood: and the knight's fee* Coke
on Littleton, p. 69.
“ If I am not deceived, Sir William Blackftone has fallen into the fame miftake, and has added to it. Speaking of
the knights of honour, of the equites aurati from the g:lt fpurs they wore, he thus exprefles himfeif: 4 They are
‘ alfo called, in our law, milites, becaufe they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal army, in virtue of
‘ their feodal tenures ; one condition of which was, that every one who held a knight’s fee (which in Henry JI.’s
‘ time amounted to L.20 per annum'), was obliged to be knighted, and attend the king in his wars, or fined for his
‘ non-compliance. The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient to raife money, in the reign of Charles L gave
‘ great offence, though warranted by law and the recent example of queen Elizabeth: but it was, at the reftoration,.
‘ together with all other military branches of the feodal law, abolifhed ;,and this kind of knighthood has, fince that
* time, fallen into great difrepute.’ Book L ch. 12.
“ After what has been faid, I need hardly obferve, that this learned and able writer has confounded the knight of
honour and the knight of tenure; and that the requifition to take knighthood was not made to exwj pofTeffor of
a knight’s fee, but to the tenants of knight’s fees held in capite of the crown, who had merely a fufficiency to main¬
tain the dignity, and were thence difpofed not to take it. The idea that the whole force of the royal army confifted
of knights of honour, or dubbed knights, is fo extraordinary a circumftance, that it might have fhown, of itfelf, to this
eminent writer, the fource of his error. Had every foldier in the feudal army received the inveftiture of arms? could
he wear a feal, fbrpafs in (ilk and drefs, ufe enfigns-armorial, and enjoy all the other privileges of knighthood? But,
while I hazard thefe remarks, my reader will obferve, that it is with the greateft deference I diffent from Sir William
Blackftone, whole abilities are the object of a moft general and deferved admiration.” [TV. B. The reader will pleafe:
to advert, that this error has been copied by us from that author, under the article TsTtz/^Z-Batchelor.]
Service”
K N I [ 4050 ] K N O
tion. It was, in raoft other refpefts, like knight-fer-
vice ; only he was not bound to pay aid, or efcuage ;
'and, when tenant by knight-fervice paid five pounds
fora relief on every-knight’s fee, tenant by grand-fer-
jeanty paid one year’s value of his land, were it much
or little. Tenure by carnage, which was to wind a
horn when the Scots or other enemies entered the
land, in order to warn the king’s fubje&s, was (like
other fervices of the fame nature) a fpecies of grand-
ferjeanty.
Thefe fervices, both of chivalry and grand-ferjean-
ty, were all perfonal, and uncertain as to their quan¬
tity or duration. But, the perfonal attendance in
knight-fervice growing troublefome and inconvenient
in many refpefts, the tenants found means of com¬
pounding for it; by firftfending others in their ftead,
and in procefs of time making a pecuniary fatisfadtion
to the lords in lieu of it. This pecuniary fatisfaftion
at laft came to be levied by afTefTments, at fo much for
every knight’s fee ; and therefore this kind of tenure
was called fcutagium in Latin, or fervitium fcuti; fcu-
tum being then a well-known denomination of money :
and in like manner it was called, in pur Norman French,
efcuage; being indeed a pecuniary, inftead of a military,
fervice. The firft time this appears to have been taken
was in the 5 Hen. II. on account of his expedition to
Touloufe; but it foon came to be fo univerfal, that
perfonal attendance fell quite into difufe. Hence we
lind in our ancient hiftories, that, from this period,
when our kings went to war, they levied fcutages on
their tenants, that is, on all the landholders of the
kingdom, to defray their expences, and to hire troops :
and thefe affeffments, in the time of Henry II. feem
to have been made arbitrarily, and at the king’s pleafure.
Which prerogative being greatly abufed by his fuccef-
fors, it became matter of national clamour; and king
John was obliged to confent, by his wagna carta,
that no fcutage fhould be impofed without confent of
parliament. But this claufe was omitted in his fon
Henry III.’s charter ; where we only find, that fcu¬
tages or efcuage fhould be taken as they were ufed to
be taken in the time of Henry II. ; that is, in a rea-
fonable and moderate manner. Yet afterwards, by fta-
tute 25 Edw. I. c. 5. & 6. and many fubfequent fta-
tutes, it was ena&ed, that the king fhould take no aids
or tafks but by the common affent of the realm. Hence
it is held in our old books, that efcuage or fcutage
could not be levied but by confent of parliament; fuch
fcutages being indeed the groundwork of all fucceed-
ing fubfidies, and the land-tax of later times.
Since, therefore, efcuage differed from knight-fer¬
vice in nothing but as a compenfation differs from ac¬
tual fervice, knight-fervice is frequently confounded
with it. And thus Littleton muft be underftood,
when he tells us, that tenant by homage, fealty, and
efcage, was tenant by knight-fervice: that is, that
this tenure (being fubfervient to the military policy of
the nation) was refpefted as a tenure in chivalry. But
as the adfual fervice was uncertain, and depended up¬
on emergencies, fo it was neceffary that this pecuniary
compenfation fhould be equally uncertain, and de¬
pend on the affeffments of the legiflature fuited to thofe
emergencies. For had the efeu^ge been a fettled inva¬
riable fum, payable at certain times, it had been neither
tnore nor lefs than a mere pecuniary rent; and the te¬
nure, inftead of knight-fervice, would have then been
of another kind, called socage.
By the degenerating of knight-fervice, or perfonal
military duty, into efcuage, or pecuniary afleffments,
all the advantages (either promifed or real) of thefeo-
dal conftitutions were deftroyed, and nothing but the
hardfhips remained. Inftead of forming a national mi¬
litia compofed of barons, knights, and gentlemen,
bound by their intereft, their honour, and their oaths,
to defend their king and country, the whole of thisly-
ftem of tenures now tended to nothing elfe but a
wretched means of raifing money to pay an army of
occafional mercenaries. In the mean time the fami¬
lies of all our nobility and gentry groaned under the
intolerable burdens (in confequence of the fiftion a-
dopted after the conqueft) were introduced and laid
upon them by the fubtlety and finefle of the Norman
lawyers. For, befides the fcutages to which they
were liable in deleft of perfonal attendance, which,
however, were afleffed by themfelves in parliament,
they might be called upon by the king or lord para¬
mount for aids, whenever his eldeft fon was to be
knighted, or his eldeft daughter married ; not to for¬
get the ranfom of his own perfon. The heir, on the
death of his anceftor, if of full age, was plundered of
the firft emoluments arifing from his inheritance, by
way of relief and primer feifin ; and, if under age, of
the whole of his eftate during infancy. And then, as
Sir Thomas Smith very feelingly complains, “ when
he came to his own, after he was out of vuardfhip, his
woods decayed, houfes fallen down, flock wafted and
gone, lands let forth and ploughed to be barren,” to
make amends, he was yet to pay half a year’s profits
as a fine for fuing out his livery ; and alfo the price or
value of his marriage, if be refufed fuch wife as his
lord and guardian had bartered for, and impofed upon
him ; or twice that value, if he married another wo¬
man. Add to this, the untimely and expenfive ho¬
nour of knighthood, to make his poverty more com¬
pletely fplendid. And when, by thefe deduftions,
his fortune was fo fhattered and ruined, that perhaps
he was obliged to fell his patrimony, he had not even
that poor privilege allowed him, without paying ah ex¬
orbitant fine for a licence of alienation.
A flavery fo complicated, and fo extenfive as this,
called aloud for a remedy in a nation that boafted of
her freedom. Palliatives were from time to time ap¬
plied by fucceffive afts of parliament, which afiuaged
fome temporary grievances. Till at length the huma¬
nity of king James I. confented, for a proper equiva¬
lent, to abolifh them all ; though the plan then pro¬
ceeded not to effeft ; in like manner as he had formed
a fcheme, and began to put it in execution, for remo¬
ving the feodal-grievance of heritable jurifdiftions in
Scotland, which has fince been purfued and effefted
by the ftatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43. King James’s plan
for exchanging our military tenures feems to have been
nearly the fame as that which has been fince purfued ;
only with this difference, that by way of compen¬
fation for the lofs which the crown and other lords
would fuftain, an annual fee-farm rent fhould be fet¬
tled and infeparably annexed to the crown, and af-
fured to the inferior lords, payable out of every knight’s
fee within their refpeftive feignories. An expedient,
feemingly much better than the hereditary excife
which
Knight- |
Service, j
K N O
Knight which was afterwards made the principal equivalent
KnolJes ^°r t^e^e conceffi°ns* F°r at length the military te*
  mires, with all their heavy appendages, weredeftroy-
cd at one blow by the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
which ena&s, “that the court of ward or liveries, and
all wardfhips, liveries, primer feifins, and oufterle-
mains, values and forfeitures of marriages, by reafon
of any tenure of the king or others, be totally taken
away. And that all fines for alienations, tenures by
homage, knights-fervice, and efcuage, and alfo aids
[ 4°5> ]
K N O
fnire, about the middle of the 16th century, and educa- Knoites
ted at Oxford, after which he was appointed mailer of ii
the free-fchool at Sandwich in Kent. He rompofed . Knox-_
Grammatlca Latina, Graca, et Helraica, compen¬
dium, cum radicibus, London 1606; and fent a great
number of well-grounded fcholars to the univerfities.
He alfo fpent 12 years in compiling a hiftory of the
Turks; which was firft printed in 1610, and by which
he has perpetuated his name. In the later editions it
is called, “ The general hillory of the Turks, from
for marrying the daughter or knighting the fon, and the firit beginning of that nation, to the riling of the
all tenures of the king in capite, be likewife taken a- Ottomon family, &c.’’ He died in 1610, and this
way. And that all forts of tenures, held of the king hillory ha3 been fince continued by feveral hands: the
or others, be turned into free and common focage ; belt continuation is that by Paul Ricaut conful at Smyr-
fave only tenures in frankalmoign, copyholds, and the na, folio, London 1680. Knolles wrote alfo, “ The
honorary fervices (without the llavilh part) of grand- lives and conquells of the Ottoman kings and emper-
fergeanty.” A llatute, which was a greater acquifition ors, to the year 1610 ; which was not printed till after
to the civil property of this kingdom thaneven magna his death in 1621, to which time it was continued by
carta itfelf: fince that only pruned the luxuriances another hand ; and lallly, “ A brief difcourfe of the
that had grown-out of the military tenures, and there- greatnefs of the Turkilh empire, and wherein the
by preferved them in vigour ; but the ftatute of king greatnefs of the ftrength thereof confifteth, &c.”
Charles extirpated the whole, and demolilhed both root KNOT, apart of a tree, from which {hoots out
and branches. branches, roots, or even fruit. The ufe of the knots
KniGHTS-isrrrf/tf. During the prevalence of chi- is, to ftrengthen the ftem ; they ferve alfo as fearces,
valry, the ardour of redrefling wrongs feized many to filtrate, purify, and refine the juices raifed up for
knights fo powerfully, that, attended by efqwires, the nourilhment of the plant.
they wandered about in fearch of obje&s whofe mis- Knots of a Rope, among feamen, are diftinguifhed
fortunes and mifery required their affiftance and fuc- into three kinds, viz. whole-knot, that made fo with
eour. And, as ladies engaged more particularly the lays of a rope that it cannot flip, ferving for
their attention, the relief of unfortunate damfels was ftieets, tacks, and ftoppers : bow-line knot, that fo
the atchievement they moft courted. This was the firmly made, and faftened to the cringles of the fails,
rife of knights-errant, whofe adventures produced ro- that they mull break or the fail fplit before it flips s
mance. Thefe were originally told as they happen- and flieep-fhank knot, that made by ftiortening a rope
ed. But the love of the marvellous came to inter- without cutting it, which may be prefently loofened.
fere; fancy was indulged in her wildeft exaggerations,
and poetry gave her charms to the moft monftrous
fidtions, and to fcenes the moft unnatural and gigam-
tic. See Knight.
K.'sight-Bachelor. See Batchelor.
Knights of the Shire, or Knights of Parliament,
and the rope not the worfe for it.
Knot <?/' the Log-line, at fea, are the divifions of it-
See the article Log-
Knot, in ornithology. See Tringa.
Grafs, orbiftort. See Polygonum.
Knot (Edward), born in Northumberland in Eng-
are two gentlemen of worth, chofen on the king’s writ land, entered among the Jefuits at the age of 26,
*n plena comitatu, by fuch of the freeholders of every being already in prieft’s orders. This happened in
county as can expend 40/. per ann. to reprefent fuch
county in parliament.
Thefe, when every man who held a knights-fee in
capite of the crown was cuftomarily conftrained to be
a knight, were of neceflity to be milites gladio cinfti,
for fo the writ runs to this day; bin now cuftom admits
efquires to be chofen to this office.
They mull have at leaft 500/. per ann, and their
expences are to be defrayed by the county, tho’ this be
feldom, now, required.
KNiGHT^/lLir/W,. an officer in the king’s houfe-
hold, who has jurifdiclion and cognizance of any tranf-
greffion within the king’s houfehojd and verge ; as alfo
of contra&s made there, whereof one of the houfe is
Party*
Knights, in a fhip, two (hort thick, pieces of wood,
commonly carved like a man’s head, having four fhi-
vers in each, three for the. halyards, and one for the
fop to run in : one of them {lands fall bolted oa the
beams abaft the foremaft, and is therefore called the
fore-knight; and the other. Handing abaft the main-
maft, is called the main-knight.
KNOLLES (Richard), was born in Northampton-
the year 1606.. He taught a long time at Rome in
the Englifli college;.and was afterwards appointed
fob-provincial of the college of England, and was fent
provincial thither. He was twice honoured with that
employment. He was prefent as provincial at the-
general aflembly of the order of the Jefoitsheldat Rome
in 1646, andwaschofen definitor. He died in 1696.
He publiflied-feveral pieces ; among the reft, “ Mer¬
cy and Truth, or Charity maintained by the Catholics;”
againft Dr Potter, who had charged the church of
Rome with wanting charity, becaufe fhe afferts that
a man cannot be faved in the proteftant communion.
KNOWLEDGE, is defined by Mr Locke to be.
the perception of the conne&Lon and agreement or
difagreement and repugnancy of our ideas. See Me¬
taphysics, .n° 163—231 ; and Logic, n° 27—29.
53-
KNOX (John), the hero of the reformation in.
Scotland, was born in 1505, at Gifford near Had¬
dington in Eaft Lothian; and educated at the univer-
fity of St Andrew’s, where he took a degree in arts,
and commenced teacher very early in life. At this
time the new religion of Martin Luther was but little
known
K N O [ 4052 ] K O E
known in Scotland ; Mr Knox therefore at firft was a
zealous Roman-catholic : but, attending the fermons
of a certain black friar, named GuialHam, he began
to waver in his opinions ; and afterwards converfing
with the famous WHhart, who, in 1544, came to
Scotland with the commiffioners fent by Henry VIII.
he renounced the Romifli religion, and became a zea¬
lous reformer. Being appointed tutor to the fons of
the lairds of Ormiftoun and Langniddcry, he began to
inftrudl them in the principles of the Proteftant reli¬
gion ; and, on that account, was fo violently perfe-
cuted by the bifhop of St Andrew’s, that, with his
two pupils, he was obliged, in the year 1547, to take
{helter in the caflle of that place. But the caftle was
belieged and taken by 21 French galleys. He con¬
tinued a prifoner on board a galley two years, name¬
ly, till the latter end of the year 1549; when being
fet at liberty, he landed in England, and, having ob¬
tained a licence, was appointed preacher, firft at Ber¬
wick, and afterwards at Newcaftle. Strype conjec¬
tures, that in 1552 he was appointed chaplain to Ed¬
ward VI. He certainly obtained an annual penfion
of 40 hand was offered the living of All hallows in
London ; which he refufed, not choofing to conform to
the liturgy.
Soon after tlie acceffion of queen Mary, he retired
to Geneva*; whence, at the command of John Calvin,
he removed to Francfort* where he preached to the
exiles: but, a difference arifing on account of his re-
fufing to read the Englifh liturgy, he went back to
Geneva ; and from thence, in 1555, returned to Scot¬
land, where the reformation had made confiderable
progrefs during his abfence. He now travelled from
place to place, preaching and exhorting the people
with unremitting zeal and refolution. About this
time, (1556), he wrote a letter to the queen regent,
earneftly intrealing her to hear the Proteftant doctrine ;
which letter (he treated with contempt. In the fame
year the Engliftr Calvinifts at Geneva invited Mr Knox
to refide among them. He accepted their invitation.
Immediately after his departure from Scotland, the
bifhops fummoned him to appear, and, he notappear¬
ing, condemned him to death for herefy, and burnt
his effigy at the crofs of Edinburgh.
Our reformer continued abroad till the year 1559,
during which time he publiftied his “ Firft blaft
again!! the monftrous regiment of women.” Beinw
now returned to Scotland, he refumed the great work
of reformation with his ufual ardour, and was ap¬
pointed minifter at Edinburgh. In 1561, queen Mary
arrived from France. She, it is well known, was bi-
gotted to the religion in which !he had been educated,
and, on that account, was expofed to continual infults
from her reformed fubje&s. Mr Knox himfelf fre¬
quently infulted her from the pulpit; and, when ad¬
mitted to her prefence, regardlefs of her fex, her
beauty, and her high rank, behaved to her with a
moft unjuftifiable freedom. In the year 1571 our re¬
former was obliged to leave Edinburgh, on account
of the confufion and danger from the oppofition to
the earl of Lenox, then regent ; but he returned the
following year, and refumed his paftoral fun&ions.
He died at Edinburgh in November 1572, and was
buried in the church-yard of St Giles’s in that city. 
His hiftory of the Reformation was printed, with his
other works, at Edinburgh, in 1584, 1586, 1644,
1732. He publiflied many other pieces; and feveral
more are preferved in Calderwood’s hiftory of the Church
of Scotland. He left alfo a confiderable number of
manuferipts, which in 1732 were in the poffeffion of
Mr Woodrow, minifter of Eaftwood.
As to his fchara&er, it is eafily underftood, not-
withftanding the extreme diffimilitude of the two por¬
traits drawn by Popifh and Calviniftical pencils. Ac¬
cording to the firft, he was a devil ; in the ideas of
the latter, an angel. He was certainly neither. The
following charafter is drawn by Dr Robertfon. “ Zeal,
intrepidity, difintereftednefs, were virtues that he pof-
fefled in an eminent degree. He was acquainted too
with the learning cultivated in that age ; and excelled
in that fpecies of eloquence which is calculated to
roufe and to inflame. His maxims, however, were
often too fevere, and the impetuofity of his temper
exceffive. Rigid and uncomplying, he (hewed no in¬
dulgence to the infirmities of others. Regardlefs of
the diftinftions of rank and charadler, he uttered his
admonitions with an' acrimony and vehemence, more
apt to irritate than to reclaim ; and this often betray¬
ed him into indecent expreffions, with refpetf! to queen
Mary’s perfon and conduft. Thofe very qualities,
however, which now render his chara&er lefs amiable,
fitted him to be the inftrument of Providence for ad¬
vancing the reformation among a fierce people, and
enabled him to face dangers, and to furmount oppo¬
fition, from which a perfon of a more gentle fpirit,
would have been apt to ftuink back. By an unwear-
ried application to ftudy and to bufinefs, as well as by
the frequency and fervour of his public difeourfes, he
had worn out a conftitution naturally ftrong. During
a lingering illnefs, he difeovered the utmoft fortitude ;
and met the approach of death with a magniminity
infeparable from his chara&er. He was conftantly
employed in afts of devotion, and comforted himfelf
with thofe profpe&s of immortality, which not only
preferve good men from defponding, but fill them
with exultation in their laft moments. The earl of
Morton, who was prefent at his funeral, pronounced
his eulogium in a few words, the more honourable for
Knox, as they came from one whom he had often
cenfured with peculiar feverity : “ Here lies he who
never feared the face of man.”
KNUTZEN (Matthias), a native of Holftein, the
only perfon on record who openly profeffed and taught
atheifro. It is faid he had about 1000 difciples in
different parts of Germany. They were called Con-
fcienciarics, becaufe they afferted there is no other
God, no other religion, no other lawful magiftracy,
but confcience, which teaches every man the three
fundamental principles of the law of nature; —To hurt
nobody, to live honeftly, and to give every one his
due. Several copies of a letter of his from Rome
were fpread abroad, containing the fubftance of his
fyftem. It is to be found entire in the laft edition of
Micraelius.
KOEMPFER (Engelbert), was born in 1651 at
Len\gow in Weftphalia. After ftudying in ftveral
towns, be went to Dantzick, where he gave the firft
public fpecimen of his proficiency by a differtation
De majejiatis divijione. He then went to Thorn ; and
from thence to the univerfity of Cracow, where he took
his
Knox '
II I
Koempferi,
K O N [ 4053 ] K O U
Koenig, his degree of do&or in philofophy ; after which he
Konig. went to Koningfberg in Pruffia, and ftaid there four
years. He next travelled into Sweden, where he foon
began to make a figure, and was appointed fecretary
of the embafly to the fophi of Perfia. He fet out from
Stockholm with the prefents for that emperor ; and
went through Aaland, Finland, and Ingermanland,
to Narva, where he met Mr Fabricius the ambaffador,
who had been ordered to take Mofcow in his way.
The ambafiador having ended his negociations at the
Ruffian court, fet out for Perfia. During their ftay,
two years, at Ifpahan, Dr Kcempfer, whofe curious
and inquifitive difpofition fuffered nothing to efcape
him unobferved, made all the advantages poffible of
fo long an abode in the capital of the Perfian empire.
The ambaffador, toward the clofe of 1685, preparing
to return into Europe, Dr Koemper chofe rather to
enter into the fervice of the Dutch Eaft-India com¬
pany, in quality of chief furgeon to the fleet, then
cruifing in the Perfian gulph. He went aboard the
fleet, which, after touching at many Dutch fettle-
ments, came to Batavia in September 1689. Dr
Koempferhere applied himfelf chiefly to natural hifto-
ry. Hence be fet out for Japan, in quality of phyfi-
cian to the embaffy which the Dutch Eati-India com¬
pany fends once a-year to the Japoneze court. He
quitted Japan to return to Europe in 1692. In 1694
he took his degree of doftor of phyfic at Leyden ; on
which occafion he communicated, in what are called
inaugural thefes, tea very lingular and curious obfer-
vations made by him in foreign countries. He in¬
tended to digeft his memoirs into proper order; but
was prevented, by being made phyfician to thevcouat
de Lippe. He died in 1716. His principal wbrks
are, • 1. Amxnitates Exotica, in quarto ; a work which
includes many curious and ufeful particulars in relation
to the civil and natural hiftory of the countries through
which he palled. 2. Herbarium Ultra-Gangeticum.
3. The hiftory of Japan in German, which is very
curious and much efteemed , and for which the public
is indebted to the late Sir Hans Sloane, who purcha-
fed, for a confiderable fum of money, all our author’s
curiofities, both natural and artificial, as likewife all
his drawing^ and manufcript memoirs, and prevailed
with the late learned Dr Scheuchzer to tranllate the
Japanefe hiftory into Englilh.
KOENIG (Samuel), a learned philofopher and
mathematician, was profelfor of philofophy at Frane-
ker, and afterwards at the Hague, where he became
librarian to the Stadtholder, and died there in 1757.
He wrote feveral works which are efteemed.
KONIG (George Matthias), a learned German,
born at Altorf in Franconia, in 1616. He became
profclfor of poetry and of the Greek tongue there,
and librarian to the univerfity; in which laft office he
fucceeded his father. He gave feveral public fpeci-
mens of his learning; but is principally known for
a biographical di&ionary, intitled, Bibliotheca vetus
et nova, 4to, Altorf, 1674: which, though it is
very defective, is ufeful to biographers. He died in
1699.
Konig (Emanuel), a learned phyfician of Bafil,
born in that city in 1658, whofe medicinal works
were fo efteemed in Swiffcrlaml, that he was confider-
ed as a fecond Avicenna. He died at Bafil in -17 2 1.
Vot.VI.
KONINGSBERG, a town of Poland, and capital Koningf-
of Regal Pruffia, with an univerfity, and a magnifi-
cent palace, in which is a hall 2 74 feet long and 59 K.Jue.
broad, without pillars to fupport it, and a handfome—— 1
library. It contains 3800 houfes, and 40,000 inha¬
bitants ; and the prefent king of Pruffia received ho¬
mage of the inhabitants in 1740. The town-houfe,
the exchange, and the cathedral church, are all very
fine ftru&ures. The tower of the caftle is exceeding
high; and has 284 fteps to go to the top, from whence
there is a very diftant profpeA. There are 18 church¬
es in all; of which 14 belong to the Lutherans, 3 to
the Calvinifts, and one to the Papifts. It is feated on
the river Preget, near the fea, E. Long. 21. 35. N,
Lat. 54. 42.
KORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran and Ma¬
hometanism.
KOOS. See Dolichos.
KOS, in Jewifh antiquity, a meafure of capacity,
containing about four cubic inches: this was the cup
of bleffing out of which they drank when they gave
thanks after folemn meals, like that^of the paffover.
KOTTERUS (Chriftopher), was one of the three
fanatics whofe vifions were publifhed at Amfterdam in
1657, with the title of Lux in tenebris. He lived
at Sprotta in Silefia, and his vifions began in 1616.
He fancied he faw an angel under the form of a man,
who commanded him to go and declare to the magi-
ftrates, that, unlefs the people repented, the wrath of
God would make dreadful havock. The cleft or pala¬
tine, whom the Proteftants had declared king of Bo¬
hemia, was introduced in thefe vifions. Kotterus
waited on him at Breflaw in December 1620, and in¬
formed him of his commiffion. He went to feveral
other places, and at laft to the court of Brandenburg.
As moft of thefe prediftions promifed felicity to the
eleftor Palatine, and unhappinefs to his imperial Ma-
jefty, the emperor’s fifcal in Silefia and Lufatia got
him feized, fet on the pillory, and banifhed the em¬
peror’s dominions. Upon this he went to Lufatia,
and there lived unmolefted till his death, which hap¬
pened in 1647.
KOUANIN, in the Chinefe language, the name of
a tutelary deity of women. The Chinefe make great
numbers of the figures of this deity in white porce¬
lain, and fend them to all parts of the world, as well
as keep them in their own houfes. The figure repre-
fents a woman with a child in her arms. The women
who have no children pay a fort of adoration to thefe
images, and fuppofe the deity they reprefent to have
power to make them fruitful. The ftatue always re-
prefents a handfome woman very modeftly attired.
KOUE (Peter), an excellent painter in the 16th
century, was born at Aloft, and was the difciple of
Bernard Van Orley, who lived with Raphael. He
went to Rome, and, by ftudying the beautiful pieces
which he found there, formed an excellent tafte, and
became a very correft defigner. On his return to his
own country, he undertook the office of direfting the
execution of fome tapeftry-work after the deligns of
Raphael. He was afterwards perfuaded by fome mer¬
chants of Bruffels to undertake a voyage to Conftan-
tinople ; but when he came there, finding that the
Turks were not allowed by their religion to draw any
figure, and that there was nothing for him to do but
23 B to
K R A [ 4054 ] K R A
KouU khan, to draw defigns for tapeftry, he fpent his time in de-
Kraken. pjgn;ng tjje particular profpe£ls in the neighbourhood
of Conftantinople, and the manner of the Turks li¬
ving; of which he has left many wooden cuts, that
alone fuffice to" give an idea of his merit. After his
return from Conftantinople he fettled at Antwerp,
where he drew feveral pictures for the emperor Cha. V.
He was alfo a good architect; and, in the latter part
of his life, wrote a treatife of fculpture, geometry,
and perfpe&ive ; and tranflated Vitruvius and Serliv
into the Flemifh tongue. He died in 1550.
KOULI khan (Thamas), or Schab Nadir, was
not the fon of a (hepherd, as the authors of the Eng-
lifh biographical dictionary affert; his father being
chief of a branch of the tribe of Affchars, and gover¬
nor of a fortrefs erefted by that people again ft the
Turks. Upon his father’s death, his uncle ufurped
his government, under the pretext of taking care of
it during the, minority of Kouli Khan ; or, more pro¬
perly, young Nadir. Difguft at this affront made
him commence adventurer. He entered into the fer-
vice of Beglerberg, governor of Mufchada, in the
Khorafan ; who, difcovering in him ftrong marks of a
military genius, promoted him to the command of a
regiment of cavalry. In 1720, the Ulbec Tartars ha¬
ving made an eruption into the Khorafan with 10,000
men, Beglerberg, whofe whole force confifted only of
4000 horfe and 2000 infantry, called a council of
war, in which it was declared imprudent to face the
enemy with fuch an inferior force; but Kouli-Khan
propofed to march againft the enemy, and engaged
to condu& the expedition, and to be anfwerable for
the fuccefs of it. He was accordingly made general;
defeated the Tartars, and took their commander pri-
foner. Hoffein Beglerberg received him at his return
with marks of diftindtion : but growing jealous of his
rifing fame, inftead of obtaining him the rank of lieu¬
tenant-general of the Khorafan, as he had promifed,
obtained it for another; which fo exafperated Kouli-
Khan, that he publicly complained of the governor’s
ingratitude and perfidy; who thereupon broke him,
and ordered him to be punilhed with the baftinado fo
feverely, that the nails of his great toes fell off. This
affront occafioned his flight, and his joining a ban¬
ditti of robbers, (not his ftealing his father’s or his
neighbour’s ftieep). The reft of his adventures are
too numerous to be inferted in this work. In 1729,
he was made gCaeral of Perfia by Schah Thamas, and
permitted to take his name Thomas, and that of Khuli,
which fignifies Jiave: his title therefore was, TheJlave
of Thamas; but he was ennobled by the addition of
Khan. In 1739, he fomented a revolt againft his
mafter, for having made an ignominious peace with
the Turks ; and having the army at his command, he
procured his depofition, and his own advancement to
the throne. In 1739116 conquered the Mogul em¬
pire ; and from this time growing as cruel as he was
ambitious, he at length met with the ufual fate of
tyrants, being affaffinated by one of his generals, in
league with his nephew and fucceffor, in 1747, aged
fixty.
KRAKEN, Kraxen, or Krahhen, a name given
by the Norwegians to a fea-monfter of a moft enor¬
mous fize, the exiftence of which feems to be after all
rather dubious. Erich Pontopiddan, biftiop of Bergen,
in his Natural Hiftory of Norway, gives the moft di- Kraken.
ftindt account of this creature ; which, according to 
him, is of the polypus kind. He is of opinion,
that it is mentioned by Pliny and fome other an¬
cient authors, and will have it to be the remora fo
much fpoken of by the ancient writers. This laft,
however, is now pretty certainly known to be a mif-
take ; for the remora has been obferved in the Medi¬
terranean, and found to be a creature valtly inferior
in fize to the Kraken. See Remora. The biftiop’s
evidences for the exiftence of the Kraken, and his con-
jedtures about it, we ftiall give in his own words.
“ Our filhermen,” fays he, “ unanimoufly affirm,
and without the leaft variation in their accounts, that
when they row out feveral miles to fea, particularly
in the hot fummer-days, and by their fituation (which
they know by taking a view of certain points of land)
expeft to find floor 100 fathoms water, it often hap¬
pens that they do not find above 20 or 30, and fome-
times lefs. At thefe places they generally find the
greateft plenty of fifh, efpecially cod and ling. Their
lines, they fay, are no fooner out, than they may
draw them up with the hooks all full of filh; by this
they judge that the kraken is at the bottom. They
fay this creature caufes thofe unnatural fliallows men¬
tioned above, and prevents their founding. Thefe the
filhermen are always glad to find, looking upon them
as a means of their taking abundance of fifti. There ■
are fometimes twenty boats or more got together, and
throwing out their lines at a moderate dillance from
each other; and the only thing they then have toob-
ferve is, whether the depth continues the fame, which
they know by their lines, or whether it grows fhal-
lower, by their feeming to have lefs water. If this
laft be the cafe, they find that the kraken is railing
himfelf nearer the furface, and then it is not time for
them to flay any longer; they immediately leave off
fifiling, take to their oars, and get away as fall as
they can. When they have reached the ufual depth
of the place, and find themfelves out of danger, they
lie upon their oars, and in a few minutes after they |
fee this enormous monfter come up to the furface of ]
the water; he there fiiows himfelf fufficiently, though
his whole body does not appear, which, in all likeli¬
hood, no human eye ever beheld, (excepting the young
of this fpecies, which ftiall afterwards be fpoken of) ;
its back, or upper part, which feems to be in appear¬
ance about an Englifii mile and an half in circumfer¬
ence, (fome fay more, but I choofe the leaft for
greater certainty), looks at firft like a number of fmall
iflands, furrounded with fomething that floats and .]
flu&uates like fea-weeds. Here and there a larger
rifing is obferved like fand-banks, on which various ]
kinds of fmall fifties are feen continually leaping about I
till they roll off into the water from the fides of it;
at laft feveral bright points or horns appear, which ;
grow thicker and thicker the higher they rife above
the furface of the water, and fometimes they ftand up
as high and as large as the mafts of middle-fized vei-
fels. | |
“ It feems thefe are the creature’s arms ; and, it is
faid, if they were to lay hold of the largeft man of
war, they would pull it down to the bottom. After
this monfter has been on the furface of the water a
ftiort time, it begins flowly to fink again, and then
the
K R A [ 4055 ] K R A
Kraken. tlie danger ia as great as before; becaufe the motion
  of his finking caufes fuch a fwell in the fea, and fuch
an eddy or whirlpool, that it draws every thing down
with it.
“ As this enormous fea-animal, in all probability,
may be reckoned of the polype or theftar-filh kind,
it feems, that the parts which are feen rifing at its
pleafure, and are called arms, are properly the tenta-
cula, or feeling inftruments, called horns as well as
arms. With thefe they move themfelves, and like-
wife gather in their food.
“ Befides thefe, for this la ft purpofe the great Crea¬
tor has alfo given this creature a ftrong and peculiar
fcent, which it can emit at certain times, and by
means of which it beguiles and draws other fifh to
come in heaps about it. This animal has another
ftrange property,, known by the experience of a great
many old fifliermen. They obferve, that for fome
months the kraken, orkrabben, is continually eating,
and in other months he always voids his excrements.
During this evacuation, the furface of the water is
coloured with the excrement, and appears quite thick
and turbid. This muddinefs is faid to be fo very a-
greeable to the fmell or tafte of other fifties, or to
both, that they gather together from all parts to it,
and keep for that purpofe direftly over the kraken :
he then opens his arms or horns, feizes and fwallows
his welcome guefts, and converts them, after the
due time, by digeftion, into a bait for other fifti of
the fame kind. I relate what is affirmed by many ;
but I cannot give fo certain affurances of this particu¬
lar, as I can of the exiftence of this furprifing crea¬
ture ; though I do not find any thing in it abfolutely
contrary to nature. As we can hardly expedl an op¬
portunity to examine this enormous fea-animal alive,
I am the more concerned that nobody embraced that
opportunity which, according to the following ac¬
count, once did, and perhaps never more may offer,
of feeing it entire when dead. The reverend Mr
Friis, confiftorial affeffor, rainifter of Bodoen in Nord-
land, and vicar of the college for promoting Chriftian
knowledge, gave me, at the latter end of laft year,
when he was at Bergen, this relation ; which I deli¬
ver again on his credit.
“ In the year 1680, a krake, (perhaps a young and
carelefs one), came into the water that runs between
the rocks and cliffs in the parifti of Alftahoug; tho’
the general cuftom of that creature is to keep always
feveral leagues from land, and therefore of courfe
they mull die there. It happened that its extended
long arms, or antennse, which this creature feems to
ufe like the fnail, in turning about, caught hold of
fome trees (landing near the water, which might eafi-
ly have been torn up by the roots; but befides this,
as it was found afterwards, he entangled himfelf in
fome openings or clefts in the rock, and therein ftuck
fo fall, and hung fo unfortunately, that he could not
work himfelf out, but perilhed and putrified on the
fpot. The,carcafe, which was a long while decaying,
and filled great part of that narrow channel, made it
almoft impaffable by its intolerable llench.
“ The kraken has never been known to do any great
harm, except they have taken away the lives of thofe
who confequently could not bring the tidings. I have
never heard but one indance mentioned, which hap¬
pened a few years ago near Fridrichftad, in the dio- Krantzu!;,
cefe of Aggerhuys. They fay that two fiftiermen ac- Kull,nian.
cidentally, and to their great furprife, fell into fuch
a fpot on the water as has been before defcribed, full
of a thick (lime, almoft like a morafs. They imme¬
diately ft rove to get out of this place: but they had
not time to turn quick enough to fave themfelves from
one of the kraken’s horns; which cruftied the head of
the boat fo, that it was with great difficulty they fa-
ved their lives on the wreck, though the weather was
as calm as poffible ; for thefe monlters never appear at
other times.
“ Mr Luke Debes, in his defcription of Faroe, fpeaks
of certain iflands which fuddenly appear, and as fud-
denly vanifti. This was a thing nobody could com¬
prehend ; fo that one ought not to wonder at the
common people, and even thofe that were a degree
above them, for looking upon thofe moving illands
to be inhabited by evil fpirits, which appeared fome-
times in fuch places where the feamen, by daily ex¬
perience, knew very well that there was no fuch thing
as a rock, much lefs an illand; but, however, they
often found fomething at fea which had the appear¬
ance of land, and confequently were confounded, made
falfe reckonings, and were taken out of their courfe,
and brought into the greateft inconveniencies. Many
fea-faring people give accounts of fuch appearances of
land, and their fuddenly vanilhing away, and particu¬
larly here in the north fca. Thefe iflands, in the boi-
fterous ocean, cannot be imagined to be of the nature
of thofe real floating iflands that are feen on frelh and
ftagnated waters, and which I have obferved are
found here in Norway and in other places. Thefe
could not poffibly hold or (land againft the violence
of the waves in the ocean, which break the larged
veffels ; and therefore our failors have concluded this
delufion could come from no other than that great de¬
ceiver the devil. But, according to the laws of truth,
we ought not to charge this apoftate fpirit without a
caufe. I rather think that this devil, who fo fudden¬
ly makes and unmakes thefe floating iflands, is no¬
thing elfe but the kraken, which fome fea-faring peo¬
ple call Soc draulen, that is, Soe-trolden, “ fea-mif-
chief.”
KRANTZIUS (Albertus), a native of Hamburg,
and a famous hiftorian, who travelled over feveral
parts of Europe, and was made re&or of the univer-
fity of Roftoch in 1482. He went from thence,to
Hamburgh in 1508, where he was elefted dean of the
chapter in the cathedral. He did many good fervices
to that church and city; and was fo famed for his abi¬
lities and prudence, that John king of Denmark, and
Frederic duke of Holftein, did not fcruple to make
him umpire in a difpute they had with the Ditmarfi.
He wrote feveral good hiftorical works; the moll con-
fiderable of which is an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of
Saxony, entitled Metropolis, in folio ; the bell edition
is that of Francfort. He died in 1517.
KUHLMAN (Qmrinui), one of the vifionaries of
the 17th century, born at Breflaw in Silelia in 1651.
He gave great hopes by his early progrefs in his llu-
dies ; but it was interrupted by a ficknefs, under
which he laboured at 1 8 years of age. He was thought
to be dead on the third day of his illnefs. But that
day he had terrible vifions. Two days after, he had
23 B 2 more.
KI N [ 4656 1 KIN
Kuhnius, more. Hp had no longer any tafle for profane
Kunckel. learning ; and would have no inftruftor but the Holy
Ghoft. At 19 he left his country and went to travel.
He met in Holland with Bcehmen’s works, of which
he had never heard before. The reading of them was
like oil thrown into the fire 2 he was furprifed that
Boehmen fhould have prophefied of things, of which
nobody but Kuhlman himfelf had the lead knowledge.
There was at that time in Holland one John Rot he,
vvho undertook to prophecy. Our author wrote to
him in the mod humble manner, ftyling him a man of
God, John III. and the fon of Zacharias, He wan¬
dered a long time in England, France, and the Eaft;
and at laft was burnt in Mufcovy 1680, on account
of fome predidf ions that were actually feditious. There
was a picture of him with fo many titles, that the
monarchs of the Eaft never affumed more. The mag¬
nificent promifes and vaft defigns of this fanatic may
be feen in MorhoPs Polyhiftor. He' wrote feveral
■works filled with fanaticifm ; the principal of which
is intitled Prodromus qinquennii mirabilix, printed at
Leyden in 1674.
KUHNIUS (Joachim), a learned German critic,
Was born at Gripfwalde in Pomerania, in 1647. He
was, in 1669, made principal of the college at Oetin-
gen in Swabia : in 1676, he was elefted Greek pro-
feflbr in the principal college at Stralburg ; and after-
acquitting himfelf with honour for ten years in this
capacity, was made Greek and Hebrew profelfor in
the fame univerfity. His uncommon Ikill in the Greek
language drew a great number of fcholars about him,
from very diftant places ; and he publifhed fome claffic
authors with very learned notes both explanatory and
critical. He died in 1697.
KUNCKEL (John), a celebrated Saxon chemift,
born in the duchy of Slefwick, in 1630. He became
chemift to the eleftor of Saxony, the ele&or of Bran¬
denburg, and Charles II. king of Sweden, who gave
him the title of counfellor in metals, and letters of
nobility, with the furname of Lououenftein. He em¬
ployed 50 years in chemiftry ; in which, by the help
of the furnace of a glafs-houfe, which he had under
his care, he made feveral excellent difcoveries, parti¬
cularly of the phofphorus of urine. He died in Swe-
LA femi-vowel, or liquid, making the eleventh
} letter of the alphabet.
It was derived from the old Hebrew Lamed, orGreek
Lambda It is founded by intercepting the breath
between the top of the toague and forepart of the pa¬
late, with the mouth open; and makes a fweet found,
with fomething of an afpiration ; and therefore the
Britons and Spaniards ufually doubled it, or added
an h to it, in the beginning of words, as in llan, or
ikan, a temple, founding nearly like fl, &c. In Eng-
lilh words of one fyllable it is doubled at the end, as
den, in 1702 ; and left ftvcral works, fome in Ger- Kufler,
man, and others in Latin: among which, that in- K-lltuclKU
titled Obfervationes Chemicx, and the “ Art of making
Glafs,” printed at Paris in 1752, are the moft
efteemed.
KUSTER (Ludolf), a very learned writer in the
18th century, was born at Blomberg in Weftphalia.
When very young, he was, upon the recommendation
of baron Spanheim, appointed tutor to the two fons
of the count de Schwerin, prime minifter of the king
of Pruffia, who, upon our author’s quitting that fta-
tion, procured him a penfion of 400 livres. He was
promifed a profefforftiip in the univerfity of Joachim;
and till this Ihould be vacant, being then but 25, he
refolved to travel. He read lectures at Utrecht ; went
to England ; and from thence to France, where he
collated Suidas with three MSS. in the king’s library,
which furniihed him with a great many fragments
that had never been publiihed. He was honoured
with the degree of doffor by the univerfity of Cam •
bridge, which made him feveral advantageous offers
to continue there : but he was called to Berlin, where
he was inftalled in the profefforlhip promifed him.
Afterward he went to Antwerp; and being brought
over to the Catholic religion, he abjured that of the
Proteftants. The king of France rewarded him with
a penfion, and ordered him to be admitted fupernu-
merary affociate of the academy of inferiptions. But
he did not enjoy this new fettlement long ; for he
died in 1716, aged 46. He was a great mailer of
the Latin tongue, and wrote well in it; but his chief
excellence was his Ikill in the Greek language, to
which he almoft entirely devoted himfelf. He wrote
many works; the principal of which are, Hijloriacri-
tica Homeri. 2. Jamblicus de vita Pythagora. 3. An
excellent edition of Suidas, in Greek and Latin, three
volumes, folio. 4. An edition of Ariftophanes, in
Greek and Latin, folio. 5. A new Greek edition
of the NewTeftament, with Dr Mills’s Variations, in
folio.
KUTUCHTU, among the Calmuc Tartars, the
name of their high-prieft or fovereign pontiff; for¬
merly only the deputy of the delai-lama or high-prieft
of the Tartars, but at prefent independent on him.
L.
tell, bell, knell, &c. but in words of more fyllables
than one it is fingle at the end, as evil, general, con*
fitutional. See. It is placed after moft of the confo-
nants in the beginning of words and fyllables, as black',
glare, ad-Ie, ea gle, Sec. but before none. Its found
is clear in jdbel, but obfeure in able. Sec.
As a numeral letter, L denotes yo; and with a
dalh over it, thus, X, 50000. Ufed as an abbrevia¬
ture, L Hands for Lucius j and L. L. S. for a fefterce.
See Sesterce.
LA, the fyllable by which Guido denote# the laft
found
LAB [ 3057 ] LAB
Labadic. found of each hexachord: if it begins in C, it an-
T fwers to our A ; if in G, to E ; and if in F, to D.
LABADIE (John), a famous French enthufiaft,
fon of John Charles Labadie, governor of Bourges,
and gentleman in ordinary of the bed-chamber to the
French king, was born in 1610. He entered young
into the Jefuits college at Bourdeaux ; which, by his
own account, he afterwards quitted, but by other ac¬
counts was expelled for his peculiar notions, and for
bypocrify. He became a popular preacher; but being
repeatedly dete&ed in working upon female devotees
with fpiritual inftru&ions for carnal purpofes, his lofs
of character among the Catholics drove him among
the Proteftants. A reformed Jefuit being thought a
great acquifition, he was precipitately accepted as a
pallor at Montauban, where he officiated for eight
years ; but, attempting the challity of a young lady
whom he could not convert to his purpofe, and quar¬
relling with the Catholic prieft about the right of in¬
terring a dead body, he was at length banilhed that
dace. The ftory of his affair with the lady, as re-
ated by Mr Bayle, may here be given as a fpecimen
©f his minillry. Having dire&ed this damfel to
the fpiritual life, which he made to confift in internal
recolledlion and mental prayer, he gave her out a cer¬
tain point of meditation; and having ftrongly recom¬
mended it to her to apply herfelf entirely for fome
hours to fuch an important objedl, he went up to her
when he believed her to be at the height of her recof-
leftion, and put his hand into her bread. She gave
him a hafty repulfe, expreffed a great deal of furprize
at the proceeding, and was even preparing to rebuke
him, when he, without being in the lead difconcerted,
and with a devout air, prevented her thus: “ I fee
plainly, my child, that you are at a great didance
from perfection; acknowledge your weaknefs with an
humble fpirit; alk forgivenefs of God for your having
given fo little attention to the myderies upon which
you ought to have meditated. Had you bedowed all
necedary attention upon thefe things, you would not
have been fenfible of what was doing about your bread.
But you are fo much attaciied to fenfe, fo little con¬
centered with the Godhead, that you were not a mo¬
ment in difcovering that I had touched'you. I wanted
to try whether your fervency in prayer had raifed you
above the material world, and united you with the
Sovereign Being, the living fource of immortality and
of a fpiritual Hate; and I fee to my great grief, that
you have made very fmall progrefs, and that you only
creep on the ground ; may this, my child, make you
alhamed, and for the future move you to perform the
'duties of mental prayer hettter than you have hitherto
done.” The young lady, who had as much good-
fenfe as virtue, was no lefs provoked at thefe words,
than at the bold aCtions of her ghoftly inftrudtor;
and could never afterwards bear the name oFfuch an
holy father.
Labadie being driven out of Montauban, went to
feek an afylum at Orange: but not finding himfelf fo
fafe there as he imagined, he withdrew privately to
Geneva, where he impofed on the people by his de¬
vout preaching and carriage ; and from thence was
invited to Middleburg, where his fpirituality made
him and his followers confidered as fo many faints,
diftinguilhed by the name of Labadijis. They ia-
creafed fo much, that he excited the attention of the Labadifls
other churches, whofe authority he difputed, till he La|at
was formally depofed by the fynod of Dort. Inftead L_
of obeying, he procured a tumultuous fupport from a
crowd of his devotees ; and at length formed a little
fettlement between Utrecht and Amfterdam, where
he erected a printing-prefs, which fent forth many of
his works. Here he was betrayed by fome deferters,
who expofed his private life, and informed the public
of his familiarities with his female difciples, under
pretence of uniting them more particularly to God;
and was finally obliged to retire to Altena in Holftein,
where he died in 1674.
LABADISTS, a fed of religionifts in the 17th
century, followers of the opinions of John Labadie, of
whom an account is given in the preceding article. Some
of their opinions were, 1. That God could, and did
deceive men. 2. That, in reading the Scriptures*
greater attention fhould be paid to the internal infpi-
ration of the Holy Spirit, than to the words of the
text. 3. That baptifm ought to be deferred till ma¬
ture age. 4. That the good and the wicked entered
equally into the old alliance, provided they defcended
from Abraham ; but that the new admitted only fpi¬
ritual men. 5. That the obfervation of Sunday was
a matter of indifference. 6. That Chrift would come
and reign 1000 years on earth. 7. That the eucharift
was only a commemoration of the death of Chrift;
and that, though the fymbols were nothing in them-
felves, yet that Chrift was fpiritually received by thofe
who partook of them in a due manner. 8. That a
contemplative life was a ftate of grace, and of divine
union during this life, the fommit of perfeClion, &c.
9. That the man whofe heart was perfedly content
and calm, half enjoys God, has familiar en.tertainments
with him, and fees all things in him. 10. That this
ftate was to be come at by an entire felf-abnegation,
by the mortification of the fenfes and their objeCts,
and by the exercife of mental prayer.
L ABA RUM, the banner or ftandard borne before
the Roman emperors in the wars. The labaruvi con-
fifted of a long lance, with a ftaff a-top, crofiing it at
right angles; from which hung a rich ftreamer, of a
purple colour, adorned with precious ftones. Till the
time of Conftantine it had an eagle painted on it; but
that emperor, in lieu thereof, added a crofs with a ci¬
pher expreffing the name of Jefus.
This ftandard the Romans took fronr the Germans,
Dacae, Sarmatae, Pannonians, &c. whom they had
overcome. The mme tab arum was- not known before
the time of Conftantine; but the ftandard it ft If, in the
form we have defcribed it, abating the fymbols of
Ghriftianity, was ufed by all the preceding emperors.
Some derive the word from labor, as if this finilhed
their labours; fomefrom ivKx/ida, “reverence, piety;”
others from *.*/i/3avuv, “ to take;” and others from
Aupupa, “ fpoils.”
LABAT (John Baptift), a celebrated traveller, of
the order of St Dominic, was born at Paris, taught
philofophy at Nancy, and in 1693 went to America
in quality of a miffionary. At his return to France
in 1705, he was fent to the chapter of his order at
Bologna to give an account of his miffion, and ftaid
feveral years in Italy. He died at Paris in 1738;
His principal works are, x. A new. voyage to the
American -
Labbe
Label,
LAB [ 3058 ] LAB
American iflands, 6 vok izmo. 2. Travels in Spain
and Italy, 8 vols tamo. 3. A new account of the
. weftern parts of Africa, 5 vols i2mo.: Father Labat
■was not in Africa, and therefore was not a witnefs of
what he relates in that work. He alfo publilhed the
Chevalier des Marchais's voyage to Guinea, in 4 vols.
i2mo.; and An hiftorical account of the ’wejlern parts
of Ethiopia, tranflated from the Italian of father Ca-
vazzi, 5 vols izmo.
LABBE (Louifa), a courtezan and poetefs of
Lyons. Her charms were fo great, that her cotem-
poraries have lavilhed every kind of applaufe on her.
She entertained at her houfe lords, gentlemen, and
other perfons of merit, with converfation, mufic, and
the reading of good authors, with which her clofet
was abundantly (locked, and with the mod delicious
fweet-meats. She was particularly fond of learned
men; who were fo much in her good graces, that (he
preferred them before any nobleman of the higheft
diftin&ion. All the compofitions (he left are com¬
prized in a book, which is extremely fcarce, intitled,
Ouvres de Louize Labbe, Lionnoife, printed at Lyons
in 1556; in which is, The contefi of Love and
Folly.
Labbe (Philip), born at Bourges in France, in
1607; profefled philofophy, divinity, and the lan¬
guages, with great applaufe; and died in 1667, aged
70. He was a laborious writer, and a good critic;
and wrote, 1. Nova Bibliotheca MS. librorutn, in
2 vols folio. 2. De Byzantinx hi/lori<e Scriptoribus.
3. Galeni vita. 4. Bibliotheca bibliothecaru?n. 5. Con-
cordantia chronologica, <bc. He began the laft edition
of “ The councils,” and died while the 9th volume
was printing; they were finifhed in 17 volumes, by
father CofTart.
LABDANUM, or Ladanum, a refin of the fofter
kind, though of too firm a confidence to be ranked
among the fluid ones.
There are two kinds of it kept in the (hops; one
ufually imported in bladders, to preferve it in its ge¬
nuine foft confidence, and to prevent the evaporation
of its finer parts; another in rolls, much inferior to
the former in purity and virtue.
Laldanum (hould be chofen foft and mold, of a
drong fmell, pure, very inflammable, and diffu-
fing a fragrant fmell while burning. It is a re-
finous juice, which exfudes from a tree of the ciflus-
kind. See Cistus.
In medicine it is ufed externally, to attenuate and
difcufs tumours; internally, it is more rarely ufed, but
it is greatly extolled by fome againd catarrhs, and in
dyfenteries.
LABEL, a long, thin brafs ruler, with a fmall
fight at one end, and a centre-hole at the other; com¬
monly ufed with a tangent-line on the edge of a cir¬
cumferentor, to take altitudes, &c.
Label, in law, is a narrow flip of paper, or parch¬
ment, affixed to a deed or writing, in order to hold
the appending feal. -Any paper annexed by way of
addition, or explication, to any will or tedament, is
alfo called a label or codicil.
Label, in heraldry, a fillet ufually placed in the
middle along the chief of the coat, without touching
its extremities. Its breadth ought to be a ninth part
of the chief. It is adorned with pendants; and when
there are above three of thefe, the number mud be Labial
fpecified in blazoning. II
It is ufed on the arms of elded fons while the L3ll0ureiir«
father is alive, to didinguidi them from the younger;
and is edeemed the mod honourable of all diffe¬
rences. See Heraldry, p. 3587. col. 2.
LABIAL letters, thofe pronounced chiefly by
means of the lips.
LABIATED flowers, monopetalous flowers,
confiding of a narrow tube, with a wide mouth, di¬
vided into two or more.
LABIAU, a fmall town of Ducal Pruffia, in a
circle of the fame name, dated at the mouth of the
river Deime, with a drong cadle, two Tides of which
are furrounded with water, and the other defended
by a wall and ditch. E. Long. 19. 56. N. Lat.
55- I7*
LABORATORY, or Elaboratory, thechemids
work-houfe, or the place where they perform their o-
perations, where the furnaces are built, their veffels
kept, &c. and in general, the term laboratory, is ap¬
plied to any place where phyfical experiments in phar¬
macy, chemidry, pyrotechny, &c. are performed.
As laboratories mud be of very different kinds, ac¬
cording to the nature of the operations to be perform¬
ed in them, it is impoffible that any directions can be
given which will anfwer for every one. Where the
purpofes are merely experimental, a fingle furnace or
two of the portable kind will be fufficient. It is fcarce
needful to add, that (helves are neceffary for holding
veffels with the produdts of the different operations;
and that it is abfolutely neceffary to avoid confufion
and diforder, as by thefe means the produdb of the
operations might be lod or midaken for one another.
Mortars, filters, levigating dones, &c. mud alfo be
procured: but from a knowledge of the methods of
performing the different chemical operations will eafily
be derived the knowledge of a proper place to perform
them in ; for which, fee the the articles Chemistry,
Metallurgy, and Furnace.
Laboratory, in military affairs, fignifies that place
where all forts of fire-works are prepared, both for ac¬
tual fervice and for pleafure, viz. quick-matches,
fuzes, portfires, grape-fliot, cafe-(hot, carcaffes, hand-
grenades, cartridges, (hells filled and fufes fixed, wads,
&c. &c.
LABOUR, in general, denotes a clofe application
to work or bufinefs.—Among feamen a (hip is faid to
be in labour, when (he rolls and tumbles very much,
either a-hull, under fail, or at anchor.—It is alfo fpokc
of a woman in travail or child-birth; fee Midwifery.
LABOURER, generally fignifies one that doea.
the mod flavilh and lefs artful part of a laborious work,
as that of hulbandry, mafonry, &c.
LABOUREUR (John 1c), almoner to the king of
France, and prior of Juvigne, was born at Montmo¬
rency near Paris in 1623. At the age of 18, he di-
flinguiftied himfelf by publifhing “ A collection of the
monuments of illudrious perfons buried in the church
of the Celedines at Paris, with their elogies, genealo¬
gies, arms, and mottoes,” 410. He afterwards pub-
li(hed an excellent edition of The Memoirs of Michael
de Cadelnau, with feveral other genealogical hidories;
and died in 1675.—^e had a brother, Lewis le La-
bourcur, bailiff of Montmorency, author of feveral pieces
:
j
1
.
LAB [ 4059 ] LAC
Labrador of poetry; and an uncle, Dom. Clauds le Laloureur,
II provoft of the abbey of L’ifle Barbe, of which abbey
Lacarry. ji£ wrote a ancl publifhed notes and correc-
" tions upon the breviary of Lyons, with fome other
things.
LABRADOR, the fame with AV<u;-Britain.
LABRUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties be-
longing to the order of thoracic!. The chara&ers are
as follow: The covers of the gills fcaly; the branchi-
oftegous rays unequal in number; teeth conic, long,
and blunt at their ends; one tuberculated bone in the
bottom of the throat; two above, oppofite to the o-
ther; one dorfal fin reaching the whole length of the
back; a {lender {kin extending beyond each ray, with
a rounded tail. There are 41 fpecies of this genus,
which vary from each other, even thofe of the fame
fpecies, almoft infinitely in colour; fome of them be¬
ing of a dirty red mixed with a certain dufkinefs ; o-
tbers moft beautifully ftriped, efpecially about the head,
with the richeft colours, fuch as blue, red, and yel¬
low. Care mull therefore be taken not to multiply
the fpecies from thefe accidental teints, but to attend
to the form, which never varies. Mr Pennant men¬
tions his having feen a fpecies of labrus taken about
the Giant’s Caufeway in Ireland, of a moft beautiful
vivid green, fpotted with fcarlet; and others at Ban-
dooran in the county of Sligo, of a pale green. To
this genus belongs the filh called by the Englifh the
cld-nuife.
LABURNUM, in botany. See Cytisus.
LABYRINTH, among the ancients, was a large
intricate edifice cut out into various aifles and meanders
running into each other, fo as to render it difficult to
get out of it.
There is mention made of four celebrated labyrinths
among the ancients, ranked by Pliny in the number
of the wonders of the world; viz. the Cretan, Egyp¬
tian, Lemnian, and Italian.
That of Crete is the moft famed : it was built by
Daedalus; and it was hence that Thefeus made his e-
fcape by mean of Ariadne’s clue.
That of Egypt, according to Pliny, was the oldeft
of all, and was fubfifting in his time, after having flood
3600 years. He fays it was built by king Petefucus,
or Tithoes ; but Herodotus makes it the work of fe-
veral kings: it flood on the banks of the lake Myris,
and confided of 12 palaces, and 1500 apartments:
Mela fays, ter mills domos.
That of Lemnos was fupported by columns of won¬
derful beauty ; there were fome remains of it at the
time when Pliny wrote.— That of Italy, was built by
Porfenna king of Hetruria for his tomb.
Labyrinth of the Ear. See Anatomy, n° 405,
h, i, k, 1.
LAC, milk, among phyficians. See Milk.
LACARRY (Giles), a learned JVfuit of the 17th
century, was born in the diocefe of Caftres, in Lan¬
guedoc, in 1605. He taught philofophy, theology,
and the holy Scriptures, in his fociety; was redlor of
the college of Cahors; and became well {killed in hi-
ftory. He wrote many works; the principal of which
are, I. Hijl. Galliarum fub Prtcfettis Pratorii Gallia-
rum, 410. a work which is much efteemed, and ex¬
tends from the reign of Conftantine to that of Jufti-
aian. 2, Hijloria Romana a 'Julio Ceefars ad Conjlan-
tinum Magna?}!, per tiumifmata fo marmora antique?, Lacea,
an excellent work. 3. Epitome hijiorise Reg. Fran- Lace'
citf, ex Dionyfto Petavio excerpta, alfo much efteemed.
4. An edition of Velleius Paterculus, with learned
notes.
LACCA, Lac, or Gum-Lac, is a kind of wax, of
which a fpecies of winged ants form cells upon trees,
like honeycombs. In thefe cells remain fome of the
dead infeits, which give a red colour to the whole fub-
ftance of the lac. That called Jlick-lac is the wax ad¬
hering to fome of the fmall branches of the tree, and
which is unprepared. This lac, when feparated from
the adhering flicks, and grofsly powdered, and depri¬
ved of its colour by digeftion with menftruums, for the
fake of the dyes and other purpofes, is called feed-lac;
and laftly, when the ftick-lac is freed from impurities,,
by melting it over a gentle fire, and formed into cakes,
it is called fhell-lac. Lac is unfoluble in water; and
difficultly foluble in fpirit of wine, which for that pur-
pofe muft be well dephlegmated. According to Neu¬
man, 16 ounces of feed-lac, diftilled in an open fire,,
yielded nine ounces and fix drams of a butter or thick
oil, one ounce fix drams of a watery liquor neither acid
nor alkaline, and a refiduum weighing two ounces and
a half. It is ufed in the preparation of fpirit varniffies,
for the making of fealing-wax, and as a colouring ma¬
terial for dying fcarlet. The colour given by lac is
lefs beautiful, but more durable, than that given by
cochineal. To render the colouring matter of the lac
diffufible in water, fo as to be applied to the fluffs to be
dyed, Mr Hellot direds the following procefs : Let
fome powdered gum-lac be digefted during two hours
in a deco&ion of comfrey root, by which a fine crim-
fon colour is given to the water, and the gum is ren¬
dered pale or llraw-coloured. To this tindure, pour¬
ed off clear, let a foliation of alum be added ; and when
the colouring matter has fubfided, let it be feparated
from the clear liquor and dried. It will weigh about
y- of the quantity of lac employed. This dried fe-
cula is to be diffolved or diffufed in warm water, and
fome folution of tin is to be added to it, by which it
acquires a vivid fcarlet colour. This liquor is to be
added to a folution of tartar in boiling water; and thus
the dye is prepared.
LACE, in commerce, a work compofed of many
threads of gold, filver, or filk, interwoven the one with
the other, and worked uppn a pillow with fpindles ac¬
cording to the pattern defigned. The open work is
formed with pins, which are placed and difplaced as the
fpindles are moved. The importation of gold and fil¬
ver lace is prohibited.
Method of Cleaning GW;/-Lace and Embroidery nnhen
tarnifhed.—For this purpofe alkaline liquors are by no
means to be ufed; for while they clean the gold, they
corrode the filk, and change or difeharge its colour.
Soap alfo alters the fhade, and even the fpecies of cer¬
tain colours. But fpirit of wine may be ufed without
any danger of its injuring either the colour or quality
of the fubjedl; and in many cafes proves as effectual,
for reftoring the luftre of the gold, as the corrofive de¬
tergents. A rich brocade, flowered with a variety of
colours, after being difagreeably tamiftied, had the
luftre of the gold perfedly reftored by wafhing it with
a foft brufti dipt in warm fpirit of wine; and fome
of the colours of the filk, which were likewife foiled,,
be-
LAC
became at the fame time remarkably bright and lively.
Spirit of wine feems to be the only material adapted
to this intention, and probably the boafted fecret of
certain artifts is no other than this fpirit difguifed. A-
mong liquids, Dr Lewis fays, he does not know of any
other that is of fufficient aftivity to difcharge the foul
matter, without being hurtful to the filk : as to pow¬
ders, however fine, and however cautioufly ufed, they
fcratch and wear the gold, which here is only fuperfi-
cial and of extreme tenuity.
But tho’ fpirit of wine is the mod innocent material
that can be employed for this purpofe, it is not in all
cafes proper. The golden covering may be in fome parts
worn off; or the bafe metal, with which it had been
iniquitoufly alloyed, may be corroded by the air, fo
as to leave the particles of the gold difunited ; while
the filver underneath, tarnifhed to a yellow hue, may
contintie a tolerable colour to the whole: in which
cafes it is apparent, that the removal of the tarnifh
would be prejudicial to the colour, and make the lace
or embroidery lefs, like gold than it was before. A
piece of old tarnifhed gold-lace, cleaned by fpirit of
wine, was deprived, with its tarnifh, of greateft part
of its golden hue, and looked now almoft like filver-
lace.
Method offeparating the Gold and Silver from Lace
without burning it. Cut the lace in pieces, and (ha¬
ving feparated the thread from it by which it was few-
cd to the garment) tie it up in a linen cloth, and boil
h in foap-ley, diluted with water, till you perceive it
is diminifhed in bulk; which will take up but a little
time, unlefs the quantity of lace be very confiderable.
Then take out the cloth, and wafh it feveral times in
cold water, fqueezing it pretty hard with your foot,
or beating it with a mallet, to clear it of the foap-lye;
then untie the cloth, and you will have the metallic
part of the lace pure, and nowhere altered in colour
or diminifhed in weight.
This method is abundantly more convenient and
lefs troublefome than the common way of burning;
and as a fmall quantity of the ley will be fufficient, the
expence will be trifling, efpecialiy as the fame ley may
be ufed feve>-al times, if cleared of the filky calcination.
It may be done in either an iron or copper veffel.
The ley may be had at the foap-boilers, or it may
be made of pearl-afh and quick-lime boiled together
in a fufficient quantity of water.
The reafon of this fudden change in the lace will be
-evident to thofe who are acquainted with chemiftry:
for filk, on which all our laces are wove, is an animal-
fubftance, and all auimal-fubltances are foluble in al¬
kalies, efpecialiy when rendered more cauftic by the
addition of quick-lime; but the linen you tie it in, be¬
ing a vegetable, will remain unaltered.
Bone-L.AC2, a lace made of fine linen thread or filk,
much in the fame manner as that of gold and filver.
The pattern of the lace is fixed upon a large round pil¬
low, and pins being ftuck into the holes or openings
in the patterns, the threads are interwoven by means
of a number of bobbins made of bone or ivory, each
of which contains a fmall quantity of fine thread, in
fuch a manner as to make the lace exa&ly refemblc
the pattern. There are feveral towns in England, and
particularly in Buckinghamfliire, that carry on this ma-
nufadure; but vaft quantities of the fineft laces have
LAC
been imported from Elanders.
LACEDiEMON. See Sparta.
LACERTA, the lizard, in zoology, a genus of
amphibious animals, belonging to the order of reptilia,
the characters of which are thefe: The body is naked,
with four feet, and a tail. There are 49 fpecies, the
moft remarkable are,
I. The crocodylus, or crocodile, has a comprefled.
jagged tail, five toes on the fore-feet, and four on the
hind-feet. This is the largeft animal of the lizard
kind. One that was difle&ed at Siam, an account of
which was fent to the Royal Academy at Paris, was
18 feet and a half long, of which the tail was no lefs
than five feet and a half, and the head and neck above
two and a half. He was four feet and nine inches ia
circumference where thickeft.
The hinder legs, including the thigh and the paw,
were two feet and two inches long ; the paws, frona
the joint to the extremity of the longed claws, were
above nine inches. They were divided into four toes;
of which three were armed with large claws, the long¬
ed of which was an inch and a half, and feven lines and
a half broad at the root. The fourth toe was without
a nail, and of a conical figure ; but was covered with
a thick fkin like fliagreen leather. Thefe toes were
united with membranes like thofe of ducks, but much
thicker.
The fore-legs had the fame parts and conformation
as the arms of a man, both within and without; but
they were fomewhat fhorter than thofe behind. The
hands had five fingers, the two lad of which had no
nails, and were of a conical figure, like the fourth toe
on the hind paws. The head was long, and had a
little rifing at the top ; but the red was flat, and efpe¬
cialiy towards the extremity of the jaws. It was cover¬
ed with a /kin, which adhered firmly to the /kull and
to the jaws. The /kull was rough and unequal in feve¬
ral places ; and about the middle of.the forehead there
were two bony creds, about two inches high. They
were not quite parallel, but feparated from each other
in proportion as they mounted upwards.
The eye was very fmall in proportion to the red of
the body, and was fo placed within its orbit, that the
outward part, when /hut, was only a little above an
inch in length, and run parallel to the opening of the
jaws.
The nofe was placed in the middle of the upper jaw,
near an inch from its extremity, and was perfe&Iy
round and flat, being two inches in diameter, of a
black, foft, fpungy fubdance, not unlike the nofe of a
dog. The nodrils were in the form of a Greek capi¬
tal s ; and there were two caruncles which filled and
clofed them very exadtly, and which opened as often
as he breathed through the nofe. The jaws feemed to
fhut one within another by means of feveral apophyfes,
which proceeded from above downwards, and from be¬
low upwards, there being cavities in the oppofite jaw
to receive them. They had 27 dog-teeth in the up¬
per jaw, and 15 in the lower, with feveral void fpaces
between them. They were thick at the bottom, and
/harp at the point; being all of different fizes, except
ten large hooked ones, fix of which were in the lower
jaw, and four in the upper. The mouth was 15 inches
in length, and eight and a half in breadth where
broadeff; and the diftance of the two jaws, when open¬
ed
[ 4060 ]
LaceJat-
mon,
Lacerta.
. Jt TA- CKO C ORIT.T
Croc oriiae
L actsii.TA Baj? nrsccrs
[sf/M Xu//,1*
LAC 406. ] LAC
Laceita. ed as wide as they could be, was 15 inches and a half.
■ ^ The flcull, between tha two crefts, was proof againft a
muflcet-ball, for it only rendered the part a little white
that it ftruck againft.
The colour of the body was of a dark brown on the
upper part, and of a whitilh citron below, with large
fpots of both colours on the fides. From the (boul¬
ders to the extremity of the tail he was covered with
large fcales of a fquare form, difpofed like parallel
girdles, and were 52 in number; but thofe near the
tail were not fo thick as the reft. In the middle of
each girdle there were four protuberances, which be¬
came higher as they approached the end of the tail,
and compofed four rows, of which the two in the
middle were lower than the remaining two, forming
three channels, which grew deeper the nearer they
came to the tail, and were confounded with each other
about two feet from its extremity.
The (kin was defended with a fort of armour,
which, however, was not proof againft a mulket-ball,
contrary to what has been commonly faid. How¬
ever, it tnuft be acknowledged, that the attitude in
which it was placed might contribute not a little there¬
to ; for probably, if the ball had ftruck obliquely a-
gainft the (hell, it would have flown off. Thofe parts
of the girdles underneath the belly were of a whitifli
colour, and were made up of fcales of divers (hapes.
They were about one-fixth of an inch in thicknefs, and
were not fo hard as thofe on the back.
This creature lays eggs, which (he covers over with
CLVIII ^an^» anfl to be hatched by the heat of the fun.
fig. 4. * They are to be met with in the river Nile, Niger, and
Ganges, befides moft other large rivers in thefouthern
parts of Afia, Africa, and America.
Mr Haffelquift informs us, that the crocodile fwal-
lows ftones to aflift digeftion, after the manner of
feed-eating birds, which commit to the ftomach the
work of maftication as well as conco&ion, being defti-
tuteof the inftruments adapted to that purpofe. The
Egyptians fay, that his excrements do not pafs by the
anus: this feems to be confirmed by the ftru&ure of
the gut, which is near the pylorus; for it cannot eafily
be conceived, that excrements fliould pafs thro’, fuch a
narrow paflage, feemhigly deftined for the conveyance
of the chyle only ; but the ftrufture of the parts, and
the gut being fo near the pylorus, feem to indicate
that the excrements pafs through it into the ventricle,
and are vomited up. The inhabitants above Cairo fay
they fee this daily ; and obferve, that the crocodile is
obliged to come on (hore as often as he has occafion
toeafe himfelf. There is a follrculus, of the bignefs of
a hazel-nut, under the (boulders of the old crocodiles,
which contains a thick matter, fmelling like muflc.
4 The Egyptians are very anxious to get this when they
kill a crocodile, it being a perfume much efteemed by
the grandees. When the male copulates with the fe¬
male, he turns her with his fnout on her back. The
Egyptians ufe the fat againft the rheumatifm and ftiff-
nefs of the tendons, efteeming it a powerful remedy
’, outwardly applied. They fay the gall is good for the
' eyes; they make ufe of it as a certain remedy for bar-
rennefs in women, taking about fix grains internally,
and outwardly they apply a peffus made of cotton and
the gall of a crocodile. The eyes of the crocodile are
the beft aphrodifiacs of any known by the Arabs ; who
Vol. VI.
prefer them to all confedlions dea-fatyrii, hyacinthr,' Laceru.
&c. and even to ambergreafe.
The crocodile is a very dangerous and terrible ani¬
mal in fome countries. It does a great deal of mif-
chief among the common people of Upper Egypt, of¬
ten killing and devouring w'oraen who come to the ri¬
ver to fetch water, and children playing on the (hore
or fwimming in the river. In the ftomach of one dif¬
fered before Mr Barton the Englilh conful, they
found the bones of the legs and arms of a woman, with
the rings which they wear in Egypt as ornaments.
Thefe animals are feen in fome places lying for whole
hours, and even days, ftretched in the fun and mo-
tionlefs; fo that one not ufed to them might miftake
them for trunks of trees covered with a rough and dry
bark : but the miftake would foon be fatal ; for the
feemingly torpid animal, at the near approach of any
living creature, inftantly darts upon it, and carries it to
the bottom. In the times of an inundation they fome-
times enter the cottages of the natives, where they
feize the firft animal they meet with. There have been
feveral examples of their taking a man out of a canoe
in the fight of his companions, without their being
able to lend him any affiftance. The crocodile, how¬
ever, except when preffed with hunger, or with a
view of depofiting its eggs, feldom leaves the water.
Its ufual method is to float along upon the furface, and
feize whatever animals come within its reach; but
when this method fails, it then goes clofer to the
bank. There it waits in patient expedlation of fome
land-animal that comes to drink; the dog, the bull,
the tiger, or man himfelf. Nothing is to be feen as
the animal approaches, nor is its retreat difeovered
till it is too late for fafety. It feizes the viflim with
a fpring, and goes at a bound much fafter than fuch
an unwieldy animal could be fuppofed to do ; then ha¬
ving fecured the creature both with teeth and claws, it
drags it into the water, inftantly finks with it to the
bottom, and in this manner quickly drowms it. Some¬
times it happens, that the creature wounded by the
crocodile makes its efcape ; in which cafe, the latter
purfues with great celerity, and often takes it a fecond
time. In thefe depredations, however, this terrible
animal often feizes on another as formidable as itfelf,
and meets with a defperate refiftance. We are told
of frequent combats between the crocodile and the
tiger. All creatures of the tiger kind are continual¬
ly oppreffed by a parching thirft, that keeps them in
the vicinity of great rivers, whither they defeend to
drink very frequently. On thefe occafions they are
feized by the crocodile ; upon whom they inftantly
turn with the greateft agility, and force their claws in¬
to his eyes, while he plunges, with his fierce antago-
nift, into the river. There they continue to ftruggle
for Tome time, till at laft the tiger is drowned. Not-
withftanding all this, however, we are affured.by La-
bat, that a negro, with no other weapon than a knife
in his right hand, and his left arm wrapped round
with a cow-hide, ventures boldly to attack this ani¬
mal in its own element. As foon as he approaches
the crocodile, he prefents his left arm, which the ani¬
mal fwallovvs moft greedily: but as it flicks in hie
throat, the negro has time to give it feveral (labs be¬
low the chin, where it is eafily vulnerable ; and the wa¬
ter alfo getting in at the mouth, which is held involun-
23 C tarily
LAC [ 4062 ] LAC
Lacerta. tarily open, the creature is foon bloated up as big as a
tun, and expires.
The natives of Siam feem particularly fond of the
capture of all the great animals with which their coun¬
try abounds. The crocodiles are taken by throwing
three or four ftrong nets acrofs a river, at proper di-
ftances from each other ; fo that if the animal breaks
through the firft, it may be caught by one of the reft.
When it is firft taken, it employs the tail, which is the
grand inftrument of ftrength, with great force ; but
after many unfuccefsful ftruggles, the animal’s ftrength
is at laft exhaufted. Then the natives approach their
prifoner in boats, and pierce him in the moft tender
parts till he is weakened by lofs of blood. When he
has done ftirring, they begin by tying up his mouth,
and with the fame cord tie his head to his tail, which
laft they bend back like a bow. However, they are
. not yet perfe&ly fecure from his fury; but for their
greater fafcty they tie his forefeet, as well as thofe be¬
hind, to the top of his back. Thefe precautions are
not ufelefs ; for if they were to omit them, the croco¬
dile would foon recover ftrength enough to do a great
deal of mifchief. When thus brought into fubjeflion,
or when taken young and tamed, this formidable animal
is ufed to divert and entertain the great men of the eaft.
It is often managed like an horfe ; a curb is put into
its mouth, and the rider direds it as he thinks proper.
Though aukwardly formed, it does not fail to proceed
with fome degree of fwiftnefs; and is thought to
move as fail as fomc of the moft unwieldy of our own
animals, the hog or the cow. Some indeed affert,
that no animal could efcape it but for its flownefs in
turning; which, however, feems very improbable, as
its back-bone is full of articulations, and feemingly as
flexible as that of other large animals.
All crocodiles breed near frefh waters ; and though
they are fometimes found in the fea, yet that may be
confidered rather as a place of excurfion than abode.
They produce their young by eggs, as was faid above;
and for this purpofe, the female, when (he comes to
lay, choofes a place by the fide of a river, or fome frefh-
water lake, to depofite her brood in. She always
pitches upon an extenfive fandy (hore, where fhe may
dig a hole without danger of detection from the ground
being frefh turned up. The fhore muft alfo be gentle
and (helving to the water, for the greater convenience
of the animal’s going and returning ; and a convenient
place muft be found near the edge of the ftream, that
the young may have a fhorter way to go. When all
thefe requifites are adjufted, the animal is feen cau-
tioufly Sealing up on fhore to depofit her burden. The
prefence of a man, a beaft, or even a bird, is fufficient
to deter her at that time; and if fhe perceives any
creature looking on, fhe infallibly returns. If, how¬
ever, nothing appears, fhe then goes to work, fcratch-
ing up the fand with her fore-paws, and making a
hole pretty deep in the fhore. There fhe depofites from
80 to too eggs, of the fize of a tennis-ball, and of
the fame figure, covered with a tough white fkin like
parchment. She takes above an hour to perform this
tafk ; and then, covering up the place fo artfully that
it can fcarcely be perceived, fhe goes back to return
again the next day. Upon her return, with the fame
precaution as before, fhe lays about the fame number
si eggs ; and the day following alfo a like number.
Thus having depofited her whole quantity, and having Lacerta.
covered them clofe up in the fand, they are foon vivi- 
fied by the heat of the fun ; and at the end of 30 days,
the young ones begin to break open the fhell. At this
time the female is inftinftively taught that her young
ones want relief; and fhe goes upon land to fcratch away
the fand and fet them free. Her brood quickly avail
themfelves of their liberty ; apart run unguided to the
water; another part afcend the back of the female, and
are carried thither in greater fafety. But the moment
they arrive at the water, all natural connexion is at an
end ; when the female has introduced her young to
their natural element, not only fhe, but the male, be¬
come amongft the number of their moft formidable e-
nemies, and devour as many of them as they can. The
whole brood fcatters into different parts at the bot¬
tom ; by far the greateft number are dcftroyed, and
the reft find fafety in their agility or minutenefs.
But it is not the parent alone that is thus found to
thin their numbers; the eggs of this animal are not
only a delicious feaft to the favage, but are eagerly
fought after by every beaft and bird of prey. The
ichneumon was erefted into a deity among the ancients
for its fuccefs in deftroying the eggs of thefe mon-
fters: at prefent, that fpecies of the vulture called the
gallinazo is their moft prevailing enemy. All along
the banks of great rivers, for thoufands of miles, the
crocodile is feen to propagate in numbers that would
foon over-run the earth, but for the vulture, that feems
appointed by Providence to abridge its fecundity.
Thefe birds are ever found in great numbers where the
crocodile is moft numerous; and hiding themfelves
within the thick branches of the trees that fhade the
banks of the river, they watch the female in filence,
and permit her to lay all her eggs without interruption.
Then when fhe has retired, they encourage each other
with cries to the fpoil; and flocking all together up¬
on the hidden treafure, tear up the eggs, and devour
them in a much quicker time than they were depofited.
Nor are they lefs diligent in attending the female while
fhe is carrying her young to the water; for if any one
of them happens to drop by the way, it is fure to re¬
ceive no mercy.
Such is the extraordinary account given us by late
travellers of the propagation of this animal; an ac- ;
count adopted by Linnaeus and the moft learned natu-
ralifts of the age. Yet, if one might argue from the
eneral analogy of nature, the crocodile’s devouring
er own young when fhe gets to the water feems
doubtful. This may be a ftory railed from the general
idea of this animal’s rapacious cruelty ; when, in fa£t,
the crocodile only feems more cruel than other animals
becaufe it has more power to do mifchief. It is pro- j
bable, that it is not more divefted of parental tender-
nefs than other creatures ; and we are the more led to
think fo from .the peculiar formation of one of the
crocodile kind. This is called the open-bellied croco- j I
dile, and is furnifhed-with a falfe belly like the opof- \ j
fum, where the young creep out and in as their dan¬
gers or neceflities require. The crocodile, thus furnifh- ' *
ed at leaft, cannot be faid to be an enemy to her own ];
young, fince fhe thus gives them more than parental ‘
protedion. It is probable alfo, that this open-bellied
crocodile is viviparous, and fofters -her young that are !
prematurely excluded in this fecond womb, until they
come
LAC
Plate
CL1X.
fig. 4.
come to proper maturity.
~ How long the crocodile lives, we are not certainly in¬
formed : if we may believe Ariftotle, it lives the age
of a man ; but the ancients fo much amufed themfelves
in inventing fables concerning this animal, that even
truth from them is fufpicious. What we know for
certain from the ancients is, that among the various
animals that were produced to fight in the amphitheatre
at Rome, the combat of the crocodile was not want¬
ing. Marcus Scaurus produced them living in his
unrivalled exhibitions ; and the Romans confidered him
as the belt citizen,* becaufe he furnilhed them with the
moft expenfive entertainments.
The laft mentioned kind of crocodile is a fpecies not
dtfcribed by Linnseus. Mr Edwards tells us, that
three of thefe creatures were fent from Bengal, about
the year 1747, to the late Dr Mead phyfician in or¬
dinary to the king. Two of thefe the Doftor prefer-
ved in his colledfion, and prefented the third to the
late curious Mrs Kennon ; and fince the deceafe of
thefc worthy perfons, they became the property of Mr
James Lemon of London, who obliged our author
with one of them to produce to the royal fociety.
The narrownefs of the beak is the moft extraordina¬
ry circumftance in this crocodile, which appears like
the bill of the bird called goosander. It has fmall
fharp teeth. Another peculiarity is a paunch or open
purfe in the middle of the under fide of the belly,
which feems to be naturally formed with round hips,
and hollow within, to receive its young in time of dan¬
ger, as it appears in the American animal called opof-
fum. Dr Parfons gave it as bis opinion, that the o-
pening in the belly was really natural, it having no
appearance of being cut or torn open. In other re-
fpe&s it hath all the marks common to alligators or
crocodiles. The beak was finely creafed tranfverfely.
The animal appeared, in the fpirits, all over of a yellow-
i(h oval colour, the under fide lighter than the upper,
the latter having fome dulky marks and fpots. This
fpecies inhabits the banks of the Ganges; and it is very
ftrange that they (hould never have been defcribed be¬
fore, as our India company have been fo long fettled
there, and the animal is, at full growth, nearly, if not
altogether, as large as the common crocodile.
II. The caudiverbera, has a depreffed pinnatifid
tail, and palmated feet. It is larger than the com¬
mon green lizard, is found in Peru, and has got its
name from its beating the ground with its tail.
III. The ftellio has a verticillated tail, and dentated
fcales. It is a native of Africa, and the warm parts
of Afia. It frequents the ruinous walls of Natolia,
Syria, and Paleftine. The Arabs call it hardun. The
Turks kill it ; for they imagine, that, by declining the
head, it mimics them while they fay their prayers.
IV. The agilis, has a pretty long verticillated tail,
with (harp fcales, and a fcaly collar. This is the com¬
mon green lizard, and is a native both of Europe and
India. This fpecies is extremely nimble : in hot wea¬
ther, It balks on the fides of dry banks or old trees;
but, on being obferved, immediately retreats to its
hole. The food of this fpecies, as well as of all the
other Britifh lizards, is infe&s ; and they themfelves
are devoured by birds of prey. They are all perfeA-
ly harmlefs; yet their form ftrikes one with difguft,
and has occafioned great obfcurity in their hiftory.
[ 4063 1
LAC
Mr Pennant mentions a lizard killed in Worcefterlhire Lacerta.
in the year 1714, which was two feet fix inches long, “
and four inches in girth. The fore legs were placed
eight inches from the head ; the hind-legs five inches
beyond thofe: the legs were two inches long; the feet
divided into four toes, each furnifhed with a lharpciavv.
Another of the fame kind was afterwards killed in that
county; but whether thefe large lizards were na¬
tives of other countries and imported into England,
or whether they were of Britifh growth, is uncertain.
5. The chamaeleon has a crooked cylindrical tail.
The head of a large chamseleon is almoft two inches
long, and from thence to the beginning of ihe tail it^yjj,
is four inches and a half. The tail is five inches long, gg 5. ’
and the feet two and a half. The thicknefs of the
body is different at different feafons ; for fometimes
from the back to the belly it is two inches, and fome¬
times but one ; for he can blow himfelf up and con-
tra& himfelf at pleafure. This fwelling and contrac¬
tion is not only of the back and belly, but of the legs
and tail.
Thefe different motipns are not like thofe of other
animals, which proceed from a dilatation of the breaft:
in breathing, and which rifes and falls fucceffively ;
but they are very irregular, as in tortoifes and frogs.
The chamseleon has continued as it were blown up
for two hours together, and then he would grow lefs
and lefs infenfibly; for the dilatation was always more
quick and vifible than the contradion. In this laft
ftate he appeared extremely lean, and the fpine of the
back was (harp, and all his ribs might be told ; like-
wife the tendons of the arms and legs might be feen
very diftinftly.
The Ikin is very cold to the touch ; and notwith-
ftanding he feems fo lean, there is no feeling the beat¬
ing of the heart. The furface of the fldn is unequal,
and has a grain not unlike fhagreen, but very foft, be¬
caufe each eminence is as fmooth as if it was polifft-
ed. Some of thefe are as large as a middling pin’s
head on the arms, legs, belly, and tail; but on the
Ihoulders and head they are of an oval figure, and a
little larger. Thofe under the throat are ranged in
the form of a chaplet, from the lower lip to the breaft.
Some on the head and back are amaffed together in
clufters, with fpaces between them, on which are al¬
moft imperceptible fpots of a pale red and yellow co¬
lour, as well as the ground of the fkin itfeif, which
plainly appears between thefe clufters. This ground
changes colour when the animal is dead, becoming of
a greyifti brown, and the fmall fpots are whitilh.
The colour of all thefe eminences, when the cha-
maeleon is at reft in a fhady place, is of a bluilh
grey, except on the claws, where it is white with a
little yellow; and the fpaces between the clufters is
of a pale red and yellow, as was before obferved. But
when he is in the fun, all parts of the body which are
affe&ed with the light, become of a greyifh brown, or
rather of a tawny. That part of the Ikin which the
fun does not ftiine on, changes into feveral brighter
colours, which form fpots of the fize of half one’s fin-
~ger. Some of thefe defcend from the fpine half way
on the back ; and others appear on the fides, arms,
and tail. They are all of an Ifabella colour, from a
mixture of a pale yellow and of a bright red, which
is the colour of the ground of the fkin.
23 C 2
The
LAC [ 4064 ] LAC
Lacerta. The head of a chamaeleon is not unlike that of a
fifh, it being joined to the bread by a very fhort neck,
covered on each fide with cartilaginous membranes re-
fembling the gills of fiihes. There is a creft diredlly
on the top of the head, and two others on each fide
above the eyes, and between thefe there are two ca¬
vities near the top of the head. The muzzle is blunt,
and not much unlike that of a frog : at the end there
is a hole on each fide for the nollrils 5 but there are
no ears, nor any fign of any.
The jaws are furnilhed with teeth, or rather with
a bone in the form of teeth, which he makes little or
no ufe of, becaufe he lives upon fwallowing flies and
other infe&s, without chewing them ; and hence
arofe the vulgar notion of his living upon air,
becaufe he was never feen to eat. The form, ftruc-
ture, and motion of the eyes, have fomething ve¬
ry particular; for they are very large, being almoft
half an inch in diameter. They are of a globous fi¬
gure ; which may be eafily feen, becaufe they (land
out of the head. They have a Angle eye-lid like a
cap, with a hole in the middle, through which the
fight of the eye appears, which is of a (hining brown,
and round it there is a little circle of a gold colour.
This eye-lid has a grain like fhagreen, as well as the
other parts of the (kin ; and when the reft of the body
changes colour, and aifumes fpots of different (hapes,
thofe on the lid always keep the fame form, though
they are tin&ured with the fame colour as the {kin.
But the moft extraordinary thing; relating to the eyes
is, that this animal often moves one when the other is
entirely at reft; nay, fometimes one eye will feem to
look direftly forward and the other backward, and
one will look up to the Iky when the other regards
the earth.
That part of the body which is called the trunk,
and comprehends the thorax and the belly in a cha-
masleon, is almoft all thorax, with little or no belly.
The four feet are all of a length ; and the only dif¬
ference between them is, that thofe before are turned
backwards, and thofe behind forwards. There are
five toes on each paw, which have a greater refetn-
blance to hands than feet. They are all divided into
two, which gives the appearance of two hands to
each arm, and two feet to each leg ; and though one
of thefe parts have three toes, and the other but two,
yet they feem to be all of the fame fize. Thefe toes
lie together under the fame {kin as in a mitten ; how¬
ever, their ftiape might be feen through the fkin.
With thefe paws the chamaeleon can lay hold of the
fmall branches of trees in the fame manner as a par¬
rot. When he is about to perch, he parts his toes
differently from birds, becaufe he puts two behind and
two before. The claws are little, crooked, very {harp,
and of a pale yellow, proceeding but half way out of
the {kin, while the other half is hid beneath it. His
walk is flower than that of a tortoife, and he feems
to move along with an affe&ation of gravity. He
feems to feek for a proper place to fet his feet upon ;
and when he climbs up trees, he does not truft to his
feet like fquirrels, but endeavours to find out clefts
in the bark, that he may get a furer hold.
His tail is like that of a viper, when it is puffed up
and round ; for otherwife the bones may be feen in
the fame manner as on the back. He always wraps
kis tail round the branches of trees, and it ferves him
as it were inftcad of a fifth hand. — He is a native of Lacerta.
Africa and Afia. Mr Haffelquift is of opinion, that —
the change of colour in the chameleon is owing to its
being exceedingly fubjeft to the jaundice, which par¬
ticularly happens either when it is expofed to the fun,
or when it is made angry. The mixture of the bile
with its blood is then very perceptible, and, as the
fkin is tranfparent, makes it fpotted with green and
yellow. He never faw it coloured with red, blue, or
purple ; and does not believe that ever it affumes thefe
colours.
6. The gecko has a cylindrical tail, concave ears,
and a warty body. It is the Indian falamander of
Bontius. “ This animal is very frequent in Cairo,
(fays Haffelquift), both in the houfes and without
them. The poifon of this animal is very fingular, as
it exhales from the lobuli of the toes. The animal
feeks all places and things impregnated with fea-falt,
and, palling over them feveral times, leaves this very
noxious poifon behind it. In July 1750, Mr Haffel¬
quift faw two women and a girl in Cairo at the point
of death, from eating cheete new failed, bought in
the market, and on which this animal had dropt its
poifon. Once at Cairo, I had an opportunity of ob-
ferving how acrid the exhalations of the toes of this
animal are, as it ran over the hand of a man who en¬
deavoured to catch it; there immediately rofe little
puftules over all thofe parts the animal had touched ;
thefe were red, inflamed, and fmarted a little, greatly
rcfembling thofe occafioned by the Hinging of nettles.
It emits an odd found, efpecially in the night, from
its throat, not unlike that of a frog.”
7. The fcincus has a cylindrical tail compreffed at
the point, and blunt marginated toes. This animal is
found in Arabia Petrsea near the Red Sea, and in Up¬
per Egypt near the Nile. It is much ufed by the in¬
habitants of the eaft as an aphrodifiac, but not at
this time by the Europeans. The flefti of the animal
is given in powder, with feme ftimulating vehicle ;
broth made of the recent flefti is likewife ufed by the
Arabs. It is brought from Upper Egypt and Ara¬
bia to Alexandria, whence it is carried to Venice and
Marfeilles, and from thence to all the apothecaries
{hops of Europe. It has been an error common to al- |j
moft all authors, to imagine the fcincus to be a fifti.
8. The nilotica has a long tail with a triangular
edge, and four lines of feales on the back. It is met
with in the moift places of Egypt near the Nile. The
Egyptians fay that this lizard proceeds from the eggs
of the crocodile laid in the fand, but that the croco¬
dile proceeds from thofe laid in the water. Mr Haf¬
felquift hath detefted the fallacy of this account.
9. The paluftris has a lanceolated tail, and four toes
on the fore-feet, and inhabits the ftagnating waters of
Europe. It has a flow and crawling pace. Mr Pen¬
nant mentions his having more than once found, under
{tones and old logs, feme very minute lizards that had :
much the appearance of this kind : they were perfectly
formed, and had not the lead veftiges of fins ; which
circumftance, joined to their being found in a dry
place remote from water, feems to indicate, that they
had never been inhabitants of that element, as it is
certain many of our lizards are in their firft ftate. At
that period they have a fin above and below their tail ;
that on the upper part extends along the back as far
as the head ; but both drop off as foon as the animal
takes j!
Plate Cl,IX,
lEMUR. Tardig^radu,
HAKMONTCvV.
lEMT^l Catra,
■ arc/i tae/coY e. '//auanMO.
lOPHICS Tifcatonus
or* comtnen YYnaY&r'.
llQPAS AuafiTe
(JeeiSYfienMic)
' rm,’/Yt/rufr /
LAC
[ 4<% ]
LAC
Laches takes to the land, being then no longer of any ufe. pregnated with part of the alkali, which depraves its Laftitiu,
il ^ Mr Ellis has remarked certain pennated fins at the colour, and communicates a property to the lacquer  
Lacquers, gjjj3 0f onc very common i„ mofl 0f our ftagnating of imbibing moifture from the air. Thefe inconve-
waters, and which is frequently obferyed to take a niences may be prevented by diftilling the fpirit; or,
bait like a filh, if the artift has not an opportunity of performing that
10. The falamandra, or falamander, has a fhort cy¬
lindrical tail, four toes on the fore-feet, and a naked
porous body. This animal has been faid, even in the
Philofophical Tranfadtions, to live in the fire; but
this is found to be a miftake. Its properties are very not being foluble in fpirit of wine, falls to the bot-
little known. It is found in the fouthern countries tom together with the earth of the decompofed alum,
of Europe.   To a pint of the dephlegmated and purified fpirit.
procefs, he may cleanfe the fpirit in a great meafure
from the alkali, by adding to it fome calcined alum ;
the acid of which uniting with the alkali remaining
in the fpirit, forms with it a vitriolated tartar, which,
 * r • r 11 .i «
. The bafililkus, has a long cylindrical tail, a ra¬
diated fin on the back, and a creft ou the the throat.
It is a native of the Indies. See fig. 6.
LACHES, (from the French lafcher, i. e. laxare,
about three ounces of powdered fhell-lac are to be
added; and the mixture to be digefted during fome
day with a moderate heat. The liquor ought then
to be poured off, {trained, and cleared by fettling.
'T’tito i;  r,.   .i..  • . “
or lafchsy ignavus), in the Englifh law fignifies flack- This clear liquor is now fit to receive the required co-
refs or negligence, as it appears in Littleton, where lour from certain refinous colouring fubftances; the
laches of entry is a negledt of the heir to enter. And principal of which are gambogeandannotto; the former
probably it may be an old Englifh word : for where of which gives a yellow, and the latter an orange co-
we fay there is laches of entry, it is all one as if it lour. In order to give a golden colour, two parts of
were faid there is a lack of entry ; and in this fignifi- gamboge arc added to one of annotto; but thefe co-
cation it is ufed. No laches fhall be adjudged in the louring fubftances may be feparately diffolved in the
heir within age ; and regularly, laches fhall not bar tindure of lac, and the colour required may be adjuft-
infants or femme coverts for not entry or claim, to avoid ed by mixing the two folutions in different proportions
k,„ m-ii k-  .-J .L— r. When filver leaf, or tin, are to be lacquered, a larger
quantity of the colouring materials are requifite than
when the lacque- ** k~ i-u —
defcents; but laches fhall be accounted in them for
non-performance of a condition annexed to the ftate
of the land.
LACHRYMAL, in anatomy, an apellation given
to feveral parts of the eye. See Anatomy, n°4o6. f.
LACHRYMATORY, inautiquity, a veflel where¬
in were colledted the tears of a deceafed perfon’s friends,
and preferved along with the afhcs and urn. They
were fmall glafs or earthen bottles, chiefly in the form
of phials. At the Roman funerals, the friends of the
r is intended to be laid on brafs.
 Lactation, or Giving Suck. The . ,
mother’s-brcaft, if poffible, fhould be allowed the Medical “
child, at leaft during the firft month j for thus theDiRionary,
child is more peculiarly benefited by what it fucks,
and the mother is preferved from more real inconve¬
niences, than the falfely delicate imagine they would
fuffer by compliance herewith : but if by reafon of ai
deceafed, or the pratficce, women hired for that pur- infirm conftitution, or other caufes, the mother can-
pofe, ufed to fill them with their tears, and depofit not fucklc her child, let dry nurfing under the mother’s
them very carefully with the afhes, in teftimony of eye be purfued.
their forrow; imagining the manes of the deceafed When women lofe their appetite by giving fuck,
were thereby greatly comforted. . Many fpecimens both the children and themfelves are thereby injured;
of them are preferved in the cabinets of the curious, wet nurfes are to be preferred, who during the time
Dartlcularlv in the Rritifh MnfVnm flwaxr l   *1  ! r 1
particularly in the Britifh Mufeum.
LACINIUM, (anc. geog.) a noble promontory
of the Brutii in Italy, the fouth boundary of the Si¬
nus Tarentinus and the Adriatic ; all to the fouth of
it being deemed the loniau Sea : it was famous for a
rich temple of Juno, furnamed Lacinia, with a pillar
of folid gold Handing in it; which Hannibal intend¬
ing to carry off, was, according to Cicero, diffuaded
by a dream. Now Capo ddle Colonne, from the co¬
lumns of Juno’s temple ftill ftanding on the north-
eaft coart of the Calabria ultra.
LACQUERS, are varnifhes applied upon tin, brafs,
and other metals, to preferve them from tarnifhing,
and to improve their colour. The balls of lacquers
is a folution of the refinous fubftance called feed lac, in
they give the breaft, have rather an increafed ap¬
petite, and digeft more quickly ; the former are apt
to wafte away, and fometimes die confumptive. In
fhort, thofe nurfes with whom la&ation may for a
while agree, fhould wean the child as foon as their ap¬
petite leffens, their ftrength feems to fail, or a ten¬
dency to hyfleric fymptoms are manifeft.
When the new-born child is- to be brought up by
the mother’s breaft, apply it thereto in ten or twelve
hours after delivery ; thus the milk is fooner and
more eafily fupplied, and there is lefs hazard of a fe¬
ver, than when the child is not put to it before the
milk begins to flow of itfelf.
If the mother does not fuckle her child, her breafts
fhould be fo kept warm with flannels, or with a hare-
fpirit of wine. The fpirit ought to be very much flrin, that a conftant perfpiration may be fupported ;
dephlegmated, in order to diffolve much of the lac. thus there rarely will arile much inconvenience from
For this purpofe, fome authors dire&ly dry potafh to
be thrown into the fpirit. This alkali attra&s the
water, with which it forms a liquid that fubfides di-
ftindfly from the fpirit at the bottom of the veffel.
From this liquid the fpirit may be feparated by de¬
cantation. By this method the fpirit is much de¬
phlegmated; but, at the fame time, it becomes im-
the milk.
The child, notwithftanding all our care in dry nur¬
fing, fometimes pines if a breaft is not allowed. In
this cafe a wet nurfe fhould be provided, if poflible
one that hath not been long delivered of a child. She
fhould be young, of a healthy habit, and an aftive dif-
pofuion, a mild temper, and whofe breafts are well
filled
LAC [ 4066 1 LAC
Liftantius, filled with milk. If the milk is good, it is fweetifli to
lacteal. tfje tafte} an(J totally free from faltnefs; to the eye it
appears thin, and of a bluilh call. That the woman
hath her menfes, if in other refpe&s objeftions are not
made, this need not be any; and as to the cuftom with
many, of abftaining from venery while they continue
to fuckle a child, it is fo far without reafon to fupport
it, that the truth is, a rigorous chaftity is as hurtful,
and often more pernicious, than an immoderate ufe of
venery. Amongft the vulgar errors, is that of red-
haired women being improper for wet nurfes.
If the menfes do not appear during the firft months,
but after fix or eight months fuckling they begin to
defcend, the child flvould be weaned.
Wet nurfes fhould eat at leaft one hearty meal of
animal-food every day; with this, a proper quantity of
vegetables (hould be mixed. Thin broth, or milk, are
proper for their breakfafts and their fuppers; and if
the ftrength fhould feem to fail a little, a draught of
good ale Ihould now and then be allowed: but fpiri-
tuous liquors muft, in general, be foreborn; not but a
fpoonful of rum may be allowed in a quart of milk and
water, (/. e. a pint of each), which is a proper common
drink.
Though it is well obferved by Dr Hunter, that the
far greater number of thofe women who have cancers
in the breaft or womb, are old maids, and thofe who
refufe to give fuck to their children ; yet it is the un-
happinefs of fome willing mothers not to be able : for
inllance, thofe with tender conftitutions, and who are
fubjeft to nervous diforders; thofe who do not eat a
fufficient quantity of folid food, nor enjoy the benefit
of exercife and air: if children are kept at their breafts,
they either die whilft young, or are weak and fickly
after childhood is paft, and fo on through remaining
life.
LACTANTIUS (Lucius Goelius Firmianus), a ce¬
lebrated author at the beginning of the 4th century,
was, according to Baronius, an African; but, accord¬
ing to others, was born at Fermo in the marquifate of
Anconia, from whence it is imagined he was called
Firmianut. He ftudied rhetoric under Arnobius; and
was afterwards a profeffor of that fcience in Africa and
Nicomedia, where he was fo admired, that the empe¬
ror Conftantine chofe him preceptor to his fon Crifpus
Csefar. Laftantius was fo far from feeking the plea-
fures and riches of the court, that he lived there in po¬
verty, and, according to Eufebius, frequently wanted
neceffaries. His works are written in elegant Latin.
The principal of which are, 1. De ira divina. 2. De
operibus Dei, in which he treats of the creation of
man, and of divine providence. 3. Divine Inftitutions,
in feven books. This is the moft confiderable of all his
works: he there undertakes to prove the truth of the
Chriilian religion, and to refute all the difficulties that
had been raifed againft it; and he folidly and with
great ftrength attacks the illufions of paganifm. His
ftyle is pure, clear, and natural, and hi.s expreffions
^ ^ioble and elegant, on which account he has been call-
the Cicero of the Chrijiians. There is alfo attributed
to him a treatife De nwrte perfecutorum; but feveral
of the learned doubt its being written by Laftantius.
The moft copious edition of La&antius’s works is that
of Paris, in 1748, 2 vols 410.
LACTEAL vessels. See Anatomy, n° 369.
LACTIFEROUS, an appellation given to plants Laftiferousi
abounding with a milky juice, as the fow-thiftle and -attuca.
the like. The name of lactiferous, or laCtefcent, is gi-
yen to all thofe plants which abound with a thick-co¬
loured juice, without regarding whether it is white or
not. Mod lailiferous plants are poifonous, except
thofe with compound flowers, which are generally of
an innocent quality.
Of the poifonous laffefeent plants the moft remark¬
able are fumach, agaric, maple, burning thorny plant,
caffada, celandine, puccoon, prickly poppy, and the
plants of the natural order contort a, as (wallow-wort,
apocynum, cynanchum, and cerbera.
The bell-ftiaped flowers are partly noxious, as car¬
dinal flower; partly innocent, as campanula.
Among the laftefeent plants with compound flowers
that are innocent in their quality, may be mentioned
dandelion, picris, hyoferis, wild lettuce, gum-fuccory,
hawk-weed, baftard hawk-weed, hypochceris, goat’s-
beard, and moft fpecies of lettuce: we fay moft fpe-
cies, becaufe the prickly fpecies of that genus are faid
to be of a very virulent and poifonous nature ; though
Mr Lightfoot denies this, and affirms that they are a
fafe and gentle opiate, and that a fyrup made from the
leaves and ftalks is much preferable to the common
diacodium.
LACTUCA, Lettuce; a genus of the polygamia
aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of *
plants. There are feveral fpecies, moft of which are
plants of no ufe, and never cultivated but in bota¬
nic gardens for variety. Thofe commonly cultivated
in the kitchen-garden for ufe are, 1. The common
or garden lettuce. 2. Cabbage lettuce. 3. Silefia
lettuce. 4. Dutch brown lettuce. 5. Aleppo lettuce.
6. Imperial lettuce. 7. Green capuchin lettuce. 8. Ver-
failles or upright white Cos lettuce. 9. Black Cos.
10. Red Cos. 11. Red capuchin lettuce. 12. Ro¬
man lettuce. 13. Prince lettuce. 14. Royal lettuce.
15. Egyptian Cos lettuce.
The firft of thefe forts is very common in all gar¬
dens, and is commonly fown for cutting very young,
to mix with other falad herbs in fpring; and the fe-
cond, or cabbage-lettuce, is only this mended by cul¬
ture. It may be fown at all times of the year, but in
the hot months requires to be fown in (hady borders.
The cabbage-lettuce may alfo be fown at different
feafons, to have a continuation of it through the fum-
mer. The firft crop ftould be fown in February, in
an open fituation; the others, at three-weeks diftance;
but the later ones under covert, but not under the
drippings of trees.
The Silefia, imperial, royal, black, white, and up¬
right Cos lettuces, may be firft fown in the latter end
of February or the beginning of March, on a warm
light foil, and in an open fituation; when the plants
are come up, they muft be thinned to 15 inches di¬
ftance every way, they will then require no farther
care than the keeping them clear of weeds; and the
black Cos, as it grows large, {hould have its leaves tied
together to whiten the inner part. Succeeding crops
of thefe fhould be fown in April, May, and June; and
toward the latter end of Auguft they may be fowed
for a winter crop, to be preferred under glaffes, or in
a bed arched over with hoops and covered with mats.
The raoft valuable of all the Englifh lettuces are,
the
LAD [ 4067 ] L A D ~
Lacunar the white Cos, or the Verfailles, the Silefia, and the
II black Cos. The brown Dutch and the green capuchin
are very hardy, and may be fown late, under walls,
where they will Hand the winter, and be valuable
when no others are to be, had. The red capuchin,
Roman, and prince lettuce, are very early kinds, and
are fown for variety; as are alfo the Aleppo on.es for
the beauty of their fpotted leaves.
The milk of the common garden-lettuce is hypno¬
tic, while the root of the plant is cooling, diluent, and
nourifliing.
LACUNAR, in archite&ure, an arched roof or
ceiling, more efpecially the planking or flooring above
porticos or piazzas.
LACYDES, a Greek philofopher, born at Cyrene,
was the difciple of Arcelilaus, and his fucceffor in the
academy. He taught in a garden given him by
Attains king of Pergamus; but that prince fending
for him to court, he replied, “ That the piftures of
kings fliould be viewed at a diftance.” He imitated
his mafter in the pleafure he took in doing good with¬
out caring to have it known : he had a goofe which
followed him every where, by night as well as by
day ; and when flie died, he made a funeral for her,
which was as magnificent as if it had been for a
fon or a brother. He taught the fame do&rine as
Arcefilaus ; and pretended that we ought to deter¬
mine nothing, but always to fufpend our opinion. He
died 212 B. C.
LADDER, a frame made with a number of fteps,
by means of which people may afcend as on a flair to
places otherwife inacceffible.
Scaling Ladders, in the military art, are ufed in
fcaling when a place is to be taken by furprize. They
are made feveral ways: here we make them of flat
flaves, fo that they may move about their pins, and
fhut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying
-them: the French make them of feveral pieces, fo as
to be joined together, and to be made of any neceffary
length : fometimes they are made of Angle ropes,
knotted at proper diftances, with iron hooks at each
end, one to faften them upon the wall above, and the
other in the ground ; and fometimes they are made
with two ropes, and ftaves between them, to keep the
ropes at a proper diftance, and to tread upon. When
they are ufed in the aftion of fcaling walls, they
ought to be rather too long than too fhort, and to be
given in charge only to the flouteft of the detach¬
ment. The foldiers fhould carry thefe ladders with
the left arm paffed through the fecond ftep, taking
care to hold them upright clofe to their Tides, and
very (hort below, to prevent any accident in leaping
into the ditch.
The firfl rank of each divifion, provided with lad¬
ders, fhould fet out with the reft at the fignal, march¬
ing refolutely with their firelocks flung, to jump into
the ditch: when they are arrived, they fhould apply
their ladders againft the parapet, obferving to place
them towards the falient angles rather than the middle
of the curtain, beeaufe the enemy have lefs force there.
Care muft be taken to place the ladders within a foot
of each other, and not to give them too much nor too
. little flope, fo that they may not be overturned or
broke with the weight of the foldiers mounting upon
them.
. The ladders being applied, they who have carried Laden
them, and they who come after, fhould mount up, LatJ0Iie
and rufh upon the enemy fword-in-hand: if he who 3 rori '
goes firft, happens to be overturned, the next
fhould take care not to be thrown down by his
comerade; but, on the contrary, immediately mount
himfelf, fo as not to give the enemy time to load his
piece.
As the foldiers who mount firft may be eafily tum¬
bled over, and their fall may caufe the attack to
fail, it would perhaps be right to protedl their breads
with the fore-parts of cuiraftes; becaufe, if they can
penetrate, the reft may eafily follow.
The fuccefs of an attack by fcaling is infallible, if
they mount the four fides at once, and take care to
fhower a number of grenades amongft the enemy,
efpecially when fupported by feme grenadiers and
picquets, who fhare the attention and fire of the
enemy.
LADEN, in the fea-language, the ftate of a fhip
when fhe is charged with a weight or quantity of any
fort of merchandizes, or other materials, equal to her
tonnage or burthen. If the cargo with which fhe is
laden is extremely heavy, her burthen is determined
by the weight of the goods ; and if it is light, fhe
carries as much as fhe can y?c<u>, to be fit for the
purpofes of navigation. As a ton in meafure is
generally eftimated at 2000 lb. in weight, a veffel of
200 tons ought accordingly to carry a weight equal
to 400,000 fb. when the matter of which the cargo is
compofed is fpecifically heavier than the water in
which fhe floats; or, in other words, when the cargo
is fo heavy that fhe cannot float high enough with fo
great a quantity of it as her hold will contain.
Laden in Bulk, the ftate of being freighted with a
cargo which is neither in calks, boxes, bales, nor cafes,
but lies loofe in the hold ; being defended from the
moifture or wet of the hold, by a number of mats
and a quantity of dunage. Such are ufually the car¬
goes of corn, fait, or fuch materials.
LADENBURG, a town of Germany in the Pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, feated on the river Neckar, in
E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat. 49. 27. It belongs to the
bifhopric of Worms, and the eledlor Palatine.
LADISLAUS, the name of feveral kings of Po¬
land. See Poland.
LADOGA, a town of the Ruffian empire, feated
on a great lake of the fame name, which has a com¬
munication with the gulph of Finland, by the river
Nieva; and it abounds in fifh, particularly falmon.
E. Long. 33. 29. N. Lat. 60. o.
LADOGNA, or Lacedogna, a town of Italy,
in the- kingdom of Naples, and in the Capitanata,
with a bifhop’s fee. E. Long. 15. 12. N. Lat.
41. 16.
LADRONE or Marian I/lands, a clufter of 12
iftands lying in the Pacific Ocean, in about 1450 of
call longitude, and between the nth and 21ft degree
of north latitude. They were firft difeovered by Ma¬
gellan, who failed round the world through the Straits
which bear his name. He gave them the name of
Ladrone I/lands, or the I/lands of Thieves, from the
thievilh difpofition of the inhabitants. At the time
thefe iflands were difeovered by the Europeans, the
natives were totally unacquainted with any other
coun-
I.sidrone.
LAD t 4068 ] LAD
country befides their ownj and having no traditionary Ladrones came from Japan. But from their greater
’accounts of their own origin, they imagined that the refemblance to the inhabitants of the Philippine
author of their race was formed of a piece of the rock iflands than to the Japanefe, it is more probable that
of Funa, one of their fmalleft iflands. Many things they came from the former than the latter. Formerly,
looked upon by us as abfolutely neceflary to our exift- moft of the iflands were inhabited; and about 90 years
ence, were utterly unknown to thefe people. They ago, the three principle iflands, Guam, Tinian, and
had no animals of any fort; and would not even have Rota, are faid to have contained 50,000 people; but
had any idea of them, had it not been for the birds; fince that time, Tinian hath been entirely depopula-
and even of them they had but one fpecies, fomewhat ted, and only 200 or 300 Indians left at Rota to cul-
like the turtle-dove,, which they never killed for tivate rice for the ifland of Guam, which alone is in¬
eating, but only tamed them, and taught them to habited by Europeans, and where the Spaniards have a
fpeak. They were much aftonifhed on feeing a horfe governor and a garrifon : here alfo the annual Manil-
which a Spanish captain left among them in 1673, ihip touches for refrefhments in her pafiage from Ac-
and could not for a long time be fatisfied with ad- capulco to the Philippines. The ifland of Tinian af~
miring him. But what is moft furprifing and incre- forded an afylum to commodore Anfon in 1742 ; and
dible in their hiftory is, that they were utterly unac- the mafterly manner in which the author of that voy-
quainted with the element of fire, till Magellan, pro- age paints the natural beauties of the country hath gi-
voked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their vena degree of eftimation not only to this ifland, but
villages. When they faw their wooden houfes blazing, to all the reft, which they had not before. Commo-
they firft thought that the fire was a bead which fed dore Byron, in 1765, continued nine weeks at Ti-
upon the wood ; and fome of them who came too nian, and anchored in the very foot where the centu-
near, being burnt, the reft flood at a dillance, left rion lay ; but gives a much lefs favourable account of
they fliould be devoured or poifoned by the breathings this climate and country than the former navigator,
of this terrible animal. The water, he fays, is brackifh, and full of worms :
The inhabitants of the Ladrones are olive-coloured, many of his men were feized with fevers, occafioned
but not of fuch a deep dye as thofe of the Philippine by the intenfe heat; the thermometer, which was kept
iflands; their ftature is good, and their limbs well on board the fliip, generally flood at 86°, which is but
proportioned. Though their food confifts entirely of 10 or 11 degrees lefs than the heat of the blood at the
iifti, fruits, and roots, yet they are fo fat, that to heart; and had the iuftrument been afhore, he ima-
ftrangers they appear fwelled, but this does not render gines it would have flood much higher than it did. Ic
them lefs nimble and active. They often live to too was with the greateft difficulty that they could pene-
years or more, yet retain the health and vigour of men trate through the woods ; and when they had fortu-
of 50. The men go ftark naked, but the women are nately killed a bull, and with prodigious labour drag-
covered. They are not ill-looked, and take great ged it through the forefts to the beach, it flunk, and
care of their beauty, though their ideas on that fub- was full of fly-blows by the time it reached the fhore.
jeft are very different from ours. They love black teeth The poultry was ill-tafted; and within an hour after it
and white hair; Hence one of their principal occu- was killed, the flefh became as green as grafs, and
pations is to keep their teeth black by the help of fwarmed with maggots'. The wild hogs were very
certain herbs, and to whiten their hair, fprinkling up- fierce; and fo large, that a carcafe frequently weighed
on it a certain water for this purpofe. The women 200 pounds. Cotton and indigo were found on the
have their hair very long; but the men generally fhave ifland. Captain Wallis continued here a month in 1767,
it clofe, except a Angle lock on the crown of the head, but makes no fuch complaints.
after the manner of the Japanefe. Their language LADY. This title is derived from two Saxon
much refembles that of the people called Tagales in words, which fignify loaf-day, which words have in
the Philippine iflands. It is agreeable to the ear, with time been contrafted into the prefent appellation. It
a foft and eafy pronunciation. One of its chief graces properly belongs only to the daughter of earls, and all
confifts in the facility of tranfpofing words, and even of higher rank ; but cuftom has made it a word of
all the fyllablesof one word; and thus furnilhing ava- complaifance for the wives of knights, and of all emi-
riety of double meanings, with which thefe people are nent women.
greatly delighted. Though plunged in the deepcft As to the original application of this expreffion, it
ignorance, and deftitute of every thing valued by the may be obferved, that heretofore it was the fafhion for
reft of mankind, no nation ever fhewed more pre- thofe families, whom God had bleffed with affluence,
fumption, or a greater conceit of themfelves than to live conftantly at their manfion-houfes in the coun-
thefe iflanders, looking on their own nation as the try, and that once a-week, or oftener, the lady of the
only wife, fenfible, and polifhed one in the world, and manor diftributed to her poor neighbours, 'with her
beholding every other people with the greateft con- own hands, a certain quantity of bread ; but the prac-
tempt. Though they are ignorant of the arts and tice, which gave rife to this title, is now as little
fciences, yet, like every other nation, they have their known as the meaning of it: however, it may be from
fables which ferve them for hiftory, and fome poems that bofpitable cuftom, that, to this day, the ladies
which they greatly admire. A poet is with them a in this kingdom alone ferve the meat at their own
charafler of the firft eminence, and greatly refpefttd. tables.
We neither know at what time, nor from what place Lady’/ Bedfranu. See Gallium.
the Ladrone iflands were firft peopled. As Japan lies Lady’/ Mantle. See Alchemilla.
within fix or feven days fail of them, fome have been Lady’/ Smock. See Cardamine.
induced to 1>elieve, that the firft inhabitants of the Lady’/See Cypripedium.
Ladronf,
Lady.
Lady’/
L
LaJy
Lagoon.
LAG
Laby’/ Traces. SccOphrys.
Lady-Z)/^, in law, the 25th of March, being the
annunciation of the Holy Virgin, See Annuncia¬
tion.
LiELIUS (Cains), a Roman conful and great o-
rator, furnamed the Wife, diftinguilhed himfelf in
Spain in the war againft Viriathus the Spanifli gene¬
ral. He is highly praifed by Cicero, who gives an ad¬
mirable defcription of the intimate friendihip which
fubfifted between Laslius and Scipio Africanus the
Younger. His eloquence, his modefty, and his abi¬
lities, acquired him a great reputation ; and he is
thought to have affifted Terence in his comedies. He
died about 126 B. C.
LAER. See Bamboccio.
LAESTRYGONES, (anc. geog.), an ancient
people dwelling in Sicily, together with the Cyclopes;
about whofe origin and fate Thucydides declares, he
has nothing to fay. They were alio a people of Italy
about Formia:, of Scythian original, and a race of
canibals, (Pliny); refembling giants rather than men,
(Homer).
LAET (John de), a writer in the 17th century,
born at Antwerp, was dire&or of the Weft India com¬
pany. He acquired great (kill in the languages, in hi-
flory, and geography; and had the management of
Elzevir’s edition of A defcription of mojl kingdoms in
the •voorld, printed in Latin. He wrote, in French, a
Defcription of the Eaft Indies, and other works ; and
died in 1649.
LiEVINtTS (Torrentinus), commonly called Van-
der Bekin, or Torrentin, was a native of Ghent, and
bred in the univerfity of Louvain. He afterwards
made the tour of Italy, where his virtues obtained him
the friendihip of the raoft illuftrious perfonages of his
time. On his return to the Low Countries; he was
made canon of Liege, and vicar-general to Erneft de
Baviere, bifhop of that fee. At length, having exe¬
cuted a fuccefsful embafly to Philip II. of Spain, he
was rewarded with the bilhopric of Antwerp ; from
whence he was tranflated to the metropolitan church
of Mechlin, and died there in 1595. He founded a
college of Jefuits at Louvain, to which he left his li¬
brary, medals, and curiofities. He wrote feveral poems
that procured him the chara&er of being, after Ho¬
race, the prince of the lyric poets.
LiEVIUS, a Latin poet. It is not well known
when he lived, but probably he was more ancient
than Cicero. He made a poem entitled Erotopagnia,
i. e. love-games. Aulius Gellius quotes two lines of
it. Apuleius alfo quotes fix lines from the fame poet,
but he does not tell from what work he borrowed
them. Lsevius had alfo compofed a poem intitled The
centaurs, which Feftus quotes under the title of Pe-
trarum.
LAGAN, or Lagon. See Flotsom.
Lagny, a town of the ifle of France, with a fa¬
mous benedi&ine abbey. It is feated on the river
Marne, in E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 48. 50.
LAGOON island, one of the new difcovered
iflands in the South Sea, lying in S. Lat. 18. 47. W.
Long. 139. 28. It is of an oval form, with a lake in
the middle, which occupies much the greateft part of
it. The whole ifland is covered with trees of different
growth. It is inhabited by a race of Indians, tall, of
Vox.. VI.
4069 ] LAI
a copper-colour, with long black hair. Their wea¬
pons are poles or fpikes, which are twice as long as
themfelves. Their habitations were feen under fome_
clumps of palm-trees, which formed very beautiful
groves. This ifland was difcovcred by Captain Cook
in April 1769.
LAGOPUS, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
LAGOS, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the
kingdom of Algarve, with a caftle near the fea, where
there is a good harbour, and where the Englifti fleets
bound to the Straits ufually take in frefti water. W.
Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 36. 45.
LAGUNA, or San Chrifioval de Laguna, a confi-
derable town in the ifland of Teneriff, near a lake of
the fame name, on the declivity of a hill. It has very
handfome buildings, and a fine fquare. W. Long.
16. 24. N. Lat. 28. 30.
LAGUNES of Venice, are marflies or lakes in
Italy on which Venice is feated. They communicate
with the fea, and are the fecurity of the city. There
are about 60 iflands in thefe Lagunes, which toge¬
ther make a bifliop’s fee. Eurano is the mod confi-
derable, next to thofe on which Venice Hands.
LAHOLM, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the
province of Gothland, and territory of Halland, feat-
ed near the Baltic Sea, with a caftle and a harbour, iu
E. Long. 13. 13. N. Lat. 56. 35.
LAHOR, a large town of Alia, in Indoftan, and
capital of a province of the fame name, and one of
the moft confiderable in the Mogul’s dominions. It
is of a vaft circumference, and contains a great num¬
ber of mofques, public baths, caravanferas, and pa-
gods. It was the refidence of the Great Mogul; but
fince the removal of the court, the fine palace is going
to decay. There is a magnificent walk of (hady trees,
which runs from this to Agra, that is upwards of 300
miles. Here they have manufaftures of cotton-cloths
and fluffs of all kinds, and they make very curious
carpets. E. Long. 75. 55. N. Lat. 31. 40.
LAINEZ (James), a Spaniard, companion of Ig¬
natius of Loyola, fecond general of the Jefuits, and
a man of a more daring and political charafter. Ha¬
ving procured from pope Paul IV. the perpetual ge-
neralftiip of the new order of Jefuits, after the death
of Ignatius, he got the following privileges ratified
by that pontiff, which (hew, that he was in fa& the
founder of the worft part of their inftitution: 1. The
right of making all forts of contrafts (without the pri¬
vity of the community) veiled in the generals and their
delegates. 2. That of giving authenticity to all com¬
ments and explanations of their conftitutions. 3. The
power of making new, and altering the old : this op¬
ened the door to their bloody political tenets, not ta
be attributed to Loyola. 4. That of having prifons
independent of the fecular authority, in which they
put to death refra&ory brethren. Lainez died in 1565,
aged 53.
LAlRESSE (Gerard), an eminent Flemifh paint¬
er, born at Liege in 1640. He received the prin¬
cipal part of his inftru&ion from his father Reiniere
de Laireffe, though he is alfo accounted a difciple of
Bartolet. He firft fettled at Utrecht, where he lived
in diftreffed circumftances 5 but an accidental recom¬
mendation carrying him to Amfterdam,'•he foon ex¬
changed want and obfcurity for affluence and reputa-
23 D * tion.
Ligapn;
||
LairefTe.
L A K [ 4070 j LAM
Laity, tion. He was a perfe& maftery of hiftory ; hisdefigns
Lake. are dJftinguiftied by the grandeur of the compofition ;
and the back-grounds, wherever the fubjects required
it, are rich in archite&ure, which is an uncommon
circumflance in that country. He had the unhappi-
nefs to lofe his light feveral years before his death,
which happened in 1711 ; fo that the treatife on de-
fign and colouring, which paffes under his name, was
not wrote by him, but collefled from his obfervations
after he was blind, and publifhed after his death. He
had three fons, two of whom were painters; and alfo
three brothers, Erneft, James, and John : Erneft and
John painted animals, and James was a flower-painter.
He engraved a good deal in aquafortis : his works con-
fid of 256 plates, above half of which were done with
his own hand. He wrote an excellent book on the
art, which has been tranflated into Englifh, and print¬
ed at London both in 410 and Bvo.
LAITY, the people as didinguilhed from the cler¬
gy; (fee Clergy). The lay part of his Majedy’s
fubjefts is divided into three didinft dates; the civil,
the military, and the maritime. See Civil, Mili¬
tary, Maritime.
LAKE, a collection of waters contained in fome
cavity in an inland place, of a large extent, furround-
cd with land, and having no communication with the
ocean. Lakes may be divided into four kinds. 1. Such
as neither receive nor fend forth rivers. 2. Such as
emit rivers, without receiving any. 3. Such as receive
rivers, without emitting any. And, 4. Such as both
receive and fend forth rivers. Of the fird kind, fome
are temporary and others perennial. Mod of thofe that
are temporary owe their origin to the rain, and the
cavity or depreffion of the place in which they are
lodged: thus in India there are feveral fuch lakes made
by the indudry of the natives, of which fome are a
mile, and fome two in circuit; thefe are furrounded
with a done-wall, and being filled in the rainy mouths,
fupply the inhabitants in dry feafons, who live at a
great didance from fprings or rivers. There are alfo
feveral of this kind formed by the inundations of the
Nile and the Niger; and in Mufcovy, Finland, and
Lapland, there are many lakes formed, partly by the
rains, and partly by the melting of the ice and fnow :
but rood of the perennial lakes, which neither receive
nor emit rivers, probably, owe their rife to fprings at
the bottom, by which they are condantly fupplied.
The fecond kind of lakes, which emit without recei¬
ving rivers, is very numerous. Many rivers flow from
tbefe as out of ciderns; where their fprings being fi*
tuated low within a hollow place, fird fill the cavity
and make it a lake, which not being capacious enough
to hold all the water, it overflows and forms a river:
of this kind is the Wolga, at the head of the river
Wolga ; the lake Odium, at the head of the Tanais ;
the Adac, from whence one branch of the river Ti¬
gris flows ; the Ozero, or White lake, in Mufcovy, is
' the fource of the river Shakfna. The great lake
Chaamay, which emits four very large rivers, which
water the countries of Siam, Pegu, See. viz. the
Menan, the Afa, the Caipoumo, and the Laquia, &c.
The third fpecies of lakes, which receive rivers but
emit none, apparently owe their origin to thofe ri¬
vers which, in their progrefs from their fource, fall¬
ing into fome extenfive cavity, are colle&ed together,
and form a lake of fuch dimenfions as may lofe as
much by exhalation as it continually receives from thefe
fources : of this kind is that great lake improperly
called the Cafpian Sea; the lake Afphaltites, alfo
called the Dead Sea ; the lake of Geneva, and feveral
others. Of the fourth fpecies, which both receive and
emit rivers, we reckon three kinds, as the quantity
they emit is greater, equal, or lefs than they receive.
If it be greater, it is plain that they mud be fupplied
by fprings at the bottom; if lefs, the furplus of the
water is probably fpent in exhalations; and if it be e-
qual, their fprings jud fupply what is evaporated by
the fun.
Lakes are alfo divided into thofe ©f freflh water, and
thofe of fait. Dr Halley is of opinion, that all great
perennial lakes are faline, either in a greater or lefs
degree ; and that this faltnefs increafes with time:
and on this foundation he propofes a method for de¬
termining the age of the world.
Large lakes anfwer the mod valuable purpofes in
the northern regions, the warm vapours that arife from,
them moderating the pinching cold of thofe climates ;
and what is (till a greater advantage, when they are
placed in warmer climates at a great didance from the
fea, the exhalations raifed from them by the fun caufe
the countries that border upon them to be refrefhed
with frequent Ihowers, and confequently prevent their
being barren defarts.
LAMA, a fynonime of the camelus paces. See
Camelus.
Lama, the fovereign pontiff, or rather god, of the
Afiatic Tartars, inhabiting the country of Barantola.
The lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the
country, but alfo by the kings of Tartary, who fend
him rich prefents, and go in pilgrimage to pay him
adoration, calling him /ama congiu, i. e. god, the
everlading father of heaven. He is never to be feen
but in a fecret place of his palace, amidfl a great num¬
ber of lamps, fitting crofs-legged upon a cufliion, and
adorned all over with gold and precious dones ; where,
at a didance, they proflrate themfelves before him, it
not being lawful for any to kifs even his feet. He is
called the great lama, ox lama cf lamas, that is, priejl
of priejls. And to perfuade the people that he is im¬
mortal, the inferior prieds, when he dies, fubftitute
another in his dead, and fo continue the cheat from
generation to generation. Thefe prieds perfuade the
people, that the lama was raifed from death many
hundred years ago, that he has lived ever fince, and
will continue to live for ever.
LAMB, in zoology, the young of the fheep-kind.
See Ovis.
A male lamb of the fird year is called a nuedder-hog,
and the female a ewe-hog; the fecond year it is called
a wedder, and the female a Jheave. If a lamb be fick,
mare’s milk with water may be given it; and by blow¬
ing into the mouth, many have been recovered, after
appearing dead. The bed feafon for weaning them
is when they are 16 or 18 weeks old, and about Mi¬
chaelmas. The males fliould be feparated from the
females, and fuch males as are not deligned for rams,
gelded. “ Lamb, (fays Dr Cullen), appears a more
fibrous kind of meat, and upon that account is lefs eafily
foluble than veal. In Scotland, houfe-lamb is never
reared to advantage.”
Scythia)
LAM [ 4071 ] LAM
Lamb Scythian Lamb, a kind of raofs, which grows about
Lambert ^ roots ^ern *n ^ome t^le northern parts of Eu-
- 3 -—l rope and Afia, and fometimes aflumes the form of a
quadruped. See Plate CLVIII. fig. 3. A particular
defcription of it may be feen in Philof. Tranf. N° 398.
LAMBECIUS (Peter), born at Hamburg in 1628,
was one of the moft learned men of his time. He went
very young to ftudy in foreign countries, at the ex¬
pence of his uncle the learned Holllenius. He was
chofen profeffor of hiftory at Hamburg in 1652, and
reftor of the college of that city in 1660. He had ta¬
ken his degree of doctor of law in France before. He
fuffered a thoufand vexations in his own country; be-
caufe his enemies charged him with atheifm, and cen-
fured his writings bitterly. He married a rich lady,
but who was fo very covetous, that he left her in dif-
guft within a fortnight. He went to Vienna, and
from thence to Rome, where he publicly profefied the
Catholic religion. He returned to Vienna in 1662,
where he was kindly received by the emperor, who
appointed him his fublibrary-keeper, and afterwards
his principal librarian, with the title of counfellor and
hiforiographer ; in which employment he continued till
his death, and gained a great reputation by the works
he publilhed, viz. I. An Effay on Aulus Gellius. 2. The
Antiquities of Hamburg. 3. Remarks on Codinus's
Antiquities of Conf antinopie, &c.
LAMBERT of Afchaffenburg, a Benedi&ine
monk, in the nth century, wrote feveral works;
among which is a hiftory of Germany, from the year
1050 to 1077, which is efteemed.
Lambert (John), general of the parliament’s for¬
ces in the civil wars of the laft century, was of a good
family, and for fome time ftudied the law in one of the
inns of court ; but upon the breaking out of the re¬
bellion, went into the parliament-army, where he foon
rofe to the rank of colonel, and by his conduft and
valour performed many eminent fervices. But when
Cromwell feemed inclined to afiume the title of king,
Lambert oppofed it with great vigour, and even refu-
fed to take the oath required by the affembly and
council to be faithful to the government; on which
Cromwell deprived him of his commiffion, but grant¬
ed him a penfion of 20001. a-year. This was an a&
of prudence rather than of generofity; as he well knew,
that fuch a genius as Lambert’s, rendered defperate
by poverty, was capable of attempting any thing.
Lambert being now divefted of all employment, re¬
tired to Wimbleton-houfe ; where turning florift, he
had the fineft tulips and gilliflowers that could be got
for love or money. Yet amidft thefe amufements he
ftill nourifhed his ambition : for when Richard Crom¬
well fucceeded his father, he afted fo effe&ually with
Fleetwood, Defborough, Vane, Berry, and others,
that the new proteftor was obliged to furrender his
authority ; and the members of the long-parliament,
who had continued fitting till the 20th of April 1653,
when Oliver difmifled them, were reftored to their
feats, and Lambert was immediately appointed one of
the council of ftate, and colonel of a regiment of horfe
and another of foot. For this fervice the parlia¬
ment prefented him 10001. to buy a jewel; but he
diftributed it among his officers. This being foon
known to the parliament, they concluded that he in¬
tended to fecure a party in the army. They therefore
courteoufly invited him to come to London ; but re- Lambert
folved, as foon as he Ihould arrive, to fecure him from ^ atT1|nU
doing any farther harm. Lambert, apprehenfive of *'
this, delayed his return, and even refufed to refignhis   -
commiffion when it was demanded of him and of eight
of the other leading officers ; and, marching up to Lon¬
don with his army, diflodged the parliament by force
in Oftober 1659. He was then appointed, by a
council of the officers, major-general of the army, and
one of the new council for the management of public
affairs, and fent to command the forces in the north.
But general Monk marching from Scotland into Eng¬
land to fupport the parliament, againft which Lam¬
bert had acted with fuch violence, the latter, be¬
ing defected by his army, was obliged to fubmit to
the parliament, and by their order was committed pri-
foner to the tower ; whence efcaping, he foon appear¬
ed in arms with four troops under his command, but
was defeated and taken prifoner by colonel Ingoldfby.
At the Reftoration he was particularly excepted
out of the aft of indemnity. Being brought to his
trial on the 4th of June 1662, for levying waragainlt
the king, this daring general behaved with more fub-
miffion than the meaneft of his fellow-prifoners, and
was by his majefty’s favour reprieved at the bar, and
confined during his life in the ifland of Guernfey.
Lambert (Anna Therefa de Marguenat de Cour-
celles, marchionefs of), an elegant moral writer, was
the only daughter of Stephen Marguenat lord ofCour-
celles. In 1666 Ihe married Henry de Lambert, who
at his death was lieutenant-general of the army ; and
fhe afterwards remained a widow with a fon and a
daughter, whom fhe educated with great care. Her
houfe was a kind of academy, to which perfons of
diftinguilhed abilities regularly reforted. She died at
Paris in 1733, aged 86. Her works, which are writ¬
ten with much tafte, judgement, and delicacy, are
printed in two volumes. The advice of a mother to
her fon and daughter are particularly efteemed.
LAMBIN (Dennis), an eminent claffical com¬
mentator, was born at Montreuil-fur-Mer, in Picardy,
and acquired great fkill in polite literature. He lived
for a longtime at Rome; and at his return to Paris
was made royal profeflbr of the Greek language. He
died in 1572, aged 56, of pure grief at the death of
his friend Ramus, who was murdered at the maffacre
on St Bartholomew’s day. He wrote commentaries
on Plautus, Lucretius, Cicero, and Horace, and other
works. His commentary on Horace is more particu¬
larly efteemed.
LAMELLAE, in natural hiftory, denotes very
thin plates, fuch as the feales of fifties are compofed of.
LAMENTATIONS, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, written by the prophet Jeremiah. The
two firft chapters of this book are employed in deferi-
bing the calamities of the fiege of Jerufalem. In the
third, the author deplores the perfecutions he himfelf
had fuffered. The fourth turns upon the defolation
of the city and temple, and the misfortune of Zede-
kiah. The fifth chapter is a prayer for the Jews in
their difperfion and captivity ; and, at the end of all,
he fpeaks of the cruelty of the Edomites, who had in-
fulted Jerufalem in her mifery. The firft four chap¬
ters of the Lamentations are an abcedary, every verfe
or couplet beginning with one of the letters of theHe-
23 D 2 brew
LAM [ 4072 ] LAM
i.amix brew alphabet, in the alphabetical order.
LAMIiE, Aajtuzi, among the ancients, a kind of
 'amp' daemons, or evil fpirits, who, under the form of beau¬
tiful women, are faid to have devoured children.
Horace makes mention of them in his Art of Poe¬
try. Some authors call them lania, a laniando. Phi-
loltratus fays, they are alfo called larva, or lemures,
as if they were all the fame thing. Bochart will have
the word to be Pbxnician, and derives it from tan1: “ to
devouralleging the fable of the lamiae came from
Libya.
LAMINA, in phyfiology, thin plates, or tables,
whereof any thing confifts; particularly the human
Jfkull, which are two, the one laid over the other.
LAMIUM, L e ad - Nettle ,• a genus of the gymno-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There are eight fpecies ; of which only two,
viz. the album, white archangel, or dead-nettle, and
the purpureum or red archangel, are remarkable; and
that only becaufe their young leaves are boiled and
eaten in fome places like greens. The firft grows fre¬
quently under hedges and in wafte places; the fecond
is very common in gardens and corn-fields. None of
the fpecies are cultivated except merely for the fake of
variety.
LAMMAS-day, the firft of Auguft; fo called, as
fome will have it, becaufe lambs then grow out of fea-
fon, as being too big. Others derive it from a Saxon
word, fignifying “ loaf-mafs,” becaufe on that day
our fore-faihers made an offering of bread made with
new wheat.
On this day the tenants who formerly held lands of
the cathedral church in York, were bound by their te¬
nure to bring a lamb alive into the church at high-
mafs.
LAMOIGNON (Chretien Francis de) marquis of
Baville, and prefident of the parliament of Paris, was
born in 1644. His father would not truft the educa¬
tion of his fon to another, but took it upon himfelf,
and entered into the minuteft particulars of his firft
ftudies: the love of letters and a folid tafte were the
fruits the fcholar reaped from this valuable education.
He learned rhetoric in the Jefuits college, made the
tour of England and Holland, and returned home the
admiration of thofe meetings regularly held by per-
fons of the firft merit, at his father's houfe. The fe-
veral branches of literature were however only his a-
mufement: the law was his real employ; and the elo¬
quence of the bar at Paris owes its reformation from
bombaft and affe&ed erudition, to the plain and noble
pleadings of M. Laraoignon. He was appointed the
king’s advocate general in 1673; which he difeharged
until 1698, when the prefidentlhip of the parliament
was conferred on him. This poft he held nine years,
when he was allowed to refign in favour of his eldeft
fon: he was chofen prefident of the royal academy of
inferiptions- in 1705. The only work he fuffered to fee
the light was his Pleader, which is a monument of his
eloquence and inclination to polite letters. He died
in 1709.
LAMP, a veflel containing oil, with a lighted wick.
Dr St Clair, in the Philof. Tranf. n°245, gives the
defeription of an improvement on the common lamp.
He propofes that it fhould be made two or three inches
deep, with a pipe coming from the bottom almoft as
high as the top of the veflel. Let it be filled fo high
with water, that it may cover the hole of the pipe at
the bottom, that the oil may not get in at the pipe
and fo be loft. Then let the oil be poured in, fo as to
fill the veffel almoft brim-full; and totheveflel muft be
adapted a cover having as many holes as there are to
be wicks. When the veffel is filled and the wicks light¬
ed, if water falls in by drops at the pipe, it will al¬
ways keep the oil at the fame height or very near it;
the weight of the water being to that of the oil as
20t8t to 19, which in two or three inches makes no
great difference. If the water runs fafter than the oil
waftes, it will only run over at the top of the pipe, and
what does not run over will come under the oil, and
keep it at the fame height.
From experiments made in order to afeertain the
expence of burning chamber-oil in lamps, it appears,
that a taper-lamp, with eight threads of cotton in the
wick, confumes in one hour-i^ysoz. of fpermaceti oil,
at 2s. 6d. per gallon; fo that the expence of burning
12 hours is 4.57 farthings. This lamp gives as good
a light as the candles of eight and ten in the pound;
it feldom wants fnuffing, and cafts a ftrong and fleady
light, A taper, chamber, or watch lamp, with four
ordinary threads of cotton in the wick, confumes
0.1664 oz. of fpermaceti oil in one hour; the oil at
2 s. 6d. per gallon, makes the expence of burning 12
hours only 2.34 farthings.
Perpetual Lamps. The teftimonies of Pliny, St
Auftin, and others, have led many to believe that the
ancients had the invention of perpetual lamps; and
fome moderns have attempted to find out the fecret,
but hitherto in vain. Indeed it feems no eafy matter
to find out either a perpetual wick, or a perpetual oil.
The curious may read Dr Plot’s conjeftures on the
fubjeft in the Philof. Tranf. n° 166; or in Lowthorp’s
abridgement, vol. iii. p. 636. But few, we believe,
will give themfelves the trouble of fearching for the
fecret, when they confider, that the credulity of Pli¬
ny and of St Auftin was fuch, that their teftimony does
not feem a fufficient inducement to us to believe that a
lamp was ever formed to burn 1500 or 1000 years;
much lefs is it credible that the ancients had the fecret
of making one burn for ever.
Rolling a machine AB, with two moveable
circles DE, EG, within it; whofe common centre of
motion and gravity is at K, where their axis of mo¬
tion crofs one another. If the lamp KC, made pretty
heavy and moveable about its axis HI, and whofe cen¬
tre of gravity is at C, be fitted within the inner circle,
the common centre of gravity of the whole machine
will fall between K and C; and by reafon of the pi¬
vots A, B, D, E, H, I, will be always at liberty to de-
feend: hence, though the whole machine be rolled a-
long the ground, or moved in any manner,, the flame
will always be uppermoft, and the oil cannot fpill.
It is in this manner they hang the compafs at fea;
and thus ftiould all the moon-lanterns be made, that
are carried before coaches, chaifes, and the like.
LAMP-i?/dcij among colourmen. See Coiour-
Making, n° 17, j 8.—Subftances painted with lamp-
blrck and oil, are found to refill the effefts of electri¬
city to a furprifing degree; fo that in many cafes even
lightning itfelf feems to have been repelled by them.
SeeLjGHTNiNG; Thunder; Chemistry, n°ii2. and
El.EC-
Lamp-.
LAN [ 4073 ] LAN
LampaJaryElectricity, no ji2.
it . LAMPADARY, an officer in the ancient church
Langanm. ^ Conftantinople, fo called from his employment,
which was to take care of the lamps, and to carry a
taper before the emperor or patriarch when they went
to church or in proccffion.
LAMPAS, in farriery. See there, § xxxiv.
LAMPREY. See Petromyzon.
LAMPRIDIUS (TElius), a Latin hiftorian, who
lived under the emperors Dioclefian and Conftantine
the Great. We have, of his writing, the lives of four
emperors, Antoninus, Commodus, Diadumenus, and
Ileliogabalus. Some attribute the life of Alexander
Severus to him ; but the MS in the palatine library
aferibes it to Spartian.
Lampridius (Benedift), of Cremona, a celebrated
Latin poet of the 16th century. He taught Greek
and Latin at Rome and at Padua, until he was invited
to Mantua by Frederic Gonzaga to undertake the tui¬
tion of his fon. We have epigrams and lyric verfes
of this writer, both in Greek and Latin, which were
printed feparately, as well as among the Delicti of the
Italian poets. «
LAMPSACUS, Lampsacum, (anc. geog.) a con-
fiderable city of Myfia ; more anciently called Pityea,
(Homer), becaufe abounding in pine-trees, a circum-
ftance confirmed by Pliny; fituate at the north end, or
entrance of the Hellefpont, into the Propontis, with a
commodious harbour, oppofite to Callipolis in the
Thracian Cherfonefus. It was affigned by Artaxerxes
to Themiftocles, for furnilhing his table with wine, in
which the country abounded. It was faved from the
ruin threatened by Alexander becaufe in the interdl of
Perfia, by the addrtfs of Anaximenes the hiltorian,
lent by his fellow-citizens to avert the king’s difplea-
fure; who hearing of it, folemnly declared he would
do the very reverfe of Anaximenes’s /equeft, who
therefore begged the king utterly to deftroy it, which
he could not do becaufe of his oath. Lampfacius the
epithet, denoting lafeivus, the chara&er of the people:
ft ill called Lampfacus. E. Long. 28°. N. Lat. 40. 12.
LAMY, or Lami, (Bernard), was born at Mons
in 1640, and ftudied there under the fathers of the
oratory; with whofe way of life he was fo pleafed,
1 that he went to Paris in 1658, and entered into the
inftitution. He had a great tafte for the fciences, and
ftudied them all; he entered into the priefthood in
1667, and taught philofbphy at Saumur and Angiers}
which latter place he was obliged to quit by an order
procured from court for adopting the new philofophy
inftead of that of Ariflotle. In 1676, he went to Gre¬
noble, where cardinal Camus was then bilhop ; who
conceived fuch anefteem for him, that he retained him
near his perfon, and derived confiderable fervices from
him in the government of his diocefe. After continu¬
ing many years there, he went to refide at Rouen,
where he died in 1715. He wrote feveral fcientifical
works, befides others in divinity.
LANCARIM spring, the name of a medicated
water of Glamorganfhire. It has its name from a town
near which it rifes ; and has been very long famous in
the place for the cure of the king’s evil. The body of wa¬
ter is about an ell broad, and runs between two hills
covered with wood. About 12 yards from this fpring
She rill falls from a rock of about eight or nine feet
high, with a confiderable noife. The fpring is very Lancafliire;
clear, and rifes out of a pure white marie. The cures
that have been performed there, are proofs of a real
power in the water; but there is fome queftion whe¬
ther the water, or its motion and coldnefs, does the
good; for the people who come for relief always drink
of the fprink, and bathe the part afterward in the fall
below. It is generally fuppofed, that the limeftone
rocks communicate a virtue to it by which it cures in¬
ternally; but it has been often found, that the hold¬
ing a limb difordered with the evil in the ftrong cur¬
rent of a mill tail has cured it, and there is the fame
advantage in the fall of this water.
LANCASHIRE, a large maritime province of
England, walked by the Irilh fea on the weft, border¬
ing on the north with part of Cumberland and Weft-
moreland ; bounded on the eaft by the Weft Riding
of Yorkfhire, and on the weft by Chelhire; extending
45 miles in length from north to fouth, and 32 miles
in breadth from eaft to weft; comprehending fix hun¬
dreds, 60 parilhes, 27 market-towns, and about 240000
inhabitants.
The eaftern parts of the province are rocky, and in
the northern diftri&s we fee many fingle mountains re¬
markably high, fuch as Ingleborou^h-hill, Cloughbo-
hill, Pendle-hill, and Longridge-hill. Nor is there
any want of wood in this country, either for timber or
fuel; witnefs Wierfdale foreft and Rowland foreft to
the northward, and Simon’s wood in the fouthern part
of Lancalhire.
This country is well watered with rivers and lakes.
Among the former we number the Merfey, the Ribble,
the Wier, the Lon, the Ken, and the Irke. The Mer¬
fey fprings among the mountains of Derbylhire, is
fwelled by feveral ftreams, winds along the borders of
Lancalhire, which it divides from Chelhire, and runs
into the fea at Liverpool. The Ribble, rifing in York-
Ihire, enters this county at Clithero, waflies the town
of Prefton, and having received the fmaller ftreams of
the Hadder, the Whalley, the Darwent, and the Lea,
difembogues itfelf into the Irilh fea at Lethum. The
Wier is a continuation of the Calder, which derives its
fource from the foreft of Wierfdale, in the northern
part of the county, and, being augmented by divers
fmaller ftreams, runs into the fea at Cockcrham. The
Irke is an inconfiderable rivulet, that forms the begin¬
ning of the Irwel and Merfey, which are its continua¬
tions; and is noted for producing the fatteft eels in
England.
Among the lakes or meres of Lancalhire, we reckon
the Winander-mere, and the Keningfton-mere, which,,
tho’ neither fo large nor fo well ftored with filh, yet af¬
fords plenty of excellent char. There was on the fouth
fide of the Ribble another lake called feveral
miles in circumference, which is now drained, and con¬
verted into pafture-ground. In this operation, the work¬
men found a great quantity of filh, together with eight
canoes, refembling thofe of America, fuppofed to have
been ufed by the ancient Britifh filhermen. Befides
thefe meres or lakes, this county abounds with morafles
and mofles, from which the inhabitants dig excellent
peat or turf for fuel, as well as marie for manuring the
ground, and trunks of old fir-trees, fuppofed to have
lain there fince the general deluge. Some of thefe arc
fo impregnated with turpentine, that, when divided in*
to.
LAN
:• to fplinters, they burn like candles, and are ufed for
■"that purpofe by the common people. There is a great
variety of mineral waters in this county, fome perio¬
dical fprings, and one inftance of a violent eruption
of water at Kirky in Fournefs. The moft remarkable
chalybeate fpaws are thofe of Latham, Wigan, Stock-
port, Burnley, Bolton, Plumpton, Middleton, Strange-
ways, Lancafter, Larbrick, and Chorly. At Ancliff,
in the neighbourhood of Wigan, is a fountain called
the Burning Well, from whence a bituminous vapour
exhales, which being fet on fire by a candle burns like
brandy,' fo as to produce a heat that will boil eggs to
a hard confiftence, while the water itfelf retains its o-
riginal coldnefs*. There is at Barton a fountain of
G falt-water, fo ftrongly impregnated with the mineral,
as to yield fix times as much as can be extracted from
the fame quantity of fea-water. At Rogham, in Four¬
nefs, there is a purging faline fountain ; and in the
neighbourhood of Raffal, where the ground is frequent¬
ly overflowed by the fea, a fiream defeends from Hag-
bur-hills, which, in the fpace of feven years, is faid to
convert the marie into a hard freeftone fit for build¬
ing. The air of Lancafhire is pure, healthy, and a-
gfeeable, except among the fens and on the fea-fhore,
where the atmofphere is loaded with putrid exhala¬
tions producing malignant and intermitting fevers,
feurvy, rheumatifm, dropfy, and confumption. The
foil is various in different parts of the county, poor
and rocky on the hills, fat and fertile in the valleys
and champaign country. The colour of the peat is
white, grey, or black, according to the nature of the
compofition and the degree of putrefaction which the
ingredients have undergone. There is a bituminous
earth about Ormlkirk, that fmells like the oil of am¬
ber, and indeed yields an oil of the fame nature, both
in its feent and medicinal effefts, which moreover re¬
duces raw flefh to the confiftence of mummy : this
earth burns like a torch, and is ufed as fuch by the
country people. The metals and minerals of this coun¬
ty confift of lead, iron, copper, antimony, black lead,
lapis calaminaris, fpar, green vitriol, allum, fulphur,
pyrites, freeftone, and pit and cannel coal.
The level country produces plenty of wheat and
barley, and the fkirts of the hills yield good harvefts
of excellent oats: very good hemp is raifed in divers
parts of the province ; and the pafture which grows in
the valley is fo peculiarly rich, that the cattle which
feed upon it are much larger and fatter than in any
other part of England. There is not any part of the
world better fupplied than Lancafhire with provifions
of all kinds at a very reafonable rate ; fuch as beef,
veal, mutton, lamb, pork, poultry, and game of all
forts, caught upon the moors, heaths, and commons,
in the hilly part of the ftiire. Befides the fea-fowl
common to the (hires of England, fuch as ducks, ea-
fterlings, teal, and plover, many uncommon birds are
obferved on the coaft of Lancaftiire, the fea-crow, va¬
riegated with blue and black, the puffin, the cor¬
morant, the curlew, the razor-bill, the copped wren,
the red-(hanks, thefwan, the tropic bird, the king’s-
fiftser, &c.
Lancafhire was eredfed into a county-palatine by
Edward III. who conferred it as an appenage on his
fon John of Ghaunt, thence called of Lancafter:
but the duchy contained lands that are not in Lanca-
[ 4°74 ]
LAN
(hire, and, among other demefnes, the palace of the
Savoy, and all that diftridt in London, which indeed
belong to it at this day. The revenues of this duchy,
are adminiftered by a court which fits at Weftminfter,
and a chancery-court at Prefton, which has a feal di-
ftindf from that of the couoty-palatine. The title of
Lancajler diftinguifhed the pofterity of John of Ghaunt
from thofe of his brother, who fucceeded to the, duchy
of York, in their long and bloody conteft for the
crown of England. —Lancaftiire fends two members to
parliament for the county; and 12 for the fix boroughs
of Lancafter, Prefton, Newton, Wigan, Clithero, and
Liverpool.
LANCASTER, the capital of the county of Lan-
cafliire in England, is pleafantly fituated on the fouth
fide of the river Lun, over which there is a handfome
done-bridge Supported by five arches. It is an ancient
town, and is fuppofed to have been Longovicum ol
the Romans. It contains feveral good ftreets with
well-built houfes; but has only one parifh-church,
which is large and handfome, and is feated on the fide
of a high hill, on the top of which (lands the caftle
that is now made ufe of as a prifon. It is a place of
no great trade, but is a corporation, and fends two
members to parliament. The chief ornaments of the
town are the church, caftle, bridge, and town-hall.
W. Long. 2. 44. N. Lat. 54. 5.
LANCE, in ichthyology. See Ammodytes.
LANCEOLATED leaf. See Botany, p.1296.
LANCET, a chirurgical inftrument, (harp-pointed
and two-edged, chiefly ufed for opening veins in the
operation of phlebotomy or bleeding ; alfo for laying
open abfeefles, tumours, &c.
LANCH, a peculiar fort of long boat, ufed by the
French, Spanifti, and Italian (hipping, and in gene¬
ral by thofe of other European nations, when employ¬
ed in voyaging in the Mediterranean fea.
A lanch is proportionably longer, lower, and more
flat-bottomed than the long-boat; it is by confequence
lefs fit for failing, but better calculated for rowing and
approaching a flat (hore. Its principlal fuperiority to
the long-boat, however, confifts in being, by its con-
ftruftion, much fitter to under-run the cable ; which
is a very neceflary employment in the harbours of the
Levant fea, where the cables of different (hips are fa¬
ttened acrofs each other, and frequently render this
exercife extremely neceffary.
Lanch, is alfo the movement by which a (hip or
boat defeends from the (hore, either when (he is at firft
built, or at any time afterwards.
To facilitate the operation of lanching, and pre¬
vent any interruption therein, the (hip is fupported
by two ftrong platforms, laid with a gradual inclina¬
tion to the water, on the oppofite fides of her keel, to
which they are parallel. Upon the furface of this de¬
clivity are placed two correfponding ranges of planks,
which compofe the bafe of a frame called the cradle,
whofe upper-part envelopes the (hip’s bottom, whereto
it is fecurely attached. Thus the lower furface of the
cradle, conforming exa&ly to that of the frame be¬
low, lies flat upon it, lengthways, under the oppofite
fides of the (hip’s bottom; and as the former is intend¬
ed to Aide downwards upon the latter, carrying the
(hip along with it, the planes or faces of both are well
daubed with foap and tallow.
Lancafter
Lanch.
The
LAN [ 4075 ] LAN
LafiCfrota The neceffary preparations for the lanch being
II made, all the blocks and wedges, by which the fliip
anci was formerly fupportcd, are driven out from under her
keel, till her whole weight gradually fubfides upon
the platforms above defcribed, which are accordingly
called the ways. The flrores and ftanchions, by which
fhe is retained upon the flocks till the period ap¬
proaches for lanching, are at length cut away, and
the fcrews applied to move her, if neceffary. The
motion ufually begins on the inftant when the fhores
are cut, and the fhip Aides downward along the ways,
which are generally prolonged under the furface of the
water, to a fufficient depth to float her as foon as ftie
arrives at the fartheft end thereof.
When a fhip is to be lanched, the enfign, jack,
and pendant, are always hoifted, the laft being dif-
played from a llaff ereded in the middle of the (hip.
Ships of the firft rate are-eommonly conftrufled in dry
docks, and afterwards floated out, by throwing open
the floot-gates, and fuffering the tide to enter, as
foon as they are finifhed.
LANCEROTA, one of the Canary iflands, fub-
jeft to Spain, and fltuated in W. Long. 13. 5. N. Lat.
28. 40. It is about 3.2 miles in length and 22 in
breadth. The ancient inhabitants were negroes, very
flrong, a£tive, and fwift of foot. There is a ridge
of hills runs quite through it, on which are fed a good
number of fheep and goats. They have but few black
cattle, ftill fewer camels, and a very few fmall horfes.
The valleys are dry and fandy, yet they produce a
fmall quantity of wheat and barley. This ifland was
firft difcovered in 1417. In 1596, it was taken by
the Englifh under the command of the earl of Cumber¬
land ; after which it was better fortified than before.
There is in this ifland a city called alfo Lancerota,
which, at the time the earl of Cumberland was there,
confifted cnly of about 100 houfes, all poor build-
ings, generally of one ftory, and covered with reeds or
ftraw laid upon a few rafters, and over all a coat of
dirt hardened by the fun. There was alfo a church
which had no windows in it, and was fupplied with
light only by the door.
' LANCIANO, a confiderable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Abruzzo,
with an archbilhop’s fee ; famous for its fairs which
are held in July and Auguft. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Feltrino near that of Sangor. E. Long. 15. 5,
N. Lat. 42. 12.
LANCISI (John Marca), an eminent Italian phy-
fician, was born at Rome in 1654. From his earlieft
years he had a turn to natural hiftory ; and ftudied
botany, chemiftry, anatomy, and medicine, with
great vigour. In 1688, Pope Innocent XI. appoint¬
ed him his phyfician and private chamberlain, not-
withftanding his youth ; and cardinal Altieri Camer-
Imga made him his vicar for the inftallation of doctors
in phyfic, which Pope Clement XI. gave him as long
as he lived, as well as continued to him the appoint¬
ments conferred on him by his predecefibr. He died
in 1720, after giving his fine library of more than
20,000 volumes to the hofpital of the Holy Ghoft, for
the ufe of the public. This noble benefa&ion was
opened in 1716, in the prefence of the pope and moft
of the cardinals. He wrote many works which are
ctteemed the principal of which were colle&ed toge¬
ther, and printed at Geneva in 1718, in two volumes Lancert
quarto. fl
LANCRET (Nicholas), a French painter born at Laild'
Paris in 1690. He was the difciple of Watteau and
Gillot, and painted converfations. He was indefati¬
gable in his profefiion, executed with great truth after
Nature, grouped his figures well, and handled a light
pencil. He died in 1743.
LANCRINCK (Profper Henry), a painter of con¬
fiderable note, born in 1628, and educated in the
fchool at Antwerp.’ He ftudied principally after Ti¬
tian and Salvator Rofa ; and met with encouragement
in England fuitableto his merit. His landfcapes flrew
a good invention, good colouring and harmony : they
are chiefly of rough rude country, with broken
ground and uncommon feenery. He gave way too
much to pleafure, and died in 1692.
LAND, in a general fenfe, denotes terra firma> as
diftinguilhed from fea.
Land, in a limited fenfe, denotes arable ground.
See Agriculture.
Land, in the fea-language, makes part of feveral
compound terms ; thus, land-laid, or, to lay the land,
is juft to lofe fight of it. Land-locked, is when land
lies all round the (hip, fo that no point of the com-
pafs is open to the fea. If (he is at anchor in fuch a
place, (he is faid to ride land-locked, and is therefore
concluded to ride fafe from the violence of the winds
and tides. Land-mark, any mountain, rock, fteeple,
tree, &c. that may ferve to make the land known at
fea. Landis Jhut in, a term ufed to fignify that an¬
other point of land hinders the fight of that from
which the (hip came. J^and-to, or the (hip lies land-
to ; that is, (he is fo far from (hore, that it can only
juft be difeerned. Land-turn is a wind that in al-
moft all hot countries blows at certain times from the
(hore in the night. To fet the land; that is, to fee by
the compafs how it bears.
Land-T^x, one of the annual taxes raifed upon the
fubjeft. See Tax.
The land-tax, in its modern (hape, has fuperfeded
all the former methods of rating either property, or
perfons in refpeft of their property, whether by tenths
or fifteenths, fubfidies on land, hydages, feutages, or
talliages ; a (hort explication of which will, however,-
greatly affift us in underftanding our ancient laws and
hiftory.
Tenths, and fifteenths, were temporary aids ifliiing
out of perfonal property, and granted to the king by
parliament. They were formerly the real tenth or
fifteenth part of all the moveables belonging to the
fubjeft ; when fuch moveables, or perfonal eftates,
were a very different and a much lefs confiderable
thing than what they ufually are at this day. Tenths
are faid to have been firft granted under Henry II.
who took advantage of the faftrionable zeal for croi-
faides to introduce this new taxation, in order to de¬
fray the expence of a pious expedition to Paleftine,:
which he really or feemingly had projected againft Sa-
ladine emperor of the Saracens, whence it was origi¬
nally denominated the Saladine tenth. But after¬
wards fifteenths were more ufually granted than tenths.
Originally the amount of thefe taxes was uncertain,
being levied by afleflments new-made at every frefli
grant of the commons, a commiflion for which is pre-
ferved’
LAN [ 4076 1 LAN
LanJ- ferved by Matthew Paris: but it was at length redu-
tax' ced to a certainty in the eighth year of Edward III.
when, by virtue of the king’s commiffion, new taxa¬
tions were made of every townfhip, borough, and
city in the kingdom, and recorded in the exchequer;
which rate was, at the time, the fifteenth part of the
value of every townfhip, the whole amounting to a-
bout 29000 1. and therefore it ftill kept up the name
of a fifteenth, when, by the alteration of the value of
money and the increafe of perfonal property, things
came to be in a very different fituation. So that
when, of later years, the commons granted the king
a fifteenth, every parifh in England immediately knew
their proportion of it; that is, the fame identical fum
that was aflefled by the fame aid in the eighth of Ed¬
ward III.; and then raifed it by a rate among them-
felves, and returned it into the royal exchequer.
The other ancient levies were in the nature of a mo¬
dern land-tax : for we may trace up the original of
that charge as high as to the rntrodu&ion of our mili¬
tary tenures; when every tenant of a knight’s fee was
bound, if called upon, to attend the king in his army
for 40 days in every year. But this perfonal attend¬
ance growing troublefome in many refpe&s, the te¬
nants found means of compounding for it, by firft
fending others in their ftead, and in procefs of time
by making a pecuniary fatisfaflion to the crown in lieu
of it. This pecuniary fatisfadion at lafl came to be
levied by afTeffments, at fo much for every knight’s
fee, under the name of fcutages ; which appear to
have been levied for the firft time in the fifth year of
Henry II. on account of his expedition to Touloufe,
and were then (SirWm. Blackftone apprehends) mere
arbitrary compofitions, as the king and the fubjeft
could agree. But this precedent being afterwards a-
bufed into a means of opprefiion, (by levying fcutages
on the landholders by the king’s authority only, when¬
ever our kings went to war, in order to hire mercenary
troops and pay their contingent expences) it became
thereupon a matter of national complaint; and king
John was obliged to promife in his magna carta, that
no fcutage fhould be impofed without the confent of
the common council of the realm.
Of the fame nature with fcutages upon knights-fees
were the afleffments of hydage upon all other lands,
and of talliage upon cities and burghs. But they all
gradually fell into difufe, upon the introduction of
fubfidies, about the time of king Richard II. and
king Henry IV. Thefe were a tax, not immediately
impofed upon property, but upon perfons in refpedt of
their reputed eftates, after the nominal rate of 4 /. in
the pound for lands, and is. (id. for goods ; and for
thofe of aliens in a double proportion. But this affefs-
ment was alfo made according to an ancient valuation;
wherein the computation was fo very moderate, and the
rental of the kingdom was fuppofed to be fo exceeding
-low, that one fubfidy of this fort did not, according
io Sir Edward Coke, amount to more than 70,000 1.
whereas a modern land-tax at the fame rate produces
two millions. It was anciently the rule never to grant
more than one fubfidy and two fifteenths at a time:
but this rule was broke through for the firft time on a
very prefiing occafion, the Spanifh invafion in 1588 ;
when the parliament gave queen Elizabeth two fubfi-
dice and four fifteenths. Afterwards, as money funk
in value, more fubfidies were given ; and we have an Land-
inftance, in the firft parliament of 1640, of the king’s tax'
defiring 12 fubfidies of the commons,, to be levied m
three years ; which was looked upon as a ftartling pro-
pofal: though lord Clarendon tells us, that the fpeak-
er, ferjeant Glanvile, made it manifeft to the houfe,
how very inconfiderable a fum 12 fubfidies amounted
to, by telling them he.had computed what he was to
pay for them ; and when he named the fum, he being
known to be poffefied of a great eftate, it feemed not
worth any farther deliberation. And, indeed, upon
calculation, we (hall find, that the total amount of
thefe 12 fubfidies, to be raifed in three years, is lefs
than what is now raifed in one year by a land-tax of
2 /. in the pound.
The grant of fcutages, talliages, or fubfidies by the
commons did not extend to fpiritual preferments;
thofe being ufually taxed at the fame time by the cler¬
gy themfelves in convocation : which grants of the
clergy were confirmed in parliament; otherwife they
were illegal, and not binding; as the fame noble wri¬
ter obferves of the fubfidies granted by the convoca¬
tion, which continued fitting after the difiblution of
the firft parliament in 1640. A fubfidy granted by
the clergy was after the rate of 4/. in the pound, ac¬
cording to the valuation of their livings in the king’s
books ; and amounted, Sir Edward Coke tells us, to
about 20,000/. While this cuftom continued, con- ;
vocations were wont to fit as frequently as parlia- r
mentS : but the laft fubudies, thus given by the cler¬
gy, were thofe confirmed by llatute 15 Car. II. c. 10.
fince which' another method of taxation has generally
prevailed, which takes in the clergy as well as the lai¬
ty : in recompenfe for which, the beneficed clergy have
from that period been allowed to vote at the eledion of
knights of the (hire ; and thenceforward alfo the prac¬
tice of giving ecclefiaftical fubfidies hath fallen into to¬
tal difufe.
The lay-fubfidy was ufually raifed by commiffioners
appointed by the crown, or the great officers of (late:
and therefore in the beginning of the civil wars be¬
tween Charles I. and his parliament, the latter, having
no other Efficient revenue to fupport themfelves and
their meafures, introduced the pradice of laying
weekly and monthly affeffments of a fpecific fum upon
the feveral counties of the kingdom; to be levied by
a pound-rate on lands and perfonal eftates: which
were occafionally continued during the whole ufurpa-
tion, fometimes at the rate of 120,0001. a month,
fometimes at inferior rates. After the Reftoration the
ancient method of granting fubfidies, inftead of fuch
monthly afleffments, was twice, and twice only, re¬
newed; viz. in 1663, when four fubfidies were granted
by the temporalty, and four by the clergy; and in
1670, when 8oo,ooo.l. was raifed by way of fubfidy,
which was the laft time of railing fupplies in that
manner. For, the monthly affeffments being now
eftabliftied by cuftom, being raifed by commiffioners
named by parliament, and producing a more certain
revenue; from that time forwards we hear no more of
fufidies, but occafional affeffments were granted as the
national emergencies required. Thefe periodical af-
fdfinents, the fubfidies which preceded them, and the
more ancient fcutage, hydage, and talliage, were to
all intents and purpofes a land-tax; and the afTeffinents
were
LAN [ 4<
Landaff were fometlmes exprefsly called fo. Yet a popular
11 opinion has prevailed, that the land-tax was firft in-
Land owlltroduced in the reign of king William III.; becaufe
in the year 1692 a new afTefiment or valuation of
eftates was made throughout the kingdom: which,
though by no means a perfeft one, had this effedt,
that a fupply of 500,0001. was equal to T s. in the
pound of the value of eftates given in. And, accord¬
ing to this enhanced valuation, from the year 1693 to
the prefent, a period of above 80 years, the land-tax
has continued an annual charge upon the fubjeft;
above half the time at 4s. in the pound, fometimes at
3s. fometimes at 2s. twice at is. but without any total
intermiffion. The medium has been 3 s. 3 d. in the
pound; being equivalent to 23 ancient fubfidies, and
amounting annually to more than a million and a half
of money. The method of raifing it is by charging a
particular fum upon each county, according to the
valuation given in, A. D. 1692; and this fum is afleffed
and railed upon individuals (their perfonal eftates, as
well as real, being liable thereto) by commiftioners
appointed in the adl, being the principal land-holders
in the county, and their officers.
LANDAFF, a town or village of Glamorganfhire
in South-Wales, with a bifhop’s fee, and on that ac¬
count has the title of a city. It is feated upon an
afcent on the river Taff, or Tave, near Cardiff;
but the cathedral (lands on a low ground, and is a
large, (lately building. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat.
51* 33-
LANDAU, an ancient, handfome, and very ftrong
town of France, in Lower Alface. It was formerly
imperial, and belonged to Germany, till the treaty of
Munfter, when it was given up to France. It is feated
on the river Zurich, in a pleafant fertile country.
E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 49. 12.
LANDEN, a town of the Andrian Netherlands,
in Brabant, famous for a battle gained over the French
by the allies, in July 1693, when 20,000 men were
killed. It is feated on the river Beck, in E. Long. 5. 5.
N. Lat. 52. 45.
LANDERNEAU, a town of France, in Lower
Bretagne, feated on the river Elboro, 20 miles eaft of
Bred. In an inn here is a well which ebbs and flows
like the fea, but at contrary times. E. Long. 4. 13.
N. Lat. 48. 25.
LANDRECY, a town of the French Netherlands,
in Hainault, ceded to France by the treaty of the
Pyrenees, and is now very well fortified. It was be-
fieged by prince Eugene in 1712, but to no purpofe. It
is feated on a plain, on the river Sambre, in E. Long.
3. 47. N. Lat. 50. 4.
LANDGRAVE, the German name for a count or
earl, that has the,government of a province, county, or
large traft of land.
LANDGRAVIATE, or Landgravate, the
office, authority, jurifdiclion, or territory of a land¬
grave.
LANDSCAPE, See Landskjp.
LANDSCROON, a fea-port town of Sweden, in
South Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feated on
the Baltic Sea, within the Sound, 22 miles north of
Copenhagen. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 55. 42.
LANDSDOWN, a place in Somerfetfhire, near
Bath, with a fair, on October 10. for cattle and
Vol. VI.
77 ] LAN
cheefe. Landftmt
LANDSHUT, a ftrong town of Germany, in I!
Lower Bavaria, with a ftrong caftle, on an adjacent ^anerlc‘
hill. It is feated on the river Ifer, in E. Long. 1. 15.
N. Lat. 48. 23. There is another fmall town of the
fame name in Silefia, and in the duchy of Schweidnitz,
feated on the river Zieder, which falls into the Bauber:
and there is alfo another in Moravia, feated on the
river Morave, on the confines of Hungary and Au-
ftria.
LANDSKIP, or Landscape, in painting, the
view or profpeA of a country extended as far as the
eye will reach. See Painting, n° 11. and 22.; and
Drawing, fe£l. 10.
LANERK-shire, a county of Scotland, called
alfo Clydefdale, from the river Clyde, by which it is
watered. It (Iretches 40 miles in length from fouth-
eaft to north-weft, and 24 at its utmoft breadth. It
is bounded on the fouth-eaft and fouth, by Annandale
and Dumfriesfhire; on the north-weft and north, by
Renfrewfhire and Lennox ; on the eaft and north-eaft,
by Linlithgowfhire and Stirlinglhire; and on the
fouth-eaft, by part of Midlothian. It is divided into
two diftri&s,- called the upper and nether ward; the
firft, which is roughened with hills and barren heaths,
may be denominated the Jhire of Lanerk, the other
be diftinguiftied as the barony of Glafgow. The Clyde
derives its fource in the upper ward from Errick-hill,
which likewife gives rife to the Tweed and the Annan ;
and thefe three rivers purfue different courfes. The
Clyde falls into the Deucaledonian fea; the Annan
difeharges itfelf into Solway Frith ; and the Tweed
runs into the German ocean. The country of Clydef¬
dale, though in fome places barren, mountainous, and
embrowned with heath, is in general pleafant and fer¬
tile, exhibiting intermingled landfltips of wood and
water, hill and valley. Even the naked mountains are
rich in minerals, producing abundance of lead-ore,
impregnated with a large proportion of filver. Such
are the mines belonging to the duke of Queenfberry and
the earl of Hopeton, at the lead-hills wartied by the
rivulet of Wanlock, which employ fome thoufands of
hands, and enrich the proprietors. On the fides of
the Wanlock, among the fand and foil fwept down from
the mountains by torrents, the labourers find often
fmall pieces of pure virgin gold; certain figns that
there mull be a gold-mine in that neighbourhood.
Little bits and particles of the fame precious metal
have been found in Grawford-muir, together with
large pieces of lapis lazuli. In the reign of James VI.
Cornelius, a German alchemift, found a gold-mine at
Crawford-John in this county, from whence, in thirty
days, he fent half a (lone weight of pure metal to the
mint at Edinburgh. Clydfedale is for the mod part
a corn-country, abounding with oats, barley, rye,
and producing a confiderable quantity of wheat; while
the hilly parts afford excellent pafturage and plenty of
game. It yields alfo great (lore of freeftone, lime-
ftone, excellent coal, together with peat and turf for
fuel. It is adorned with a great number of agree¬
able feats ; nor is it deficient in Roman antiquities ;
for it is penetrated from one end to the other by a Ro¬
man caufeway or military way, called Watling-freet,
running from Grukftone to the borders of Renfrew.
Clydfedale and Lanerk give the titles of marquis and
2% E earl
LAN [ 4078 ] LAN
Lanerk tarl to the duke of Hamilton, vvhofe fortune and in-
II . fluence lie chiefly in this province, which is noted for
angbaiue. tj)e nnm^er Qf jts gentlemen-landholders. Clydfedale
is very populous, inhabited by lowlanders, who pro-
fcfs the Pre/byterian religion, in which they have fig-
nalized their zeal even to a degree of fanaticifm. The
{hire being an inland country, the common people
chiefly employ themfelves in farming, breeding (heep
and cattle, and in the linen manufadture. Lanerk,
the county-town, is a royal borough, and feat of a
preflrytery ; but in other refpe&s thinly inhabited, and
of little importance. It Hands upon the banks of the
Clyde, over which there is a ftone-bridge built at a
great expence by the inhabitants. At the diftance of
a few miles from the town, the river tumbles over a
precipice forty feet high, producing a catara& that
roars with a hideous noife, deafening thofe who live
in its neighbourhood. Below the town, the Clyde is
increafed by the fmall river Douglas, which waters a
diftrift called Donglafdale, deriving thisappellation-from
the noble family of Douglas, whofeancient caftleis fitu -
ated near the banks of this river. At the diftance of ten
miles from Lanerk (land the caftle and burgh of Craw-
ford-town, remarkable for nothing but giving the
title of errr/ to the noble family of Lindfay: a title
which, by the death of the late earl, has now devol¬
ved to the vifcount of Garnock, fprung from the fame
houfe, though his furname is changed from Lindfay
to Crawford in confeqoence of a marriage. But the
chief place of Lanerkfhire, and indeed the great em¬
porium of the weft of Scotland, is the large, elegant,
and flourifhing city of 'Glasgow ; for a defcription
of which, fee that article.
LANFRANC, an Italian, born at Pavia, be¬
came archbifliop of Canterbury in 1070. He difputed
againft Berengarius, in the council held at Rome in
3059, and wrote againft him concerning the real pre¬
fence in the eucharift. He had other difputes, &c.
and died in 1089.
Lanfranc (John), an eminent Italian hiftory-
painter, born at Parma in 1581. He was firft the
difciple of Auguftin Caracci; and, after his death, of
Hannibal, whofe tafte in defign and colouring he fo
happily attained, that he was intrufted to execute
fome of his defigns in the Farnefian palace at Rome.
Thefe he finiihed in fo mafterly a manner, that the
difference is imperceptible to this day between his
work and that of his mafter. His genius dire&ed
him to grand compofitions, which he had a peculiar
facility in defigning and in painting either in frefco or
in oil: he did indeed afpire to the grace of Correggio,
but could never arrive at his excellence; his greatefl
power being manifefted in compofition and fore-
fhortening. He was deficient in correflnefs and ex-
preffion; and his colouring, though fometimes admi¬
rable, was frequently too dark. By order of pope
Urban VIII. he painted in St Peter’s church at Rome
the reprefentation of that faint walking on the water,,
which afforded the pope fo much fatisfa&ion, that he
knighted him. He died in 1647.
LANGBAINE (Gerard), D. D. a learned Englifh
writer, was born in 1608. He was educated at
Queen’s-college, Oxford; and became keeper of the
archives of that univerfity, provoft of his college, and
doftor of divinity. He was highly efteemed by arch-Langbaine
bifhop Ufher, Selden, and feveral other learned men; !i
and died in 1657-8. He publifhed, I. An edition of Langres‘
Longinus, in Greek and Latin, with notes. 2. A re¬
view of the covenant; and other works.
Langbaine (Gerard), an eminent writer, the fon
of the former, was born in 1656. He was put ap¬
prentice to Mr Symonds, bookfeller in St Paul’s
church-yard; but was foon after called from thence
by his mother, upon the death of his eldeft brother,
and by her entered a gentleman-commoner of Univer-
fity-college, Oxford, in 1672. Here he run out a
good part of his eftate ; but afterwards correfted his
manner of living, and for fome years lived in retire¬
ment near Oxford. During this time he improved
his tafte for dramatic poetry; and at firft wrote fome
fmall pieces without his name, but afterwards pub-
liftied feveral works which he publicly owned. In
1690 he was elefted inferior beadle of arts in the
univerfity of Oxford ; and, in January following, was
chofen fuperior beadle of law, but died foon after in
1692. He wrote, 1. The hunter, a difeourfe on
horfemanfhip. 1. A new catalogue of Englilh plays,
with their beft editions, and divers remarks on the
originals of mod plays, and on the plagiaries of feveral
authors. 3. An account on the Englifhdramatic poets.
LANGELAND (Robert), an old Englifti poet of
the 14th century, and one of the firft difciples of
Wickliffe the reformer. He is faid to have been
born in Shropfhire, but we have no account of
his family. He wrote Tie •oiftons of Pierce Plowman;
a piece which abounds with imagination and humour,
though dreffed to great difadvantage in very uncouth
verfification and obfolete language. It is written
without rhyme, an ornament which the poet has en¬
deavoured to fupply by making every verfe begin
with the fame letter. Dr Hickes obferves, that this
kind of alliterative verfification was adopted by Lange-
land from the pra&ice of the Saxon poets, and that
thefe vifions abound with Saxonifms: he ftyles him
celeberrimus ille fatirographus, morum vindex acerrimus, J
8cc. Chaucer and Spencer have attempted imitations
of his vifions, and the learned Selden mentions him
with honour.
Langeland, an ifland of Denmark in the Bal¬
tic fea, in the ftreight called the great belt, and be- j
tween Zealand, Saland, and Fyonia. It produces
plenty of corn, and the principal town is Rutcoping.
E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. 55. o.
LANGETZ, a town of France in Touraine, noted
for its excellent melons. It isfeated on the river Loire, I
in E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 42. 20.
LANGIONA, a large, rich, and ftrong town of
Afia, capital of the kingdom of Laos, with a large
and magnificent palace, where the king refides. E.
Long. 96. 45. N. Lat. 22. 38.
LANGREL-shot, at fea, that confiding of two
bars of iron joined by a chain or (hackle, and having
half a ball of iron fixed on each end; by means of •
which apparatus, it does great execution among the ;
enemy’s rigging.
LANGRES, an ancient and confiderable town of j
France, in Champagne, with a bifhop’s fee. The
cutlery-wares made here are in high efteem. It is
feated.
LAN [ 4079 ] LAN
Langton, feated on a mountain near the river Mearne, in E.
Lang"age- Long. 4. 24. N. Lat. 47. 52.
LANGTON (Stephen), was born in England, but
educated at Paris, and was greatly efteemed for his
learning by the king and nobility of France. He was
chancellor of Paris, a cardinal of Rome, and in the
reign of king John was made archbifliop of Canterbu¬
ry by Pope Innocent III. in oppofition both to the
monks of Canterbury and to the king. Langton was
one of the mod illuftrious men of his age for learning ;
andcontinued archbilhop 22 years, dying in 1228.
A catalogue of his books is given by Bale and Tan¬
ner.
LANGUAGE, in the mod general meaning of
the word, fignifies any found uttered by an animal, by
which it exprefles any of its paffions, fenfations, or
affe&ions; but it is more particularly underftood to
denote thofe various modifications of the human voice,
by which the feveral fenfations and ideas of one man
are communicated to another.
2. Nature has endowed every animal with powers
fufficient to communicate to others of the fame fpecies
fome of its fenfations and defires. The organs of
mod animals are fo formed, as readily to perceive and
underdand (as far as is neceflary for their particular
fpecies of exidence) the voice of thofe of their own
kind ; by means of which they aflemble together, for
the defence or prefervation of the fpecies. But as
they rife higher in the order of intelle&ual powers,
the powers of expreffion likewife increafe ; and the
voice alone, even when endowed with a great extent
of modulation, is incapable of conveying all that va¬
riety of emotions and fenfations which on many oc-
cafions are neceflary to be communicated. In all thefe
cafes, motion and gedure are called in to fupply the
defefls of the voice. The amorous pigeon does not
trud folely to his plaintive cooing, in order to foften
the rigour of his reludlant mate, but adds to it the
mod fubmiffive and expreffive gedures; and the faith¬
ful dog, finding his voice alone infufficient to exprefs
his joy at meeting with his mader, is obliged to have
recouvfe to a variety of endearing a&ions. But man
—the mod didinguifhed of all the animal creation,—
although endowed with a power of voice and expref¬
fion of countenance and gedure eminently fuperior to
all the creatures of God, finds, that all thefe united
are not fufficient to exprefs the infinite variety of ideas
with which his mind is dored : for although thefe may
powerfully exprefs the paffions and dronger feelings of
the mind ; yet as they are incapable of expreffing the
feveral progreffive deps of perception by which his
reafon afcends from one degree of knowledge to ano¬
ther, he has been obliged to difcover, by means of
his reafoning faculty, a method of expreffing with cer¬
tainty, and communicating with the utmod facility,
every perception of his mind.—With this view, having
obferved, that befides the power of uttering fimple
founds, and the feveral variations of thefe into acute
-or grave, open or (hrill, &c. by which his dronger
feelings were naturally exprefled, he was likewife en¬
dowed with a power of dopping or interrupting thefe
founds, by certain clofings of the lips with one ano¬
ther, and of the tongue with the palate, &c. he has
taken advantage of thefe circumdances, and formed
unto himfelf a language capable of expreffing every
perception of the mind ; for, by affixing at all times Language
the fame idea to any one found or combination of ——
founds thus modified and joined together, he is en¬
abled at any time to excite in the mind of any other
perfon an idea fimilar to that in his own mind, pro¬
vided the other perfon has been previoufly fo far in-
ftru&ed as to know the particular modification of
found which has been agreed upon as the fymboi of
that idea.—Thus man is endowed with two different
fpecies of language : one confiding of tones and ge-
dures ; which, as it is natural to man confidered as
a didinff fpecies of animals, and neceffary for the pre¬
fervation and well-being of the whole, is univerfally
underdood by all mankind : thus laughter and mirth
univerfally exprefs cheerfulnefs of mind ; while tears,
in every part of the globe, difcover a heart overflowing
with tender fenfations ; and the humble tone of fup-
plication, or the acute accent of pain, are equally un¬
derdood by the Hurons of America, and by the more
refined inhabitants of Europe. The other fpecies of
language, as it is entirely artificial, and derives its
power from particular compaft, (for before anything
can be recognifed as the fymbol of an idea, feveral
perfons mud fird agree that fuch an idea (hall be always
denoted by this fymboi), mud be different in dif¬
ferent parts of the globe 5 and every didinft form which
it may affume, from the different genius of every fo-
ciety who originally formed a particular language for
tbemfelves, will be altogether unintelligible to every
other body of men, but thofe belonging to the fame
fociety where that language was originally invented,
or thofe who have been at pains to acquire a know¬
ledge of it by means of dudy.
3. It is unneceffary for us here to draw any parallel
between the nature of thefe two different fpecies of
language ; it being diffidently evident, that the arti¬
ficial language does not debar the ufe of the tones and
gedures of the natural, but tends to afcertain the
meaning of thefe with greater precifion, and confe-
quently to give them greater power. Man mud there¬
fore reap many advantages from the ufe of artificial
language, which he could not have enjoyed without
it. It is equally plain, that the one, being natural
and infpired, mud remain nearly the fame, without
making any progrefs to perfedlion ; whereas the other,
being entirely the invention of man, mud have been
exceedingly rude and imperfect at fird, and mud have
arrived by flow degrees at greater and greater perfec¬
tion, as the reafoning faculties acquired vigour and
acutenefs. It mud likewife be fubjeft to perpetual
changes, from that variety of incidents which affedt all
fublunary things: and thefe changes mud always cor-
refpond with the change of circumdances in the peo¬
ple who make ufe of that particular language: for
when any particular fet of ideas become prevalent
among any fociety of men, words mud be adopted to
exprefs them ; and from thefe the language mud af¬
fume its charafter. Hence the reafon why the lan¬
guage of all barbarous and uncivilized people is rude
and uncultivated ; while thofe nations which have im¬
proved their reafoning faculties, and made fome pro¬
grefs in the polite arts, have been 110 lefs didinguifh¬
ed by the fuperiority of their language than by their
pre-eminence in other refpe&s.— The language of a
brave and martial people is bold and nervous, altho’
23 E 2 per-
LAN [ 4080 ] LAN
Language, perhaps rude and uncultivated ; while the language of
thofe nations in which luxury and effeminacy prevail,
is flowing and harmonious, but devoid of force and
energy of exprefiion.
4. But although it may be confidered as a general
rule, that the language of any nation is a very exact
index of the ftate of their minds;' yet it admits of fome
particular exceptions. For as man is naturally an imi¬
tative animal, and in matters of this kind never has
recourfe to invention but through necefSty; if by fome
accident any part of a nation (hould be feparated from
that community to which they belonged, after a lan¬
guage had been invented, they would retain the fame
general founds and idiom of language with thofe from
whom they were feparated; although in procefs of time
thefe two people, by living in countries of a diffimilar
nature, or being engaged in different occupations, and
leading a different manner of life, might lofeall know¬
ledge of one another, affume a different national cha*
rafter and oppofite difpofitions of mind, and form each
of them a diftinft language to themfelves, totally dif¬
ferent in genius and ftyle, though agreeing with one
another in the fundamental founds and general idiom:
fo that if this particular idiom, formed before their re¬
paration, ftiould happen to be more peculiarly adapted
to the genius of one of thefe people than the other, that
particular people whofe natural genius and ftyle of lan¬
guage was not in concord with the idiom which they
had adopted, would labour under an inconvenience on
this account which they never would be able entirely to
overcome; and this inconvenience would prevent their
language from attaining fuch a degree of perfeftion,
as the genius of the people would otherwife naturally
have led them to. Thus languages have been originally
formed; and thus that happy concord of circumftances
which have concurred to raife fome languages to that
height of perfeftion which they have attained may be
eafily accounted for, while many ineffeftual efforts have
been made to raife other languages to the fame degree
of excellence.
5. We fhall not here enter upon any fruitlefs inqui¬
ries, with a view to difcover if only one language was
originally formed, or if any language that we are ac¬
quainted with has a greater claim to that much envied
pre-eminence than others. We have fecn, that the
difcovery of language is entirely within our reach, and
evidently the invention of man ; and therefore that the
invention of different languages by different focieties,
is extremely probable. But it behoved thefe different fo¬
cieties, in procefs of time, to intermix by war or com¬
merce, and their different languages would likewife be¬
come mixed. Hence during the fucceffion of many
ages, while the principles of language were not under-
ftood, many different languages muft have been formed,
while others may have funk into oblivion, efpecially in
thofe early ages before the invention of letters, which
alone could preferve their memory. In vain, therefore,
would we endeavour to difcover the ftate of thofe na¬
tions or languages of which we have but obfeure traces
in hiftory. Indeed we have no reafon to lament our
lofs in this particular ; for, fuppofing fuch a difcovery
could be made, we could derive little advantage from
it, as the antiquity of a language does not neceffarily
imply any degree of excellence, feeing we all know
that fome nations have made more progrefs in. impro¬
ving their mental faculties, and refining their language, Langusgfc.
in a few years, than others have done in many ages.  
We fhall therefore leave this fubjeft, and proceed to
make fome remarks on the advantages or defefts of
fome of thofe idioms of language witii which we are
moft intimately acquainted, as this may perhaps lead us
to fome difeoveries of real utility to ourfelves.
6. As the words idiom and genius of a language
are often confounded, it will be neceflary to inform the
reader, that by idiom we would here be underftoed to
mean that general mode of arranging 'words into fcntences
•which prevails in any particular language; and by the
genius of a language we mean to exprefsparticu¬
lar fet of ideas •which the "words of any language, either
from their formation or multiplicity, are moft naturally
apt to excite in the mind of any one •who hears it proper¬
ly uttered. Thus although the Englijh, French, Ita- |
lian, and Spanifb languages, nearly agree in the fame
general idiom ; yet the particular genius of each is
remarkably different: The Fnglifh is naturally bold,
nervous, and ftrongly articulated; the French is weaker,
and more flowing; the Italian more foothing and har¬
monious; and the Spanijh more grave, fonorous, and
ftately. Now, when we examine the feveral languages
which have been moft efteemed in Europe, we find that
there are only two diftinft idioms among them which
are eflentially diftinguifhed from one another; and all
thofe languages are divided between thefe two idioms,
following fometimes the one, and fometimes the otherj,
either wholly or in part. The languages which may
be faid to adhere to the firft idiom, are thofe which in
their conftruftion follow the order of nature ; that is,
exprefs their ideas in the natural order in which they
occur to the mind; the fubjeft which occafions the ac¬
tion appearing firft ; then the aftion, accompanied with
its feveral modifications; and, laft of all, the objeft to
which it has reference.—Thefe may properly be called
analogous languages; and of this kind are the En-
glifti, French, and moft of the modern languages in
Europe.—The languages which may be referred to the
other idiom, are thofe which follow no other order'in
their conftruftion than what the tafte or fancy of the
compofer may fuggeft ; fometimes making the objeft,
fometimes the aftion, and fometimes the modification
of the aftion, to precede or follow the other parts. The
confufion which this might occafion is avoided by the
particular manner of infletting their words, by which ;
they are made to refer to the others with which they
ought to be connefted, in whatever part of the fentence
they occur, the mind being left at liberty to conneft
the feveral parts with one another after the whole fen¬
tence is concluded. And as the words may be here
tranfpofed at pleafure, thofe languages may be called
transpositive languages. To this clafs we muft, in
an efpecial manner, refer the Latin and Greek lan¬
guages.—As each of thefc idioms has feveral advan¬
tages and defefts peculiar to itfelf, we ftiall endeavour
to point out the moft confiderable of them, in order to
afeertain with greater precilion the particular charafter
and excellence of fome of thofe languages now princi¬
pally fpoken or ftudied in Europe.
7. The partiality which our forefathers, at the revi¬
val of letters in Europe, naturally entertained for the
Greek and Roman languages, made them look upon
every diftinguifhing peculiarity belonging to them, as
one .] |
LAN [ 4081 ] LAN
Language, one of the many caufes of the amazing fuperiority which
 —— thofe language evidently enjoyed above every other at
that time (poken in Europe.—This blind deference ftill
continues to be paid to them, as our minds are early
prepoffefied with thefe ideas, and as we are taught in
our earlieft infancy to believe, that to entertain the leaft
idea of our own language being equal to the Greek or
Latin in any particular whatever, would be a certain
mark of ignorance or want of tafte.—Their rights,
therefore, like thofe of the church in former ages, re¬
main Hill to be examined ; and we, without exerting
our reafon to difcover truth from falfehood, tamely,(it
down fatisfied with the idea of their undoubted pre¬
eminence in every refpedl.—But if we look around us
for a moment, and obferve the many excellent produc¬
tions which are to be met with in almoft every language
of Europe, we muft be fatisfied, that even thefe are now
poffeffed of fame powers which might afford at leaft a
prefumption, that, if they were cultivated with a pro¬
per degree of attention, they might, in fame refpefli, be
made to rival, if not to excel, thofe beautiful and juftly
admired remains of antiquity.—Without endeavouring
to derogate from their merit, let us, with the cool eye
of philofophic reafoning, endeavour to bring before the
facred tribunal of Truth fome of thofe opinions which
have been moft generally received upon this fubjeft,
and reft the determination of thecaufe on her impartial
decifion.
8. The learned reader well knows, that the feveral
changes which take place in the arrangement of the
words in every transpositive language could not
be admitted without occafioning great confufion, un-
lefs certain claffes of words were endowed with particu¬
lar variations, by means of which they might be made
to refer to the other words with which they ought na¬
turally to be conne&ed.— From this caufe proceeds the
neceflity of feveral variations of verbs, nouns, and adjec¬
tives; which are not in the leaft effential or necelfary in
the analogous languages, as we have pretty fully ex¬
plained under the article Grammar, to which we refer
for fatisfa&ion on this head. We fhall in this place con-
fider, whether thefe variations are an advantage or a
difadvantage to language.
9. As it is generally fuppofed, that every language
whofe verbs admit of inflexion, is on that account much
more perfedl than one where they are varied by auxi¬
liaries; we (hall, in the firft place, examine this with
fome degree of attention; and that what is faid on this
head may be the more intelligible, we (hall give ex¬
amples from the Latin and Englifh languages. We
make choice of thefe languages, becaufe the Latin is
more purely tratfpofttive than the Greek, and the Eng-
li(h admits of lei's inflexion than any other language
that we are acquainted with.
10. If any preference be due to a language from the
one or the other method of conjugating verbs, it muft
in a great meafure be owing to one or more of thefe
three caufes :—Either it muft admit of a greater va¬
riety of founds, and confequently more room for har¬
monious diverfity of rones in the language:.—or a great¬
er freedom of expreffion is allowed in uttering any
fimple idea, by the one admitting of a greater variety in
the arrangement of the words which are neceflary to
exprefs that idea than the other does:—or, laftly, a
greater precifion and accuracy in fixing the meaning
af the perfon who ufes the language, arife from the ufe
of one of thefe forms above the other:—for, as every Language,
other circumftance which may ferve to give a diverfity
to language, fuch as the general and moft prevalent
founds, the frequent repetition of any one particular
letter, and a variety of other circumftances of that na¬
ture, which may ferve to debafe a particular language,
are not influenced in the leaft by the different methods
of varying the verbs, they cannot be here confidered.
We (ball therefore proceed to make a comparifon of
the advantages or difadvantages which may accrue to
language by infledling their verbs, with regard to each
of thefe particulars.
11. The firjl particular that we have to examine is,
Whether the one method of exprefling the variations
of a verb admits of a greater variety of founds.—In
this refpeft the Latin feems, at firft view, to have a
great advantage over the EngliJJs : for the words amo,
atnaham, amaveram, amavero, amem, &c. feem to be
more different from one another than the Englifh tranf-
lations of thefe, 1 love, I did love, 1 had loved, I
Jhall have loved, 1 may love, &c.;, for, although the fyl-
lable am is repeated in every one of the firft, yet as
the laffi fyllable ufually ftrikes the ear with greater
force, and leaves a greater impreffion than the ftrft, it
is very probable that many will think the frequent re¬
petition of the word love will, in the laft inftance,
appear more ftriking to the ear than the other. We
will therefore allow this its full weight, and grant that
there is as great, or even a greater difference between
the founds of the different of a Latin verb, than
there is between thewords that are equivalent to them in
Englifh. But as we here confider the variety of founds
of the language in general, before any juft conclufion
can be drawn, we muft not only compare the different
parts of the fame verb, but alfo compare the different
verbs with one another in each of thefe languages. And
here, at firft view, we perceive a moft ftriking diftinc-
tion in favours of the analogous language over the /«-
flefled; for as it would be impoflible to form a parti¬
cular fet of infleftions different from one another for
each particular verb, all thofe languages which have
adopted this method have been obliged to reduce their
verbs into a fmall number of clafles ; all the words of
each of which claffes, commonly called conjugations,
have the feveral variations of the modes, tenfes, and
perfons, exprefled exa&ly in the fame manner, which
muft of neceflity introduce a fimilarity of founds into
the language in general, much greater than where
every particular verb always retains its own diflinguilh-
ing found.—To be convinced of this, we need only re¬
peat any number of verbs in Latin and Englifh, and
obferve on which fide the preference with refpeft to
variety of founds muft fall.
Pono,
Dono,
Cano,
Sono,
Orno,
Bugno,
Lego,
Scribo,
Puto,
Vivo,
Ambulo,
12. The
I put.
I give.
I found.
I adorn..
I fight.
I read.
1 write.
Lthink.
1 live.
I walk.
fimilarity
MbveOj,
Duleo,
Lugeo,
Obeo,
Gaudeo,
Incipio,
Faceo,
Fodio,
Rideo,
Impleo,
I move.
I ail.
I. mourn.
I die.
I rejoice.
I begin.
L make.
I dig.
I laugh,
i fiii;
Abftineo, I forbear.
of founds is here fo obvious
in.
the
LAN [ 4082 ] LAN
Language, the Latin as to be perceived at the firft glance: nor thefe tenfes, feeing the firft perfon plural in all tenfes Language,
can we be furprifed to find it fo, when we confider, ends in mus, and the fecond perfon in tis, with little
that all their regular verbs, amounting to 4000 or up- variation in the other perfons ; it is evident, that, in
wards, mud be reduced to four conjugations, and even refpedl of diverfity of founds, this method of conjuga-
thefe differing but little from one another, which muff ting verbs by inflexion, is greatly inferior to the more
of necefiity produce the famenefs of founds which we natural method of expreffwg the various conne&ions
here perceive; whereas, every language that fol- and relations of the verbal attributive by different
lows the natural order, like the Englifh, inftead of words, ufually called auxiliaries.
this fmall number of uniform terminations, have al- 15. The fecond particular by which the different
mod as many didinft founds as original verbs in their methods of marking the relation of the verbal attri-
language. butive can affect language, arifes from the variety of
13. But if, indead of the prefent of the indicative expreflions, which either of thefe may admit of in ut-
mood, we fhould take almod any other tenfe of the tering the fame fentiment.—In this refpeit, likewife,
Latin verb, the fimilarity of founds would be dill more the method of conjugating by infledlion feems to be
perceptible, as many of thefe tenfes have the fame ter- deficient. Thus the prefent of the indicative mood in
mination in all the four conjugations, particularly in Latin can at mod be expreffed only in two ways, viz.
the imperfett of the indicative, as below.
Pone-bam;
Dona-bam;
Cane-bam ;
Sona-bam;
Orna-bam;
Pugna-bam;
Lege-bam;
Scribe-bam ;
Puta-bam;
Vive-bam;
/ did put,
I did give 1
I did jingt
I did found,
I did adorn,
I did fight,
I did read,
I did vsrite,
I did think,
I did live.
Ambula-bam; I did walk,
Move-bam ; I did move.
Dole-barn ;
Luge-bam ;
Obi-bam;
Gaude-bam ;
I did ail.
I did mourn,
I did die,
1 did rejoice,
Incipie-bam ; / did begin.
Facie-bam ; / did snake,
Fodie-bam ; I did dig.
Ride-bam ; I did laugh,
Imple-bam ; I did fill,
Abdine-bam; I did forbear.
I put.
I gave.
I fung.
I founded.
I adorned.
I fought.
I read.
I wrote.
I thought.
I lived.
I walked.
I moved.
I ailed.
I mourned.
1 died.
I rejoiced.
I began.
1 made.
1 dug.
1 laughed.
I filled.
I forbore.
scribo, and ego scribo ; which ought perhaps in
ftridlnefs to be admitted only as one: whereas, in
Englifh, we can vary it in four different ways, viz.
1/?, I write; idly, I do write; ^dly. Write I
do; \thly. Write do I (a). And if we confider
the further variation which thefe receive in power as
well as in found, by having the accent placed on the
different words ; indead of four, we will find eleven
different variations: thus, \Jl, I write, with the em-
phafis upon the /;—idly, I write, with the empha-
fis upon the word write. Let any one pronounce
thefe with the different accent neceffary, and he will
be immediately fatisfied that they are not only didindl
from each other with refpedl to meaning, but alfowith
regard to found ; and the fame mud be underdood of
all the other parts of this example.
3. I do write,
4. I do write,
5. I do WRITE,
6. Write/<&,
7. Write I do.
8. Write I no,
9. Write do 1,
10. Write do I.
11. Write do 1.
None of the Latin tenfes admit of more variations
, . , 1 .1 t^an two above mentioned: nor do almod any
4. It unnecdliry to make sny ,.marls on the ofthe E ad|llit of few„ ,ha„ the above
Latm word, m tht. example: but m the Engltlh ranf- a |e f„„a, of thrft. hraf which mall be
ration we have carefully marked, in the fird column, . n .• rr rr.r
, , . . t -an,- j • .1. r 1 conhdered as exadt tranflations of fome of the tenfes
the words without any inflection ; and, in the iecond, t r _ r™. .t
. „ , .1 r • k • a n- r °t tne Latin verb, admit or many more. Thus the
imperfeaof the fubjunaire mood/which in La.mad-
mils of the above two variations, admits inEnglilhof
any other either ancient or modern. Were it necef¬
fary to purfue this fubjedt farther, we might obferve,
that theperfett tenfe in all the conjugations ends univer-
fally in I, the pluperfect in er am, and the future \n am or
bo ; in the fubjunftive mood, the imperfeft univerfally
in rem, the perfea in erim, the pluperfed in issem, and And if we likewife confider the variations which may
the future ™ ero : and as a dill greater famenefs is be produced by a variation of the emphafis, they will
obfervable in the different variations for the perfons in be as under. 7
1. 1 might have wrote.
2. Wrote I might have.
3. Have wrote I might.
4. Wrote might have I.
5. 1 wrote might have.
6. Have wrote might I.
(a) We are diffidently aware, that the lad variation cannot in ftridtnefs be confidered as good language; although
nanv examoles of this manner of iifintr it in fprinn« :   1 - l . ,
many examples of this manner of ufing it m fenous compofitions, both in poetry and profe, might be eafily produced
from the bed authors in the Englidi Language —But however unjuflifiable it may be to ufe it in ferious c—
. , • - n . h- g,     .. ux i.u u.t 11 in jciiuus compofition;
yet, when judicioufly employed in works of humour, this and other forced expreffions of the like nature produce a
fine effect, by giving a burlefque air to the language, and beautifully contrading it to the purer didtion of folid rea-
foning. The fagacious Shakeipeare has, on many occafions, ffiewed how fuccefsfully thefe may be employed in
compodtion, particularly in drawmg the character of ancient Pifiol, in Henry V. Without this liberty, Butler would
have found greater difficulty in drawing the inimitable charader of Hudibras.—Let this apology fuffice for our hav¬
ing mferted this and other variations of the fame kind; which, although they may be often improper for ferious
compofition, have dill their ufe in language. 1 ^
Langi:ag
LAN [ 4083 ] LAN
13. Wrote viight have!.
14. Wrote MIGHT have I.
15. Wrote might have /.
16. Wrote might have I.
17. I 'wrote might have.
18. / wrote might have.
19. I 'wrote might have.
20. I 'wrote might have.
21. Have 'wrote might I.
22. Have wrote might I.
23. Have 'wrote might I.
24. Have 'wrote might I.
e- I. I might have •wrote.
~ 2. / might have •wrote.
3. I might have •wrote.
4. I viight have wrote.
5. Wrote 1 might have.
6. Wrote I might have.
7. Wrote / might have.
8. Wrote I might have,
9. Have •wrote I might.
10. Have wrote I might.
11. Have •wrote I might.
12. Have •wrote I u\G\n.
In all 24 variations, inftead of two.—If we likewife
confider, that the Latins were obliged to employ the
fame word, not only to exprefs “ I might have wrote,”
but alfo, “ I could, I "would, or I Jhould have wrote
each ofwhich would admit df the fame variations as the
word might; we have in all ninety-fix different expref-
fions in Engliih for the fame phrafe which in Latin
admits only of two, unlefs they have recourfe to other
forced turns of expreffios, which the defe&s of their
verbs in this particular has compelled them to in¬
vent.
16. But, if it fhould be obje&ed, that the laft cir-
cumftance we have taken notice of as a defeft, can
only be confidered as a defeft of the Latin language,
and is not to be attributed to the infleftion of their
verbs, feeing they might have had a particular tenfe for
each of thefe different words might, could, "would, and
Jhould; we anfwer, that, even admitting this excufe as
valid, the fuperiority of the analogous language, as
fuch, ftill remains in this refpeft as 12 to 1.—Yet
even this conceffion is greater than ought to have been
made: For as the difficulty of forming a fufficient
variety of words for all the different modifications
which a verb may be made to undergo is too great for
any rude people to overcome; we find, that every na¬
tion which has adopted this mode of inflexion, not
excepting the Greeks themfelves, has been obliged to
remain fatisfied with fewer words than would have
been neceffary even to effeft this purpofe, and make
the fame word ferve a double, treble, or even qua¬
druple office, as in the Latin tenfe which gave rife to
thefe obfervations: So that, however in phyfical ne-
ceffity this may not be chargeable upon this particular
mode of conftru&ion, yet in moral certainty it muff
always be the cafe; and therefore we may fafely con¬
clude, that the mode of varying verbs by inflexion
affords lefs variety in the arrangement of the words of
the particular phrafes, than the method of varying
them by the help of auxiliaries.
17. But if there fhould ftill remain any fhadow of
doubt in the mind of the reader, whether the method
of varying the verbs by inflexion,-\s inferior to that by
auxiliaries with regard to diverfity of founds, or va¬
riety of expreffion ; there cannot be the leaft doubt,
but that, with refpedl to precifion, diftin&nefs, and
accuracy, in expreffing any idea, the latter enjoys
a fuperiority beyond all comparifon.—Thus the Latin
verb Amo, may be Englifhed either by the words, I
love, or I do love, and the emphafis placed upon any of
the words that the circumftances may require ; by
means of which, the meaning is pointed out with a
force and energy which it is altogether impoffible to
produce by the ufe of any Angle word. The fol¬
lowing line from Shakefpear’s Othello may ferve
example:
 Excellent wretch!
Perdition catch my foul, but / do love thee:
as an Landing?,
In which the ftrong emphafis upon the word do, gives
it a force and energy which conveys, in an irrefiftible
manner, a moft perfeft knowledge of the fituation of
the mind of the fpeaker at the time.—That the whole
energy of the expreffion depends upon this feemingly
infignificant word, we may be at once fatisfied of, by
keeping it away in this manner:
 Excellent wretch!
Perdition catch my foul, but I love thee.
How poor—how tame—how infignificant is this, when
compared with the other! Here nothing remains but
a tame affertion, ufhered in with a pompous exclama¬
tion which could not here be introduced with any de¬
gree of propriety. Whereas, in the way that Shake-
fpeare has left it to us, it has an energy which nothing
can furpafs; for, overpowered with the irrefiftible
force of Defdemonars charms, this ftrong exclama¬
tion is extorted from the foul of Othello in fpite of
himfelf. Surprifed at this tender emotion, which brings
to his mind all thofe amiable qualities for which he
had fo much efteemed her, and at the fame time fully
impreffed with the firm perfuafion of her guilt, he burfts
out into that feemingly inconfiftent exclamation, Ex¬
cellent •wretch! and then be adds in the warmth of his
furprife,—thinking it a thing moft aftoniftiing that
any warmth of affedlion ffiould ftill remain in his
bread, he even confirms it with an oath,—Perdition
catch my foul, but I do love thee.—“ In fpite of all
the falfehoods with which I know thou haft deceived
me—in fpite of all the crimes of which I know thee
guilty—in fpite of all thofe reafons for which I ought
to hate thee—in fpite of myfelf,—ftill I find that I
love, - yes, I do love thee.” We look upon it as a
thing altogether impoffible to transfufe the energy of
this expreffion into any language whofe verbs are re¬
gularly infle&ed.
18. In the fame manner we might go through all
the other tenfes, and fhew that the fame fuperiority is
to be found in each.—Thus, in the perfett tenfe of the
Latins, inftead of the fimple amavi, we fay, I have
loved ; and by the liberty we have of putting the
emphafis upon any of the words which compofe thiV
phrafe, we can in the moft accurate manner fix the
precife idea which we mean to excite: for if we fay,
I have loved, with the emphafis upon the word /, it
at once points out the perfon as the principal objedt
in that phrafe, and makes us naturally look for a con¬
trail in fome other perfon, and the other parts of the
phrafe become fubordinate to it;—“ wz has loved thee
much, but \ have loved thee infinitely more.” The
Latins too, as they were not prohibited from joining
the pronoun with their verb, were alfo acquainted with
this excellence, which Virgil has beautifully ufed in
this verfe:
 Nos pat riant fugimus ;
Tu, Tytere, ientus in umbra, he.
But woe are not only enabled thus to diftinguilh the
perfon in as powerful a manner as the Latins, but can
alfo with the fame facility point out any of the other
circumftances as principals; for if we fay, with the
emphafis-
LAN [ 4084 ] LAN
Language, emphafis upon the war A have, “ I have/werf,” it as
' “ naturally points out the time as the principal objeft,
and makes us look for a contrail in that peculiarity,
I have : “ I have loved indeed ;—my imagination has
been led allray—my reafon has been perverted but,
how that time has opened my eyes, I can fmile at
thofe imaginary diftreffes which once perplexed me.”
—.In the fame manner we can put the emphafis upon
the other word of the phrafe laved,—“ I have loved.”
—Here the paflion is exhibited as the principal circum-
ftance ; and as this can never be excited without fome
objedd, we naturally wilh to know the objedl of that
paflion — “ Who ! what have you laved?" are the na¬
tural quellions we would put in this cafe. “ I have
loved Eliza.” In this manner we are, on all
occalions, enabled to exprefs, with the utmoll preci-
lion, that particular idea which we would wifh to ex¬
cite, fo as to give an energy and perfpicuity to the
language, which can never be attained by thofe lan¬
guages whofe verbs are conjugated by inflexion : and
if to this we add the inconvenience which all infledled
languages are fubjeft to, by having too fmall a num¬
ber of tenfes, fo as to be compelled to make one
word, on many occafions, fupply the place of two,
three, or even four, the balance is turned liill more in our
favours.—Thus, in Latin, the fame word amabo Hands
iar jball or w/// love, fo that the reader is left to
guefs from the context which of the two meanings it
was moll likely the writer had in view.—In the fame
manner, may or can love are exprefled by the fame
word amem ; as are alfo might, could, ’would, oxjhould
love, by the Angle word amarem, as we have already
obferved ; fo that the reader is left to guefs which of
thefe four meanings the writer intended to exprefs:
which occafions a perplexity very different from that
clear precifion which our language allows of, by not
only pointing out the different words, but alfo by al¬
lowing us to put the emphafis upon any of them we
pleafe, which fuperadds energy and force to the pre¬
cifion it would have had without that affiftance.
19. Upon the whole, therefore, after the mofl can¬
did examination, we mull conclude, that the method
of conjugating verbs by \njleCUon is inferior to that
which is performed by the help of auxiliaries ;— be-
caufe it does not afford fuch a diverfity of founds,—
nor allow fuch variety in the arrangement of exprefiion
for the fame thought,—nor give fo great diftin&ion
and precifion in the meaning. It is, however, at¬
tended wilh one confiderable advantage above the other
method : for as the words of which it is formed are
neceffarily of greater length, and more fonorous, than
in the analogous languages, it admits of a more flow¬
ing harmony of exprefiion ; for the number of mono-
fyllables in this lafl greatly checks that pompous dig¬
nity which naturally refnlts from longer words. Whe¬
ther this Angle advantage is fufficient to counterba¬
lance all the other defedls with which it is attended,
is left to the judgment of the reader to determine:-—
but we may remark, before we quit the fubjedt, that
even this excellence is attended with fome peculiar in¬
conveniences, which fhall be more particularly pointed
out in the fequel.
(b) This aflertion may perhaps appear to many very m
the favour that he will fet himfelf to mark all the variation
20. But perhaps it might Hill be objedled, that al- Language,
though the comparifon we have made above may be
fair, and the conclufion juft, with regard to the Latin
and Englifh languages; yet it does not appear clear,
that on that account the method of conjugating
verbs by inflexion is inferior to that by auxiliaries ;
for although it be allowed, that the Latin language
is defective in point of tenfes ; yet if a language were
formed which had a fufficient number of infledled ten¬
fes to anfwer every purpofe ; if it had, for inftance, a
word properly formed for every variation of each tenfe ;
one for I love, another for I do love‘, one for I Jhall,
another for I •will love', one for I might, another for
I could, and •would, and Jhouldlove ; and fo on through
all the other tenfes; that this language would not be
liable to the objedions we have brought againft the in-
fledion of verbs ; and that of courfe, the objedions
we have brought are only valid againft thofe languages
which have followed that mode and executed it imper-
fedly. We anfwer, that although this would in
fome meafure remedy the evil, yet it would not re¬
move it entirely. For in the firft place, unlefs every
verb, or a very fmall number of verbs, were conjuga¬
ted in one way, having the found of the words in each
tenfe, and divifions of tenfes, as we may fay, different
from all the other conjugations,—it would always oc-
cafion a famenefs of found, which would in fome mea¬
fure prevent that variety of founds fo proper for a
language. And even if this could be effeded, it would
not give fuch a latitude to the expreffion as auxilia¬
ries allow: for although there fhould be two words,
one for / might, and another for I could love ; yet as I
thefe are Angle words, they cannot be varied ; where- ‘3
as, by auxilaries, either of thefe can be varied 24
different ways, as has been (hewn above.—In the
laft place, no Angle word can ever exprefs all that va- ;|
riety of meaning which we can do by the help of our
auxilaries and the emphafis. I have loved, if exprefs-
ed by any one word, could only denote at all times one
diftind meaning; fo that, to give it the power of ours, j
three diftind words at lead would be neceffary. How- .]
ever, if all this were done;—that is, if there were a di- ;[
ftind conjugation formed for every 40 or 50 verbs;— ||
if each of the tenfes were propetly formed, and all of ij
them different from every other tenfe as well as eve¬
ry other verb; and thefe all carried thro’ each of the
different perfons, fo as to be all different from one an¬
other;—and if likewife there were a diftind word to
mark each of the feparate meanings which the fame
tenfecould be madetoaffume by means of the emphafis; ||
and if all this infinite variety of words could b« formed in
a diftind manner, different from each other, and harmo¬
nious;—this language would have powers greater than
any that could be formed by auxiliaries, if it werepof-
fible for the human powers to acquire fuch ^egree of
knowledge as to be able to employ it wim facility.
But how could this be attained, fince upwards of ten j
thoufand words would be neceffary to form the varia¬
tions of any one verb, and a hundred times that num- I
ber would not include the knowledge of the verbs alone
of fuch a language (b) !—How much, therefore, ought
we to admire the Ample perfpicuity of our language, J
which
■ich exaggerated: but if any (hould think fo, we only beg
s of tenfes, mode, perfon, and number, which an Englilb T
verb
: Language.
LAN [ 4085 ] LAN
which enables us, by the proper application of ten or thefe in the Analogous language. Thus, rex, regis, Language,
twelve feemingly trifling words, the meaning and ufe regi, regem, &c. are more diftinft from one another ~
of which can be attained with the utmoft eafe, to ex- in point of found, than the tranflation of thefe, a king,
prefs all that could be exprefled by this unwieldy ap- of a king, to a king, a king, &c. But if we proceed one
paratus ? What can equal the fimplicity or the power ftep further, and confider the variety which is produ-
of the one method, but the well-known powers of the ced in the language in general, by the one or the other
24 letters, the knowledge of which can be obtained of thefe methods, the cafe is entirely reverfed. For as
with fo much eafe—and their powers know no limits? it would have been impoffible to form diftindt varia-
—or what can be,compared to the facied perfedfion of tions, different from one another, for each cafe of every
the other, but the tranfeript of it which the Chinefe ’ noun, they have been obliged to reduce all their nouns
feem to have formed in their unintelligible language? into a few general claffes, called declcnfions, and endow¬
ed all thofe included under each clafs with the fame ter¬
mination in every cafe; which produces a like fimila-
rity of found with what we already obferved was oc-
cafioned to the verbs from the fame caufe; whereas in
the analogous languages, as there is no neceflity for any
conftraint, there is almoft as great a vailety of founds
as there are of nouns. The Latins have only five dif-
2i. Having thus confidered pretty fully the advan¬
tages and defedts of each of thefe two methods of va¬
rying verbs, we cannot help feeling a fecret wifh arife
in our mind, that there had been a people fagacious
enough to have united the powers of the one method
with thofe of the other; nor can we help being fur-
prifed, that, among the changes which took place in
the feveral languages of Europe after the downfall of ferent declenfions; fo that all the great number of
the Roman monarchy, fume of them did not acciden¬
tally (tumble on the method of doing it. From many
concurring circumftances, it feems probable, that the
greatell part, if not all the Gothic nations that over¬
ran Italy at that time, had their verbs varied by the
help of auxiliaries; and many of the modern European
languages which have fprung from them, have fo far
borrowed from the Latin, as to have fame of the tenfes
of their verbs infledfed : yet the Englifh alone have in
any inftance combined the joint powers of the two:
which could only be done by forming infledfions for the
different tenfes in the fame manner as the Latins, and
at the fame time retaining the original method of va¬
rying them by auxiliaries; by which means either the
one or the other method could have been employed as
occafion required. We have luckily two tenfes form¬
ed in that way; the prefent of the indicative, and the
paji. In almoft all our verbs thefe can be declined ei¬
ther with or without auxiliaries. Thus the prefent,
without an auxiliary, is, 1 love, I 'write, I /peak; with
an auxiliary, I do 'write, 1 do love, I do /peak. In the
fame manner, the paft tenfe, by infledtion, is, I loved,
I 'wrote, I /poke ; by auxiliaries, I did love, I did /peak,
I did 'write. Every author, who knows any thing of
the power of the Englifh language, knows the ufe
which maybe made of this diftindtion. What a pity is
it that we fhould have ftopt fhort fo foon ! how blind
was it in fo many other nations to imitate the defedls,
without making a proper ufe of that beautiful language
which is now numbered among the dead!
22. After the verbs, the next moft confiderable va¬
riation we find between the analogous and tranfpoftive
languages is in the nouns; the latter varying the dif¬
ferent cafes of thefe by inflefliuii; whereas the former
exprtfs all the different variations of them by the help
of other words prefixed, called prepofitions. Now, if
we confidcr the advantages or difadvantages of either
of thefe methods under the fame heads as we have done
the verbs, we will find, that with regard to the firft
particular, viz. variety of founds, almoft the fame re¬
marks may be made as upon the verbs; for if we
words of this general order muft be reduced to the very
fmall diverfity of founds which thefe few claffes admit
of; and even the founds of thefe few claffes are not fo
much diverfified as they might have been, as many of
the different cafes in the different declenfions have ex¬
actly the fame founds, as we fhall have occafion to re¬
mark more fully hereafter. We might here produce
examples to (hew the great fmilarity oi founds between
different nouns in the Latin language, and variety in
the Englifh, in the fame way as we did of the verbs : but
that every reader in the leaft acquainted with thefc
two languages can fatisfy himfelf in this particular,
without any further trouble than by marking down any
number of Latin nouns, with theirtranflations intoEng-
lifli, we thought it unneceffary to dwell longer on this
particular.
23. But if the infleftion of nouns is a difadvantage
to a language in point of diverfity of founds, it is very
much the reverfe with regard to the variety it allows
in the arranging the words of the phrafe. Here, in¬
deed, the Tranfpofitive language Ihines forth in all its
glory, and the Analogous muft yield the palm with¬
out the fmalleft difpute. For as the nominative cafe
(or that noun which is the caufe of that energy ex-
preffed by the verb) is different from the accufative (or
that noun upon which the energy expreffed by the verb
is exerted), thefe may be placed in any fituation that
the writer fhall think proper, without occafioning the
fmalleft canfufion : whereas in the analogous languages,
as thefe two different ftates of the noun are expreffed
by the fame word, they cannot be diftinguifhed but by
their pofition alone: fo that the noun which is the ef¬
ficient caufe muft always precede the verb, and that
which is the aftive fubjeft muft follow; which greatly
cramps the harmonious flow of compofition.—Thus
the Latins, without the fmalleft perplexity in the mean¬
ing, could fay either Brutum amavit Cajfms, or Cafius
amavit Brutum, or Brutum Cajfius amavit, or CaJJius
Brutum amavit. As the termination of the word Caf-
fius always points out that it is in the nominative cafe,
and therefore that he is the perfon from whom the
compare any particular noun by itfelf, the variety of energy proceeds; and in the fame manner, as the ter-
found appears much greater between the different cafes mination of the word Brutum points out that it is in
in \.\ie Tranfpoftive, than between the tranllation of the arew/ir/m'and confequently that he is the ob-
Vol. VI. 23 F je&
verb can be made to aflame, varying each of thefe in every way that it will -admit, both as to the diverfity of expref-
fion and the emphalis; he will foon be convinced that we have here faid nothing more than enough.
LAN [ 4086 ] LAN
Language. je& upon whom the energy is exerted ; the meaning
•   continues ftill diftinft and clear, notwithftanding of all
thefe feveral variations: whereas in the Englilh lan¬
guage, we could only fay Cajfius loved Brutus, or, by
a more forced phrafeology, CaJJius Brutus loved: Were
we to reverfe the cafe, as in the Latin, the meaning
alfo would be reverfed; for if we fay Brutus loved Caf-
jius, it is evident, that, inftead of being the perfon be¬
loved, as before, Brutus now becomes the perfon from
■whom the energy proceeds, and Cajfius becomes the
object beloved.—In this refpeft, therefore, the analo¬
gous languages are greatly inferior to the tranfpofitive;
and indeed it is from this Angle circumftance alone that
they derive their chief excellence.
24. But although it thus appears evident, that any
language, which has a particular variation of its nouns
to diftinguilH the aecufative from the nominative cafe,
has an advantage over thofe languages which have none;
yet it does not appear that any other of their cafes adds
to the variety, but rather the reverfe: for, in Latin, we
can only fay Amor Dei; in Englifh the, fame phrafe
may be rendered, either,—the love of God,—of God the
love,—or, by a more forced arrangement, God the love
of. And as thefe oblique cafes, as the Latins called
them, except the accufative, are clearly diltinguifhed
from one another, and from the nominative, by the pre-
pofition which accompanies them, we are not confined
to any particular arrangement with regard to thefe as
with the accufative, but may place them in what order
we pleafe, as in Milton’s elegant invocation at the be¬
ginning of Paradife Loft:—
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our wo,
With lofs of Eden, till one greater Man
Reftore us, and regain the blifsful feat,
Sing, heavenly Mufe.
In this fentence the tranfpofition is almoft as great as
the Latin language would admit of, and the meaning
as diftinft as if Milton had begun with the plain lan¬
guage of profe, thus,—“ Heavenly mufe, fing of man’s
firft difobedience,” &c.
Before we leave this head, we may remark, that the
little attention which feems to have been paid to this
peculiar advantage derived from the ufe of an accufa¬
tive cafe different from the nominative, is fomewhat fur-
prifing.—The Latins, who had more occafion to attend
to this with care than any other nation, have in many
cafes overlooked it, as is evident from the various inftan-
ces we meet with in their language where this is not
d.ftinguilhed. For all their nodns in um of the fecond
declenfion, in e of the third, and in u of the fourth,
have each their nominative and accufative Angular a-
like. Nor in the plural is there any diftinftion between
thefe two cafes in thofe of the fecond declenfion ending
in um, nor in all thofe of the third, fourth, and fifth,
of every termination, the number of which is very con-
fiderable. So that their language reaps no advantage
In this refpeft from almoft one half of their nouns. Nor
have any of the modern languages in Europe, however
much they may have borrowed from the ancient lan¬
guages in other refpe&s, attempted to copy from them
in this particular; from which perhaps more advantage
would-have been gained, than from copying all the o-
ther fuppofed excellencies of their language.—But to Language
return to our fubjedt.
25. It remains that we confider, whether the infle&ion
of nouns gives any advantage over the method of defi¬
ning them by prepofitions, in point of diftin&nefs and
precifion of meaning. - But in this refpedl, too, the ana-
logouslanguages mull come off vi&orious.— Indeed this
is the particular in which their greateft excellence con-
fifts; nor was it, we believe, ever difputed, but that, in
point of accuracy and precifion, this method muft ex¬
cel all others, however it may be defeftive in other re-
fpedls.—We obferved under this head, when fpeaking of
verbs, that it might peihaps be poffible to form a lan¬
guage by inflexion which Ihould be capable of as great
accuracy as in the more Ample order of auxiliaries: but
this would have been fuch an infinite labour, that it
was not to be expe&ed that ever human powers would
have been able to accomplilh it. More eafy would it
have been to have formed the feveral inflexions of the
nouns fo different from one another, as to have render¬
ed it impoffible ever to miftake the meaning. Yet even
this has not been attempted. And as we find that thofe fl
languages which have adopted the method of infleXing
their verbs are more imperfeX in point of precifion
than the other, fo the fame may be faid of infleXing
the nouns: for, not to mention the energy which the
analogous languages acquire by putting the accent up¬
on the noun, or its prepofition (when in an oblique <
cafe), according as the fubjeX may require, to exprefs r,
which variation of meaning no particular variety- of !
words have been invented in any infleXed language,
they are not even complete in other refpeXs.—The La¬
tin, in particular, is in many cafes defeXive, the fame :
termination being employed in many inftances for dif- ;
ferent cafes of the fame noun.—Thus the genitive and
dative Angular, and nominative and vocative plural, of .
the firft declenfion, are all exaXly alike, and can on- i
ly be diftinguiftied from one another by the formation
of the fentences ;—as are alfo the nominative, voca- ‘
tive, and ablative Angular, and the dative and ablative
plural. In the fecond, the genitive lingular, and no- [
minative and vocative plural, are the fame ; as are al- j
fo the dative and ablative Angular, and dative and
ablative plural; except thofe in um, whofe nomina- j
tive, accufative, and vocative lingular, and nominative,
accufative, and vocative plural, are alike. The other
three declenfions agree in as many of their cafes as thefe
do; which evidently tends to perplex the meaning, un-
lefs the hearer is particularly attentive to, and well ac¬
quainted with, the particular conftruXion of the other j
parts of the fentence; all of which is totally removed, j
and the cleareft certainty exhibited at once, by the
help of prepofitions in the analogous languages.
It will hardly be neceffary to enter into fuch a mi¬
nute examination of the advantages or difadvantages
attending the variation of adjettives; as it will ap- ||
pear evident, from what has been already faid, that r
the endowing them with terminations limilar to, and i
correfponding with the nouns, muft tend ftill more
to increafe the fimilarity of founds in any language,
than any of thofe particulars we have already taken \
notice of; and were it not for the liberty which they
have, in tranfpofitive languages, of feparating the ad*
jeXive from the noun, this muft have occafioned fuch a [
jingleoffimilar founds as could not fail to have been moft
di= ■■
LAN [ 4087 ] LAN
•anguage. difguftmg to the ear: but as it would have been iir.pof-
“fible in many cafes, in thofe languages where the verbs
and nouns are inflefted, to have pronounced the words
which ought to have followed each other, unlefs their
adjetfives could have been feparated from the nouns ;
therefore, to remedy this inconvenience, they were for¬
ced to devife this unnatural method of inflecting them
alfo; by which means it is eafy to recognize to what
noun any adjeCHve has a referertce, in whatever part of
the fentence it may be placed.-- In thefe languages,
therefore, this inflexion,both as togender, number, and
cafe, becomes abfolutely neceflary; and, by the di verfity
which it admitted in the arranging the words of the
feveral phrafes, might counterbalance the jingle of fi-
milar founds which it introduced into the language.—
But what (hall we fay of thofe European nations, who,
although poflefled of a language in every refpeft diffe¬
rent from the tranfpofitive idiom, have neverthelefs ad¬
opted the variations of their adjeCtives in the''fulled
fenfe? for here they have nothing to counterbalance
this difagreeable jingle of fimilar founds, fo dedruCtive
of all real harmony. — In the days of monkifh igno¬
rance, when this cudom was probably introduced, the
clafhing of words with one another might be efteemed
an ornament; but now that mankind have attained a
higher fenfe of harmony and propriety, we in Britain
may felicitate ourfelves to find, that our language has
efcaped this mark of barbarity, to which fo many 0-
thers are now fubjefted.
26. Having thus examined the mod driking particu¬
lars in which the the tranfpofitive and analogous lan¬
guages differ, and endeavoured to fhow the general ten¬
dency of every one of the particulars feparately, it would
not be fair to difmifs the fubjedt without confidering
each of thefe as a whole, and pointing out their general
tendency in that light: for we all know, that it often
happens in human inventions, that every part which
compofes a whole, taken feparately, may appear ex¬
tremely fine; and yet, when all thefe parts are put to¬
gether, they may not agree, but produce a jarring and
confufion very different from what we might have ex-
pe&ed. We therefore imagine a few remarks upon the
genius of each of thefe two didinft idioms of language
confidered as a whole will not be deemed ufelefs.
Although all languages agree in this refpedl, that
they are the means of conveying the ideas of one man
to another; yet as there is an infinite variety of ways
in which we might wifh to convey thefe ideas, fome-
times by the eafy and familiar mode of converfation,
and at other times by more folemn addreffes to the
underdanding, by pompous declamation, &c. it may
fo happen, that the genius of one language may be
more properly adapted to the one of thefe than the o-
ther, while another language may excel in the oppo-
fite particnlar. This is exaftly the cafe in the two
general idioms of which we now treat.—Every par¬
ticular in a tranfpofitive language, is peculiarly calcu¬
lated for that folemn dignity which is neceffary for
pompous orations. Long founding words, formed by
the inflexion of the different parts of fpeech,—flowing
periods, in which the attention is kept awake by the
harmony of the founds, and an expe&ation of that
word which is to unravel the whole,—if compofed by
a fkilful artid, are admirably fuited to that folemn dig¬
nity and awful grace which conditute the effence of a
public harangue. On the contrary, in private conver¬
fation, where the mind wifhes to unbend itfelf with
eafe, thefe become fo many cloggs which encumber
and perplex. At thefe moments we wifh to transfufe
our thoughts with eafe and facility— we are tired with
every unneceffary fyllable—and wifh to be freed from
the trouble of attention as much as may be. Like our
date-robes, we would wifh to lay afide our pompous
language, and enjoy ourfelves at home with freedom
and eafe. Here the folemnity and windings of the
tranfpoftive language are burdenfome; while the faci¬
lity with which a fentiment can be expreffed in the ana¬
logous language is the thing that we wifh to acquire.—
In this humble, though mod engaging fphere, the a-
nalogous language moves unrivalled in this it wifhes
to indulge, and never tires. But it in vain at¬
tempts to rival i\\e tranfpoftive in dignity and pomp:
The number of monoiyilables interrupt the flow of
harmony ; and although they may give a greater va¬
riety of founds, yet they do not naturally poffefs that
dignified gravity which fuits the other language. This,
then, mud be confidered as the driking particular in
the genius of thefe two different idioms, which marks
their charafters.
If we confider the effects which thefe two diffe¬
rent chara&ers of language mud naturally produce
upon the people who employ them, we will foon per¬
ceive, that the genius of the analogous language is
much more favourable for the mod engaging purpofea
of life, the civilizing the human mind by mutual in-
tercourfe of thought, than the tranfpoftive. For as it
is chiefly by the ufe of fpeech that man is raifed above
the brute creation;—as it is by this means he improves
every faculty of his mind, and, to the obfervations
which he may himfelf have made, has the additional
advantage of the experience of thofe with whom he
may converfe, as well as the knowledge which the hu¬
man race have acquired by the accumulated experience
of all preceding ages; — as it is by the enlivening glow
of converfation that kindred-fouls catch fire from one
another, that thought produces thought, and each
improves upon the other, till they foar beyond the
bounds which human reafon, if left alone, could ever
have afpired to ;—we mud furely confider that lan¬
guage as the mod beneficial to fociety, which mod ef-
feftually removes thefe bars that obdruft its progrefs.
Now, the genius of the analogous languages is fo ea¬
fy, fo Ample and plain, as to bs within the reach of e-
very one who is born in the kingdom where it is ufed,
to fpeak it with facility ; even,the ruded among the
vulgar can hardly fall into any confiderable gramma¬
tical errors : whereas, in the tranfpofitive languages, fo
many rules are neceffary to be attended to, and fo
much variation is produced in the meaning by the
flighted variations in the found, that it requires a du-
dy far above the reach of the illiterate mechanic ever
to attain. So that, how perfect foever the language
may be when fpoken with purity, the bulk of the na¬
tion mud ever labour under the inconvenience of rude-
nefs and inaccuracy of fpeech, and all the evils which
this naturally produces.—Accordingly, we find, that
in Rome, a man, even in the highed rank, received
as much honour, and was as much didinguifhed a-
mong his equals, for being able to converfe with eafe,
as a modern author would be for writing in an eafy
23 F 2 and
Language.
LAN [ 40S8 ] LAN
Language, and elegant ftyle ; and Csefar among his cotemporaries
was as much edeemed for his fuperiority in fpeaking
the language in ordinary converfation with eafe and ele¬
gance, as for his powers of oratory, his Ikill in arms, or
his excellence in literary composition. It is needlefs to
point out the many inconveniences which this mull un-
avoiably produce in a Hate. It is fufficient to obferve,
that it naturally tends to introduce a vaft diftin&ion
between the different orders of men; to fet an impene¬
trable barrier between thofe born in a high and thofe
born in alow ftation ; to keep the latter in ignorance
and barbarity, while it elevates the former to fuch a
height as muff fubjedl the other to be eafily led by
every popular demagogue.—How far the hillory of
the nations who have followed this idiom of language
confirms this obfervation, every one is left to judge for
himfelf.
Having thus confidered Language in general, and
pointed out the genius and tendency of the two mod
diftinguilhed idioms which have prevailed; we lhall
clofe thefe remarks with a few obfervations upon the
particular nature and genius of thofe languages which
are now chiefly fpoken or ftudied in Europe.
27. Of all the nations whofe memory hillory has
tranfmitted to us, none have been fo eminently diftin¬
guilhed for their literary accomplifliments, as well as
acquaintance with the polite arts, as the Greeks; nor
are we as yet acquainted with a language poffeffed of
fo many advantages, with fo few defe&s, as that
which they ufed, and which continues ttill to be known
by their name.—The neceffary connexion between the
progrefs of knowledge and the improvement of lan¬
guage has been already explained; fo that it will not be
furprifing to find their progrefs in the one keep pace
with that of the other: but it will be of utility to
point out fome advantages which that diftinguilh¬
ed people poffeffed, which other nations, perhaps not
lefs diftinguilhed for talents or tafte, have not enjoy¬
ed, which have contributed to render their language the
moll univerfally admired in ancient as well as in modern
times.
As it is probable, that many different focieties of
men, in the early ages of antiquity, may have found
themfelves in fuch circumftances as to be obliged to
invent a language to themfelves ; each would natural¬
ly adopt thofe founds into their language which
chance might fuggeft, or were moft agreeable to their
perception of harmony, or moft confonant to the dif-
pofition of mind of the original inventors ; in the fame
manner as we fee that each compofer of mufic has a
particular fpecies of founds of which he is fonder than
any other, which will predominate through all his
compofitions, and give them a certain charafteriftic
tone by which they may be diftinguiflied from that of
other compofers So the language of each particu¬
lar fet of people would have originally a certain cha-
rafteriftic tone of harmony, which would diftinguifh it
from all others; and which would neceffarily be more or
lefs perfect, according to the greater or lefs degree of
that delicate fenfe of harmony,diftinguiflied by the name
of tajle, which thefe original inventors were poffeffed of.
Thefe founds, then, being once eftablifhed by cuftom,
would become familiar to the ear of the defcendents
©f thefe particular tribes: new words would be in¬
vented as knowledge increafed; but it behoved thefe
to be modulated fo as to be agreeable to the gene- Language, |
ral tenor of their language, from the neceffity of ma-  
king it confonant as well to the organs of hearing as
the organs of fpeech.—Hence it happens, that the
charafteriftic tones of a language are preferved much
longer without variation than any other particular re¬
lating to it; and if itichange at all, the change mull
be flow and imperceptible. Knowledge after this
may increafe; tafte may be improved: it may be per¬
ceived that the language is not copious enough to ex-
prefs the ideas, or not harmonious enough to pleafe the
ear of the compofer:—he may readily invent words to
fupply the deficiency in that refpedt; but the founds
in a great meafure remain without the reach of his
power, and he muft reft fatisfied with thefe, fuch .as
they are, without attempting innovations. Hap¬
py therefore, in this refpedl, muft we deem thofe na¬
tions, whofe earlieft anceftors have been fo fortunate
as to adopt no unharmonious founds into their lan¬
guage, whereby they are freed from one bar to the cul¬
tivating thofe refined pleafures which proceed from the
ufe of a delicate tafte, which others may perhaps ne-
v.r be able to furmount: and in this refpeft no na¬
tion was ever fo eminently diftinguiflied as the Greeks;
which no doubt contributed its fhare to promote that
general elegance and harmony of proportion which
prevailed in all their arts. The original founds and
fundamental tones of that language are the moft har¬
monious, and the moft agreeable to the ear, of any
that have hitherto been invented ; infomuch, that from
this principle alone, the found of their language is a-
greeable to every nation who has heard it, even when
the meaning of the words are not underftood;. where¬
as almoft all other languages, till they are underftood,
appear, to an ear which has not been accuftomed to
them, jarring and difcordant. This is the fundament¬
al excellence of that juftly admired language; nor have
the people failed to improve this to the utmoft of their
power, by many aids of their own invention. The
Greek language is of the tranfpofitive kind : but a
people fo lively, fo acute, and fo loquacious, could ill
bear the ceremonious reftraint to which that mode of
language naturally fubje&ed them; and have there¬
fore, by various methods, freed it in a great meafure
from the ftiffnefs which that produced. In infle&ing
their nouns and verbs, they fometimes prefix a fyllable,
and fometimes add one; which, befides the variety that
it gives to the founds of the language, adds greatly to
the diftinftnefs, and admits of a more natural arrange¬
ment of the words than in the Latin, and of confe-
quence renders it much fitter forthe eafinefs of private
converfation : and indeed, the genius of the people fo
far prevailed over the idiom of the language, as to ren¬
der it, in the age of its greateft perfection, capable of
almoft as much eafe, and requiring almoft as little tranf-
pofition of words, as thofe languages which have been
called analogous. But as thofe nations who fpoke this
language were all governed by popular affemblies, and
as no authority could be obtained among them but by
a fkill in rhetoric and the powers of perfuafion ; it
became neceffary for every one, who wifhed to acquire
power or confideration in the ftate, to improve him¬
felf in the knowledge of that language, in the-ufe of
which alone he could exped honours or reputation.
Hence it happened, that while the vivacity of the peo¬
ple
LAN [ 4089 ] LAN
-anguage. pie rendered It eafy, the great men (ludioufly impro-
ved every excellence that it could reap from its powers
as a tranfpofttive language; fo that, whes brought to
its utmoit perfe&ion by the amazing genius of the
great Demofthenes, it attained a power altogether un¬
known to any other language.—Thus happily cir-
cumftanced, the Greek language arrived at that envied
pre-eminence which it ftill juitly retains. From the
progrefs of arts and fciences ; from the gaiety and in¬
ventive genius of the people ; from the number of free
Hates into which Greece was divided, each of which
invented words of its own, all of which contributed to
the general ftock ; and from the natural communica¬
tion which took place between thefe Hates, which ex¬
cited in the HrongeH degree the talents of the people ;
it acquired a copioufnefs unknown to any ancient lan¬
guage, and excelled by few of the moderns.---In point
of harmony of numbers, it is altogether unrivalled ;
and on account of the eafe as well as dignity of which
it admitted from the caufes above afiigned, it ad¬
mits of perfefh'on in a greater number of particular
kinds of compofition than any other language known.
—The irreiiHible force and overwhelming impetuofity
of DemoHhenes feems not more natural to the genius
of the language, than the more flowery charms of
Plato’s calm and harmonious cadences, or the una¬
dorned fimplicity of Xenophon ; nor does the majeHic
pomp of Homer feem to be more agreeable to the ge¬
nius of the language in which he wrote, than the more
humble Hrains of Theocritus, or the laughing feflivity
of Anacreon : Equally adapted to all purpofes, when
we perufe any of thefe authors, we would imagine the
language was moH happily adapted for his particular
Hyle alone. The fame pow'ers it likewife, in a great
meafure, poffefled for converfation ; and the dialogue
feems not more natural for the dignity of Sophocles
or Euripides, than for the more eafy tendernefs of
Menander, or buffoonery of AriHophanes. — With all
thefe advantages, however, it muff be acknowledged,
that it did not poffefs that unexceptionable clearnefs
of meaning which fome analogous languages enjoy, or
that charafteritic force which the accent has power to
give it, were not thefe defedts counterbalanced by other
caufes which we (hall afterwards point out.
28. The Romans, a people of fierce and warlike dif-
pofitions, fprmany ages during the infancy of their re¬
public, more intent on purfuing conquefts and milita-
ry glory than in making improvements in literature
or the fine arts, beffowed little attention to their lan-r
guage. Of a difpotition lefs focial or-more phlegma¬
tic than the Greeks, they gave themfelves no trouble
about rendering their language fit for converfation ;
and it remained ffrong and nervous,' but, like their
ideas,, was limited and confined. More difpofed to
command refpedl by the power of their arms than by
the force of perfuafion, they defpifed the more effemi¬
nate pov/ers of fpeech : fo that, before the Punic wars,
their language was perhajgs more referved and uncourt-
ly than any other at that time known.—But after their
rival Carthage was deffroyed, and they had no longer
that powerful curb upon their ambition ; when riches
flowed in upon them by the multiplicity of their con-
quells;—luxury began to prevail, the Hern aufferity
of their manners fo relax, and felfilh ambition to take
place of that difintereffed love for their country fo
eminently confpicuous among all orders of men before Language,
that period.—Popularity began then to be courted : ~
ambitious men, finding themfelves not poffeffed of that
merit which infuredthem fuccefs with the virtuous fe-
nate, amufed the mob with artful and feditious ha¬
rangues ; and by making them believe that they were
poffeHed of all power, and had their facred rights en¬
croached upon by the fenate, led them about at their
pleafure, and got themfelves exalted to honours and
riches by thefe infidious arts. It was then the Ro¬
mans firff began to perceive the ufe to which a com¬
mand of language could be put. Ambitious men
then fludied it with care, to be able to aceompliffi
their ends; while the more virtuous were obliged to
acquire a (kill in this, that they might be able to repel
the attacks of their adverfaries.—Thus it happened,
that in a (hort time that people, from having entire¬
ly negledled, began to fludy their language with the
greateff afiiduity ; and as Greece happened to be fub-
je&ed* to the Roman yoke about that time, and a
friendly intercourfe was effablifhed between thefe two
countries, this greatly confpired to nourifn in the
minds of the Romans a taffe for that art of which
they had lately become .fo much enamoured. Greece
had, long before this period, been corrupted by
luxury ; their taffe for the fine arts had degenerated
into unneceffary refinement; and all their patriotifm
confiffed in popular harangues and unmeaning decla¬
mation. Oratory was then Hudied as a refined art ;
and all the fubtleties of it were taught by rule, with
as great care as the gladiators were afterwards trained
up in Rome. But while they were thus idly trying
who (hould be the lord of their own people, the nerves
of government were relaxed, and they became an eafy
prey to every invading power. In this fituation they
became ihe fubjeffs, under the title of the allies, of
Rome, and introduced among them the fame taffe for
haranguing which prevailed among themfelves. Well
acquainted as they were with the powers of their own
language, they fet themfelves with unwearied afiiduity
to polilh and improve that of their new matters ; but
with all their affiduity and pains, they never were able
to make it arrive at that perfection which their own
language had. acquired ; and in the Auguftan age,
when it had arrived at the fummit of its glory, Cicero
bitterly complains of its want of copioufnefs in many
particulars.
But as it was the defire of all who ftudied this lan¬
guage with care, to make it capable of that (lately
dignity and pomp neceffary fur public harangues, they
followed the genius of the language in this particular,
and in a great meafure negledted thofe letter delicacies
which form the pleafnre of domeftic enjoyment; fo
that, while it acquired more copioufnefs, more har¬
mony, and precilion, it remained ttiff and inflexible
fur converfation nor could the minute diftinCtion of
nice grammatical rules be ever brought down to the
apprehenfion of the vulgar ; whence the language fpo-
ken among the lower clafs of people remained rude and
unpoliflied even to the end of the monarchy. The
Huns who over-run Italy, incapable of acquiring any
knowledge of fuch a difficult and abitrufe language,
never adopted it ; and the native inhabitants being
made acquainted with a language more natural and
eafily acquired, quickly adopted that idiom of fpeech
introduced
LAN [ 4090 ] LAN
Language. Introduced by their conquerors, although they ftill
retained many of thofe words which the confined na¬
ture of the barbarian language made neceffary to al¬
low them to exprefs their ideas. "- And thus it was
that the language of Rome, that proud miftrefs of the
world, from an original defedt in its formation, al¬
though it had been carried to a perfedtion in other re-
fpedls far fuperior to any northern language at that
time, eafily gave way to them, and in a few ages the
knowledge of it was loft among mankind : while, on
the contrary, the more eafy nature of the Greek lan¬
guage has ftill been able to keep fome flight footing
in the world, although the nations in which it has
been fpoken have been fubjedled to the yoke of fo¬
reign dominion for upwards of two thonfand years,
and their country has been twice ravaged by barba¬
rous nations, and more cruelly depreffed than ever the
Romans were.
From the view which we have already given of the
Latin language, it appears evident, that its idiom was
more ftridtly tranfpofitivcthan that ofany other language
yet known, and was attended with all the defedfs to
which that idiom is naturally fubjedled : nor could it
boaft of fuch favourable alleviating circumftances as the
Greek, the prevailing founds of the Latin being far
lefs harmonious to the ear : and although the forma¬
tion of the words are fuch as to admit of full and di-
ftindl founds, and fo modulated as to lay no reftraint
upon the voice of the fpeaker ; yet, to a perfon unac¬
quainted with the language, they do not convey that
enchanting harmony fo remarkable in the Greek lan¬
guage. The Latin is (lately and folemn ; it does not
excite difguft ; but at the fame time it does not charm
the ear, fo as to make itliften with delighted attention.
To one acquainted with the language indeed, the ner¬
vous boldnefs of the thoughts, the harmonious round¬
ing of the periods, the full folemn fwelling of the
founds, fo diftinguilhable in the moft eminent writers
in that language which have been preferved to us, all
confpire to make it pleafing and agreeable.—In thefe
admired works we meet with all its beauties, without
perceiving any of its defe&s; and we naturally ad¬
mire, as perfect, a language which is capable of pro¬
ducing fuch excellent works.—Yet with all thefe feem-
ing excellencies, this language is lefs copious, and
more limited in its ftyle of compofition, than many mo¬
dern languages ; far lefs capable of precifion and ac¬
curacy than almoft any of thefe; and infinitely be¬
hind them all in point of eafinefs in converfation. But
thefe points have been fo fully proved already, as to
require no further illuftration.—Of the compofitions
in that language which have been preferved to us, the
orations of Cicero are bell adapted to the genius of
the language, and we there fee it in its utmoft per-
feclion. In the philofophical 'works of that great au¬
thor we perceive fome of its defe&s; and it requires
all the powers of that great man to render his epijlles
agreeable, as thefe have the genius of the language to
ftruggle with.--Next to oratory, hillory agrees with
the genius of this language ; and Caefar, in his Com¬
mentaries, has exhibited the language in its pureft
elegance, without the aid of pomp or foreign orna¬
ment. Among the poets, Virgil has heft adapted
his words to his language. The flowing harmony
and pomp of it is well adapted for the epic ftrain, and
the corre£l delicacy of his tafte rendered him perfe&ly Language.
equal to the talk. But Horace is the only poet whofe  *—
force of genius was able to overcome the bars which
the language threw in his way, and fucceed in lyric
poetry. W ere it not for the brilliancy of the thoughts,
and acutenefs of the remarks, which fo eminently diftin-
guilh this author’s compofitions, his odes would long
ere now have funk into utter oblivion. —-But fo con-
fcious have all the Roman poets been of the unfitnefs
of their language for eafy dialogue, that almoft none
of them, after Plautus and Terence, have attempted
any dramatic compofitions in that language.---Nor
have we any reafon to regret that they negle&ed this
branch of poetry, as it is probable, if they had ever
become fond of thefe, they would have been obliged
to have adopted fo many unnatural contrivances to ren¬
der them agreeable, as would have prevented us (who
of courfe would have confidered ourfelves as bound to
follow them) from making that progrefs in the drama
which fo particularly diftinguilhes the productions of
modern times.
29. The modern language, from an inattention
too common in literary fubjedls, has been ufually called
a child of the Latin language, and is commonly be¬
lieved to be the ancient Latin a little debafed by the
mixture of the barbarous language of thofe people who
conquered Italy. The truth is, the cafe is dire&ly the
reverfe : for this language, in its general idiom and
fundamental principles, is evidently of the analogous
kind, firft introduced by thofe fierce invaders, altho’
it has borrowed many of its words, and fome of its
modes of phrafeology, from the Latin, with which
they were fo intimately blended that this could fcarce-
ly be avoided ; and it has been from remarking this
flight conne&ioa fo obvious at firft fight, that luper-
ficial obfervers have been led to draw this general con-
clufion, fo contrary to fadt.
When Italy was over-run with the Lombards, and
the empire deftroyed by thefe northern invaders, they,
as conquerors, continued to fpeak their own native
language. Fierce and illiterate, they would not (loop
to the Tervility of ftudying a language fo clogged with
rules, and difficult of attainment, as the Latin would
naturally be to a people altogether unacquainted with
nice grammatical diftinflions: while the Romans of
neceffity were obliged to ftudy the language of their
conquerors, as well to obtain fome relief of their griev¬
ances by prayers and fupplications, as to deftroy that
odious diftindlion which fubfifted between the con¬
querors and conquered while they continued asditlin6l
people. As the language of their new mafters, al¬
though rude and confined, was natural in its order,
and eafy to be acquired, the Latins would foon attain
a competent (kill in it: and as they bore fuch a pro¬
portion to the whole number of people, the whole
language would partake fomewhat of the general
found of the former : for, in fpite of all their efforts
to the contrary, the organs qf fpeech could not at once
be made to acquire a perfeft power of uttering any
unnacuftomed founds; and as it behoved the lan¬
guage of the barbarians to be much lefs copious than the
Latin, whenever they found themfelves at a lofs for a
word, they would naturally adopt thofe which moil
readily prefented themfelves from their new fubjefls,
Thus a language in time was formed, fomewhat re-
fembling
LAN [ 4091 ] LAN
language, fembling the Latin, both in the general tenor of the
' founds, and in the meaning of many words: and as
the barbarians gave thcmfelves little trouble about
language, and in fome cafes perhaps hardly knew the
general analogy of their own language, it is not fur-
prifing if their new fubjefts fhould find themfelves fome-
times at a lofs on that account, or if, in thefe fitua-
tions, they followed, on fome occafions, the analogy
fuggefted to them by their own : which accounts for
the ftrange degree of mixture of heterogeneous gram¬
matical analogy we meet with in the Italian as well as
Spanilh and French languages.—The idiom of all the
Gothic languages is purely analogous; and in all pro¬
bability, before their mixture with the Latins and
other people in their provinces, the feveral grammati¬
cal parts of fpeech followed the plain Ample idea which
that fuppofes ; the verbs and nouns were all probably
varied by auxiliaries, and their adjeftives retained their
iimple unalterable ftate but by their mixture with
the Latins, this fimple form has been in many cafes
altered ; their verbs became in fome cafes infle&ed ;
but their nouns in all thefe languages dill retained their
original form ; although they have varied their adjec¬
tives, and foolifhly clogged their nouns with gender,
according to the Latin idioms. From this heteroge¬
neous and fortuitous (as we may fayj becaufe injudici¬
ous) mixture of parts, refults a language pofleffing al-
moft all the defefls of each of the languages of which
it is compofed, with few of the excellencies of either:
for it has neither the eafe and precifion of the analogous
nor the pomp and holdnefs of the tranfpofitive lan¬
guages ; at the fame time that it is clogged with al-
moft as many rules, and liable to as great abufes.
30. Thefe obfervations are equally applicable to the
French and Spanilh, as to the Italian language.—
With regard to this laft in particular, we may obferve,
that as the natural inhabitants of Italy, before the laft
invafion of the barbarians, were funk and enervated
by luxury, and that by depreflion of mind and genius
which anarchy always produces, they had become
fond of feafting and entertainments, and the enjoy¬
ment of fenfual pleafures conftituted their higheft de¬
light ; and their language partook of the fame debility
as their body The barbarians too, unaccuftomed
to the fedutftions of pleafure, foon fell from their ori¬
ginal boldnefs and intrepidity, and, like HannibaFs
troops of old, were enervated by the fenfual gratifica¬
tions in which a nation of conquerors unaccuftomed
to the reftraint of government freely indulged. The
foftnefs of the air,—the fertility of the climate,—
the unaccuftomed flow of riches which they at once
acquired,—together with the voluptuous manner of
their conquered fubjefts,—-all eonfpired to enervate
their minds, and render them foft and effeminate. .
No wonder then, if a language new-moulded at this
junflure ftsould partake of the genius of the people
who formed it ; and, inftead of participating of the
martial boldnefs and ferocity of either of their an-
ceftors, ftiould be foftened and enfeebled by every de¬
vice which an effeminate people could invent. The
ftrong confonants which terminated the words, and
gave them life and boldnefs, being thought too harfh
for the delicate ears of thefe fons of floth, were baniih-
cd their language; while fonorous vowels, which
could be protra&ed to any length in mufic, wereTub- Language.
ftituted in their ftead. Thus the Italian language
is formed flowing and harmonious, but deftitute of
thofe nerves which conftitute the ftrength and vigour of
a language: at the fame tii^e, the founds are neither
enough diverfified, nor in themfelves of fuch an agree¬
able tone, as to afford great pleafure without the aid
of mufical notes and the fmall pleafure which this
affords is ftill leffened by the little variety of meafure
which the great fimilarity of the terminations of the
words occafions. Hence it happens, that this language is
fitted for excelling in fewer branches of literature than
almoft any other: and although we have excellent
hiftorians, and more than ordinary poets, in Italian,
yet they la hour under great inconveniences, from the lan¬
guage wanting nerves and ftatelinefs forthe former, and
fufficient variety of modulation for thelatter. It is, more
particularly on this account, altogether unfit for an e-
pic poem : and though attempts have been made in this
way by two men whofe genius, if not fettered by
the language, might have been crowned with fuccefs;
yet thefe, notwithftanding the fame that with fome
they may have acquired, muft, in point of poetic har¬
mony, be deemed defe&ive by every impartial perfon.
Nor is it poffible that a language which hardly admits
of poetry without rhime, can ever be capable of pro¬
ducing a perfeft poem of great length; and the ftanza
to which their poets have ever confined themfelves,
muft always produce the moft difagreeable effedl in a
poem where unreftrained pomp or pathos are neceffary
qualifications. The only fpecies of poetry in which
the Italian language can claim a fuperior excellence,
is the tender tone of elegy : and here it remains un¬
rivalled and alone; the plaintive melody of the founds,
and fmooth flow of the language, being perfedly ad¬
apted to exprefs that foothing melancholy which this
fpecies of poetry requires. On this account the plain¬
tive fcenes of the Pajlor Fido of Guarini have juftly
gained to that poem an univcrfal applaufe ; although,
unlefs on this account alone, it is perhaps inferior to
almoft; every other poem of the kind which ever ap¬
peared. We muft obferve with furprife, that the
Italians, who have fettered every other fpecies of
poetry with the fevereft fliackies of rhime, have in
this fpecies fiiowed an example of the moft unreftrained
freedom ; the happy effedts of which ought to have
taught all Europe the powerful charms attending it
yet with amazement we perceive, that fearce an at¬
tempt to imitate them has been made by any poet in
Europe except by Milton in his Lycidas; no dra¬
matic poet, even in Britain, having ever adopted the
unreftrained harmony of numbers to be met with in
this and many other of their beft dramal.iccompofitions.
Of all the languages which fprung up from the mix-
Hire of the Latins with the northern people on the de-
ftrudtion of the Roman empire, none of them approach
fo near to the genius of the Latin as the Spanifh does..
For as the Spaniards have been always remarkable for
their military prowefs and dignity of mind, their lan¬
guage is naturally adapted to exprefs ideas of that
kind. Sonorous and folemn, it admits nearly of as
much dignity as the Latin. For converfation, it is’
the moft elegant and courteous language in Europe.
The humane and generous order of chivalry was firft
in-
LAN [ 4092 ] LAN
Language, invented, and kept its footing longeft, in this nation ; els are fo much curtailed in the pronunciation, and the
’   and although it run- at laft into fuch a ridiculous ex- words run into one another in fuch a manner, as necef-
cefs as dei'ervedly made it fall into univerfal difrepute, farily to produce an indift.in6tnefs which renders it in-
yet it left fuch a ftrong tinaure of romantic heroifm capable of meafure or harmony. From this caufe, it
upon the minds of all ranks of people, as made them is in a great meafure incapable of poetic modulation,
jealous of their glory, and ftrongly emulous of culti- and rhime has been obliged to be fubftituted in its
vating that heroic politenefs, which they confidered ftead; fo that this poorelt of all contrivances which
as the higheft perfe&ion they could attain. Every has ever yet been invented to diftinguifh poetry from
man difdained to flatter, or to yield up any point of profe, admitted into all the modern languages when
honour which he poflefled : at the fame time, he ri- ignorance prevailed over Europe, has ftill kept fome
goroufly exadled from others all that was his due. Thefe footing in the greateft part of thefe, rather through a
circumftances have given rife to a great many terms deference for eltablifhed cuftoms, than from any necef-
of refpe&, and courteous condefcenfion, without mean- fity. Yet as the French language admits of fo little
nefs or flattery, which give their dialogue a refpec- poetic modulation, rhime is in fome meafure neceffary
ful polrtenefs and elegance unknown to any other Eu- to it; and therefore this poor deviation from profe has
ropean language. This is the reafon why the cha- been adopted by it, and dignified with the name of F’otr'-
radfers fo finely drawn by Cervantes in Don Quixote try. But by their blind attachment to this artifice, the
are ftill unknown to all but thofe who underftand the French have negledfed to improve fo much as they might
language in which he wrote. Nothing can be more have done the fmall powers for harmony of which their
unlike the gentle meeknefs and humane heroifm of the language ispofieffed; and by being long accuftomed to
knight, or the native fimplicity, warmth of affeftion, this falfe talte, have become fond of it to fuch a ridicu-
and refpedtful loquacity of the fquire, than the in- -lous exccfs, as to have all their tragedies, nay even their
confiftent follies of the one, or the impertinent for- comedies, in rhime. While the poet is obliged to e-
wardnefs and difrefpeftful petulance of the other, as nervate his language, and check the flow of compofi-
they are exhibited in every Englifh tranflation. Nor tion, for the fake of linking his lines together, the ju-
is it, as we imagine, pofiible to reprefent fo much fa- dicicrus adtor finds more difficulty in deftroying the ap-
miliarity, united with fuch becoming condefcenfion in pearan.ee of that meafure, and preventing the clinking
.the one, and unfeigned deference in the other, in any of the rhimes, than in all the reft of his talk. Af-
other European language, as is neceflary to paint thefe ter this, we will not be furprifed to find Voltaire at-
two admirable characters. tempt an epic poem in this fpecies of poetry ; al-
Although this language, from the folemn dignity though the more judicious Fenelon in his 7VA?;w<7yK<? had
and majeftic elegance of its ftruCture, is perhaps bet- Ihown to his countrymen the only fpecies of poefy
ter qualified than any other modern one for the fub- that their language could admit of for any poem which
lime (trains of epic poetry; yet as:the poets of this afpired to the dignity of the epic ftrain. Madam
nation have all along imitated the Italians by a molt Delhouliers, in her Idyllie, has (hewn the utmoft ex-
fervile fubjeCtion to rhime, they never have produced tent of harmony to which their language can attain in
one poem of this fort, which in point of poefy of ftyle fmaller poems: indeed in the tendernefs of an elegy,
deferves to be tranfmitted to pofterity. And in any or the gaiety of a fong, it may fucceed ; but it is fo
other fpecies of poetry but this, or the higher tragedy, deftitute of force and energy, that it can never be able
it is not naturally fitted to excel. But although the to reach the pindaric, or even perhaps the lyric ftrain,
drama and other polite branches of literature were ear- —as the ineffectual efforts even of the harmonious
ly cultivated in this country, and made confiderable Rouffeau, in his tranflation of the pfalms of David of
progrefs in it, before the thirft of gain debafed their this (lamp, may fully convince us.
fouls, or the defire of univerfal dominion made them With regard to its powers in other fpecies of compo-
forfeit that liberty which they once fo much prized ; fition, the fententious rapidity of Voltaire, and the
fince they became enervated by an overbearing pride, more nervous dignity of Roufieau, afford us no fmall
and their minds enflaved by fuperftition ; all the polite prefumption, that, in a fkilful hand, it might acquire
si ts have been jregle&ed: fo that, while other Euro- fo much force, as to tranfmit to futurity hiftovical
pean nations have been advancing in knowledge, and faCts in a ftyle not altogether unworthy of the fubjeCt.
improving their language, they have remained in a ftate In attempts at pathetic declamation, the fuperior a-
of torpid ina&ivity ; and their language has not arri- bilities of the compofer may perhaps on fome occa-
ved at that perfection which its nature would admit, or fions excite a great idea, but this is ever cramped by
the acute genius of the people might have made us na- the genius of the language: and although no nation
turally expeCt. in Europe can boaft of fo many orations where this
31. It will perhaps, by fome, be thought an unpar- grandeur is attempted; yet perhaps there are few who
donable infult, if we do not allow the French the prefe- cannot produce more perfefl, although not more la-
rence of all modern languages in many refpe&s. But boured, compofitions of this kind,
fo far muft we pay a deference to truth, as to be obli- But notwithftanding the French language labours
ged to rank it among the pooreft languages in Eu- under a’ll thefe inconveniences ; although it can nei-
rope. Every other language has fome founds which ther equal the dignity or genuine politenefs of the
can be uttered clearly by the voice: even the Italian, Spanifh, the nervous boldnefs of the Englifh, nor the
although it wants energy, ftill poffeffes diflinCtnefs of melting foftnefs of the Italian ; although it is defti-
articulation. But the French is almoft incapable of tute of poetic harmony, and fo much cramped in found
either of thefe beauties; for in that language the vow- as to be abfolutely unlit for almoft every fpecies of mu-
iical
Language. |
 1
LAN [ 4093 ] LAN
Language, lical compofition (a); yet the fprightly genius of of interefting events. Peculiarly happy too In the full Language
that volatile people has been able to furmount all thefe and open found of the vowels, which forms the cha-  
difficulties, and render it the language moft generally racteriftic tone of the language, and in the ftrong ufe
etteemed, and moft univerfally fpoken, of any in Eu- of the afpirate H in almoft all thofe words which are
rope: for this people, naturally gay and loquacious,
and fond to excefs of thofe fuperficial accomplifhments
which engage the attention of the fair fex, have in¬
vented fuch an infinity of words capable of exprefling
vague and unmeaning compliment, now dignified by
the name of politenefs, that, in this ftrain, one who
ufes the French can never be at a lofs; and as it is eafy
to converfe more, and really fay left, in this than in any
other language, a man of very moderate talents may
diftinguilh himfelf much more by ufing this than any
other that has ever yet been invented. On this ac-
ufed as exclamations, or marks of ftrong emotions up¬
on interefting occafions, that particular clafs of words
called interjettions have, in our language, more of that
fulnefs and unreftrained freedom of tones, in which
their chief power confifts, and are puftied forth from
the inmoft recefles of the foul in a more forcible and
unreftrained manner, than any other language what¬
ever. Hence it is more peculiarly adapted for the
great and interefting fcenes of the drama than any
language that has yet appeared in the globe. Nor
has any other nation ever arrived at that perfe&ion
count, it is peculiarly well adapted for that fpecies of which the Englifh may juftly claim in that refpeft ;
coriverfation which muft ever take place in thofe gene¬
ral and promifcuous companies, where many perfons of
both fexes are met together for the purpofesof relaxa¬
tion or amufement; and muft of courfe be naturally
admitted into the courts of princes, and aflemblies of
great perfonages ; who, having fewer fequals with whom
they can aflbciate, are more under a neceflity of con-
verfing with ftrangers, in whofe company the tender
llimulus of friendfhip does not fo naturally expand
the heart to mutual truft or unreftrained confidence.
Iq thefe circumftances, as the heart remaineth difen-
for however faulty our dramatic compofitions may be
in fome of the critical niceties which relate to this art,
—in nervous force of diftion, and in the natural ex-
preflion of thofe great emotions which conftitute its
foul and energy, we claim, without difpute, an un¬
rivalled fuperiority. Our language too, from the
great intercourfe that we have had with almoft all the
nations of the globe by means of our extenfive com¬
merce, and from the eminent degree of perfection
which we have attained in all the arts and fciences, has
acquired a copioufnefs beyond what any other modern
nation can lay claim to ; and even the moft partial fa¬
vourers of the Greek language are forced to acknow¬
ledge, that in this refpeft it muft give place to the
Englifh. Nor is it lefs happy in that facility of con-
ftruCtion which renders it more peculiarly adapted to
the genius of a free people, than any other form of
language. Of an idiom purely analogous, it has de¬
viated lefs from the genius of that idiom, and poflefles
. _ more of the charafteriftic advantages attending it, than
[Y language, by adopting too many of their unmean- any other language that now exifts : for, while
ing phrafes. _ perhaps by their more intimate connexion with the
32. The Englifti is perhaps pofleffed of a greater de- Romans, have adopted fome of their tranfpofitions, and
gree of excellence, blended with a greater number of clogged their language with unneceflary fetters, we
defeds, than any of the languages we have hitherto have preferved ourfelves free from the contagion, and
gaged, converfation muft neceflarily flag ; and man¬
kind in this fituation will gladly adopt that language
in which they can converfe moft eafily without being
deeply interefted. On thefe accounts the French
now is, and probably will continue to be reckon¬
ed the mott polite language in Europe, and there¬
fore the moft generally ftudied and known : nor"
Ihould we envy them this diftin&ion, if our coun¬
trymen would not weaken and enervate their own man-
mentioned. As the people of Great Britain ... _
bold, daring, and impetuous race of men ; fubjeCt to
ftrong paflions, and, from the abfolute freedom and
independence which reigns among all ranks of people
throughout this happy ifle, little felicitous about con¬
trolling thefe paffions;—our language takes its ftrong-
eft charafteriftical diftinftion from the genius of the
people; and, being bold, daring, and abrupt, is ad¬
mirably well adapted to exprefs thofe great emotions
which fpring up in an intrepid mind at the profpeft
Vol. VI.
ftill retain the primitive fimplicity of our language. Our
verb are all varied by auxiliaries (except in the in-
fiance we have already given, which is fo much in our
favours) ; our nouns remain free from the perplexing
embarraflment of genders, and our pronouns mark this
diftindlion where neceflary with the moft perfeil ac¬
curacy ; our articles alfo are of courfe freed from this
unnatural encumbrance, and our adjettives preferve
their natural freedom and independence. From thefe
caufes, our language follows an order of conftru&ion
23 G fo
(a) An author of great difeernment, and well acquainted with the French language, has lately made the fame
remark; and as the loftinefs of his genius often prevents him from bringing down his illuftrations to the level of ordi¬
nary comprehenfion, he has on this, and many other occafions, been unjuftly accufed of being fond of paradoxes.---
But as mufic. never produces its full effedt but when- the tones it aflumes are in unifon with the idea that the words
naturally excite, it of neceflity follows, that if the words of any language do not admit of that fulnefs of found,
or of that fpecies of tones, which the paffion or affedtion that may be deferibed by the words would naturally re¬
quire to excite the fame idea in the mind of one who was unacquainted with the language, it will be impoflible for
the mufic to produce its full effedt, as it will be cramped and confined by the found of the words;—-and as the
French language does not admit of thofe full and open founds which are neceflary for pathetic expreffion in mufic,
it muft of courfe be unfit for mufical compofition.—It is true indeed, that in modern times, in which fo little atten¬
tion is bellowed on,the Ample and fublime charms of pathetic expreflion, and a fantaftical tingling of unmeaning
founds is called wa^---where the fenfe of the words are loft in fugues, quavers, and unneceflary repetition of par¬
ticular fyllables,—all languages are nearly fitted for it; and among thefe the French : nor is it to be doubted, that,
m the eafy gaiety of a fong, this language can properly enough admit of all the mufical expreffion which that fpecies
of compofition nv’y require.
LAN [ 4094 ] LAN
Language, fo natural and eafy, and the rules are fo few acquired a more corredl tafte, and endeavoured, if Language.
. ancj 0bvious, as to he within the reach of the moft or- pofliblc, to have diminifhed the prevalence of this dif- ————
dinary capacity. So that from this, and the great gufting found. But fo far have they been from think-
clearnefs and diftinitnefs of meaning with which this ing of this, that they have multiplied this letter ex¬
mode of conftruttion is neceflaiily accompanied, it is ceedingly. The plurals of almoft all our nouns were
much better adapted for the familiar intercourfe of originally formed by adding the harmonious fyllable
private fociety, and liable to fewer errors in tiling it, en to the fingular, which has given place to the letter
than any other language yet known ; and on this ac- / ; and inftead of houfen formerly, we now fay houfes*
count we may boaft, that in no nation of Europe do In like manner, many of the variations of our verbs
the lower clafs of people fpeak their language with were formed by the fyllable etb, which we have like-
J'o much accuracy, or have their minds fo much en- wife changed into the fame difagreeable letter; fo that,
lightened by knowledge, as in Great Britain.  inftead of levetb, tnoveth, writeth, <walketb, &c. we
What then (hall we fay of the difeernment of thofe have changed them into the more modilh form of/wr/,
grammarians, who are every day echoing back to one moves, writes, walks, &c. Our very auxiliary verbs
another complaints of the poverty of our language on have fuffered the fame change ; and inftead of hath
account of the few and Ample rules which it requires and doth, we now make life of has and does. From
in fyntax? As juftly might we complain of an inven- thefe caufes, notwithllanding the great improvements
tion in mechanics, which, by means of one or two which have been made in language, within thefe few
Ample movements, obvious to an ordinary capacity, centuries, in other refpe&s ; yet, with regard to the
little liable to accidents; and eafily put in order by the pleafingnefs of found alone, it was perhaps much more
rudeft. hand, fiiould poflefs the whole powers of a com- perfedl in the days of Chaucer than at prefent: and
plex machine, which had required an inAnite appara- although cuftom may have rendered thefe founds fo fa-
tus of wheels and contrary movements, the knowledge miliar to our ear, as not to affeft us much ; yet loan
of which could only be acquired, or the various ac- unprejudiced perfon, unacquainted with our language, I
cidents to which it was expofed by uAng it be re- we have not the fmalleft doubt, but the language of
paired, by the powers of an ingenious artift, as com- Bacon or Sidney would appear more harmonious than
plain of this chara&eriftic excellence of our language that of Robertfon or Hume. This is indeed the funda-
asa defe&. mental defettof our language, and loudly calls for re-
But if we thus enjoy in an eminent degree the ad- formation,
vantages attending an analogous language, we likewife But notwithftanding this great and radical de¬
feel in a confiderable meafure the defeAs to which it is fe£f with regard to pleaAngnefs of founds, which
expofed ; as the number of monofyllables with which mud be fo ftrortgly perceived by every one who is
it always muft be embarraffed, notwithilanding the unacquainted with the meaning of our words ; yet
great improvements which have been made in our lan- to thofe who underftand the language, the exceeding
guage Ance the revival of letters in Europe, prevents copioufnefs which it allows in the choice of words
in fome degree that fwelling fulnefs of found which fo proper for the occaAon, and the nervous force which
powerfully contributes to harmonious dignity and it derives from the accent, with the perfpicuity and
graceful cadences in literary compofnions. And as graceful elegance the emphafis bellows upon it, makes
the genius of the people of Britain has always been this defeft be totally overlooked; and we could pro-
more difpofed to the rougher arts of command than to duce fuch numerous works of profe which excel in
the fofter inAnuations of perfuafion, no pains have been almoil every different ftyle of compoAtion as would
taken tocorreft thefe natural defefks of our language; be tirefome to enumerate: every reader of tafte and
but, on the contrary, by an inattention of which we difcernmeift will be able to recolleft a fufficient number
have hardly a parallel in thehiftory of any civilized na- of writings which excel in point of ftyle, between the
tion, we meet with many inftances, even within this graceful and becoming gravity fo confpicuous in all the
laft century, of the harmony of found being facriAced works of the author of the Whole Duty of Man, and
to that brevity fo deArable in converfation, as many the animated and nervous diftion of Robertfon in his '] j
elegant words have been curtailed, and harmonious fyl- hiftory of Charles the Fifth, —the more flowery ftyle j
lables fupprefled, to fubftitute in their ftead others, of Shaftefbury, or the Attic fimplicity and elegance
fhorter indeed, but more barbarous and uncouth. Nay, of Addifon. But although we can equal, if not fur-
fo little attention have our forefathers bellowed upon pafs, every modern language in works of profe, it is
the harmony of founds in our language, that one would in its poetical powers that our language fliines forth ■,
be tempted to think, on looking back to its primitive with the greateft luftre. The brevity to which we
flate, that they had on fome occaAons ftudioufly de- muft here neceflarily conAne ourfelves, prevents us
bafed it. Our language, at its Arft formation, feems from entering into a minute examination of the poeti-
to have laboured under a capital defeA in point of cal powers of our own, compared with other lan-
found, as fuch a number of S’s enter into the forma- guages : otherwife it would be eafy to fhew, that
tion of our words, and fuch a number of letters and every other modern language labours under great re¬
combinations of other letters aflume a Amilar found, as flraints in this refpeft which ours is freed from ;—that
to give a general hifs through the whole tenor of our our language admits of a greater variety of poetic
language, which muft be exceedingly difagreeable to movements, and diverAty of cadence, than any of the
every unprejudiced ear. We would therefore have na- admired languages of antiquity;—that it diftinguiflies
turally expefted, that at the revival of letters, when with the greateft accuracy between accent and quan-
our forefathers became acquainted with the harmoni- tity, and is poffeffed of every other poetic excellence
ous languages of Greece and Rome, they would have which their languages were capable of: fo that we
are J
LAN [ 4095 ] LAN
Language, are pofleffed of all the fources of harmony which they
could boaft ; and, befides all thefe, have one fuper-
added, which is the caufe of greater variety and more
forcible expreffion in numbers than all the reft; that
is, the unlimited power given by the emphafis over
quantity and cadence; by means whereof, a neceftary
union between found and fenfe, numbers and meaning,
in verfification, unknown to the ancients, has been
brought about, which gives our language in this re-
fpedl a fuperiority over all thofe juftly admired lan¬
guages. But as we cannot here further purfue this
fubjeA, we fhall only obferve, that thefe great and
diftinguifhing excellencies far more than counter-ba¬
lance the inconveniencies that we have already men-,
tioned; and although, in mere pleafantnefs of founds,
or harmonious flow of fyllables, our language may be
inferior to the Greek, the Latin, Italian, andSpanifh;
* yet in point of manly dignity, graceful variety, intui¬
tive diftinftnefs, nervous energy of expreflion, uncon-
ftrained freedom and harmony of poetic numbers, it
will yield the palm to none. Our immortal Milton,
flowly rifing, in graceful majefty Hands up as equal, if
not fuperior in thefe refpefts to any poet* in any other
language, that ever yet exifted;—while Thomfon,
with more humble aim, in melody more fmooth and
flowing, foftens the foul to harmony and peace:—the
plaintive moan of Hammond, calls forth the tender
tear and fympathetic ftgh; while Gray's more footh-
ing melancholy fixes the fober mind to filent contem¬
plation:—more tender ftill than thefe, the amiable
Shenfton comes; and from his Doric reed, ftill free
from courtly affe&ation, flows a ftrain fo pure, fo
Ample, and of fuch tender harmony, as even Arcadian
fhepherds would be proud to own. But far before
the reft, the daring Shakefpeare fteps forth confpicu-
ous, clothed in native dignity ; and, prefling forward
with unremitting ardour, boldly lays claim to both
dramatic crowns held out to him by Thalia and Mel¬
pomene:—his rivals, far behind, look up, and envy
him for thefe unfading glories; and the aftoniftied na¬
tions round, with diftant awe, behold and tremble at
his daring flight.— Thus the language, equally obe¬
dient to all, bends with eafe under their hands, what¬
ever form they would have it aflume; and, like the
yielding wax, readily receives, and faithfully tranfmits
to pofterity, thofe impreflions which they have ftamped
upon it.
jjj* Such are the principal outlines of the language of
Great Britain, fuch are its beauties, and fuch its moft
capital defefts; a language more peculiarly circum-
ftanced than any that has ever yet appeared. It is
the language of a great and powerful nation, whofe
fleets furround the globe, and who femerchants are in
every port; a people admired or revered by all the
world:—and yet it is lefs known in every foreign
country, than any other language in Europe.—In it
are wh-itten more perfeA treatifes on every art and
fcience, than are to be found in any other language;—
yet it is lefs fought after or efteemed by the literati in
any part of the globe, than almoft any of thefe. Its
fuperior powers for every purpofe of language are fuf-
ficiently obvious from the models of perfeftion, in al-
meft every particular, which can be produced in it:—
yet it is negle&ed, dcfpifed, and vilified by the people
who ufe it; and many of thofe authors who owe al¬
moft the whole of their fame to the excellence of the Language,
language in which they wrote, look upon that very""”"" " “
language with the higheft contempt.—Neglefted and
defpifed, it has been trodden under foot as a thing al¬
together unworthy of cultivation or attention. Yet
in fpite of all thefe inconveniencies, in fpite of- the
many wounds it has thus received, it ftill holds up its
head, and preferves evident marks of that comelinefs
and vigour which are its chara&eriftical diftin&ion.
Like a healthy oak planted in a rich and fertile foil,
it has fprung up with vigour: and although negle&cd,
and fuffered to be over-run with weeds; although ex-
pofed to every blaft, and unprote&ed from every vio¬
lence; it ftill beareth up under all thefe inconveniencies,
and (hoots up with a robuft healthinefs and wild luxu¬
riance of growth. Should this plant, fo found and
vigorous, be now cleared from thofe weeds with which
it has been fo much encumbered;—fhould every ob-
ftacle which now buries it under thick (hades, and
hides it from the view of every paflenger, be cleared
away;—(hould the foil be cultivated with care, and a
ftrong fence be placed around it, to prevent the idle or
the wicked from breaking or diftorting its branches; 
who can tell with what additional vigour it would
flourifh, or what amazing magnitude and perfe&ion
it might at laft attain ! How would the afto¬
niftied world behold, with reverential awe, the majeftic
gracefulnefs of that objeA which they fo lately de¬
fpifed !
Beauty c/'Language conftdered in regard to Compo-
fition. The beauties of language may be divided into
three claffes: 1. Thofe which arife from found; 2. Thofe
which refpeft fignificance; 3. Thofe derived from a
refemblance between found and fignification.
I. With refpeft to found. In a curfory view, one Elementt
would imagine, that the agreeablenefs or difagree-9-'
ablenefs of a word with refpect to found, (hould
depend upon the agreeablenefs or difagreeaHenefs
of its component fyllables: which is true in part,
but not entirely ; for w'e muft alfo take under con-
fideration the effe& of fyllables in fuccefiion. In
the firft place, fyllables in immediate fucceflion, pro¬
nounced, each of them, w-ith the fame, or nearly the
fame aperture of the mouth, produce a fucceflion of
weak and feeble founds; witnefs the French words
dit-il, pathetique : on the other hand, a fyllable of
the greateft aperture fucceeding one of the fmalleft,
or the contrary, makes a fucceflion, which, becaufc
of its remarkable difagreeablcnefs, is dtftinguifhed by
a proper name, viz. hiatus. The moft agreeable fuc-
ceffion is, where the cavity is increafed and diminiftied
alternately, within moderate limits: examples, Al¬
ternative, longevity, pufillanimous. Secondly, words
confiding wholly of (yllables pronounced (low, or of
fyllables pronounced quick, commonly called long and
fhort fyllables, have little melody in them ; witnefs the
words petitioner, fruiterer, dizzitiefs : on the other
hand, the intermixture of long and (hort fyllables is
remarkably agreeable ; for example, degree, repent,
wonderful, altitude, rapidity, independent, impetuoji-
ty; the caufe of which is explained in Poetry,
Part II.
To proceed to the mufic of periods. As the ar¬
rangement of words in fucceflion, fo as to afford the
greateft pleafure to the ear, depends on principles re-
23 G 2 mote
LAN
Language, mote from common view, it will be neceflary to pre-
’ mife feme general obfervations upon the appearance
that objefts make when placed in an increafing or de-
creafing feries ; which appearance will vary according
to the prevalence of refemblance or of contraft. Where
the objefts vary by fmall differences fo as to have a
mutual refemblance, we in afeending conceive the
[ 4°96 1
LAN
Quorum crudelitas noftro fanguine non poteft expleri. Language.
De or at ore, l. I. $ 52.
This order of words or members gradually increaling
in length, may, fo far as concerns the pleafure of found,
be denominated a climax in found.
With refpeft to the mufic of periods as united in a
r , ,.OP r t “ L r a .c difeourfe, this depends chiefly on variety. Hence a
fecond objed of no greater fize than the firft, the rule for ar itf the members of different periods
third of no greater fize than the fecond, and fo of the w;th rplation efch other. That to avoid a ted;OU3
reft ; which diminimeth in appearance the fize 01 every
with relation to each other, That to avoid a tedious
, . ■ ... , - uniformity of found and cadence, the arrangement, the
objed except the firft : but when, beginning at the cadence> ^ thc ]e th of the memberSj 0 ht t0 be
greateft objea, we proceed gradually to the leaft, diverfified as much afpoffible: and if the members of
refemblance makes us imag.ne the fecond as great as different ;ods be fufficientl diverflfied, the periods
the firft, and the third as great as the fecond ; which themfelv(£ will be e ]] fo/
in appearance magnifies every object except the firft. jj im r a to r iJicatio„% The beauties of
On the other hand, in a fer.es varying by large d,f- ]a with refpeft to fignification, may not im-
ferences, where contraft prevails, the effeas are di- bc dift;n£ui(hed inf0 two kinds . the
reaiy oppofite : a great objea fucceed.ng a fmall one beauties that arife ffom a right choice of words or ma-
of the fame kind, appears greater than ufual; and a teria]s for conftrua; the period ; and next, the beau-
limp rvhippt Inrpppnmor nnp that is erreat. annears IpIs -r r i
ties that ante from a due arrangementot theie words
or materials.
1. Communication of thought being the chief end
of language, it is a rule, That perfpicuity ought not
. r ^ n . • j- -r • n j to be facrificed to any other beauty whatever. No-
ences has the fame effeft upon the mind as if it ftood th; thereforc jn ]a /u 0 ht m;0re t0 be ftudied>
Angle without making a part of the fer.es: but the thatf tQ t all 0&ufity ;if the expreffion . for to
fpronH nhipfr. hv means of contrait. annears erreater , r . ■ ^ J j 1 r i
have no meaning, is but one degree worie than to
have a meaning that is not underftood. We {hall here
give a few examples where the obfeurity arifes from a
wrong choice of words.
Livy, fpeaking of a rout after a battle, “ Multique
in ruina majors quam fuga oppreffi obtruncatique.”
little object fucceeding one that is great, appears lefs
* See Ifr- than ufual *. Hence a remarkable pleafure in view-
Jembltnce. ing a feries afeending by large differences; direftly
oppofite to what we feel when the differences are fmall.
The leaft obje& of a feries afeending by large differ-
‘ ’ 5 if it ftood
fecond objeft, by means of contraft, appears greater
than when view’d fingly and apart; and the fame ef¬
fect is perceived in afeending progreffively, till we
arrive at the laft object. The oppofite effect is pro¬
duced in defceoding; for in this direction, every ob-
ie£t, except the firft, appears lefs than when viewed
i • j j . r .l r • ttt ln ruina majors uuaui luaa uuuiciu uuLruueauuuc.
feparately and ^dependent of the fenes. We may Xh;s amhory{s frequently8obfeure by expreffing but
then all nme as a maxim, which will hold in the com. i . , 1 r, ,P,.
part of his thought, leaving it to be completed by his
reader. His defeription of the fea-fight, /. 2 8. cap. 30.
is extremely perplexed.
Unde tibi reditum certo fubtemine Parcae
Rupere. Hor.
then affume as a maxim, which will hold in the
pofition of language as well as of other fubjedts, That
a ftrong impulfe fucceeding a weak, makes a double
impreffion on the mind ; and that a weak impulfe
fucceeding a ftrong, makes fcarce any impreflion.
After eftablilhing this maxim, we can be at no lofs
about its application to the fubjeft in hand. The
t De ffruft. fol]0w;ng rule ;s ]a;d down by Diomedes f. “ In verbis
orat lib. ii. °^fervanclum eft, ne a majoribus ad minora defeendat
‘ oratio ; melius enim dicitur, Vir ejl optimus, quam,
Vir optimus ejl.” This rule is alfo applicable to en¬
tire members of a period, which, according to our au¬
thor’s expreffion, ought not, more than Angle words,
to proceed from the greater to the lefs, but from the
iefs to the greater. In arranging the members of a
period, no writer equals Cicero: The following ex¬
amples are too beautiful to be flurred over by a re¬
ference.
Quicum quseftor fueram,
Qiiicum me fors confuetudoque majorum,
Quicum medeorum hominumquejudicium conjunxerat.
Again :
Habet honorem quern petimus,
Habet fpem quam praepofitam nobis habemus,
Habet exiftimationem, multo fudore, labore, vigi-
liifque, colleftam.
Qui perfaepe cava teftudine flevit amorem,
Non elaboratum ad pedem.
Me fabulofae Vulture in Appulo,
Altricis extra limen Apulias,
Ludo, fatigatumque fomno,
Fronde nova puerum palumbes
Texere.
Purse rivus aquae, filvaque jugerum
Paucorum, et fegetis certa fides meae,
Fulgentem imperio fertilis Africae
Fallit forte beatior.
Cum fas atque nefas exiguo fine libidinum
Difcermlnt avidi.
Id.
Ac fpem fronte ferenat.
Virg.
Again:
Eripite nos ex miferiis,
Enpite nos ex faucibus eorum,
The rule next in order is, That the language Ought
to correfpond to the fubjeft: heroic aftions or fenti*
ments require elevated language; tender fentiments
ought to be expreffed in words foft and flowing; and
plain language void of ornament, is adapted to fub-!
je&s grave and didaftic. Language may be confider-
ed as the drefs of thought; and where the one is not
fuited to the other, we are fenfible of incongruity, in
the fame manner as where a judge is dreffed like a fop.
LAN [ 4097 ] LAN
Language. or a peafant like a man of quality. Where the im-
*■ preflion made by the words rtfembles the imprefiion
made by the thought, the fimilar emotions mix fweet-
ly in the mind, and double the pleafure; but where
the impreffions made by the thought and the words
are diflimilar, the unnatural union they are forced in¬
to is difagreeable.
This concordance between the thought and the
words has been obferved by every critic, and is fo
well underftood as not to require any illuftration.
But there is a concordance of a peculiar kind that has
fcarcely been touched in works of criticifm, though
it contributes to neatnefs of compofuion. It is what
follows.
In a thought of any extent, we commonly find fome
parts intimately united, fome flightly, fome disjoin¬
ed, and fome dire&ly oppofed to each other. To find
thefe conjun&ions and disjun&ions imitated in the
exprefiion, is" a beauty ; becaufe fuch imitation makes
the words concordant with the fenfe. This dodtrine
may be illuftrated by a familiar example: When we
have occafion to mention the intimate connection that
the foul hath with the body, the exprefiion ought to
be, the foul and body; becaufe the article the, relative
to both, makes a connexion in the expreflion, refem-
bling in fome degree the connection in the thought:
but when the foul is diitinguifhed from the body, it is
better to fay the foul and the body ; becaufe the dis¬
junction in the words refembles the disjunction in the
thought. We proceed to other examples, beginning
with conjunctions.
“ Conftituit agmen ; et expedite tela animofque,
eqtritibus jufiis,” &c. Livy, /. 38. § 25. Here the
words that exprefs the connected ideas are artificially
connected by fubjeCting them both to the regimen
of one verb. And the two following are of fame
kind.
“ Quum ex paucis quotidie aliqui eorum caderent
aut vulnerarentur, et qui fuperarent, feffi et corpori-
bus et animis eflent,” See. Ibid. $ 29.
Poll acer Mneftheus adduCto conftitit arcu,
Alta petens, pariterque oculos telumque tetendit.
LEneid, v. 507.
But to juftify this artificial connection among the words,
the ideas they exprefs ought to be intimately connec¬
ted ; for otherwife that concordance which is requi¬
red between the fenfe and the expreffion will be im¬
paired. In that view, the following pafiage from Ta¬
citus is exceptionable; where words that fignify ideas
very little connected, are however forced into an arti¬
ficial union. “ Germania omnis a Gallis, Rhaetiifque,
et Pannoniis, Rheno et Danubio fluminibus; a Sar-
matis Dacifque, mutuo metu aut montibus feparatur.”
Upon the fame account, the following pafiage feems
equally exceptionable.
 The fiend look’d up, and knew
His mounted fcale aloft; nor more, but fled
Murm’ring, and with him fled the (hades of night.
Paradife Lojl, B. iv. at the end.
There is no natural connection between a perfon’s fly¬
ing or retiring, and the fuccefiion of day-light to dark-
nefs; and therefore to conneCt artificially the terms that
fignify thefe things cannot have a fweet effeCt.
Two members of a thought connected by their re¬
lation to the fame aCtion, will naturally be exprefled
by two members of the period governed by the fame
verb ; in which cafe thefe members, in order to im¬
prove their connection, ought to be conftruCted in the
fame manner. This beauty is fo common among good
writers as to have been little attended to; but the ne-
gleCl of it is remarkably difagreeable: for example,
“ He did not mention Leonora, nor that her father
was dead.” Better thus: “ He did not mention Leo¬
nora, nor her father’s death.”
Where two ideas are fo conne&ed as to require but
a copulative, it is pleafant to find a connection in the
words that exprefs thefe ideas, were it even fo flight
as where both begin with the fame letter. Thus,
“ The peacock, in all his pride, does not difplay half
the colour that appears in the garments of a Britifii
lady, when (he is either drefied for a ball or a birth¬
day.” Sped.
“ Had not my dog of a fteward run away as he did,
without making up his accounts, I had ftill been im-
merfed in fin and fea-coal.” Ib.
My life’s companion, and my bofom-friend,
One faith, one fame, one fate (hall both attend.
Dryden, Tranflation of JEneid.
Next as to examples of disjunction and oppofition
in the parts of the thought, imitated in the exprefiion ;
an imitation that is diftinguilhed by the name of anti-
thefs.
Speaking of Coriolanus foliciting the people to be
made conful :
With a proud heart he wore his humble weeds.
Coriolahus.
“ Had you rather Caefar were living, and die all
flaves, than that Casfar were dead, to live ail free men ?”
Julius Ceefar.
He hath cool’d my friends and heated mine enemies.
Shakefpear.
An artificial connexion among the words, is un¬
doubtedly a beauty when it reprefents any peculiar
connection among the conftituent parts of the thought;
but where there is no fuch connection, it is a pofitive
deformity, becaufe it makes a difeordartee between the
thought and exprefiion. For the fame reafon, we ought
alfo to avoid every artificial oppofition of words where
there is none in the thought. This laft, termed verbal
aniithefis, is ftudied by low writers, becaufe of a cer¬
tain degree of livdinefs in it. They do not confider
how incongruous it is, in a grave compofition, to cheat
the reader, and to make him exped a contrafl in the
thought,, which upon examination is not found there.
A fault direCtiy oppofite to the laft mentioned, is to
conjoin artificially words that exprefs ideas oppofed to
each other. This is a fault too grofs to be in common
praCtice; and yet writers are guilty of it in fome de¬
gree, when they conjoin by a copulative things tranf-
a&ed at different periods of time. Hence a want of
neatnefs in the following expreflion: “ The nobility
too, whom the king had no means of retaining by fuit-
able offices and preferments, had been feized with the
general difeontent, and unwarily threw themfelves into
the fcale which began already too much to preponde¬
rate.” Hume. In periods of this kind, it appears
more neat to exprefs the paft time by the participle
pafiivfj,.
Language.
LAN
Language, paffive, thus: “ The nobility having been feized with
“—"-"■“the general difcontent, unwarily threw themfelves,”
See. Or, “ The nobility, who had been feized, &c.
unwarily threw themfelves,” &c.
It is unpleafant to find even a negative and affirma¬
tive propofition connefted by a copulative:
If it appear not plain, and prove untrue,
Deadly divorce ftep between me and you.
Shakefpear.
In mirth and drollery it may have a good effeft to
conneft verbally things that are oppofite to each other
in the thought. Example : Henry IV. of France in¬
troducing the Marefchal Biron to fome of his friends,
“ Here, gentlemen, (fays he), is the Marefchal Bi¬
ron, whom I freely prefent both to my friends and e-
nemies.”
This rule of ftudying uniformity between the thought
and exprefiion, may be extended to the conftruttion
of fentences or periods. A fentence or period ought
to exprefs one entire thought or mental propofi¬
tion ; and different thoughts ought to be feparated in
the expreffion by placing them in different fentences
or periods. It is therefore offending againfl neatnefs,
to crowd into one period entire thoughts requiring
more than one ; which is joining in language things
that are feparated in reality. Of errors againfl this
rule take the following examples.
“ Behold, thou art fair, my beloved, yea pleafant:
alfo our bed is green.”
[ 4°98 1
LAN
“ I cannot but fancy, however, that this Imitation, Language,
which paffes fo currently with other judgments., mult at
fome time or other have ftuck a little with your Lord-
Jhipj* Shaftejh. Better thus: “ I cannot but fancy,
however, that this imitation, which paffes paffes fo cur¬
rently with others, muff at fome time or other have
ftuck a little with your Lordjhip.'’'
“ A glutton or mere fenfualift is as ridiculous as the
other two chara&ers.” Id.
“ They wifely prefer the generous efforts of goodwill
and affeihon, to the reludtant compliances of fuch as
obey by force.” Bolingb.
It is a ftill greater deviation from congruity, to af-
fe£l not only variety in the words, but alfo in thecon-
ftruftion.
Hutne fpeaking of Shakefpear : “ There may remain
a fufpicion that we over-rate the greatnefs of his genius,
in the fame manner as bodies appear more gigantic on
account of their being difproportioned and mifhapen.”
This is ftudying variety in a period where the beauty
lies in uniformity. Better thus: “ There may remain
a fufpicion that we over-rate the greatnefs of his ge¬
nius, in the fame manner as ive over-rate the greatnefs
of bodies that are difproportioned and mifhapen.”
Next of a comparifon where things are oppofed to
each other. And here it muft be obvious, that if re-
femblance ought to be ftudied in the words which ex¬
prefs two refembling objeils, there is equal reafon for
ftudying oppofition in the words which exprefs con- •
trafted objefts. This rule will be beft illuftrated by :
Burnet, in the hiftory of his own times, giving lord examples of deviations from it.
fiinrlprland’s charafter. favs. “ His own notions were ic a r- j ... _
Sunderland’s character, fays, “ His own notions were
always good; but he was a man of great expence.”
“ I have feen a woman’s face break out in heats, as
file has been talking againft a great Lord, whom fhe
had never feen in her life ; and indeed never knew a
party-woman that kept her beauty for a twelvemonth.”
Spell.
Lord Bolingbroke, fpeaking of Strada: “ I fingle
him out among the moderns, becaufe he had the fool-
ifh prefumption to cenfure Tacitus,, and to write hi¬
ftory himfelf; and your Lordfhip will forgive this fhort
excurfion in honour of a favourite writer.”
To crowd into a fingle member of a period different
fubje&s, is ftill worfe than to crowd them into one pe¬
riod :
  Trojam, genitore Adamafto
Paupere (manfiffetque utinam fortuna) profedlus.
JEneid iii. 614.
From conjunftions and disjunctions in general, we
proceed to comparifons, which make one fpecies of
them, beginning with fimilies. And here alfo, the in¬
timate connexion that words have with their meaning
requires, that in deferibing two refembling objects a
refemblance in the two members of the period ought
to be ftudied. To begin with examples of refemblances
expreffed in words that have no refemblance.
“ I have obferved of late, the ftyle of fome great
minifters very much to exceed that of any other pro-
duflions,” Swift. This, inftead of ftudying the re¬
femblance of words in a period that exprtffes a com¬
parifon, is going out of one’s road to avoid it. In¬
ftead okproduttions, which refemble not minifters great
nor fmall, the proper word is writers or authors.
“ A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues ; an enemy
inflames his crimes.” Speft. Here the oppofition in
the thought is negle&ed in the words; which at firfl
view feem to import, that the friend and enemy are
employed in different matters, without any relation
to each other, whether of refemblance or of oppofi¬
tion. And therefore the contraft or oppofition will
be better marked by exprefling the thought as fol¬
lows: “ A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an c«
nemy bis crimes.”
“ The wife man is happy when he gains his appro¬
bation; the fool when he recommends himfelf to the
applaufe of thofe about him.” Ib. Better: “ The
wife man is happy when he gains his own approba¬
tion, the fool when he gains that of others.”
We proceed to a rule of a different kind. During
the courfe of a period, the feene ought to be continued
without variation : the changing from perfon to per-
fon, from fubjeft to fubjedl, ©r from perfon to fubjeCt,
within the bounds of a fingle period, diftrafts the mind,
and affords no time for a folid impreflion.
Hook, in his Roman hiftory, fpeaking of Eumenes,
who had been beat to the ground with a ftone, fays,
“ After a fliort time he came to himfelf; and the next
day, they put him on board his ihip, which conveyed
him firft to Corinth, and thence to the ifland of iE-
gina.”
The following period is unpleafant, even by a very
flight deviation from the rule: “ That fort of inftruc-
tion which is acquired by inculcating an important
moral truth,” &c. This exprefiion includes two per-
fons, one acquiring, and one inculcating; and the
feene is changed without neceflity. To avoid this
blemifh.
LAN [ 4099 ] LAN
Language, blemlfli, the thought may be exprefTed thus: “ That
•  fort of inftru&ion which is afforded by inculcating,”
&c.
The bad effeft of fuch a change of perfon is remark¬
able in the following paffage: “ The Britons, daily
V harraffed by cruel inroads from the Piets, were forced
to call in the Saxons for their defence, wta confequent-
ly reduced the greateft part of the ifland to their own
power,drove the Britons into the moft remote and moun¬
tainous parts, and the reft of the country, in cuitoms, re-
■ ligion, and language, became wholly Saxon.’’ Swift.
The following paffage has a change from fubjeft to
perfon: “ This proftitution of praife is not only a de¬
ceit upon the grofs of mankind, who take their notion
of chara&ers from the learned; but alfo ihe better fort
muft by this means lofe fome part at leaft of that de¬
fire of fame which is the incentive to generous aftions,
when they find it promifeuoufly beftowed on the me¬
ritorious and undeferving.” Guardian, N° 4.
The prefent head, which relates to the choice of ma¬
terials, fiiall be clofed with a rule concerning the ufe of
copulatives. Longinus obferves, that it animates a pe¬
riod to drop the copulatives; and he gives the following
example from Xenophon : “ Clofing their fhields toge¬
ther, they were puih’d, they fought, they flew, they
were (lain.” The reafon may be what follows. A con¬
tinued found, if not loud, tends to lay us afleep: an in¬
terrupted found roufes and animates by its repeated im-
pulfes ; thus feet compofed of fyllables, being pronoun¬
ced with a fenfible interval between each, make more
lively impreffions than can be made by a continued found.
A period of which the members are connedfed by copu¬
latives, produceth an effect, upon the mind approach¬
ing to that of a continued found ; and therefore the
fuppreffing copulatives muft animate a defeription. It
produces a different effeft akin to that mentioned: the
members of a period connefted by proper copulatives,
, glide fmoothly and gently along; and are a proof of
fedatenefs and leifure in the fpeaker: on the other hand,
one in the hurry of paffion, negledting copulatives and
other particles, expreffes the principal image only; and
for that reafon, hurry or quick adfion is beft expreffed
without copulatives:
Veni, vidi, vici.
 Ite:
Ferte citi flammas, data vela, impellite remos.
* Mneid. iv. 593.
Quis globus, O cives, caligine volvitur atra?
Ferte citi ferrum, date tela, fcandite muros.
Hoftis adeft, eja. lEneid. ix. 37;
In this view Longinus juftly compares copulatives in
a period to ftrait tying, which in a race obftru&s the
freedom of motion.
It follows, that a plurality of copulatives in the fame
period ought to be avoided; for if the laying afideco¬
pulatives give force and livelinefs, a redundancy of them
muft render the period languid. The following inftance
may be appealed to, though there are but two copu¬
latives: “ Upon looking over the letters of my female
correfppndents, I find feveral from women complaining
of jealous hufbands; and at the fame time protefting
their own innocence, and defiring my advice upon this
occafion.” Sped},
Where the words are intended to exprefs the cold- Lanjuajw.
nefs of the fpeaker, there indeed the redundancy of co- '
pulatives is a beauty;
‘ Dining one day at an alderman’s in the city, Peter
‘ obferved him expatiating after the manner of his bre-
‘ thren, in the praifes of his firloin of beef. “ Beef,
“ (faid the fage magillrate), is the king of meat: beef
“ comprehends in it the quinteffence of patridge, and
“ quail, and venifon, and pheafant, and plum-pudding,
“ and cuftard.” Tale of a Tub, $ 4. And the au¬
thor (hows great delicacy of tafte by varying the ex-
preffion in the mouth of Peter, who is reprefented more
animated: “ Bread, (fays he), dear brothers, is the
“ ftaff of life, in which bread is contained, inclufive,
“ the quinteffence of beef, mutton, veal, venifon, par-
“ tridge, plum-pudding, and cuftard.”
Another cafe muft alfo be excepted. Copulatives
have a good effeft where the intention is to give an
imprefiion of a great multitude confifting of many di-
vifions; for example: ‘ The army was compofed of,
Grecians, and Carians, and Lycians, and Pamphylians,’
and Phrygians.” The reafon is, that a leifurely fur-
vey, which is expreffed by the copulatives, makes the
parts appear more numerous than they would do by a
hafty furvey: in the latter cafe, the army appears in
one group; in the former, w’e take as it were an accu¬
rate furvey of each nation, and of each divifion.
2. To pave the way for the rules of arrangement, it
will be here neceffary to explain the difference between
a natural ftyle, and that where tranfpofition or inver-
verfion prevails. In a natural ftyle, relative words are
by juxtapofition conne&ed with thofe to which they
relate, going before or after, according to the pecu¬
liar genjus of the language. Again, a circumftance
conne&ed by a prepofition, follows naturally the word
with which it is conne&ed. But this arrangement may
be varied, when a different order is more beautiful: a
circumftance may be placed before the word with
which it is conne&ed by a prepofition; and may be
interjected even between a relative word and that to
which it relates. When fuch liberties are frequently
taken, the ftyle becomes inverted or tranfpofed.
But as the liberty of inverfion is a capital point in
the prefent fubjeft, it will be neceffary to examine it
more narrowly, and in particular to trace the feveral
degrees in which an inverted ftyle recedes more and
more from that which is natural. And firft, as to the
placing a circumftance before the word with which it
is conne&ed, this is the eafieft of all inverfion, even fo
eafy as to be confiftent with a ftyle that is properly
termed natural: witnefs the following examples.
“ In the fincerity of my heart, I profefs,” &c.
“ By our own ill management, we are brought to-
fo low an ebb of wealth and credit, that,” &c.
“ On Thurfday morning there was little or nothing
tranfafted in Change-alley.”
“ At St Bride’s church in Fleetftreet, Mr Wool-
fton, (who writ againft the miracles of our Saviour),
in the utmoft terrors of confcience, made a public re¬
cantation.”
The interjefting a circumftance between a relative
word and that to which it relates, is more properly
termed inverfion; becaufe, by a disjunction of words
intimately connefted, it recedes farther from a natural
ftyle. But this licence has degrees; for the disjunc-
tionj
LAN [ 4100 ] LAN
Language. t[0n is more violent in fome cafes than in others.
In nature, though a fubjeft cannot exift without its
qualities, nor a quality without a fubjeft ; yet in our
conception of thefe, a material difference may be re¬
marked. We cannot conceive a quality but as belong¬
ing to fome fubjeft: it makes indeed a part of the idea
which is formed of the fubjeft. But the oppofite holds
not; for though we cannot form a conception of a
fubje<3 void of all qualities, a partial conception may
be formed of it, abftra&ing from any particular qua¬
lity: we can, for example, form the idea of a fine A-
rabian horfe without regard to his colour, or of a white
horfe without regard to his fize. Such partial concep¬
tion of a fubje£t, is dill more eafy with refpeft to ac¬
tion or motion; which is an occafional attribute only,
and has not the fame permanency with colour or figure:
we cannot form an idea of motion independent of a bo¬
dy; but there is nothing more eafy than to form an idea
of a body at reft. Hence it appears, that the degree
of inverfion depends greatly on the order in which
the related words are placed: when a fubftantive oc¬
cupies the firft place, the idea it fuggefts mud fubfift
in the mind at leaft for a moment, independent of the
relative words afterward introduced; and that moment
may without difficulty be prolonged by interjefting a
circumftance between the fubftantive and its connec¬
tions. This liberty therefore, however frequent, will
fcarce alone be fufficient to denominate a ftyle invert¬
ed. The cafe is very different, where the word that
occupies the firft place denotes a quality or an aftion ;
for as thefe cannot be conceived without a fubjedl, they
cannot without greater violence be feparated from the
fubjeA that follows; and for that reafon, every fuch
feparation by means of an interjefted circumftance be¬
longs to an inverted ftyle.
To illuftrate this dodtrine, examples are neceflary.
In the following, the word firft introduced does not
imply a relation:
 Nor Eve to iterate
Her former trefpafs fear’d.
 Hunger and thirft at once,
Powerful perfuaders, quicken’d at the fcent
Of that alluring fruit, urg’d me fo keen.
Moon that now meet’ft the orient fun, now fli’ft
With the fix’d ftars, fixed in their orb that flies,
And ye five other wand’ring fires that move
In myftic dance not without fong, refound
His praife.
Where the word firft introduced imports a relation,
the disjunftion will be found more violent:
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our wo,
With lofs of Eden, till one greater man
Reftore us, and regain the blifsful feat,
Sing heav’nly mufe.
 Upon the firm opacous globe
Of this round world, whofe firft convex divides
The luminous inferior orbs, inclos’d
From chaos and th’ inroad of darknefs old,
Satan alighted walks.
 On a bidden open fly, Language.
With impetuous recoil and jarring found,
Th’ infernal doors.
 Wherein remain’d,
For what could elfe? to our almighty foe
Clear vi&ory, to our part lofs and rout.
Language would have no great power, were it con¬
fined to the natural order of ideas: By inverfion a
thoufand beauties may be compafled, which muft be
relinquifhed in a natural arrangement.
Rules. 1. In the arrangement of a period, as well
as in a right choice of words, the firft and great ob-
je& being perfpicuity, the rule above laid down, that
perfpicuity ought not to be facrificed to any other
beauty, holds equally in both. Ambiguities occa-
fioned by a wrong arrangement are of two forts ; one
where the arrangement leads to a wrong fenfe, and
one where the fenfe is left doubtful. The firft, being
the more culpable, ftiall take the lead, beginning with
examples of words put in a wrong place.
“ How much the imagination of fuch a prefence
muft exalt a genius, we may obferve merely from the
influence which an ordinary prefence has over men.”
Shaftejb. This arrangement leads to a wrong fenfe :
the adverb merely feems by its pofition to affed the pre¬
ceding word ; whereas it is intended to affed the fol¬
lowing words, ati ordinary prefence ; and therefore the
arrangement ought to be thus: “ How much the
imagination of fuch a prefence muft exalt a genius,
we may obferve from the influence which an ordinary
prefence merely has overmen.” [Or better],—“which
even an ordinary prefence has over men.”
“ Sixtus the Fourth was, if I miftake not, a great
colledor of books at leaft.” Boling. The expreffion
here leads evidently to a wrong fenfe ; the adverb at
leaf, ought not to be conneded with the fubftantive
bookst but with colle£lor, thus: “ Sixtus the Fourth
was a great colledor at leaft, of books.”
Speaking of Lewis XIV. “ If he was not thegreateft
king, he was the beft ador of majefty at leaft, that
ever filled a throne.” Id. Better thus : “ If he was j
not the greateft king, he was at leaft the beft ador
of majefty,” &c. This arrangement removes the
wrong fenfe occafioned by the juxtapofition of majejly
and at leajl.
The following examples are of a wrong arrange¬
ment of members.
“ I have confined myfelf to thofe methods for the
advancement of piety, which are in the power of a
prince limited like ours by a ftrid execution of the
laws.” Swift. The ftrudure of this period leads to a
meaning which is not the author’s, viz. power limited
by a ftrid execution of the laws. That wrong fenfe is
removed by the following arrangement: “ I have con¬
fined myfelf to thofe methods for the advancement of
piety, which, by a ftrid execution of the laws, are
in the power of a prince limited like ours.”
“ This morning, when one of lady Lizard’s daugh¬
ters was looking over fome hoods^and ribbands brought
by her tirewoman, with great care and diligence, I
employ’d no lefs in examining the box which contained
them.” Guardian. The wrong fenfe occafioned by
this arrangement, may be eafily prevented by varying
it
LAN
Language, it thus i “ This morning, when, with great care and
diligence, one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was look¬
ing over fame hoods and ribbands,” &c.
“ A great ftone that I happened to find after a
long fearch by the fea-lhore, fervedme for an anchor.”
Swift. One would think that the fearch was confined
to the fea-fhore ; but as the meaning is, that the great
ftone was found by the fea-lhore, the period ought to
be arranged thus: “ A great ftone, that, after a long
fearch, I happened to find by the fea-lhore, ferved me
for an anchor.”
Next of a wrong arrangement where the fenfe is left
doubtful; beginning, as in the former fort, with ex¬
amples of a wrong arrangement of words in a member.
“ Thefe forms of converfation by degrees multiplied
and grew troublefome.” Speft. Here it is left doubts
ful whether the modification by degrees relates to the
preceeding member or to what follows: it Ihould be,
“ Thefe forms of converfation multiplied by degrees.”
“ Nor does this falfe modefty expofe us only to fuch
aftions as are indifcreet, but very often to fuch as are
highly criminal.” Spell. The ambiguity is removed
by the following arrangement: “ Nor does this falfe
modefty expofe us to fuch a&ions only as are indif¬
creet.” &c.
“ The empire of Blefufcu is an illand fituated to
the north-eaft fide of Lilliput, from whence it is
parted only by a channel of 800 yards wide.” Swift.
The ambiguity may be removed thus : — 
“ from whence it is parted by a channel of 800 yards
wide only.”
In the following examples the fenfe is left doubtful
by wrong arrangement of members.
“ The minifter who grows lefs by his elevation,
take a little Jlatue placed on a mighty pedejlal, will al¬
ways have his jealoufy ftrong about him.” Bolingb.
Here, fo far as can be gathered from the arrangement,
it is doubtful, whether the objedt introduced by way
of fimile relates to what goes before or to what fol¬
lows. The ambiguity is removed by the following ar¬
rangement : “ The minifter, who, like a little ftatue
placed on a mighty pedeftal, grows lefs by his eleva¬
tion, will always,’’ &c.
Speaking of the fuperftitious praftice of locking up
the room where a perfon of diftinftion dies : “ The
knight, feeing his habitation reduced to fo fmall a
compafs, and himfeif in a manner fhut out of his own
houfe, upon the death of his mother, ordered all the
apartments to be flung open, and-exorcifed by his
chaplain.” Spell. Better thus : “ The knight, feeing
his habitation reduced to fo fmall a compafs, and himfeif
in a manner fhut out of his own houfe, ordered, upon
f- the death of his mother, all the apartments to be
flung open.”
Speaking of fome indecencies in converfation :
“ As it is impoffible for fuch an irrational way of
converfation to laft long among a people that make
any profefiion of religion, or fhow of modefty, if the
country-gentlemen get into it, they will certainly be left
in the lurch.” lb. The ambiguity vanifhes in the
following arrangement: “ the country-
gentlemen, if they get into it, will certainly be left in
the lurch.”
“ And fince it is neceffary that there fhould be a
perpetual intercourfe of buying and felling, and deal-
Vol. VI.
LAN
ing upon credit, where fraud is permitted or connived Langua
at, or hath no law to punifh it, the honeft dealer is-
always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.”
Swift. Better thus : “ And fince it is neceffary that
there (hould be a perpetual intercourfe of buying and
felling, and dealing upon credit, the honeft dealer,
where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no
law to punifh it, is always undone, and the knave gets
the advantage.”
From thefe examples, the following obfervation
will occur : That a circumftance ought never to be
placed between two capital members of a period ; for
by fuch fituation it mull always be doubtful, fofara*
we gather from the arrangement, to which of the two
members it belongs: where it is interjected, as it
ought to be, between parts of the member to which
it belongs, the ambiguity is removed, and the capital
members are kept diltinft, which is a great beauty in
compofition. In general, to preferve members diftinft
that fignify things diftinguifhed in the thought, the
belt method is, to place firft in the confequent mem¬
ber, fome word that cannot conned with what pre¬
cedes it.
If it fhall be thought, that the obje&ions here are
too fcrupulous, and that the defed of perfpicuity is
eafily fupplied by accurate punduation ; the anfwer
is, That punduation may remove an ambiguity^ but
will never produce that peculiar beauty which is per¬
ceived when the fenfe comes out clearly and diftindly
by means of a happy arrangement. Such influence
has this beauty, that, by a natural tranfition of per¬
ception, it is communicated to the very found of the
Words, fo as in appearance to improve the mufic of
the period. But as this curious fubjed comes in more
properly elfewhere, it is fufficient at prefent to appeal
to experience, that a period, fo arranged as to bring
out the fenfe clear, feems always more mufical than
where the fenfe is left in any degree doubtful.
The next rule is, That words expreffing things
conneded in the thought, ought to be placed as near
together as pofiible. This rule is derived immediately
from human nature, prone in every inftance to place
together things in any manner conneded : where
things are arranged according to their connedions,
we have a fenfe of order; otherwife we have a fenfe
of diforder, as of things placed by chance: and we
naturally place words in the fame order in which we
would place the things they fignify. The bad effed
of a violent feparation of words or members thus in¬
timately conneded, will appear from the following
examples.
“ For the Englilh are naturally fanciful, and very
often difpofed, by that gloominefs and melancholy of
temper which is fo frequent in our nation, to many wild
notions and vifions, to which others are not fo li¬
able.” Spell. Here the verb or affertion is, by a
pretty long circumftance, violently feparated from the
fubjed to which it refers: this makes a harfh ar¬
rangement ; the lefs excufeable that the fault is eafily
prevented by placing the circumftance before the verb,
after the following manner : “ For the Englifti are na¬
turally fanciful, and, by that gloominefs and melan¬
choly of temper which is fo frequent in our nation, are
often difpofed to many wild notions, &c.”
“ From whence we may date likewife the rivalfhipof
23 H the
[ 4101 1
LAN
LAN [ 4102 ]
j^angHage. the houfe of France, for we may reckon that of Va-
— lois and that of Bourbon as one upon this occafion,
and the houfe of Auftria, that continues at this day,
•and has oftcoft fo much blood and fo much treafure iu
the courfe of it.” Bolingbr.
“ It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore in
fuch a country, whatever it might be in the abbot of
St Real’s, which was Savoy I think ; or in Peru, un¬
der the incas, where Garcilaffo de la Vega fays it was
lawful for none but the nobility to ftudy—for men of
all degrees to inftrudl themfelves in thofe affairs where¬
in they may be adfors, or judges of thofe that atf, or
controllers of thofe that judge. ’ Ibid.
“ If Scipio, who was naturally given to women, for
which anecdote we have, if I miftake not, the au¬
thority of Polybius, as well as fome verfes of Nevius
preferved by Aulus Gellius, had been educated by
Olympias at the court of Philip, it is improbable that
he would have reftored the beautiful Spaniard.” Ibid.
If any one have a curiolky for more fpecimens of
this kind, they will be found without number in the
works of the fame author.
A pronoun, which faves the naming a perfon or
thing a fecond time, ought to be placed as near as
poflible to the name of that perfon or thing. This is
a branch of the foregoing rule ; and with the rea-
fon there given, another concurs, viz. That if other
ideas intervene, it is difficult to recal the perfon or
thing by reference.
“ If I had leave to print the Latin letters tranf-
mitted to me from foreign parts, they would fill a vo¬
lume, and be a full defence againlt all that Mr Pa-
tridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquifition,
will be ever able to objeft ; ’who, by the way, are the
only enemies my predictions have ever met with at home
or abroad.” Better thus :    “ and be a full
defence againft all that can be obje&cd by Mr Pa-
tridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquifition ;
who, by the way, are,” &c.
“ There being a round million of creatures in hu¬
man figure, throughout this kingdom, ’whofi whole
fubfiftence,” &c. S’wi/i. Better: “ There being,
throughout this kingdom, a round million of crea¬
tures in human figure, whofe whole fubfiftence,” &c.
The following rule depends on the communication
of emotions to related objefts; a principle in human
nature that hath an extenfive operation : and we find
this operation, even where the objefts are not other-
wife related than by juxtapofition of the words that ex-
prefs them. Hence, to elevate or deprefs an objeft, one
method is, to join it in the expreffion with another
that is naturally high or low: witnefs the following
fpeech of Enmenes to the Roman fenate.
“ Caufam veniendi fibi Romam fuifle, praeter eupi-
ditatem vifendi deos hominefque, quorum beneficio in ea
fortuna efiet, fupra quam ne optare quidem auderet,
ctiam ut coram moneret fenatum ut Perfei conatus ob-
viam iret.” Livy. To join the Romans with the gods
in the fame enunciation, is an artful ftroke of flattery,
becaufe it tacitly puts them on a level.
On the other hand, the degrading or vilifying an
ebjeft, is done fuccefsfully by ranking it with one
that is really low : “ I hope to have this entertain¬
ment in readinefs for the next winter y and doubt not
but it will pleafe more than the opera or puppet-
ffiow.” Sgeft. Language.
“‘Manifold have been the judgments which Hea- ’
ven from time to time, for the chaftifement of a finful
people, has infli&ed upon whole nations. For when
the degeneracy becomes common, it is but juft the pu-
nifhment ftiould be general. Of this kind, in our
own unfortunate country, was that deflrudtive pefti-
lence, whofe mortality was fo fatal as to fweep away,
if Sir William Petty may be believed, five millions of
Chriftian fouls, befides women and Jews.” yJrbuthnot.
“ Such alfo was that dreadful conflagration, en-
fuing in this famous metropolis of London, which
confumed, according to the computation of Sir Sa¬
muel Moreland, 100,000 houfes, not to mention
churches and (tables.” Ibid.
But on condition it might pafs into a law, I would
gladly exempt both lawyers of all ages, fubaltern and
field-officers, young heirs, dancing-mafters, pick-poc¬
kets, and players. Swift.
Sooner let earth, air, fea, to chaos fall,
Men, monkeys, lap dogs, parrots, perifh all.
„ Rape of the Lock.
Circumftances in a period referable fmall ftones in a
building, employed to fill up vacuities among thofe of
a larger fize. In the arrangement of a period, fuch
under-parts crowded together make a poor figure; and
never are graceful but when interfperfed among the ca¬
pital parts.
“ It is likewife urged, that there are, by compu¬
tation, in this kingdom, above 10,000 parfons, whofe
revenues, added to thofe of my lords the bifbops,
would fuffice to maintain, &c.” Swift. Here two
circumftanccs, viz. by computation, and in this king~
dom, are crowded together unneceflarily. They make
a better appearance feparated in the following man¬
ner : “ It is likewife urged, that in this kingdom
there are, by computation, above 10,000 parfons, &c.”
If there be room for a choice, the fooner a circum-
ftance is introduced, the better ; becaufe circumftan¬
ces are proper for that coolnefs of mind, with which
we begin a period as well as a volume : in the pro-
grefs, the mind warms, and has a greater relifh for
matters of importance. When a circumftance is pla¬
ced at the beginning of the period, or near the be¬
ginning, the tranfition from it to the principal fubjett
is agreeable : it is like afeending, or going upward.
On the other hand, to place it late in the period has
a bad effect ; for after being engaged in the principal
fubjeft, one is with relu&ance brought down to give
attention to a circumftance. Hence evidently the
preference of the following arrangement, “ Whether
in any country a choice altogether unexceptionable has
been made, feems doubtful;” before this other, “ Whe¬
ther a choice altogether unexceptionable has in any
country been made,” &c.
For this reafon the following period is exceptionable
in point of arrangement. “ I have confidered formerly,
with a good deal of attention, the fubjedt upon which
you command me to communicate my thoughts to
you.” Boling. Which, with a flight alteration, may
be improved thus: “ I have formerly, with a good
deal of attention, confidered the fubjeft,” &c.
Swift, fpeakingof a virtuous and learned education:
“ And although they may be, and too often are
drawn.
LAN [ 4103 ] LAN
Language, drawn, by the temptations of youth, and the oppor-
— tunities of a large fortune, into feme irregularities,
wfon they come forward into the great world; it is ever
with relu&ance and compun&lon of mind, becaufe
their bias to virtue ftill continues.” Better : “ And
although, when they come forward into the great world,
they may be, and too often,” &c.
In arranging a period, it is of importance to de¬
termine in what a part of it a word makes thegreatell
figure, whether at the beginning, during the courfe,
or at the clofe. The breaking filence rotifes the at-
_ tention, and prepares for a deep impreffion at the be¬
ginning : the beginning, however, mnft yield to the
clofe ; which being fucceeded by a paufe, affords time
for a word to make its deeped: impreffion. Hence the
following rule, That to give the utmoft force to a pe¬
riod, it ought, if poffible, to be clofed with that word
which makes the greateft figure. The opportunity of
a paufe Ihould not be thrown away upon acceffories,
but referred for the principal objedl, in order that it
may make a full impreffion: which is an additional
reafon againft clofing a period with a circumftance.
There are, however, periods, that admit not fuch a
ftrufture ; and in that cafe, the capital word ought, if
poffible, to be placed in the front, which next to the
clofe is the moft advantageous for making an impref¬
fion. Hence, in dire&ing our difeourfe to a man of
figure, we ought to begin with his name ; and one
will be fenfible of a degradation when this rule is ne¬
glected, as it frequently is for the fake of verfe. We
give the following examples.
Integer vitae, fcelerifque purus,
Non eget Mauri jaculis, neque area,
Nec venenatis gravida fagittis,
Fufce, pharetra. Herat. Carm. /. 1. ode 22.
Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n’ai point d’autre
crainte.
In thefe examples, the name of the perfon addreffed
■<to, make a mean figure, being like a eircumftance
flipt into a corner. That this criticifm is well found¬
ed, we need no other proof than Addifon’s tranflation
of the laft example :
O Abner! I fear my God, and I fear none but
him. Guardian, n° j 17.
O father, what intends thy hand, (he cry’d,
Againft: thy only fon ? What fury, O fon,
Pofleffes thee to bend that mortal dart
Againft thy father’s head ?
Paradifelojl, look ii. /. 727.,
Every one mud be fenfible of a dignity in the invoca¬
tion at the beginning, which is not attained by that in
the middle. It is not meant, however, to cenfure this
pafiage : on the contrary, it appears beautifid, by di-
ftinguiftiing the refpedt that is due to a father from
that which is due to a fon.
The fubftance of what is faid in this and the fore¬
going fe&ion, upon the method of arranging words in
a period, fo as to make the deepeft impreffion with re-
fpeft to found as well as fignifieation, is comprehend¬
ed in the following obfervation : That order of words
in a period will always be the moft agreeable, where,
without obfeuring the fenfe, the moft important ima-
I'
ges, the moft fonorous words, and the longed mem- Lange?.;;.-,
btrs, bring up the rear.
Hitherto of arranging Angle words, Angle mem¬
bers, and Angle circnmftances. But the enumeration
of many particulars in the fame period is often necef-
fary : and the quedion is, In what order they diould
be placed. And, fird, with refpedf to the enumera¬
ting particulars of equal rank : As there is no caufe
for preferring any one before the reft, it is indifferent
to the mind in what order they be viewed ; therefore it
is indifferent in what order they be named. 2dly, If
a number of obje&s of the fame kind, differing only
in fize, are to be ranged along a ftraight line, the mott
agreeable order to the eye is that of an increafing fe-
ries: in furveying a number of fuch objefts, beginning
at the leaft, and proceeding to greater and greater, the
mind fwells gradually with the fucceffive obje&s, and
in its progrefs has a very fenfible pleafure. Prccifely
for the fame reafon, words expreffive of fuch objeCU
ought to be placed in the fame order. The beauty of
this figure, which may be termed a climax in fenfe, has
efcaped Lord Bolingbroke in the firft member of the
following period : “ Let but one, great, brave, difin-
terefted, aftive man arife, and he will be received, fol¬
lowed, and almoft adored.” The following arrange¬
ment has fenfibly abetter effed : “ Let but one brave,
great, adive, difinterefted man arife, &c.” Whether
the fame rule ought to be followed in enumerating
men of different ranks, feems doubtful: on the one
hand, a number of perfons prefented to the eye in
form of an increafing feries, is undoubtedly the moft
agreeably order; on the other hand, in every lift of
names, we fet the perfon of the greateft dignity at the
top, and defeend gradually through his inferiors.
Where the purpofe is to honour the perfons named ac¬
cording to their rank, the latter ought to be followed;
but every one who regards himfelf only, or his reader,
will choofe the former order. 3dly, As the ftnfe of
order direds the eye to defeend from the principal to
its greateft acceffory, and from the whole to its greateft
part, and in the fame order through all the parts and
acceffories, till we arrive at the minuteft ; the fame or¬
der ought to be followed in the enumeration of fuch
particulars.
When force and livelinefs of expreffion are demand¬
ed, the rule is, tofufpend the thought as long as pof¬
fible, and to bring it out full and entire at the clofe :
which cannot be done but by inverting the natural ar¬
rangement. By introducing a word or member before
its time, curiofity is raifed about what is to follow;
and it is agreeable to have our curiofity gratified at
the clofe of the period : the pleafure we feel vefembles
that of feeing a ftroke exerted upon a body by the
whole colleded force of the agent. On the other
hand, where a period is fo conftruded as to admit
more than one complete clofe in the fenfe, the curiofi¬
ty of the reader is exhaufted at the firft clofe, and what
follows appears languid or fuperfluous: his difappoint-
ment contributes alfo to that appearance, when he
finds, contrary to expe&ation, that the period is not
yet finifhed. Cicero, and after him Quintilian, re¬
commend the verb to the laft place. This method e-
vidently tends to fiifpend the fenfe till the clofe of the
period ; for without the verb the fenfe cannot, be
complete: and when the verb happens to be thecapi-
23 H 2 tal
Language.
LAN [ 4'
Language, tal word, which it frequently is, it ought at any rate to
be the lait, according to another rule above laid down.
The following period is placed in its natural order:
“ Were inftruftion an effential circumitance in epic
poetry, I doubt whether a Angle inftance could be gi>
ven of this fpecies of compofition in any language.”
The period thus arranged admits a full clofe upon the
word compofition; after which it goes on languidly,
and clofes without force. This blemifh will be avoid¬
ed by the following arrangement: “ Were inftruc-
tion an efiTential circumftance in epic poetry, I doubt
whether, in any language, a lingle inftance could be
given of this fpecies of compofition.”
“ Some of our moft eminent divines have made ufe
of this Platonic notion, as far as it regards the fub-
filleijce of our paffions after death, with great beauty
and ftrength of reafon.” Spefl. Better thus: “Some
of our moft; eminent divines have, with great beauty
and ftrength of reafon, made ufe of this Platonic no¬
tion,” fcc.
“ Men of the heft fenfe have been touched, more or
lefs, with thefe groundlefs horrors and prefages of fu¬
turity, upon furveying the moft indifferent works of
mature.” Il>. Better, “ Upon furveying the moft
indifferent works of nature, men of the beft fenfe,” &c.
“ She foon informed him of the place he was in,
which, notwithftanding all its horrors, appeared to him
more fweet than the bower of Mahomet, in the com¬
pany of his Balfora.” Guardian. Better, “ She
foon, &c. which appeared to him, in the company of
his Balfora, more fweet than the bower of Maho¬
met.”
None of the rules for the compofition of periods are
more liable to be abufed, than thofe laft mentioned ;
witnefs many Latin writers, among the moderns efpe-
cially, whofe ftyle, by inverfions too violent, is ren¬
dered harfii and obfcure. Sufpenfion of the thought
till the clofe of the period, ought never to be pre¬
ferred before perfpicuity. Neither ought fuch fuf-
penfion to be attempted in a long period; becaufe in
that cafe the mind is bewildered amidft a profufion of
words : a traveller, while he is puzzled about the
road, relilhes not the fined profpeft : “ All the rich
prefents which Aftyages had given him at parting,
keeping only fome Median horfes, in order to propa¬
gate the breed of them in Perfia, he diftributed among
his friends whom he left at the court of Ecbatana.”
Trav. of Cyrus.
III. Beauties from a refemllance between Sound and
Signification. There being frequently a ftrong refem-
blance of one found to another, it will not be furprifing
to find an articulate found refembling one that is not
articulate: thus the found of a bow-ftring is imitated
by the words that exprefs it:
• The firing let fly,
Twang’dJhort andJharp, like the fhrill fwallow’s cry.
Odyffcy, xxi. 449.
The found of felling trees in a wood:
Loud founds the ax, redoubling ftrokes on ftrokes,
On all fides round the foreft hurls her oaks
Headlong. Deep echoing groan the thickets brown,
Then ruf ling, crackling, crajhing, thunder down.
Iliad, xxiii. 144.
04 1 LAN
But when loud furges lafh the founding fhore,
The hoarfe rough verfe (hould like the torrent roar.
Pope’s Effay on Criticifm, 369.
Dire Scylla there a fcene of horror forms,
And here Charybdis fills the deep with ftorms:
When the tide rulhes from her rumbling caves,
The rough rock roars; tumultuous boil the waves.
Pope.
No perfon can be at a lofs about the caufe of this
beauty: it is obvioufly that of imitation.
That there is any other natural refemblance of
found to fignification, muft not be taken for granted.
There is no refemblance of found to motion, nor of
found to fentiment. We are, however, apt to be de¬
ceived by artful pronunciation: the fame paffage may
be pronounced in many different tones, elevated or
humble, fweet or harfli, briflt or melancholy, fo as to
accord with the thought or fentiment: fuch concord
muft be diftinguilhed from that concord between found
and fenfe which is perceived in fome expreffions in¬
dependent of artful pronunciation ; the latter is the
poet’s work, the former muft be attributed to the
reader. Another thing contributes ftill more to the
deceit: in language, found and fenfe being intimately
conne&ed, the properties of the one' are readily com¬
municated to the other; for example, the quality of
grandeur, of fweetnefs, or of melancholy, though be¬
longing to the thought folely, is transferred to the
words, which by that means refemble in appearance
the thought that is expreffed by them. That there
may be a refemblance of articulate founds to fome
that are not articulate,' is felf-evident; and that in
fa& there exift fuch refemblances fuccefsfully employed
by writers of genius, is clear from the foregoing ex¬
amples, and from many others that might be given.
But we may fafely pronounce, that this natural re¬
femblance can be carried no farther: the objedsof the
different fenfes differ fo widely from each other, as to
exclude any refemblance; found in particular, whether
articulate or inarticulate, refembles not in any degree
tafte, fmell, nor motion ; and as little can it refemble
any internal fentiment, feeling, or emotion. But muft
we then admit, that nothing but found can be imitated
by found? Taking imitation in its proper fenfe, as
importing a refemblance between two obje&s, the
propofition muft be admitted: and yet in many paf-
fages that are not deferiptive of found, every one muft
be fenfible of a peculiar concord between the found of
the words and their meaning. As there can be no
doubt of the fad, what remains is to inquire into its
caufe.
Refembling caufes may produce effeds that have
no refemblance; and caufes that have no refemblance
may produce refembling effeds. A magnificent
building, for example, refembles not iri any degree an
heroic adion; and yet the emotions they produce are
concordant, and bear a refemblance to each other.
We are ftill more fenfible of this refemblance in a
fong, when the mulic is properly adapted to the fenti¬
ment : there is no refemblance between thought and
found; but there is the ftrongeft refemblance between
the emotion raifed by mufic. tender and pathetic, and
that
LAN [ 410? ] LAN
i Language, that raifed by the complaint of an nnfuccefsful lover.
Applying this obfervation to the prefent fubjeft, it
appears, that, in fame inftances, the found even of a
fingle word makes an impreflion refembling that which
is made by the thing it Cgnifies : witnefs the word
runnings compofed of two fhort fyllables; and more
remarkably the words rapidity, inipetuofity, precipita¬
tion. Brutal manners produce in the fpe&ator an
emotion not unlike what is produced by a harlh and
rough found ; and hence the beauty of the figurative
expreffion, rugged manners. Again, the word little,
being pronounced with a very, fmall aperture of the
mouth, has a weak and faint found, which makes an
impreflion refembling that made by a diminutive ob-
jeft. This refemblance of effeds is ftill more remark¬
able where a number of words.are conneded in a pe¬
riod: words pronounced in fucceflion make often a
ftrong impreffion; and when this impreflion happens
to accord with that made by the fenfe, we arc fenfible
of a complex emotion, peculiarly pleafant; one pro¬
ceeding from the fentiment, and one from the melody
or found of the words. But the chief pleafure proceeds
from having thefe two concordant emotions combined
in perfed harmony, and carried on in the mind to a
full clofe. Except in the fingle cafe where found is
deferibed, all the examples given by critics of fenfe
being imitated in found, refolve into a refemblance of
effeds: emotions raifed by found and fignitication
may have a refemblance; but found itfelf cannot have
a refemblanpe to any thing but found.
Proceeding now to particulars, and beginning with
thofe cafe cafes where the emotions have the ftrcfngeft
refemblance, we obferve, firft,. That by a number of
fyllables in fucceflion, an emotion is fometimes raifed,
extremely fimilar to that raifed by fucceflive motion;
|, which may be evident even to thofe who are defedive
in tafte, from the following fad, that the term move¬
ment in all languages is equally applied to both. In
this manner, fucceflive motion, fuch as walking, run-
ning, galloping, can be imitated by a fucceflion of long
or Ihort fyllables, or by a due mixture of both: for
example, flow motion may be juftly imitated in a verfe
where long fyllables prevail; efpecially when aided by
a flow pronunciation:
Illi inter fefe. magna.vi brachia tollunt.
Georg, iv. 174.
On the other hand, fwift motion is imitated by a
fucceflion of ihort fyllables :
Quadrupedante patremfonitu quatit ungulo campum.
Again:
Radit iter.liquidum, celeres neque comm0vet aks.
Thirdly, A line compofed of monofyllables makes
an impreflion, by the frequency of its paufes, fimilar.to
what is made, by laborious interrupted motion:
With many a weary ftep, and many a groan,
Up the high hill he heaves a huge round ftone.
Odyjfsy, xi. 736..
Firft march the heavy mules fecurely flow;
O’er hills, o’er dales, o’er craggs, o’er rocks they go.
Iliad, xxiii. 138.
Fourthly, The impreflion made by rough founds in
fucceflion, refembles that made by rough or tumultu- Language,
ous motion: on the other hand, the imprefiion of ’
fmooth founds refembles that of gentle motion. The
following is an example of both :
Two craggy rocks projeding to the main,
The roaring wind’s tempeftuous rage reftrain;
Within, the waves in fofter murmurs glide.
And fhips fecure without their haulfers ride.
Odyjfey, iii. 113.
Another example of the latter:
Soft is the ftrain when Zephyr gently blows,
And the fmooth ftream in fmoother numbers flows.
EJfay on Criticifm, 366.
Fifthly, Prolonged motion is exprefled in an Alex¬
andrine line. The firft example fhall be of a flow mo¬
tion prolonged:
A needlefs Alexandrine ends the fong;
That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length along.
lb. 356.
The next example is of forcible motion prolonged:
The waves behind impel the waves before,
Wide-rolling, foaming high, and tumbling to the fhore,
Iliad, xiii. 1004.
The laft fhall be of rapid motion prolonged:
Not fo when fwift Camilla fcours the plain,
Flies o’er th’unbending corn, and fkims along the main.
EJfay on Criticifm, 373.
Again, fpeaking of a rock torn from the brow of a
mountain:
Still gath’ring force, it fmokes, and, urg’d amain,
Whirls, leaps, and thunders down, impetuous to the plain*
Iliad, xiii. 197.
Sixthly, A period confifting moftly of long fyl¬
lables, that is, of fyllables pronounced flow, pro-
duceth an emotion refembling faintly that which is
produced by gravity and folemnity. Hence the beauty
of the following verfe:
Olli fedato refpondit corde Latinos.
It refembles equally an objedt that is infipid and un-
interefting.
Tsedet quotidianarum harum formarum.
Terence.
Seventhly, A llow fucceflion of ideas is.a circum-
ftance that belongs equally to fettled melancholy, and
to a period compofed of polyfyllables pronounced
flow; and hence, by fknilarity of emotions, the latter
is imitative of the former:
In thofe deep folitudes, and awful cells,
Where heav’nly-penfive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-muftng Melancholy reigns.
Pope, Eloifa to Abelard.
Eighthly, A long fyllable made fhort, or a fhort
fyllable made long, raifes, by the difficulty of pro¬
nouncing contrary to cuftom, a feeling fimilar to that
of hard labour:
When 1
LAN [ 4106 ] LAN
Language When Ajax drives fome rock’s vajl weight to throw,
_ II , The line too labours, and the words move flow.
Languejoc' Effiiy on Criticfm, 370.
Ninthly, Harfli or rough words pronounced with
difficulty, excite a feeling (imilar to that which pro¬
ceeds from the labour of thought to a dull writer:
Juft writes to make his barrennefs appear,
And ftrains from hard-bound brains eight lines a year.
Pope's Epijlle to Dr Elrbuthnot, l. 181.
We fhall clofe with one example more, which of all
makes the fineft figure. In the firft feftion mention
is made of a climax in found ; and in the fecond of a
climax in fenfe. It belongs to the prefent fubjeft to
obferve, that when thefe coincide in the fame paflage,
the concordance of found and fenfe is delightful: the
reader is confcious of pleafure not only from the two
climaxes feparately, but of an additional pleafure from
their concordance, and from finding the fenfe fo juftly
imitated by the found. In this refpefl, no periods are
tnore perfect than thofe borrowed from Cicero in the
firft feftion.
The concord between fenfe and found is not lefs
agreeable in what may be termed an anticlimax, where
the progrefs is from great to little ; for this has the
effeft to make diminutive objects appear ftill more di¬
minutive. Horace affords a ftriking example:
Parturiunt monies, nafeetur ridiculus mus.
The arrangement here is Angularly artful: the firft
place is occupied by the verb, which is the capital
word by its fenfe as well as found : the clofe is re¬
served for the word that is the meaneft in fenfe as well
as in found : and it muft not be overlooked, that the
refembling founds of the two laft fyllables give a ludi¬
crous air to the whole.
In this article we have mentioned none of the beau¬
ties of language but what arife from words taken in
their proper fenfe. Beauties that depend on the me¬
taphorical and figurative power of words, are treated
under the feparate articles of Figures, Personi¬
fication, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor,
&c. See alfo Oratory.
Xrfw Languaqe. See "Lk-w-Language.
Written Language. See Reading, n° xiii.
LANGUED, in heraldry, expreffes fuch animals
whofe tongue, appearing out of the mouth, is borne of
a different colour from the reft of the body.
LANGUEDOC, a large and maritime province of
France; bounded on the nprth byQuercy, Rouerque,
Auvergne, and Lionnois;*on the eaft by Dauphiny
and Provence; on the weft by Gafcony; and on the
fouth by the Mediterranean Sea and Roufillon. It is
225 miles in length, and 100 in breadth where broadeft.
The clergy are more rich and numerous here than in
the reft of France, there being three archbifhops and
20 biftiops. Languedoc is divided into the Upper and
Lower; and in general it is a very pleafant country,
fertile in corn, fruits, and excellent wines; and the
inhabitants carry on a confiderablc trade. There are
many curious medicinal plants, with iron mines, quar¬
ries of marble, and turquoife ftones. There is alfo a
great deal of kelp, and on the heaths are confi-
derable numbers of the kermes oak. The principal
rivers are the Rhone, the Garronne, the Aude, the
Tarne, the Allier, and the Loire. There are aifo Languet,
a great number of mineral fprings. Thouloufe is '
the capital town. This province is famous for
the royal canal, which divides it in two, joining
the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean. This
canal was undertaken in 1666, and finiftied in 1680;
the mathematician who undertook it made a bafon
400 yards long, 300 broad, and feven feet deep,
which is always kept full of water, and may be
let out by means of a fluice on the fide of the
Mediterranean, as well as by another on the fide of
the Atlantic.
LANGUET (Hubert), born at Viteaux in Bur¬
gundy in 1518, gained great reputation by his learn¬
ing and virtue, in the 16th century. Having read one
of Melandhon’s books at Bologna, he conceived fo
high an efteem for the author, that he went to Wir-
temberg purpofely to vifit him; he arrived there in
1549, when he contrafted a ftritft friendfhip with Me-
landthon, and embraced the Proteftant religion. In
1565, he was one of the firft counfellors of Auguftus
eleftor of Saxony, who employed him in feveral im¬
portant affairs and negociations. He was afterwards
admitted to the confidence of William prince of Orange;
and died at Antwerp, on the 30th of September 1581.
We have many of his letters written in Latin to Sir
Philip Sidney, to Camefarius the father and fon, and to
Auguftus eledor of Saxony, which have been feveral
times reprinted, in three volumes; and there is alfo at¬
tributed to him a famous treatife, intitled Vindicice
contra Lyrannos, and other works. His life is written
by Philibert de la Mare.
Languet (John Baptift Jofeph), the celebrated vi¬
car of St Sulpice at Paris, and a dodlor of the Sor-
bonne, was born at Dijon in 1675. He was received
into the Sorbonne in 1698; and attached himfelf to
the community of St Sulpice, to which pariflt he was
of great fervice. M. de la Chetardie the vicar, con¬
fcious of his talents, chofe him for his curate, in which
capacity he officiated near ten years; and in 1714, fuc-
ceeded to the vicarage. His parifh-church being (mall
and out of repair, he conceived the defign of building
a church fuitable to the fize of his parifti, which he
began with the fum of 100 crowns, but foon obtain¬
ed confiderable donations 5 and'the duke of Orleans,
regent of the kingdom, granted him a lottery, and laid
the firft (lone of the porch in 1718. It was confecra-
ted in 1745, after M. Languet had fpared neither la¬
bour nor expence to render it one of the fineft churches
in the world both for architefture and ornament. An¬
other work which did him no lefs honour, was the Mai-
fon de Venfant Jefus. This eftabliftiment confifts of two
parts; the firft compofed of about 35 poor ladies of
good families, and the fecond of more than 400 poor
women and children of town and country. The order
and ceconomy in this houfe, for the education and em¬
ployment of fo many perfons, gave cardinal Fleury fo
high an idea of the vicar of St Sulpice, that he pro-
pofed to make him fuperintendant-general of all the
hofpitals in the kingdom; which, however, was decli¬
ned. Never man took more pains then he did to pro¬
cure charitable donations and legacies, which he di-
ftributed with admirable diferetion: he is faid from
good authority to have deburftd near a million of livres
to the poor annually. When there was a general
dearth
LAN [41
Languor dearth in 1725, he fold, in order to relieve the poor,
ll_ his houfehold goods, pidures, end forae curious pieces
..anius. 0ffurnjture (|lat he jjaj procured with difficulty; and
when the plague raged at Marfcilles, he fent large Aims
into Provence for the relief of the diftrefied. M. Lan-
guet was not only fingvilar in this warm, difint’erefted,
benevolent condud, but alfo in another circumftance
equally rare; and this was in the refufal of feveral bi-
flioprics that were offered him: he refigned even his
vicarage in 1748; but continued to preach every Sun¬
day at his own parifh-church, and to fupport ihz Mai-
fun de l'enfant Jefus to his death, which happened in
1750. It is obferved, that his piety and charity did
not proceed from poverty of talents; for he was fen-
fible and lively in coverfation, and his genius often
difcovered itfelf in his agreeable repartees.
LANGUOR, among phyficians, fignifies great
weaknefs and iofs of flrength, attended with a dejedion
of mind ; fo that the patients can fcarce walk, or even
ftand upright, but are apt to faint away.
LANIARD, (from Lanier, Fr.) a fhort piece of
cord or line fattened to feveral machines in a flop, and
ferving to fecure them in a particular place, or to ma¬
nage them more conveniently. Such are the laniards
of the gun-ports, the laniard of the buoy, the laniard
of the cat-hook, &c.—The principal laniards ufed in
a fliip, however, are thofe employed to extend the
fhrouds and ftays of the mails by their communication
with the dead-eyes, fo as to form a fort of mechani¬
cal power refembling that of a tackle.—Thefe lani¬
ards are fixed in the dead-eyes as follows: one end of
I , the laniard is tbrufl through one of the holes of the
upper dead-eye, and than knotted, to prevent it from
drawing out; the other is then palled through one of
the holes in the lower dead-eye, whence, returning up¬
ward, it is iuferted through the fecond hole in the up¬
per dead-eye, and next through the fecond in the low¬
er dead-eye, and finally through the third holes in
both dead-eyes. The end of the laniard being then
diredted upwards from the lovveft dead-eye, is ftretch-
ed as ftiff as poffible by the application of tackles ;
and that the feveral parts of it may Hide jvith more fa¬
cility through the holes in the dead eyes, it is well
fmeared with hog’s-lard or tallow, fo that the drain
is immediately communicated to all the turns at once.
LANIGEROUS, an appellation given to whatever
bears wool.
LANISTA, in antiquity, is fometimes ufed to fig-
nify an executioner; but more frequently for a matter-
gladiator, who taught the ufeof arms, and had always
people under them ready to exhibit ftiewsof that kind.
For this purpofe, they either purchafed gladiators, or
educated children, that had been expoftd, in that art.
LANIUS, the shrike, or Butcher-bird, in orni¬
thology, a genus belonging to the order of accipitres;
the charaders of which are thefe : The beak is fome-
what ftrait, with a tooth on each fide towards the apex,
and naked at the bafe; and the tongue is lacerated.
There are 26 fpecies, diftinguifhed by the fliape of the
tail and colour. The following are thofe known in
Britain.
1. The excubitor, or greater butcher-bird, weighs
three ounces: its length is 10 inches; its breadth 14:
its bill is black, one inch long, and hooked at the end ;
the upper mandible furniflied with a fharp procefs: the
]
LAN
noftrils are oval, covered with black bridles pointing
downwards: the mufcles that move the bill are very
thick and ftrong ; which makes the head very large.
Tins apparatus is quite requiiite in a fpecies whofe me¬
thod of killing its prey is fo Angular, and whofe man¬
ner of-devouring it is not lefs extraordinary: fmall
birds it will feize by the throat, and ftrangle ; which
probably is the reafon the Germans call this bird w«r-
changl, or the fuffocating angel. It feeds on fmall
birds, young neftlings, beetles, and caterpillars. When
it has killed the prey, it fixes them on fome thorn, and
when thus fpitted pulls them to pieces with its bill:
on this account the Germans call it thorntraer and
thornfreker. We have fetn them, when confined in a
cage, treat their food in much the fame manner, ftick-
ing it againft the wires before they would devour it.
Mr Edwards very juftly imagines, that as nature has
not given thefe birds ilrength fufficient to tear their
prey to pieces with their feet, as the hawks do, they
are obliged to have recourfe to this artifice. It makes
its nett with heath and mofs, lining it with wool and
goflamer; and lays fix eggs, of a dull olive green, fpot-
ted at the thickett end with black.
The crown of the head, the back, and the coverts
that lie immediately on the joints of the wings, are afh-
coloured; the reft of the coverts black: the quill fea¬
thers are black, marked in their middle with a broad
white bar; and except the four firft feathers, and the
fame number of thofe next the body, are tipt with
white: the tail confifts of 12 feathers of unequal lengths,
the middle being the longeft; the two middlemoft are
black, the next on each fide tipt with white, and in
the reft the white gradually increafes to the utmoft,
where the colour has entire pofleffion, or there remains
only a fpot of black: the cheeks are white, but crofted
from the bill to the hind-part of the head with a broad
Hack ftroke : the throat, breaft, and belly are of a
dirty white: the legs are black. The female is of the
fame colour with the male, the breaft and belly excep¬
ted, which are marked tranfverfely with numerous fe-
micircular brown lines.
2. The collurio, or lefler butcher-bird. The male
weighs two ounces ; the female two ounces two drams.
The length of the former is feven inches and a half;
the breadth eleven inches. The irides are hazel; the
bill refembles that of the preceding fpecies: the head
and lower part of the back are of a fine light grey ;
acrofs the eyes from the bill runs a broad black ftroke :
the upper part of the back, and. coverts of the wings,
are of a bright ferruginous colour; the breaft, belly,,
and fides, are of an elegant bloflbm colour ; the two'
middle feathers of the tail are longeft, and entirely
black ; the lower part of the others white, and the ex¬
terior webs of the outmoft feather on each fide wholly
fo. In the female, the ftroke acrofs the eyes is of a
reddifti brown : the head of a dull ruft-colour mixed
with grey ; the breaft, belly, and fides, of a dirty
white, marked with femicircular dulky lines: the tail
is of a deep brown ; the outward feather on each fide
excepted, whofe exterior webs are white. Thefe birds
build their nefts in low bufhes, and lay fix eggs of a
white colour, but encircled at the bigger end with a
ring ofbrownifh red.
3. The woodchat in fize Teems equal to the pre¬
ceding; the bill is horn-coloured; the feathers that
furround;
II
LAN [ 4108 ] LAN
Lanner furrOund the bafe are whitifli ; above is a black line from the infinite number of lanterns hung out of the Lantern^
drawn crofs the eyes, and then downwards each fide houfes and ftreets ; which, it is faid, is not lefs than
_the neck 5 the head and hind part of the back are of two hundred millions. On this day are expofed lan-
a bright bay ; the upper part of the back dulky, the terns of all prices, whereof fome are faid to coft 2000
coverts of the tail grey, the fcapulars white; the co- crowns.—Some of their grandees retrench fomewhat
verts of the wings dulky, the quill-feathers black, every day out of their table, out of their drefs, equi-
marked towards the bottom with awhile fpo't 5 the page, &c. to appear the more magnificent in lanterns,
throat, bread, and belly, of a yellowilh white. The They are adorned with gilding, fculpture, painting,
two middle feathers appear to be entirely black; the japanning, &c. And as to their fixe, it is extrava-
exterior edges and tips of the reft white; the legs gant; fome being from 25 to 30 foot diameter: they
black. The female differs: the upper part of head, reprefent halls and chambers, and two or three fuch
neck, and body, are reddilh, ftriated tranfverfely with machines together would make handfome houfes; fo
brown ; the lower parts of the body are of a dirty that in China they are able to eat, lodge, receive vi-
white, rayed with brown ; the tail is of a reddilh fits, have balls, and aft plays in a lantern. To illu-
brown, marked near the end with duflty, and tipped mine them, they ftiould have bonfires ; but as that
with red. would be inconvenient, they content themfelves with
LANNER, or Lannar, the name of a bird of the lighting up in them an infinite number of torches
long-winged hawk-kind, the male of which is called or lamps, which at a diftance have a beautiful effeft.
the lannaret. Its beak and legs are blue, and its head In thefe they exhibit various kinds of ftiews to divert
and neck variegated with large ftreaks of black and the people.—Befides thefe enormous lanterns, there is
white.. Its back, wings, and tail, are not variegated, a multitude of others fmaller : thefe ufually confift of
except with a few fmall white fpots, and its wings, fix faces or lights, each about four feet high, and one
when extended, are feen fpeckled underneath with and a half broad, framed in wood finely gilt and ad-
fmall round white fpots. Its neck is very dhort, as are orned ; over thefe they ftretch a fine tranfparent filk,
alfo its legs. It is common in France, and abides curioufly painted with flowers, trees, and fometimes
there the whole year ; it is very docile, and ferves all human figures: the painting is very extraordinary,
the purpofes of hawking. In Italy the fpecies feems and the colours extremely bright ; and when the tor-
fomething different, having much of a yellowifh brown ches are lighted, they appear highly beautiful and
about the fhoulders, and being indocile, and of no ufe furprifing.
in fporting. Lantern-/^, in natural hiftory, the name of a
LANSDOWNE (Lord). See Granville. very Angular kind of infeft produced in the Weft In-
LANTANA, American viburnum ; a genus of dies, and carrying a ftrong light with it in the night,
the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia The ftrufture of the trunk of this infeft is of the fame
clafs of plants. There are feven fpecies, confiding of kind with that of the cicada ; and, as it wants the
fhrubby exotics from Africa and America for the power of making the noife for which the cicada is fo
green-houfe or ftove ; growing to the height of a yard famous, it belongs, according to Mr Reamur’s di-
or two, and adorned with oblong, oval, and roundifh ftinftions, to that fpecies of infeft called the/rw/gv?/?,
fimple leaves, with monopetalous, tubular, four-parted or procicada.
flowers of different colours.—They may be propagated The glow-worm, and the luminous beetles, with all
either by feeds or cuttings. the other luminous infefts we are acquainted with in
LANTERN, or Lanthorn, a device to carry a this part of the world, diffufe their light from a part
candle in ; being a kind of cover ufually made of white which is near the extremity of the body, and under
iron, with fafties of fome tranfparent matter, as glafs, the belly ; but the lantern-fly gives it from its head,
horn, &c. to tranfmit the light. It differs alfo greatly in the degree of light : for this.
Dark Lantern, one with only one opening, which in ail the infefts we are acquainted with, is very feeble;
may alfo be clofed up when the light is to be entirely whereas in this fly it is fo ftrong, that Mrs Morian,
bid, or opened when there is occafion for the affift- who is the firft that hath well defcribed it, fays (he
ance of the light to difcover fome objeft. could read a fmall print in a dark night by the light
Magic Lantern, an optic machine, whereby little that one of them gave. The eyes of this creature are
painted images are reprefented fo much magnified, as placed very near the part from whence the light iffues;
to be accounted the effeft of magic by the ignorant, and it is commonly fuppofed that the ufe of the light
See Dioptrics, Art. ix. p. 2478. is to fhow the creature the objefts it paffes by in its
Lantern, in architefture, a little dome raifed over flight; but if we confider the effeft of a light fo
the roof of a building, to give light, and ferve as a placed, in regard to ourfelves, we ftiall find, that it
crowning to the fabric. would by no means anfwer the fame purpofe to us.
The term lantern is alfo ufed for a fquare cage of If our whole forehead was covered with a lambent
carpentry, placed over the ridge of a corridor or gal- flame in the night, it would rather blind us than ftiew
lery, between two rows of (hops, to illumine them, us any diftant objefts.—The head of this creature,
like that of the royal exchange London. ftriftly fpeaking, is very fhort, not exceeding the
Lantern, on fhip-board, a well-known machine, of length of one or the rings of the body, if it be mea-
which there are many in a fliip, particularly for the fured from its joining with the corcelet to its joining
purpofe of direfting the courfe of other ftiips in a fleet with the lantern ; but if that part be accounted a por-
or convoy ; fuch are the poop and top lanterns, &c. tion of the head, then the head is equal in length to
(^Lanterns, in China, is a celebrated feaft the whole body.—This lantern is wider than it is
held on the 15th day of the firft month ; fo called deep or thick; and has, near its origin, a large protu-
tuberance
LAP
LAP j 4109 J
| Ltnogo berance, which gives it a bunched or humped look.
} Jl There are feveral tubercles and lines on it of a reddifh
Lapidary. co]our< groun(j colour is an olive brown ; and
' underneath, it hasone largeribrunningall thewayalong
it from end to end, dividing it in two ; and by the fides
of that there are fome others. Thefe are all reddiih, and
thofe neareft the edges have fmall rows of fpines running
along them. Over each of the eyes there is a round
granulated prominence, which feems to have been a
colleftion of fmaller eyes ; and if fo, the animal is
fupplied with the organs of vifion in a different man¬
ner from all other known creatures. But an examina¬
tion of the creature on the fpot, and while alive, is re-
quifite to find out this. The upper pair of wings is
not perfe&ly tranfparent; they are dotted with white
in fome places, and are variegated near their origin
with feveral blackiih fpots. The under pair are more
tranfparent than the upper ; they are much fhorter and
broader than the others. Thefe have each a large
and beautiful round fpot near the extremity, refem-
bling that on the wing of the peacock butterfly. The
colours of the circles of thefe eyes are brown and
olive ; the laft colour very bright and clear, the other
very dufky and obfcure. The fpots are fo large, that
they appear very beautiful.
LANUGO, the foft down of plants, like that
growing on the fruit of the peach-tree. See Hair.
LAODICiEA the Lycus, (anc. geog.), a town
of Phrygia, at firft called Diofpolis, then Rhoas. It
was built by Antiochus fon of Stratonice, and called
after his confort Laodice. Its memory is confecrated
in fcripture, being one of the feven churches to which
St John in the Apocalypfe addrefles himfelf, com¬
mended by St Paul; the town is mentioned by Cicero
as confiderable for trading.
Laodic/ea on the Sea, (anc. geog.), according to
Strabo, was a town of Seleucis in Syria, extremely
well, built, with a commodious harbour. The country
about it yielded great quantities of wine. The city
took its name from Laodice, mother of Seleucus the
founder of it.
LAOMEDON king of Troy, whofe hiftory is
involved in fables. He built the famous walls round
that city, and is faid to have been killed by Hercules.
LAON, a confiderable town of the Ifle of France,
and capital of the Laonis, with a caftle and bifhop’s
fee. Its principal trade confifts in corn and wine;
and it is very advantageoufly feated on a mountain, in
E. Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 49. 34.
LAOS, a kingdom of Afia beyond the Ganges;
bounded on the north, by China ; on the eaft, by
Tonquin and Cochin-China ; on the fouth, by Cam¬
bodia ; and on the weft, by the kingdom of Siam,
and by the territories of the king of Ava. This coun¬
try is full of forefts, and abounds in rice, fruits, and
fiih. The inhabitants are well made, robuft, of an
olive complexion, and mild in their difpofition; but
very fuperftitious, and much addifted to women.
Their principal occupation is tilling the ground and
fiftiing. The king fhews himfelf but twice a-year,
and has large revenues from the elephant’s teeth found
in his dominions. Their religion is a kind of idolatry,
and much the fame as in China. Langiona is the ca¬
pital town.
LAPIDARY, an artificer, who cuts precious
Vol. VI.
ftones. Lapidary,
The art of cutting precious ftones is of great anti- Lapis,
quity. The French, though they fell into it but
lately, have notwithftanding carried this art to a very
great perfe&ion, but not in any degree fuperior to the
Englifh.
There are various machines employed in the cutting
of precious ftones, according to their quality: the
diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel
of foft fteel, turned by a mill, with diamond-duft,
tempered with olive-oil, which alfo ferves to polifti it.
The defcription of the diamond-cutter’s wheel or
mill, as reprefented in Plate CLXI. fig. 8. is as fol¬
lows : a is the pincers ; h, the fcrew of the pincers ;
c, the fhell that carries the maftic and the diamond;
d, the maftic that foftens the diamond at the end of
the fhell ; e„ the diamond prefented to the wheel, to
be cut facetwife ; f, the iron-wheel turning on its pi¬
vot ; g, iron-pegs, to fix and keep the pincers fteady;
h, fmall pegs of lead of different weights, wherewith
the pincers are loaded at pleafure to keep them fteady;
/, a wooden wheel; k, the axis of the wheel. It is
bended, and makes an elbow under the wheel, to re¬
ceive the impulfion of a bar that does the office of a
turning handle; /, the foie, or fquare piece of fteel,
wherein the pivot of the tree or axis moves ; nt, the
turning handle, that lets the wheel a-going by means
of the elbow of its axis ; the elbow of the piercer
wherewith a hogfhead is broached, will give an idea
of this kind of motion; n, the cat-gut firing that
goes round both the iron and the wooden wheels. If
the wooden wheel is twenty times larger than the iron
one, the latter fhall make twenty turns upon the dia¬
mond, whilft the large wheel makes but one round its
axis ; and whilft the boy gives, without any refiftance,
a hundred impulfions to the turning handle, the dia¬
mond experiences a thoufand times the fri&ioh of the
whole grinding wheel.
The diamond-cutter follows the work with his eyes,
without taking any other fhare in it than that of chan¬
ging the place of the diamond to bite on a new fur-
face ; and of timely throwing upon it, with a few
drops of oil, the minute particles of the diamonds firft
ground one againft the other, to begin the cutting of
them.
The oriental ruby, fapphire, and topaz, are cut on
a copper-wheel with diamond duft tempered with
olive-oil, and are polifhed on another copper wheel
with tripoli and water. The hyacinth, emerald, ame-
thyft, garnets, agates, and other ftones not of an
equal degree of hardnefs with the other, are cut on a
leaden wheel with fmalt and water, and poliihed on a
tin-wheel with tripoli. The turquois of the old and
new rock, girafol, and opal, are cut and poliftied on a
wooden wheel with tripoli alfo.
The lapidaries of Paris have been a corporation
fince the year 1290. It is governed by four jurats,
who fuperintend their rights and privileges, vifit the
mafter-workmen, take care of the mafter piece of
workmanfhip, bind apprentices, and adminifter the
freedom.
LAPIS, in general, is ufed to denote a ftone of
any kind.
Lapis, in Roman antiquity, a geographical mea-
fure denoting a mile j becaufe miles were diftinguifli-
23 I ed
LAP [ 4x10. ] LAP
Lapis ed by ere£Ung a ftone at the end of each ; from the
il number marked on which, the length of way from
Lapland. Rome be known. The device is by Plntarch
aferibed to Caius Gracchus. This was more accu¬
rately executed by Auguftus, who erefted a gilt pil-
]arsin the forum, at which all the public ways of Italy,
diflinguilhed by ftones, were terminated. The fame
thing was done in the Roman provinces. Hence the
phrafes tertius lapis, centejimus lapis. See. for three,
a hundred, &c. miles; and fometimes the ordinal
number without lapis, as adduodecimum, &c. at twelve
miles diftance.
Lapis sdjjius, in the natural hiftory of the ancients,
the name of a ftone called alfo from its
power of confuming flelh. See Sarcophagus.
Lapis Bononienjis, the Bolognian ftone. See Che¬
mistry, n° 359, 340.
Lapis Lazuli. See Lazuli.
Lapis Lyncurius. See Agaricum and Lyncuri-
um.
Lapis Ntphriticus. See Steatites.
Lapis Specular is. See Specular is.
LAPITHjE. See Pelethronium.
LAPLAND, the moft northerly country of Eu¬
rope, extending from the north cape in 7i°3o'N.
Lat. to the White Sea under the ardlic circle, is in¬
habited by the fame people, though the country is
fubje&to different powers. Norwegian Lapland, un¬
der the dominion of Denmark, lies between the nor¬
thern fea, the river Pais, and the lake Enarak. Swe-
difh Lapland comprehends all the country from the
Baltic to the mountains that feparate Norway from
Sweden. It is divided into fix diftridls, denominated
march or territory ; and thefe are diftinguilhed by the
names of rivers, fuch as Aungnermanland, Elma,
Peta, Lula, Torna, and Kiemi. The eaftern part,
fubjeft to the Czar of Mufcovy, fituated between the
lake Enarak and the White Sea, is divided into three
diftinft prefe&ures; namely, that of the‘fea-coaft to¬
wards the north, Mounnankoi Leporie-, theTer-
fkoi Leporie, upon the coaft of the White Sea; and
the third, or inland, known by the name of Bellamo-
rejkoi Leporie. In Swedifii Lapland, which is the moft
confiderable of the three, the provinces or marcks are
fubdivided into fmaller diftridls called biars, confifting
each of a certain number of families ; among which
the land is parcelled out by government, or the prefedt
of the diftrift appointed by the king of Sweden.
Lapland may be termed a huge congeries of fright¬
ful rocks and ftupendous mountains ; interfperfed,
however, with many pleafant valleys, watered by an
infinite number of rivulets that run into the rivers and
lakes, which difeharge themfelves into the gulf of
Bothnia. The names of the principal lakes in Lap-
land are the Great Uma, the Great Windel, the
Oreavan, the Stor-avan, the Great Lula ; the lakes
of Kartom, Kali, Torno, Enara, and Kimi. Some
of thefe extend 60 leagues in length, and contain a
great number of iflands: Stor-avan is faid to contain
365 ; and Enara contains an archipelago of ifiands fo
large, that no Laplander has lived long enough to
vifit each particular ifland. The natives believe this
country to be the terreftrial paradife ; and indeed no¬
thing could be more enchanting than fuch vaft pro-
fpecis of mountains, hills, forefts, lakes, rivers, &c.
if the country was in a moderate climate ; and indeed, Laplmd.,
even here, in fummer the rofes are feen blowing wild ;
on the banks of the lakes and rivers, with all the beau¬
tiful glow of colour which appears in thofe cultivated
in our gardens. But all the intervals between the
mountains are not engroffed by thefe agreeable pro-
fpefts; great part of the flat country is covered with
brown dulky forefts of fir and pine trees; and thefe are
often Ikirted by wide extended moraffes, the ftagna-
ting waters of which in fummer produce myriads of
mifehievous infefts, that are more intolerable than
even the cold of winter.
The cold of Lapland is very intenfe during the
winter, freezing even brandy and the watery part of
fpirit of wine, if the latter is not highly redtified : the
very breath freezes in exfpiration ; and the limbs of
people are often mortified, and perifti; all the lakes
and rivers are frozen to a prodigious thieknefs ; and
the whole face of the country is covered with fnow to
the depth of four or five feet. While this continues
loofe, it is impoffible to travel; for a man’s eyes are
not only blinded with it, but if a ftrong wind ftiould
rife he will be buried in the drifts of fnow : yet ftiould
a partial thaw take place for a few hours, the furface
of this fnow is formed by the fucceeding froft into a
hard impenetrable cruft, over which the Laplander
travels in his fledge with great celerity. While the
thaw prevails, the air is furcharged with vapours, and
the climate is rainy; but while the north wind blows,
the iky is beautifully ferene, and the air very clear.
The heat of fummer is almoft as intolerable in Lap-
land as the cold of winter. At the nort hern extremi¬
ty of the country the fun never fets for three months
in fummer, and in winter there is an uninterrupted
night of the fame duration ; but this is qualified in fuck
a manner by a conftant revolution of dawn and twi¬
light, by a ferene iky, moon-light, and aurora borea¬
lis, refle&ed from the white furface of the earth co¬
vered with fnow, that the inhabitants are enabled to
hunt, fiih, and proceed with their ordinary occupa¬
tions. The country abounds with excellent fprings;
and is remarkable for fome furprifing catara&s, in
which the water rumbles over frightful precipices, and
daihes among rocks with amazing impetuofity and
noife.
The foil of Lapland is generally fo chilled and bar¬
ren, that it produces little or no grain or fruit-trees
of any kind. This fterility, however, is not fo much
owing to the foil, which is in many places of a rich
mould, as to want of induftry ; for in fome diftrifts the
Swedes have tilled and manured pieces of ground that
bear plentiful crops of rye. There is alfo great plenty
of berries : fuch as black currants; what is called the
Norwegian mulberry, growing upon a creeping plant,,
and much efteemed as an antifcorbutic ; rafp-berries,
cran-berries, juniper-berries, and bilberries. The
tops of the mountains are fo much expofed to intenfe
cold, and tempefts of fnow and hail, that no tree will
grow near the fummit ; but in parts that are more
fheltered, we fee fine woods of birch, pine, and fir,
difpofed by nature as if they had been planted by art
in rows at regular diftances, without any undergrowth
or incumbrance below. Befides thefe trees, fome parts
of Lapland produce the fervice-tree, the willow, the
poplar, the elder, and the cornel. Among the plants
LAP
Laptand
LAP [41
• of this country the principal is the angelica ; which is
~ greatly efteemed by the natives, who ufe it in their
food. Here is likewife the acetofa or forrel, which
grows in great plenty, and is of much fervice on ac¬
count of its antifcorbutic properties. They have alfo
other kinds of herbs peculiar to the country, different
kinds of grafs, heath, and fern ; which are all enume¬
rated in a work of the celebrated Linnaeus, intitled
Flora Laponica. But the vegetable which is in great-
eft plenty, and of the moft extenfive ufe among
them, is the mofs ; of which there are many dif¬
ferent fpecies, either adhering to trees, or growing on
the furface of the earth. The rein-deer is almoft
wholly fuftained by this vegetable ; which indeed he
prefers to all others, and without which he cannot fub-
fift. The Laplanders not only ufe it as forage to their
cattle, but boil it in broth as a cordial and reftorative.
They likewife ufe one fort of it as a foft, eafy, and
wholefome bed for their new-born children.
Some filver and lead mines have been difcovered in
the provinces of Pitha and Lula; and two of copper,
together with excellent veins of iron, in the diftridf of
Torno; but they are not at prefent worked with any
confiderable advantage. In fome places there are veins
of filver and gold mixed; but thefe mines are worked
only for a few months in the fummer, becaufe the froft
hinders the engines from playing. Here are found
beautiful cryftals, of a furprifing magnitude, fo hard
and fine, that when poliftied they referable real dia¬
monds. In fome places amethyfts and topazes are
alfo found, but pale and cloudy; alfo a great quantity
of very curious ftones, which are too hard to be work¬
ed by the tool of the mafon. Some of thefe found on
the banks of rivers and lakes, when they happen to
bear the lea ft refemblance to the figures of ani¬
mals, the Laplanders remove to more confpicuous
places, and adore as deities. The province of Torno
affords fome curious ftones of an oftagonal (hape, re¬
gular, ihining, and polilhed by the hand of nature. In
fome rivers they fifh for pearls, which are generally
pale; but fome of them are as bright as the oriental
pearls, and much larger and rounder. Thefe pearls
are found in m'ufcle-ihells; and the fifhery is not in the
fea, but in rivers.
Lapland, as well as Norway, is infefted with a great
number of grey wolves and bears, with whom the in¬
habitants wage perpetual war. The moft honourable
exploit among the Laplanders is that of killing a bear;
and the heroes adorn their caps with 3 fmall plate of
lead or pewter for every bear they have flain. The
country abounds alfo with elks, beavers, and otters,
which live here unmolefted, and find plenty of fifh for
their fubfiftence. The flcins of the black foxes in
Lapland are of fuch eftimation, that a fingle one will
fell at Mofcow for 12 golden crowns. The forefts of
this country furnifh haunts to a great number of beau¬
tiful martens and fquirrels; which laft change their
colour every winter from brown to grey. Thefe ani¬
mals frequently migrate in vaft multitudes. When
they arrive at the fide of a lake, they embark on pieces
©f timber or bark, which they find afloat, and are ge¬
nerally drowned on their paffage: the bodies are caft
afhore, and the fkin becomes a prey to the firft finder.
What fhould induce thefe animals to quit the country
and to undertake fuch hazardous voyages, hath not yet
11 X
been difcovered.
Lapland is alfo the native country of the zibelling,
a creature refembling the martin, whofe fitin, whether
black or white, if glofly, is extremely valuable, and
often given in prefents by the ambaffadors of Mufcovy
to the princes at whofe courts they refide. Here are
likewife ermines, weafels, hares which grow white in
winter, large black cats which attend the Laplanders
in hunting, and little prick-eared curs trained to the
game. But the moft remarkable animal of Lapland
is the rein-deer, of which an account is given in the
article Cervos, n° 4.—The woods, mountains, and
rivers are well flocked with wild-fowl; fuch as buftard,
partridge, growfe, heathcock, pheafants, lapwings,
fwans, wild-geefe, wild-ducks, and all forts of aquatic
birds that build and breed in northern climates. In
the beginning of the fpring the fwans go thither in
numerous flights from the German ocean ; the lap¬
wings follow in fuch fwarms that they darken the Iky
as they pafs along, and fcream fo loud that they may
be heard at a great diftance. The rocks and moun¬
tains are likewife frequented by eagles, hawks, faul-
cons, kites, and other / birds of prey.—The rivers
abound with delicious falmon from the gulph of Both¬
nia, trout, bream, and perch of exquifite flavour and
amazing magnitude; and the inhabitants of Wardhus,
or Danifti Lapland, are well fupplied with fiih from
the northern ocean.—With refpedl to infe&s, the flies
hatched in the moraffes and woods in fummer are fo
numerous, that they often obfcure the face of day; fo
venomous, troublefome, and intolerable, that the rein¬
deer fly to the tops of the higheft mountains for fliel-
ter, and the Laplanders betake themfelves to the fea-
fide, which is the lead infefted by thefe peftilent ver¬
min. M. de Maupertuis, in his account of the voyage
he made to Lapland, in company with the other
French mathematicians fent thither by the king to
mcafure a degree of the meridian, gives us to under-
ftand, that on the tops of the mountains in Torno the
flies were fo troublcfome, that even the Finland foldiers,
who are counted the moft hardy troops in the fervice
of Sweden, were obliged to cover their faces with the
fkirts of their coats, from the attacks of thefe animals,
which fwarmed to fuch a degree, that the moment a
piece of flefh appeared it was blackened all over.
Some of thefe flies are very large, with green heads,
and fetch blood from the ikin wherever they ftrike.
The Laplanders fliroud themfelves in the fmoke of a
large fire kindled for that purpofe; yet: even this dif-
agreeable expedient was not fufficient to defend the
French philofophers: they were obliged, notwith-
ftanding the exceflive heat, to wrap up their heads in
garments made of the Heins of rein-deer, called in that
country lapmudes, and to cover themfelves with a thick
rampart of fir-boughs; yet all thefe precautions proved
ineffe&ual. M. de Maupertuis obferved a lake quite
covered with little yellowiih grains, refembling millet
feed, which he fuppofed to be the chryfalifes of fome
of thefe infe&s.
Lapland is fo far from being populous, that the
whole nation is not equivalent in number to the inha¬
bitants of one petty province of France. The Lap¬
landers are very low in ftature, generally about a head
(horter than other Europeans. They are likewife re¬
markable for having large heads. M. de Maupertuis
23 I 2 meafured
Lapland.
LAP
t
3
LAP
partly with the boughs or bark of pine-trees, and a that are very foft and warm. They draw tin into wire
coarfe kind of cloth. Each hut is furnifhed with two through a horn ; and with this they cover the thread
doors, one fmaller than the other : at the former the which they ufe in embroidering the figures of beafts,
men fally forth to their hunting and other occupa- flowers, trees, and ftars upon their caps and girdles,
tions; but no woman is permitted to make ufe of this The Laplanders make furprifing excurfions upon
entry, left (he fhould meet the man in his outgoing, the fnow in their hunting expeditions. They pro-i
which their fuperftition interprets into a very , bad vide themfelves each with a pair of Ikates, or fnow*
omen. They have neither chimney nor window j but fhoes, which are no other than fir-boards covered with
a hole at the top, which lets in the light and lets out the rough fkin of the rein.deer turned in fuqh a man-
the fmoke. In a word, thefe habitations are no more ner that the hair rifes againft the. fnow, otherwife
than miferable hovels, without convenience or com- they would be'too llippery. One of thefe ftioes is
fort; in which the people fit or lie promifeuoufly like ufually as long as the perfon who wears it; the.other
beafts around the fire, inveloped in a thick impene- is about a foot fhorter. The feet ftand in the middle,
trable gloom of acrid fmoke, which corrodes their and to them the Ihoes are faftened.by thongs or withes,
eyes and renders the atmofphere altogether unfit for The Laplander thus equipped wields a long pole in
refpiration. Yet even here the poor Laplander en- his hand, near the end of which there is a round ball
joys life with fome degree of relifh : he has his feafts, of wood, to prevent its piercing too deep in the fnow;
ids diverfions, and his amours. He is fecured in the and with this he flops himfelf occafionally. By means
poflefiion of uninterrupted health by temperance and of thefe accoutrements he will travel at the rate of 60
exercife, which, together with the feverity of the cli- miles a-day without being fatigued; afeending ftcep.
4112
Lapland, meafured a female Laplander who fuckled her own mate, brace his nerves to a very unutual pitch of Laplandh
‘ child, and found her ftature did not exceed four feet ftrength, and fo-rtify his conftitution in fuch a manner, ’
two inches and five lines/ They are alfo ill-lhaped that he often lives to the age of too, without feeling
and ugly: yet ftrong, hardy, and robuft, infomuch the lead: pang of diftemper, or even perceiving his
that will bear incredible fatigue 5 and it is remarked vigour in the leaft impaired ; for it is not uncommon
that the ftouteft Norwegian is not able to bend the to fee a Laplander in extreme old age hunting, fowl-
bow of a Laplander. The women, however, are much ing, fltaiting, and performing all the fevereit exercifes
lefs homely than the men, and many of them are noted with undiminifhed agility.
for a delicate and florid complexion. The fummer-garb of the men confifts of a long
Thefe people are Ample, honeft, hofpitable, and coat of coarfe cloth, reaching down the middle of the
timorous: their timidity, however, rtfpeAs war alone; leg, and girded round the waift with a belt or girdle;
for to many other fpecies of dangers they expofe them- from which hang a Norway knife, and a pouch con-
felves with furprifing intrepidity, whether in afeend- taining flints, matches, tobacco, and other necefla-
ing and defeending mountains and precipices with their ries; the girdle itfelf being decorated with brafs rings
fnow-fhoes and in fledges, or in venturing amidft whirl- and chains. Their caps are made of the flein of the
pools and cataradts in little {lender boats made of thin northern diver, with the feathers on ; and their
fir-boards, fattened together with thongs of leather, {hoes of the rein-deer fkin, with the hair outwards,
finews of wild beafts, or tough and flexible twigs of They wear no linen ; but the garments of the better
willow and ofier. Thefe boats are of different fixes, fort are of a finer cloth, and they delight in a variety
from two to fix yards in length, managed with oars, of colours, though red, as the moft glaring, is the moft
and caulked with mofs, fo tight as to keep out the agreeable. In winter they are totally cafed up in
water. The Laplanders are more or lefs civilized as coats, caps, boots, and gloves, made of the rein-deer
they communicate with ftrangers, or live among woods {kins with the hair inwards. The womens apparel
and forefts fequeftered from all correfpondence. The differs very little from that of the other fex; only their
mountaineers live chiefly on the flefh and on the milk girdles are more ornamented with rings, chains, needle-
of the rein-deer; the flelh they dry in the cold, and cafes, and toys that fometimes weigh 20 pounds. In
from the milk they make abundance of cheefe. Thofe winter, both men and women lie in their furs ; in fum-
who live in the low country feed on venifon and fifti. mer, they cover themfelves entirely with coarfe blankets
They have neither bread nor fait; but in lieu of both to defend them from the gnats which are intolerable,
ufe the inner rind of the pine-tree dried and ground, The Laplanders are not only well difpofed, but natu-
and dried fifh reduced to powder. They make con- rally ingenious. They make all their own furniture,
fe&ions and deco&ions of berries, angelica, and for- their boats, fledges, bows and arrows. They form
rel, which they juftly reckon to be prefervatives againft neat boxes of thin birch-boards, and inlay them with
the feurvy. They make broth of fifh and flefti boiled the horn of the rein-deer. The Swedes are very fond
together; and their ufual drink is water heated in a of the Lapland bafltets made of the roots of trees,
kettle which hangs continually over the fire in winter, flit in long thin pieces, and twitted together fo nicely
Their greateft dainty, however, is bear’s flefti, which that they will hold water. Among the manufactures
they eat on all great feftivals. On thefe occafions alfo of this country we likewife number curioushorn-fpoons,
they indulge themfelves with brandy, and are never and moulds in which they caft the trinkets of tin which
fo happy as when they can enjoy a pipe of tobacco, adorn their girdles. Over and above thefe domeftic
Thefe commodities, together with a few cows and occupations, the men within doors perform the office
fheep for their winter ftore, the better fort of Lap- of cooks, in drefiing vi&uals for the family. The
landers purchafe from Norway. women a& as taylors and embroiderers; they make
They lodge in wretched houfes compofed of rafters clothes, {hoes and boots, and harnefs for the rein-deer t
joined together, and covered partly with turf, and they fpin thread of fur, and knit it into caps and glovesj
LAP
Lapkml. mountains, and Aiding down again with amazing
" fwiftnefs.
The Laplander not only travels a»foot, but is pro¬
vided with a carriage drawn by the rein-deer, in which
he journeys with (till greater rapidity. The fledge,
called pulka, is made in the form of a fmall boat, with
a convex bottom, that it may Aide the more eafily over
the fnow: the prow is (harp and pointed; but the
fledge is flat behind. The traveller is fwathed in this
carriage like an infant in a cradle, with a (lick in his
[ 4013 1
LAP
elks, and wild rein-deer, they either kill with fire-
arms purchafed in Sweden or Norway, or taken in
fnares and pits dug in the forefts. Their particular
laws, relating to the chace, are obferved with great
pundluality. The beaft becomes the property of the
man in whofe fnare or pit he is caught; and he wh»
difcovers a bear’s den, has the exclufive privilege of
hunting him to death. The conqueft of a bear is the
moft honourable atchievement that a Laplander can
perform ; and the flefh of this animal they account the
hand, to fleer the vefiel, and difengage it from pieces greateft delicacy on earth. The bear is always dif-
of rock or flumps of trees that may chance to encoun¬
ter it in the route. He muft alfo balance the fledge
with his body, otherwife he will be in danger of be¬
ing overturned. The traces, by which this carriage
is faftened to the rein-deer, are fixed to a collar about
the animal’s neck, and run down over the breaft, be¬
tween the fore and hind legs, to be connected with the
prow of the fledge: the reins, managed by the travel¬
ler, are tied to the horns ; and the trappings are fur-
niflied with little bells, the found of which is agreeable
to the animal. With this draught at his tail, the rein¬
patched with a fufil, fometimes laid as a fnare, ready
cocked and primed ; but more frequently in the hands
of the hunter, who runs the moft imminent rifle of his
life, (hould he mifs his aim of wounding the bead
mortally. The death of a bear is celebrated by the
Laplanders as a fignal vi&ory. The carcafe is drawn
to the cabin or hut of the vi£lor by a rein-deer, which
is kept facred from any other work for a whole year
after this fervice. The bear is furrounded by a great
number of men, women, and children, reciting a par¬
ticular hymn or fong of triumph ; in which they thank
deer will fly like lightning over hill and dale, fo as to the vanquifhed enemy for having allowed himfelf to be
run at the rate of 200 miles a-day. Before he fetsout,
the Laplander whifpers in his ear the way he is to fol¬
low, and the place at which he is to halt; firmly per-
fuaded, that the beaft underflands his meaning: but,
in fpite of this intimation, he frequently flops (here,
long before he has reached the journey’s end; and
fometimes he overftioots the mark by feveral leagues.
The pofture of a man in one of thefe pulkhas is half-fit¬
ting and half-lying, fo as to be extremely confined and
uneafy. In the beginning of winter, the Laplanders
mark the moft frequented roads, by ftrewing them with
fir-boughs ; and, indeed, thefe roads are no other than
pathways made through the fnow by the rein-deer and
the pulkhas : their being frequently covered with new
fnow, and alternately beaten by the carriage, confo-
lidates them into a kind of caufeway; which is the
harder, if the furface has felt a partial thaw and been
crufted by a fubfequent froft. It requires great cau¬
tion to follow thefe trafts; for, if the carriage deviates
to the right or left, the traveller is plunged into an
abyfs of fnow. In lefs frequented parts, where there
is no fuch beaten road, the Laplander dire&s his
courfe by certain marks which he has made on the
trees ; but, notwithftanding all his caution, the rein¬
deer very often finks up to the horns in fnow. Should
a hurricane arife, the fnow would be whirled about in
fuch a manner as to blind and overwhelm the tra¬
veller, unlefs he (hould be provided with a tent to
fereen him in fome meafure from the fury of the tem¬
ped:.
The chief occupation of the Laplanders is huntings
and this exercife they perform in various ways. In
fummer, they hunt the wild beads with fmall dogs,
drained to the diverfion. In winter, they purfue them-
by their tracks upon the fnow, floating with great ve¬
locity, that they very often run down the prey. They
catch ermines in traps, and fometimes with dogs.
They kill fquirrels, martens, and fables, with blunt
darts, to avoid wounding the (kin. Foxes and bea¬
vers are flain with (harp-pointed darts and arrqws; in
(hooting which, they are accounted the heft markfmen
in the world. The larger beads, fuch as bears, wolves.
overcome without doing any mifehief to his conque¬
ror, and welcome his arrival: then they make an apo-
ftrophe to heaven, expreffing their acknowledgment to
God, that he has created beads for the ufe of men*
and endued mankind with ftrength and courage to over¬
come and attack the fierceft of the brute creation. The
hero is faluted by the women, who fpit chewed elder-
bark in his face. He is feafted three days fucceffive-
ly, and his cap is decorated with an additional figure
wrought in tin-wire.
The manner in which the young Laplander choofes
a wife is equally remarkable and ludicrous. When he
has pitched upon a female, he employs fome friends as
mediators with the father; and thefe being provided
with fome bottles of brandy, the fuitor accompanies
them to the hut of his future father-in-law, who in¬
vites the mediators to enter; but thelover is left with¬
out, until the liquor be drank and the propofal dif-
cuffed: then he is called in, and entertained with fuch
fare as. the hut affords; yet without feeing his miftrefs,
who retires and goes out on this occafion. Having,
obtained leave of her parents to make bisaddreffes in
perfon, he puts on his beft apparel, and is admitted to
the lady, whom he falutes with a kifs: then he pre-
fents her with the,tongue of a rein-deer, a piece of
beaver’s flelh, or fome other fort of provifion. She de¬
clines .the offer, which is made in prefence , of her fi-
fters and relations; but makes a fignal to the lover to
follow, her into the fields, where (lie accepts the pre-
fents.- Thus encouraged, he begs her permiflion to
deep with her in the hut: if (he confents, there is no
further difficulty ; if (he difapproves of the propofal,
(he drops her prefents on the ground. . When the lo¬
vers are agreed, the youth is permitted to vifit his in¬
amorata as often as he (hall think proper: but every
time he comes, he muft purehafe this pleafure with a
freih bottle of brandy ; a perquifite fo agreeable|to the
father, that he often poftpones the celebration of the.
nuptials for two or three years. At length the cere¬
mony is performed at church, by the pried of the pa-
rifh. Even after this event, the huftmnd is obliged to
fervehis father-in-law a whole year; at the expiration.
of
LAP [4114] LAP
Lapland, of which he retires to his own habitation with his wife,
 and her patrimony of rein-deer, and receives prefents
from all his friends and relations. From this period he
fequefters his wife from the company of all (hangers,
efpecially of the male fex, and watches over her con-
duft with the moft jealous vigilance.
Many Lapland women are barren, and none of them
are very fruitful. A woman, immediately after deli¬
very, fwallows a draught of whale-fat: the child is
wafhed with fnow or cold water, and wrapped up in
a hare-(kin. The mother is feldom above five days in
the (haw, and in fourteen is generally quite recovered:
then (lie carries the child to church to be baptized.
Before (he can reach the refidence of the prieft, (he is
often obliged to traverfe large forefts, mountains, lakes,
and wide-extended wades of fnow. The infant is fa¬
ttened in a hollowed piece of wood, ftretched naked
on a bed of fine mofs, covered with the foft (kin of a
young rein-deer, and (lung by two (traps to the back
of the mother, who always fuckles her own child. At
home this little cradle is hung to the roof of the hut,
and the child lulled afleep by fwinging it from one fide
to the other. The boys, from their infancy, prac-
tife the bow ; and are not allowed to break their
fall, until they have hit the mark. The female chil¬
dren are as early initiated in the bufinefs peculiar to
their fex.
Thefe people, though for the moft part vigorous
and healthy, are not altogether exempted from di-
ftemper. They are fubjeft to fore eyes, and even to
blindnefs, from the fmoke of their huts, and the fire
to which they are almoft continually expofed. Some
watte away in confumptions ; others are affli&ed with
rheumatic pains, and the fcurvy; and a few are fub-
je& to vertigo and apoplexy. For the cure of all their
internal diforders, they ufe no other medicine than the
deco&ion of a certain fpecies of mofs ; and, when this
cannot be procured, they boil the (talk of angelica in
the milk of the rein-deer. In order to remove a fixed
pain, they apply a large mufliroom, burning hot, to
the part affedted ; and this produces a blitter, which
is fuppofed to draw off the peccant humour. To their
wounds they apply nothing but the turpentine that
drops from the fir-tree. When they are froft-bitten,
they thruft a red-hot iron into a cheefe made of rein¬
deer’s milk, and with the fat that drops from it anoint
the frozen member, which generally recovers. When
a Laplander is fuppofed to be on his death-bed, his
friends exhort him to die in the faith of Chritt, and
bear his fufferings with refignation, by remembering
the pafiion of our Saviour. They are not, however,
very ready to attend him in his lad moments; and as
foon as he expires, quit the place with precipitation,
apprehending fome injury from his fpirit or ghoft,
which they believe remains with the corpfe, and takes
all opportunities of doing mifchief to the living. The
deceafed is wrapped up in woollen or linen, accord¬
ing to his circumttances, and depofited in a coffin by
a perfon fele&ed for that purpofe : but this office he
will not perform, unlefs he is firft fecured from the ill
offices of the manes, by a confecrated brafs ring fixed
on his left arm. The Chriftian religion in this coun¬
try has not yet dtfpelled all the rites of heatheniffi fu-
perftition : together with the body they put into the
coffin an ax, a flint, and (teel, a fialk of brandy, fome
dried fi(h and venifon. With the ax the deceafed is Lapland:;
fuppofed to hew down the bufhes or boughs that may 1
obttruft his paffage in the other world : the tteel and
flint are defigned for ftriking a light, (hould he
find himfelf in the dark at the day of judgment; and
on the provifion they think he may fubfift during his
journey.
The Mufcovite Laplanders obferve other ceremonies,
that bear an affinity to the fuperftitions of the Greek
church. They not only fupply the defunft with money,
butlikewife provide him with money for the porter of
paradife, and a certificate figned by the priett, and di«
refled to St Peter, fpecifying, that the bearer had li¬
ved like a good Chriitian, and ought to be admitted
into heaven. At the head of the coffin they place a
little image of St Nicholas, who is greatly reverenced
in all parts of Mufcovy as a friend to the dead. Be¬
fore the interment, the friends of the deceafed kindle
a fire of fir-boughs near the coffin, and exprefs their
forrow in tears and lamentations. They walk in pro-
ccffion feveral times round the body, demanding, in‘a
whining tone, the reafon of his leaving them on
earth. They alk whether he was out of humour
with his wife; whether he was in want of meat,
drink, cloathing, or other neceffaries; and whether
he had not fucceeded in hunting and fiihing ? Thefe,
and other fuch interrogations, to which the defunfl:
makes no reply, are intermingled with groans and hi¬
deous bowlings; and, between whiles, the prieft
fprinkles the corpfe and the mourners alternately with
holy water. Finally, the body is conveyed to the
place of interment on a (ledge, drawn by a rein-deer;
and this, together with" the cloaths of the deceafed,
are left as the prieft’s perquifite. Three days after
the burial, the kinfmen and friends of the defunfl are
invited to an entertainment, where they eat the flefli
of the rein-deer which conveyed the corpfe to the bu-
rying-ground. This being a facrifice to the manes,
the bones are collefled into a bafleet and interred.
Two thirds of the effefts of the deceafed are inherited
by his brothers, and the remainder divided among his
fitters: but the lands, lakes, and rivers, are held
in coparceny by all the children of both fexes, ac¬
cording to the divifion made by Charles IX. of Swe¬
den, when he affigned a certain traft of land to each
family.
The commerce of the Laplanders is more confider-
able than one would expeft in a defart country inha¬
bited by a favage ignorant people. They export
great quantities of fi(h to the northern parts of Both¬
nia and White Ruffia. They likew’ife trade with the
neighbouring countries of Norway, Sweden, Mufco¬
vy, and Finland, by felling rein-deer, fine furs, baf-
kets and toys of their own manufaflure, dried pikes,
and cheefe made of the rein-deer’s milk. In return
for thefe commodities they receive rixdollars, woollen
cloaths, linen, copper, tin, flour, oil, hides, needles,
knives, fpirituous liquors, tobacco, and other neceffa¬
ries. The Laplanders march in caravans to the fairs
in Finland and Norway: thefe are compofed of a
long firing of 30 or 40 rein-deer and pulkhas, tied to
one another, the foremofi being led by a Laplander
a-foot. When they havechofen a fpot for an encamp¬
ment, which is often in the midft of a river, they form
a large circle of their rein-deer and pulkhas ready
yoked;
L A R E 4 5
tjbapljfia yoked; and the animals, lying down quietly on the
f li fnow, are fed with mofs by their mafterfi. The peo-
| rceny' pie kindle great fires, around which, men, women, and
children fit, and fup on dried fiih : but the more vo¬
luptuous pitch their tents on the ice, and fpread their
bear-fkins, on which they lie at their eafe, and fmoke
tobacco.
The revenue arifing from this country is of no great
confequence : it is paid partly in rix-dollars, but chief¬
ly in furs; nay, fome, that can procure neither, pay
the tribute in dried pikes. The produce of the mines
[< forms likewife a confiderable article. Fifty fquirrel-
fkins, or one fox-fkin, with a pair of Lapland (hoes,
are valued at one rixdollar. Part of the taxes is allotted
for the maintenance of the Lapland clergy.
The frightful afpeft of this country has been deem¬
ed a more cfFedhial defence than artifical bulwarks
and garrifons, of which here are none ;> or than the
arms and courage of the natives, who are neither war¬
like in themfelves, nor in the lead tin&ured with dif-
cipline.
LAPLYSIA, a genus of marine infedls, belong¬
ing to the order of vermes mollufca. The body is co¬
vered with membranes refleded. It hath a (hield-like
membrane on the back, a lateral pore on the right
I , fide; the vent on the extremity of the back, with
Iate four feelers refembling ears. The figure (hews the
LXII. common fize. Thofe of Italy grow to the length of
g-J. eight inches. Pliny calls it and, placing
it among the venomous marine animals, fays that even
the touch is infe&ious. The fmell is extremely nau-
leous.
LAPSANA, nipplewort ; a genus of the poly-
gamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. There are four fpecies, which grow com¬
monly as weeds by the fides of ditches. The young
leaves of the common kind, called dock-crejfes, have the
taile of radifiies, and are eaten raw at Conftantinople
as a falad. In fome parts of England the common
P people boil them as greens, but they have a bitter and
difagreeable tafte.
LAPWING, in ornithology. See Tringa.
LAQUEUS, in furgery, a kind of ligature, fo
contrived, that, when ftretched by any weight or the
like, it draws up clofe. Its ufe is to extend broken or
disjointed bones to keep them in their places while they
■' are fet, and to bind the parts clofe together.
LAR-BOARD, among feamen, the left-hand fide
of the (hip when you Hand with your face twards the
head.
LARCENY, or Theft, by contra&ion for latro-
ceny, latrociniim, is diftinguifhed by the law into two
forts : the one called fwtple larceny, or plain theft un¬
accompanied with any other atrocious circumftance ;
and mixed or compound larceny, which alfo includes in
it the aggravation of a taking from one’s houfe or
perfon.
I. Simple larceny, when it is the dealing of goods
above the value of twelvepence, is cz\\e& grand lar¬
ceny; when of goods to that value,, or under, is pe¬
tit larceny : offences, which are confiderably diftin-
guifhed in their punifhment, but not otherwife. See
Theft.
II. Mixed, or compound larceny, is fuch as has all
the properties of the former, (fee Theft ;) but is
t5 ] L A R
accompanied with either one, or both, of the aggra* Larceny,
vations of a taking from one’s houfe or perfon. Firft —
therefore of larceny from the houfe, and then of larceny
from the perfon.
i. Larceny from the hcufe, though it might feem
to have a higher degree of guilt than fimple larceny,
yet is not at all diftinguifhed from the other at com¬
mon law : unlefs where it is accompanied with the
circumftance of breaking the houfe by night; and
then it falls under another defcription, viz. that of
burglary, (fee Burglary). But now by feveral afls
of parliament (the hiftory of which is very ingeniouf-
ly deduced by a learned modern writer f, who hath f 37s,
(hewn them to have gradually arifen from our im¬
provements in trade and opulence) the benefit of cler¬
gy is taken from larcenies committed in an houfe in al-
moft every inftance: except that larceny of the (lock
or utenfils of the plate-glafs company from any of their
houfes, &c. is made only fingle felony, and liable to
tranfportation for feven years. The multiplicity of
the general a&s is apt to create fome confufion; but up¬
on comparing them diligently we may colled!, that the
benefit of clergy is denied upon the following domeftic
aggravations of larceny; viz. firft, in larcenies aboveBlackft.
the value of twelvepence, committed, 1.-In a church Comment,
or chapel, with or without violence, or breaking the
fame : 2. In a booth or tent in a market or fair, in
the day-time or in the night, by violence or breaking
the fame ; the owner or fome of his family being
therein : 3. By robbing a dvvelling-houfe in the day¬
time (which robbing implies a breaking), any perfon be¬
ing therein : 4. In a dwelling houfe by day or by
night, without breaking the fame, any perfon being
therein and put in fear; which amounts in law to a rob¬
bery: and in both thefe lad cafes the acceffory before
the fad! is alfo excluded from his clergy. Secondly, in.
larcenies to the value of five Jhillings, committed, 1. By
breaking any dwelling houfe, or any out-houfe, (hop,
or warehoufe thereunto belonging, in the day-time,
although no perfon be therein; which alfo now extends
to aiders, abettors, and acceflbries before the fad!;
2. By privately dealing goods, wares, or merchandife
in any fhop, warehoufe, coach-houfe, or (table, by
day or by night; though the fame be not broken o-
pen, and though no perfon be therein: which likewife
extends to fuch as afiilt, hire, or command the offence
to be committed. Laftly, in larcenies to the value of'
forty Jhillings in a dwelling-houfe, or its out-houfes, al¬
though the fame be not broken, and whether any per-
fan be therein or not; unlefs committed againft: their
mafters-by apprentices under the age of 15. This alfo
extends to thofe who aid or affift in the commiftion of,
any fuch offence.
2. Larceny from the perfon is either \sy privately
dealing; or by open and violent affault,which is ufu-
ally called robbery.
The offence of dealing from a man’s per¬
fon, as by picking his pocket or the like, privily, with¬
out his knowledge, was debarred of the benefit of
clergy, fo early as by the ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 4. But then
it mult be fuch a larceny, as (lands in need of the be¬
nefit of clergy, viz. of above the value of I2d.; elfe
the offender (hall not have judgment of death. For
the ftatute creates no new offence ; but only takes a-
way the benefit of clergy, which was a matter of grace,
and’
L A R
L A R [41
Gardner and leaves the thief to the regular judgment of the an¬
il cient law. This feverity (for a moft fevere law it cer-
arcs* tainly is) feems to be owing to the eafe with which
fuch offences are committed, the difficulty of guarding
againft them, and the boldnefs with which they were
pra&ifed (even in the queen’s court and prefence) at
the time when this ftatute was made: befides that this
is an infringement of property in the manual occupa¬
tion or corporal poffeffion of the owner, which was an
offence even in a ftate of nature. And therefore the
faccularii, or cutpurfes, were more feverely punifhed
than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian
laws.
As to open and violent larceny from the perfon, fee
Robbery.
LARDNER (Nathaniel), an eminent Englifh dif-
fenting divine, born in 1656, was author of feve-
ral excellent works in defence of our religion 5 as,
Teftimonies of the ancient Jews and Pagans in fa¬
vour of Chriftianity ; The hiftory of heretics, &c. He
died in 1678.
EAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ears,
with a caflle. It carries on a great trade in filk; and
its territory abounds in oranges, lemons, and very large
tamarinds. E. Long. 54. 15. N. Lat. 27. 30.
LARACHA, an ancient and ftrong town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Fez. It is feated at the mouth of
a river of the fame name, with a good harbour. It
was once in the poffeffion of the Spaniards; but the
Moors took it from them. W. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat.
35* °-
LAREDO, a fea port town of Spain, in the bay
of Bifcay, with a large fafe harbour. It is 30 miles
weft of Bilboa, and 72 north by weft of Burgos. W.
Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 43. 23.
LARES, certain inferior deities among the ancient
Romans, who were the guardians of houfes; they were
alfo fometimes taken for the guardians of ftreets and
ways, and Tibullus makes them the guardians of the
fields. According to Ovid, they were the fons of
Mercury and Laura, whofe tongue was cut out by
Jupiter becaufe fhe revealed his adulteries to Juno:
and not contented with this, he delivered her to Mer¬
cury, with orders to conduct her to hell; but this god
falling in love with her by the way, had twins by her,
who from their mother were called lares.
Thefe domeftic deities were fometimes reprefented
under the figure of a dog, the fymbol of fidelity; be¬
caufe dogs have the fame fun&ion as the lares, which
is to guard the houfe. At other times their images
were covered with the fkin of a dog, and had the fi¬
gure of that domeftic animal (landing by them. The
principal facrifices to the lares were incenfe, fruit, and
a hog.
The Romans had a private place in their houfes,
called larariuvi, in which, among other ftatues of their
ods, were their lares, and the images of their ance-
ors. Tertullian tells us, that the cuftom of worftu'p-
ping the lares arofe from their anciently interring
their dead in their houfes ; whence the credulous peo-
pie took occafion to imagine, that their fouls conti¬
nued there likewife, and thence proceeded to pay them
divine honours. To which may be added, that the
cuftom of burying them in the highways might occa¬
fion their being confidered likewife as gods of the
.6 ]
highways. Larin#:
LARINO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of II,
Naples, in the Capitanata, with a biffiop’s fee. E. Lon. •
15. 51. N. Lat. 41. 48.
LARISSA, an ancient, rich, and celebrated town
of Greece, in the province of Janna, or Theffaly, with
an archbiftiop’s fee of the Greek church, a palace, and i
feveral handfome mofques. According to Virgil, it is
the country of Achilles, and the place where Philip
the father of Alexander the Great refided. The in¬
habitants carry on a confiderable trade. The city is
agreeably feated on the river Peneus, in E. Long. 23. ?
36. N. Lat. 38. 51.
LARIX, the larch-tree ; a genus of plants by ;
Linnseus claffed along with the Pinus ; but as Tourne-
fort and all former botaniftshave feparated them on ac¬
count of the form of their leaves, and they are pretty
generally known by thefe diftindtions, we (hall adopt !
the diftindtion in order to avoid confufion.
Species. There are two fpecies, viz. the decidua,
with deciduous leaves, and oval obtufe cones; and the
cedar of Libanus. The firft fort grows naturally up- ,
on the Alps and Apennines, and of late has been
very much propagated in Britain. It is of quick
rowth, and the trunk rifes to 50 feet or more; the
ranches are (lender, their ends generally hanging ]
downward, and are garniffied with long narrow leaves
which arife in clufters from one point, fpreading ope» ,
above like the hairs of a painter’s brufh : they are of ,
a light green, and fall away in autumn. In the month
of April the male flowers appear, which are difpofed
in form of fmall cones ; the female flowers are col-
ledted into oval obtufe cones, which in fome fpe¬
cies have bright purple tops, and in others they are
white : thefe differences are accidental; the cones are
about an inch long, obtufe at their points ; the feales
are fmooth, and lie over each other: under each fcale
there are generally lodged two feeds which have wings.
There are other two varieties of this tree, one of which
is a native of America and the other of Siberia. The
cones of the American kind which have been brought
to Britain feem in general to be larger than thofe of ,
the common fort.
The fecond fort, or cedar of Libanus, is a tree of an¬
tiquity ; and what is remarkable, it is not to be found i
as a native in any other part of the world, as far as hath
yet been difeovered. What we find mentioned in Scrip- 'j
ture of the lofty cedars, can be noways applicable to
the common growth of this tree; fince, from the expe¬
rience we have of thofe now growing in England, as alfo
from the teftimony of feveral travellers who have vi-
fited thofe few remaining trees on mount Libanus, they \
are not inclined to grow very lofty, but on the con- j
trary extend their branches very far ; to which the al- ’
lufion made by the Pfalmift agrees very well, when
he is deferibing the flourifhing ftate of a people, and
fays, “ They (hall fpread their branches like the ce¬
dar-tree.” .
Rauwolf, in his Travels, fays, there were not at
that time (i. e. anno 1574) upon mount Libanus more ■
than 26 trees remaining, 24 of which ftood in a circle: ’
and the other two, which ftood at a fmall diftance, |
had their branches almoft confumed with age ; nor
could he find any younger tree coming up to fucceed
them, though he looked about diligently for fome. 1
Thefe
L A R [41
Laris. Thefe trees (he fays) were growing at the foot of a
fmall hill, on the top of the mountains, and amongft
the fnow. Thefe having very large branches, com¬
monly bend the tree to one fide, but are extended to a
great length, and in fo delicate and pleafant order, as
if they were trimmed and made even with great dili¬
gence, by which they are eafily diltinguilhed, at a
great diftance, from fir-trees. The leaves (continues
he) are very like to thofe of the larch-tree, grow¬
ing clofe together in little branches upon fmall brown
fltoots.
Maundrel, in his Travels, fays, there were but 16
large trees remaining when he vifited the mountains,
fome of which were of a prodigious bulk, but that
there were many more young ones of a fmaller fize ;
he tneafured one of the largeil, and found it to be 12
yards fix inches in girt, and yet found, and 37 yards
in the fpread of its boughs. At about five or fix
yards from the ground it was divided into five limbs,
each of which was equal to a great tree. What Maun¬
drel hath related was confirmed by a gentleman who
was there in the year 1720, with this difference only,
viz. in the dimenfions of the branches of the largeft
tree, which he meafured, and found to be 22 yards
diameter. Now, whether Mr Maundrel meant 37
yards in circumference of the fpreading branches, or
the diameter of them, cannot be determined by his
words; yet either of them well agrees with this laft
account.
Culture. Thefe plants are propagated by fowing
in March on a bed of light earth expofed to the morn¬
ing fun. The feed muft be covered half an inch thick
with fine light earth, and the beds watered at times
when the weather is dry. In about fix weeks the
plants will appear; they muft at this time be careful¬
ly ly guarded from the birds, fhaded from the fun and
winds, and kept very clear of wedds. In the latter
end of April the following year, they may be removed
into beds of frefli earth, placing them at ten inches di-
ftance every way. They are to be kept here two
years, and fuch of them as feem to bend muft be tied
up to a ftake to keep them upright. They may after¬
wards be planted in the places where they are to re¬
main. They thrive well on the fides of barren hills,
and make a very pretty figure there.
Ufes. From the larch-tree is extra&ed what we er-
roneoufly call Venice turpentine. This fubftance, or
natural balfam, flows at firft without incifion ; when
it has done dropping, the poor people who wait in the
fir-woods, make incifions at about two or three feet
from the ground, into the trunk of the trees, into
which they fix narrow troughs about 20 inches long.
The end of thefe troughs is hollowed like a ladle;
and ia the middle is a fmall hole bored for the turpen¬
tine to run into the receiver which is placed below it.
As the gummy fubftance runs from the trees, it pafles
along the Hoping gutter or trough to the ladle, and
from thence runs thro’ the holes into the receiver. The
people who gather it vifit the trees morning and even¬
ing from the end of May to September, to colled the
turpentine out of the receivers. When it flows out of
the tree, Venice turpentine is clear, like water, and of
a yellowifh white ; but,.as it grows older, it thickens,
and becomes of a citrpn colour. It is procured in the
greateft abundance in the neighbourhood of Lyons,
Vol. VI.
17 ] L A R
and in the valley of St Martin, near St Lucern in Swit- Lark
zerland. For the properties and ufes of the cedar of II
Libanus, fee the article Cedax.
LARK, in ornithology. See Alauda.
The lark is not only a very agreeable bird for the
cage, but a very hardy one. It will live upon almoft
any food, fo that it have once a-week a frefli tuft of
three-leaved grafs. The Jky and •wood-lark, differ in
the time of their breeding ; the former not producing
her young ones till May, the latter hatching them in
March. In winter, it is common to fee vaft flocks of
fky-larks; and yet it is obferved, that there are fewer
of their nefts found in the feafon than of any birds that
are common among us. The (ky-lark fometimes builds
among corn, fometimes among high-grafs, and feldom
has more than three young ones at a brood, fcarce
ever more than four; fo that the origin of the large
flights we fee is the more furprifing. The young may
be taken out of the neft at a fortnight old, and are fo
hardy that they will be eafily brought up. The bell
food is (heep’s heart chopped with egg; and afterwards
oatmeal, bruifed hempfeed, and bread with a little egg
among it. They fhould have clean fand at the bottom
of the cage, but they need no perches.
The common way of taking larks is in the night,
with thofe nets which are called trammels. Thefe are
ufually made of 36 yards in length, and about fix
yards over, with fix ribs of pack-thread, which at the
ends are put upon two poles of about 16 feet long, and
made leffer at each end. Thefe are to be drawn over the
ground by two men, and every five or fix fteps the net is
made to touch the ground, otherwife it will pafs over
the birds without touching them, and they will efcape.
When they are felt to fly up againft the net, it is
clapped down, and then all are fafe that are under it.
The darkeft nights are propereft for this fport; and
the net will not only take larks, but all other birds that
rooft on the ground ; among which are woodcocks,
fnipes, partridge, quails, field-fares, and feveral others.
In the depth of winter people fometimes take great
numbers of larks by noofes of horfe-hair. The method
is this: Take too or 200 yards of packthread; faften
at every fix inches a noofe made of double horfe-hair;
at every 20 yards the line is to be pegged down to the
ground, and fo left ready to take them. The time to
ufe this is when the ground is covered with fnow, and
the larks are to be allured to it by fome white oats
fcattered all the way among the noofes. They muft
be taken away as foon as three or four are hung, o-
therwife the reft will be frighted ; but though the o-
thers are feared away juft where the fportfman comes,
they will be feeding at the other end of the line, and
the fport may be thus continued for a long time.
LARRIBUNDAR, a fea-port town of Afia,'fn
Indoftan ; feated at the mouth of the river Sinda, or
Indus, with a harbour capable of receiving fhips of
200 tons burden. It is but a fmall place, confiding
of about 100 houfes built with wood; but has a ftone
fort, with five great guns, to prevent robberies; be-
caufe fome of the neighbouring countries are much ad-
di&ed to thieving. E. Long. 67.0. N. Lat. 25. o.
LARUS, the gull, in ornithology, a genus be-
longing to the order of anferes, the characters of
which are thefe: The bill is ftrait, cultrated, a little
crooked at the point, and without teeth; the inferior
23 K mandible
L A R [ 41
Larut. mandible. is gibbous bc’ow the apex; the noftrils
are linear, a little broader before, and fituated in the
middle of the back. There are 11 fpecies, principally
diftinguiihed by their colour. The mod remarkable
fpecies are, 1. The marinas, or black-backed gull.
The weight of this fpecies is near five pounds; the
length 29 inches; the breadth five feet nine. The
bill is very ftrong and thick, aud almoft four inches
long; the colour a pale yellow; but the lower man¬
dible is marked with a red fpot, with a black one in
the middle. The head, neck, whole under-fide, tail,
and lower-part of the back, are white: the upper-
part of the back, arid wings, are black; the quill-
feathers tipt with white; the legs of a pale fielh-
colour. This kind inhabits our coafts in fmall num¬
bers, and breeds in the higheft clilfs. It feeds not
onlyonfilh; but, like the raven, very greedily de¬
vours carrion. Its egg is very blunt at each end; of
a dulky olive colour, quite black at the greater end,
and the reft of it thinly marked with dulky fpots. On
the coaft of Anglefea is found a bird that agrees in
all refpefts with this except in fize, in wanting the
black fpot on the bill, and in the colour of the legs,
which in this are of a bright yellow: the extent of
wings is only four feet five; the length only 22 inches:
the weight one pound and a half. This fpecies, or
perhaps variety, rambles far from the fea, and has been
fhot at Bulftrode, in Middlefex.
2. The cataraftes, or Ikua gull. The length of
this Angular gull is two feet; the extent four feet and
a half; the weight three pounds: the bill two inches
one-fourth long, very much hooked at the end, and
very (harp: the upper mandible covered more than
half-way with a black cere or fltin, as in the hawk-
kind : the noftrils placed near the bend, and are per¬
vious. The feathers on the head, neck, back, fcapu-
lars, and coverts of the wings, are of a deep brown,
marked with ruft-colour (brighteft in the male). The
bread, belly, and vent, are ferruginous, tinged with
alh-colour. The tail when fpread is circular, of a deep
brown, white at the root, and with (hafts of the fame
colour. The legs are covered with great black fcales:
the talons black, ftrong,-and crooked; the interior re¬
markably fo.
This bird inhabits Norway, the Ferroe ides, Shet¬
land, and the noted rock Foula, a little weft of them.
It is alfo a native of the South Sea. It is the moft
formidable gull; its prey being not only fi(h, but, what
is wonderful in a web-footed bird, all the lefler fort of
water-fowl, fuch as teal, &c. Mr Schroter, a furgeon
in the Ferroe ides, relates that it likewife preys on
ducks, poultry, and even young lambs. It has all the
fiercenefs of the eagle in defending its young; when
the inhabitants of thofe idands vifit the neft, it at¬
tacks them with great force, fo that they hold a knife
eretft over their heads, on which the (kua will transfix
itfelfin its fall on the invaders. The Rev. Mr Low,
minifter of Birfa in Orkney, confirmed part of the
above account: On approaching the quarters of thefe
birds, they attacked him and his company with moft
violent blows ; and intimidated a bold dog of Mr.
Low’s in-fuch a manner, as to drive him forproteclion
to his mafter. The natives are often very rudely
treated by them, while they are attending their fheep
on the hills; and are obliged to guard their heads by
i8 ] L A R
holding up their (licks, on which the birds often kill
themfelves. In Foula it is a privileged bird, becaufe -
it defends the flocks from the eagle, which it beats
and purfues with great fury; fo that even that rapa¬
cious bird feldom ventures near its quarters. The
natives of Foula on this account lay a fine on any
perfon who deftroys one: they deny that it ever in¬
jures their flocks or poultry; but imagine it preys on
the dung of the arftic and other larger gulls, which it
perfecutes till they moot for fear.
3. The parafiticus, or dung-hunter. Thefe birds
are very common in the Hebrides. Numbers of them
are found in Jura, Hay, and Rum, where they breed
in the heath; if difturbed, they fly about like the lap¬
wing, but foon alight. They are alfo found in the
Orkneys, where they appear in May, and retire in
Auguft. It is alfo found on the coaft of Yorkftiire,
where it is known by the name of Feafer. All writers
who mention it agree, that it has the property of pur-
fuing the lefler gulls fo long, that they moot for fear,
and that it catches up and devours their excrements
before they drop into the water ; from which the
name. Linnaeus wittily calls it the parafite, alluding
to its fordid life.
The length of this fpecies is 21 inches: the bill is
dulky, about an inch and a half long, pretty much
hooked at the end, but the ftrait part is covered with
a fort of cere. In the malct the crown of the head is
black: the back, wings, and tail, dulky ; but the
lower part of the inner webs of the quill-feathers
white: the hind part of the neck, and whole under-
fide of the body, white: the tail confifts of 12 feathers,
the two middlemoft near four inches longer than the
others; the legs black, fmall, and fcaly. The female
is entirely brown, but of a much paler colour below
than above ; the feathers in the middle of the tail are
only two inches longer than the others. Linnaeus
has feparated this from its mate, his lams paraji-
tkusy and made it a fynonyme to his larus cata-
raftes, a bird as different from this as any other of the
whole genus.
4. The fufeus, or herring-gull, weighs upwards of
30 ounces; the length 23 inches, its breadth 52; the
bill yellow, and the lower mandible marked with an
orange-coloured fpot: the back, and coverts of the
wings, a(h-coloured; the upper-part of the five firft
quill,-feathers are black, marked with a white fpo6
near their end ; the legs of a pale (led)-colour.- Thefe
birds breed on the ledges of rocks that hang over the.
fea; they make a large neft of dead grafs, and lay
three eggs of a dirty white, fpotted with black. The
young are afh-coloured, fpotted with brown. They do
not come to their proper colour the firft year: this is
common to other gulls; which has greatly multiplied
the fpecitSiamong authors,, who are inattentive to thefe
particulars. This gull is a great devourer of fi(h, efpe-
cially of that from which it takes its name : it is a
conftant attendant on the nets, and fa bald as.to feize
its prey before the fifhermens faces*
5. The naevius, or wage!* Thefe birds vary much
in their fize: of thofe examined by Mr Pennant, one
weighed 3 K>. 7 oz. the-length was two feet two
inches, the breadth five feet fix; others again did not
weigh two pounds and a half. The irides are dulky;
the bill black, and nfiar three inches long. The whole
plumage
L A R [41
Laras, plumage of the head and body, above and below, is
a mixture of white, a(h-colour, and brown: the laft
colour occupies the middle of each feather; and in
fome birds is pale, in others dark: the quill-feathers
black: the lower-part of the tail is mottled with
black and white: the legs are of a dirty white.
Some have fuppofed this to be the young of the
preceding fpecies, which (as well as the reft of the
gull tribe) fcarce ever attains its true colours till after
the firft year: but it muft be obferved, that the firft
colours of the irides, of the quill-feathers, and of the
tail, are in all birds permanent; thefe differ in each of
thefe gulls fo greatly, as ever topreferve unerring notes
of diftin&ion. This fpecies is likewife called by fome
the dung-hunter, for the fame reafon as the laft is
ftyled fo.
6. The winter-gull weighs from 14 to 17 ounces: the
len^h 18 oz. the breadth three feet nine. The irides are
hazel: the bill two inches long, but the flendereft of any
gull: it is black at the tip, whitilh towards the bafe.
The crown of the head, and hind-part and fides of
the neck, are white, marked with oblong dulky fpots;
the forehead, throat, middle of the bread, belly, and
rump, are white; the back and fcapulars are of a pale
grey, the laft fpotted with brown; the coverts of the
wings are of a pale brown, edged with white; the firft
quill-feather is black, the fucceeding are tipt with
white: the tail is white, croffed near the end with a
black bar; the legs of a dirty blueilh white. This
kind frequents, during winter, the moift meadows in
the inland parts of England, remote from the fea.
The gelatinous fubftance, known by the name of Jlar-
Jhot, or J}ar-gelly, owes its origin to this bird, or fome
of the kind; being nothing but the half-digefted re¬
mains of earth-worms, which thefe birds feed on, and
often difcharge from their ftomachs.
7. The canus, or common gull, is the moft nume¬
rous of the genus. It breeds on the ledges of the
cliffs that impend over the fea: in winter they are
found in vaft flocks on all our fhores. They differ a
little in fize. One examined by Mr Pennant weighed
12 ounces and a half: its length was 17 inches, its
breadth 36; the bill yellow; the head, neck, tail, and
whole under-fide of the body, a pure white; the back,
and coverts of the wings, a pale grey; near the end
of the greater quill-feathers was a black fpot; the legs
a dull white, tinged with green.
8. The riffa, or kittiwake. The length of this
fpecies is 14 inches, the extent three feet two. When
arrived at full age, the head, neck, belly, and tail, are
of a fnowy whitenefs; behind each ear is fooietimes a
dulky fpot: the back and wings are grey: the exterior
edge of the firft quill-feather, and tips of the four or
five next, are black; the bill yellow, tinged with green ;
infide of the mouth orange; legs dulky, with only a
knob inftead of the back-toe. It inhabits the romantic
cliffs of Flamborough-head (where it is called petrel),
the Bafs ille, the vaft rocks near the caftle of Slains
in the county of Aberdeen, and Prieftholm ille. The
young of thefe birds are a favourite dilh in North-
Britain, being ferved up roafted, a little before dinner,
in order to provoke the appetite; but, from their rank
tafte and fmell, feem much more likely to produce a
contrary effeft.
9. Theridibundus, pewit, or black head gull. Thefe
19 ] LAS
birds breed in vaft numbers in the illands of certain Larynx,
pools in the county of Stafford ; and, as Dr Fuller Lafcaris.
tells us, in another on the Effex fhores; alfo in the
fens of Lincolnfhire. They are birds of paffage ;
refort there in the fpring, and after the breeding
feafon difperfe to the fea-coafts: they make their
neft on the ground, with rulhes, dead grafs, and
the like; and lay three eggs of a dirty olive-colour,
marked with black. The young were formerly
highly efteemed, and numbers were annually taken
and fattened for the table. Plott gives a marvellous
account of their attachment to the lord of the foil
they inhabit; infomuch, that, on his death, they
never fail to fhift their quarters for a certain time.
Whitelock, in his annals, mentions a piece of ground
near Portfmouth, which produced to the owner 40 1.
a-year by the fale of pewits, or this fpecies of gull.
Thefe are the fee-gulles that in old times were admitted
to the noblemens tables.
The notes of thefe gulls diftinguifh them from any
others, being like a hoarfe laugh. Their weight is
about 10 ounces; their length 15 inches, their breadth
37: their irides are of a bright hazel; the edges of
the eye-lids of a fine fcarlet; and on each, above and
below, is a fpot of white feathers. Their bills and legs
are of a fanguine red; the heads and throats black or
dulky; the neck, and all the under-fide of the body,
and the tail, a pure white ; back and wings alh-
coloured; tip and exterior edge of the firft quill-fea¬
ther black, the reft of that feather white, the next to
that tipt with black, and marked with the fame on the
inner web.
LARYNX, in anatomy, the upper-part of the wind¬
pipe. See Anatomy, n° 380. a.
LASCARIS (Andrew John ),furnamedRyWrfc,e»«.r,
of an ancient Greek family, went into Italy, after the
taking of Conftantinople by the Turks, in 1453. He
wjs well received by Laurence de Medicis, a diftin-
guilhed prote&or of learned men ; and was twice fent
to Conftantinople to colleft the beft Greek manuferipts,
by which means numberlefs fcarce and valuable trea-
fures of literature were carried into Italy. At his re¬
turn Lewis XII. king of France prevailed on him to
fettle in the univerfity of Paris, and fent him twice
ambaffador to Venice. Ten years after, cardinal John
de Medicis being elefted pope, under the name of
Leo X. John Lafearis, his old friend, went to Rome,
and had the direftion of a Greek college. He died
at Rome in 1535, at about the 90th year of his age.
He brought into the Weft moft. of the fine Greek ma¬
nuferipts that are now extant, andcompofed fome epi¬
grams in Greek and Latin.
Lascaris (Conftantine), one of the Greeks who
were principally concerned in the revival of learning in
the Weft, retired into Italy in 1454, and taught polite
literature at Milan, whither he was called by Francis
Sforza; he afterwards went to Rome, where he was
well received by Cardinal Beffarion. He afterwards
taught rhetoric and the Greek tongue at Naples ; and
ended his days at Meffina, leaving the fenate of that
city many excellent manuferipts which he had brought
from Conftantinople. He was interred at the public
expence, and the fenate of Meffiria ere&ed a marble
tomb to his memory. He wrote fome grammatical
works.
23 K 2
LASER-
L A T [ 4120 ] L A T
Laferpi- LASERPITIUM, lazar-wort, a genus of the
tu.,ni digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
Latere p'ants* There are nine fpecies, none of which are at
 _l_L_all remarkable for their beauty, fo are only preferred
in botanic gardens for the fake of variety. They are
natives of Germany, Italy, and the fouth of France.
All of them abound with an acrid juice, which turns to
an exceffively acrimonious reftn. This was ufed by
the ancients to take away black and blue fpots that
came by bruifes or blows, as alfo to take away ex-
crefcences: it was alfo By fome of the ancients ufed
internally ; but produced fuch violent effe&s, that the
more prudent refrained from the ufe of it. It is ge¬
nerally fuppofed that the filphium of the ancients was
procured from one of the fpecies of this genus ; but of
this we are at prefent ignorant.
LASH, or lace, in the fea-language, fignifks to
bind and make fail; as, to lafh the bonnet to the
courfe, or the drabler to the bonnets: alfo the car¬
penter takes care that the fpare yards be lafhed fail
to the {hip’s fide; and in a rolling fea, the gunners
mind that the guns be well laftied, lelt they ihould
break loofe. Lathers are properly thofe ropes which
bind faft the tackles and the breechings of the ord¬
nance, when hauled or made faft within-board.
LASSITUDE, or weariness, in medicine, a
morbid fenfation, that comes on fpontaneoufly, with¬
out any previous motion, exercife, or labour. This
is a frequent fymptom in acute diftempers : it arifes
either from an increafe of bulk, a diminution of pro¬
per evacuation, or too great a confumption of the
fluids neceflary to maintain the fpring of the folids, or
from a vitiated fecretion of that juice.
LAST, in general, fignifies the burden or load of
a fhip. Jt fignifies alfo a certain meafure of fifh, corn,
wool, leather, &c. A laft of codfifii, white herrings,
meal, and afhes for foap, is twelve barrels ; of corn
or rapefeed, ten quarters; of gun-powder, twenty-
four barrels; of red-herrings, twenty cades ; of hides,
twelve dozen ; of leather, twenty dickers ; of pitch
and tar, fourteen barrels ; of wool, twelve facks; of
ftock-fifti, one thoufand ; of flax or feathers, 1700 lb.
LASTAGE, or lestage, a duty exafted in fome
fairs and markets, for carrying things bought whither
one will. It fignifies alfo the baHaft or lading of a
{hip ; and fometimes is ufed for garbage, rubbifti, or
fuch like filth.
LATERAN councils, thofe councils held in the
bafilica of the Latin church at Rome. See Council.
There have been five councils held in this place, viz.
in the years 1123, 1139, ll79> I2I5> and 1513.
Canons regular of the Congregation of the Lateran,
were introduced in the reign of Pope Leo I. and con¬
tinued in the church till the reign of Boniface, who
difplaced them, and put fecular canons in their room ;
but 150 years after, the regulars were re-inflated
again.
A LATERE, a term ufed to denote the qualifica¬
tions of the cardinals whom the pope fends as legates
into foreign countries. They are called legates a-la-
tere, as being his holinefs’s afiiftants and counfellors
in ordinary. Thefe are the moft confiderable of the
Other three kinds of legates, being fuch as the pope com-
miffions to take his place in councils; and fo called, in
regard that he never gives this office to any but his
favourites and confidants, who are always a-latere, at Latere
his fide. A legate a-latere has the power of confer- !i
ring benefices without a mandate, of legitimating ba- at e"
Hards to hold offices, and has a crofs carried before
him as the enfign of his authority.
De Latere, legates who are not cardinals, but yet
are intrufted with an apoftolical legation. See the
article Legate.
LATE-wake, a ceremony ufed at funerals in the
Highlands of Scotland. The evening after the death
of any perfon, the relations and friends; of the deceafed
meet at the houfe, attended by bagpipe or fiddle ; the
neareftofkin, beit wife, fon, or daughter, opens amelan-
choly ball, dancing, and greeting (i. e. crying violent¬
ly) at the fame time, and this continues till day-light;
but with fuch gambols and frolics among the younger
part of the company, that the lofs which occafioned
them is often more than fupplied by the confeqia||ces
of that night. If the corpfe remains unburied for two
nights, the fame rites are renewed. Thus, Scythian-
like, they rejoice at the deliverance of their friends out
of this life of mifery.
LATEEN-sail, a long triangular fail extended by
a lateen yard, and frequently ufed by xebecs, pole-
acres, fettees, and other veffels navigated in the Me¬
diterranean fea.
LATH, in building, along, thin, and narrow flip
of wood nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling, in
order to fuftain the covering.
L,ATH-Bric6s, a particular fort of bricks made in
fome parts of England, of 22 inches in length and 6
in breadth, which are ufed in the place of laths or
fpars, fupported by pillars in cafts, for the drying of
malt. This is an excellent contrivance ; for beiides
that they are not liable to fire, as the wooden laths
are, they retain the heat vaftly better; fo that being
once heated, a very fmall quantity of fire will ferve to
keep them fo.
LATHE, a very ufeful engine for the turning of
wood, ivory, metals, and other materials. See Turn¬
ing. The invention of the lathe is very ancient:
Diodorus Siculus fays, the firft who ufed it was a
grandfon of Daedalus, named Talus. Pliny afcribes it
to Theodore of Samos ; and mentions one Thericles,
who rendered himfelf very famous by his dexterity in
managing the lathe. With this inftrument the an¬
cients turned all kinds of vafes, many whereof they
enriched with figures and ornaments in bafib relievo.
Thus Virgil:
Lenta quibus torno facili fuperaddita vitis..
The Greejt and Latin authors make frequent mention
of the lathe ; and Cicero calls the workmen who ufed
it vafeularii. It .was a proverb among the ancients, to <
fay a thing was formed in the lathe, toexprefs its de¬
licacy and juftnefs.
The lathe is compofed of two wooden cheeks, or
fides, parallel to the horizon, having a groove or „
opening between ; perpendicular to thefe are two other
pieces, called puppets, made to Aide between the
cheeks, and to be fixed down at any point at plea-
fure. Thefe have two points, between which the piece
to be turned is fuftained; the piece is turned round,
backwards and forwards, by means of a firing put
round it, and fattened above to the end of a pliable
pole, and underneath to a tredle or board moved with
I.athyrui
Latimer.
L A T [ 4121 ] L A T
the foot. There is alfo a reft which bears up the tool,
and keeps it fteady.
As it is the ufe and application of this inftrument
that makes the greateft part of the art of turning, we
refer the particular defcription thereof, as well as the
manner of applying it in various works, to that head.
See Turning.
LATHYRUS, chickling-vetch, a genus of the
diadelphia order, belonging to the decandfia clafs of
plants.
Species. I. The latifolius, or everlafting pea, hath
thick, fibrous, perennial roots ; climbing, thick,
branching annual ftalks, having membranaceous wings
between the joints, rifing upon fupport by their cirri
fix or eight feet high; diphyllous leaves, oftwofpear-
fhaped lobes, terminated by clafpers ; and numerous
large red or purple flowers on long foot-ftalks, appear¬
ing plentifully from June till October, fucceeded by
abundance of feed. 2. The odorata, or fweet-fcented
pea, hath a fibrous annual root; a climbing ftalk, ri¬
fing upon fupport by its clafpers three or four feet
high ; diphyllous leaves of two oval lobes, terminated
by climbing tendrils; and flowers by two’s on long
flower-ftalks, of different colours in the varieties. 3.
The tangitanus, or Tangier-pea, hath a fibrous an¬
nual root, a climbing ftalk rifing upon fupport for
four or five feet high ; diphyllous leaves, of two fpear-
fhaped alternate lobes, terminated by tendrils ; and
from the joints of the ftalk large reddifh flowers by
two’s on long footftalks.
Culture. All thefe fpecies are of hardy growth ; and
may be propagated by feed in the common ground, in
patches where it is defigned the plants fhould flower,
for they do not fucceed fo well by tranfplantation.
They may be fowed in fpring ; though, if fowed in
autumn, the plants will flower earlier the following
year.
LATIMER (Hugh), bifhop of Worcefter, was
born about the year 1480, at Thurcafton in Leicefter-
fhire, the only fon of a yeoman of that village. At
the age of fourteen he was fent to Chrift’s college,
Cambridge ; where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
divinity, and in proper time took the degree of ba¬
chelor in that fcience. At this time he was a zealous
Papift, and was honoured with the office of keeper of
the crofs to the univerfity .: but when he was about
thirty years of age, he became a convert to the Pro-
teftant religion; and being now one of the twelve li-
cenfed preachers from Cathbridge, he promulgated his
opinions with great freedom. It was not long before
he was accufed of herefy ; and being fummoned before
cardinal Wolfey, was obliged to fubfcribe certain ar¬
ticles of faith, which he certainly, did not believe. A-
bout the year 1529, he was prefented by the king to
the re&ory of Weftkinton in Wiltfhire ; to which
place, after refiding fome time at court with' his friend
and patron Dr Butts, he retired ; but, refuming his
former inveftives againft the Fopilh do&rines, he was
again fummoned t-u anfwer certain interrogatories, and
again obliged to fubfcribe. In 1535 he was promoted
to the biihoprick of Worcefter ; in the poffeffion of
which dignity he continued till the year 1539, when,
rather than aflent to the a£t of the fix articles, he re -
figned his mitre, and retired into the country.; but
was in a fhort time accufed of fpeaking againft the fix
articles, and committed to the rower, where he conti- Cat
nued prifoner till the death of Henry VIII. which
happened in January 1547.
On the acceffion of Edward VI. Latimer was re¬
leafed, but not reftored to his biihoprick, though he
preached feveral times before the king, and continued
to exercife his minifterial fundfion with unremitting
zeal and refolution. Young Edward, alas! finifhed
his fhort reign in 1553 ; and Mary, of infamous me¬
mory, afcending the throne, poor Latimer was imme¬
diately doomed to deftru&ion, and, together with
Cranmer and Ridley, confined in the tower. In A-
pril 1554, they were removed to Oxford, that they
might difpute with the learned do&ors of both uni-
verfities. Latimer declining the difputation on ac¬
count of his great age and infirmities, delivered his
opinion in writing; and refufing to fubfcribe the Po-
pifh creed, was condemned for herefy ; and in October
following was, together with bifhop Ridley, burnt
alive. He behaved with uncommon fortitude on the
occafion, and died a real martyr to the Reformation.
His general chara&er is that of a learned, virtuous,
and brave man.
His works are, 1. Sermons, 1635, fol. 2. Let¬
ters ; in Fox’s Afts and Monum. vol. ii. fol. 1580. 3,
An injunftion to the prior and convent of St Mary’s
in Worcefterfhire. See record at the end of Burnet’s
Hiftory of the Reformation, part. ii. p. 293.
LATIN, a dead language, firft fpoken in Latium,
and afterwards at Rome; and (till ufed in the Ronaifh
church, and among many of the learned.
This language is principally derived from the Greek,
and particularly from the Eolic dialed! of that tongue,
though it has a great number of words which it bor¬
rowed from the languages of the Etrufci, Ofci, and
other ancient people of Italy ;. and foreign commerce
and wars, in. courfe of time, added a great many
more.
The Latin is a ftrong nervous language, perfedlly
fuitable to the charadter of the people who fpoke it:
we have ftill works of every kind admirably well writ¬
ten in the Latin, though there are vaft numbers loft.
The Latin tongue was for a while confined almoft
wholly within the walls of Rome ; .nor \frould the Ro¬
mans allow the common ufe of it to their neighbours,
or to the nations they fubdued : but by degrees they
in time became fenfible of the.neceffity of its being ge¬
nerally underftood for the conveniency of commerce ;
and accordingly ufed their endeavours, that ail the
nations fubjedl to their empire fliould be united by one
common, language; fo that at length they impofed the
ufe of it by a particular law for that purpofe. After
the tranflation of the feat of the empire from Rome to
Conftantinople, the emperors of the eaft, being always
defirousof retaining the title of Roman emperors, ap¬
pointed the Latin to be ftill ufed ; but at length ne-
gledfing. the empire of the weft, they abandoned all
care of the Latin tongue, and ufed the Greek. Char¬
lemagne coming to the empire of the weft, revived this
language ; but at length it gave way, and the French
took place of the Latin : it was, however, prodigiouf-
ly degenerated before it came to be laid afide, in which
condition it was found at the time of the Reformation,
when Vives, Erafmus, &c. began to open the way for
its recovery : fince which time the monkilh latinity has
been
L A T [ 4122 ] L A T
JLatin been declining, and all endeavours have been ufed to
!l. retrieve the pure language of the Auguftan age. See
Latm' Language.
’L.a.tih Church. See Church.
LATINS, an ancient nation of Italy. See La-
tium.
LATINUS, king of the Latins in Italy, was the
fon of Faunus; and, it is faid, began to reign about
the 1216th year before the Chriitian sera. Lavinia,
his only daughter, married jFneas, after that Trojan
prince had killed Turnus king of the Rutuli. See
Rome.
LATIUM, (anc. geogr.), the country of the La¬
tins, at firft contained within very narrow bounds, but
afterwards increafed by theacceffion of various people.
The appellation, according to Virgil, is a latendo,
from Saturn’s lying-hid there from the hollile purfuits
of his fon Jupiter ; and from Latium comes the name
Latini, the people, (Virgil) : though Dionyfius Hali-
carnaflseus derives it from king Latinus, who reigned
about the time of the Trojan war. 13ut whatever be
in this, it is certain, that Latium, when under JEneas
and his defcendents, or the Alban kings, contained
only the Latins, exclufive of the ^Equi, Volfci, Her-
nici, and other people; only that iEneas reckoned
the Rutuli, after their conqueft, among the Latins.
And this conllituted the ancient Latium, confined to
the Latins: but afterwards, under the kings, and af¬
ter their time, it reached from the Tiber to Circeii.
Under the confuls, the country of the iEqui, Volfci,
Hernici, &c. after long and bloody wars, was added
to I.atium, under the appellation adjeftitious, or fapcr-
added Latium, as far as the river Liris, the eaftern
boundary, and to the north as far as the Marfi and
Sabines. The various people, which in fucceffion oc¬
cupied Latium, were the Aborigines, the Pelafgi, the
Arcades, the Siculi, the Arunci, the Rutuli; and be¬
yond Circeii, the Volfci, the Ofci, the Aufones : but
who. firft, who next, occupied the country, is difficult
to fay.
LATISSIMUS, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the mufcles.
LATITUDE, in aftronomy, is the diftance of a
ftar north or fouth from the ecliptic. In geography,
it fignifies the diftance of any place north or fouth
from the equator. See Astronomy, n° 209, 214.
and Geography, n° 11.
LATITUDINARIAN, a perfon of moderation
with regard to religious opinions, who believes there
is a latitude in the road to heaven, which may admit
people of different perfuafions,
LATOMIA, properly fignifies * quarry, or place
whence ftones are dug. The word comes from the
Greek -A*r, Jlone, and I cut. Thefe were an¬
ciently ufed as gaols for criminals.—Dionyfius had a
place of this kind dug in a rock near Syracufe, where
an infinite number of people were fhut up. Cicero
reproaches Verres with iraprifoning Roman Citizens in
Latomix ; fo that latomia became a general name for
a prifon, and the prifoners inclofed in them were call¬
ed latomarii.
LATRIA, in theology, a religious worlhip due
only to God. See Adoration.
The Romanifts fay, ‘ They honour God with the
worfhip of latria ; and the faints with the worlhip of
dulia.’ But the terms, however diftinft, are ufually Latten.
confounded.
The worfhip of latria, befides its inner characters,
has its external marks to diftinguifh it; the principal
whereof is facrifice, which cannot be offered to any
other but God himfelf, as being a folemn acknow¬
ledgement or recognition of the fovereignty of God,
and our dependence on him.
Mr Daille feems to own, that fome of the fathers
of the fourth century allowed the diftinction between
latria and dulia.
LATTEN denotes iron-plates tinned over, of which
tea-canifters are made.
Plates of iron being prepared of a proper thinnefs,
are fmoothed by rufting them in an acid liquor, as
common water made eager with rye. With this liquor
they fill certain troughs, and then put in the plates,
which they turn once or twice a-day, that they may
be equally rufted over. After this they are taken out,
and well fcoured with fand; and, to prevent their ruft-
ing again, are immediately plunged into pure water,
in which they are to be left till the inftant they are to
be tinned or blanched ; the manner of doing which is
this : They flux the tin in a large iron-crucible, which
has the figure of an oblong pyramid with four faces,
of which two oppofite ones are lefs than the two others.
The crucible is heated only from below, its upper part
being luted with the furnace all round. The crucible
is always deeper than the plates, which are to be tin¬
ned, are long ; they always put them in downright,
and the tin ought to fwim over them ; to this purpofe
artificers of different trades prepare plates of different
lhapes, though Mr Reaumur thinks them all excep¬
tionable. But the Germans ufe no fort of preparation
of the iron to make it receive the tin, more than the
keeping it always fteeped in water till the time ; only,
when the tin is melted in the crucible, they cover it
with a layer of a fort of fuet, which is ufually two
inches thick, and the plate muft pafs through this be¬
fore it can come to the melted tin. The firft ufe
of this covering is to keep the tin from burning;
for if any part Ihould take fire, the fuet would foon
moiften it, and reduce it to its primitive ftate again.
The blanchers fay, this fuet is a compounded matter.
It is indeed of a black colour; but Mr Reaumur fup-
pofed that to be only an artifice to make it a fecret,
and that it is only coloured with foot or the fmoke of
a chimney : but he found it true fofar, that the com¬
mon unprepared fuet was not fufficient; for after fe-
veral attempts, there was always fomething wanting
to render the fuccefs of the operation certain. The
whole fecret of blanching, therefore, was found to
lie in the preparation of this fuet; and this at length
he difeovered to confift only in the firft frying and
burning it. This fimple operation not only gives it
the colour, but puts it into a condition to give the iron
a difpofition to be tinned, which it does furprifingly.
The melted tin muft alfo have a certain degree of
heat: for if it is not hot enough, it will not flick to the
iron; and if it is too hot, it will cover it with too thin
a coat, and the plates will have feveral colours, as red,
blue, and purple, and upon the whole will have a call
of yellow. To prevent this, by knowing when the
fire has a proper degree of heat, they might try with
fmall pieces of iron ; but in general, ufe teaches them
to
LAV [41
Latten, t0 know the degree, and -they put in the iron when
^ ava> the tin is at a different ftandard of heat, accord¬
ing as they would give it a thicker or thinner coat.
Sometimes alfo they give the plates a double layer,
as they would have them very thickly covered. This
they do by dipping them into the tin when very hot
the firft time, and when lefs hot the fecond. The
tin which is to give the fecond coat, muff be frelh
covered with fuet; and that with the common fuet, not
the prepared.
L.ATTEN-i?r<7/r, plates of milled brafs, reduced to
different thicknefs, according to the ufes it is intended
for.
LAVA, a ftream of melted minerals which runs
out of the mouths, orburfts out through the Tides, of
burning mountains during the time of an eruption.
See Iceland, n° 2, &c. ./Etna, Vesuvius, Vol¬
cano, &c.
The lava, at its firft difcharge, is in a Hate of pro¬
digious ignition, greatly fuperior to any thing we can
have an idea of from the {'mall artificial furnaces made
by us. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the
lava of Vefuvius, at the place from whence it iffued (in
the year 1767), “ had the appearance of a river of
Exaffive r(;d-hot and liquid metal, fuch as we fee in the glafs-
Keatofla- houfes, on which were large floating cinders half
lighted, and rolling over oni: another, with great pre¬
cipitation, down the fide of the mountain, forming on
the whole a moft beautiful and uncommon cafcade.”
Now, if we confider the materials of which the lava
confifts, which undoubtedly are the common matters
to be found every where in the earth, namely, (tones,
metallic ores, clay, fand, See. we {hall find that our
hotteft furnaces would by no means be able to bring
them into any degree of fufion ; fince the materials
for glafs cannot be melted without a great quantity
of very fufible falls, fuch as alkalies, nitre, &c. mixed
along with them. The heat of a volcano muff there¬
fore be immenfe : and befides its heat, it is fometimes
attended with a very uncommon circumftance ; for Sir
William Hamilton informs us, that “ the red-hot
(tones thrown up by Vefuvius on the 31ft of March
1766, were perfeStlj tratifparent.” This we cannot
look upon to be the mere effedt of heat : for mere
heat with us will not make a folid body tranfparent;
and thefe (tones we are fure were not in a ftate of fu-
lion, or the refiftance of the air would have broke
them all to pieces, even fuppofing them, which is very
improbable, to have been in that ftate detached from
the reft of the lava. For the tranfparency, therefore,
» we muft have recourfe to electricity, which in fome of
jj* See E/tv-our experiments hath the property of rendering opaque
1 inc'ly> n° 4, bodies tranfparent *. Indeed it is fcarce poffible but
81' the lava and every other matter thrown out of a voh
Probably cano muft be in the higheft degree eledtrica!feeing
in a highly the fire itfelf moft probably takes its rife from ek&rii
pJeftrifled cjtyj as ;s frown under the article Volcano.
. irate alio. The lava, after having once broke out, does not.
conftantly continue running from the fame vent, but
often hath intermiffions, after which it will burft out
fometimes at the fame place, and fometimes at another.
No real flame ever appears to come from the lava.
If116 -
Hjfral ap- - - , ^ -
Sjjsarance. white fmoke, from which the light of the red-hot mat¬
ter being rtfk&ed in the night-time, makes it appear
23 1 LAV
like flame. But if, during its progrefs, the lava
meets with trees or other combuftible fubftances, which
it frequently does, a bright flame immediately iffues
from its furface, as hath alfo been remarked by Sir
William Hamilton.—This liquid fubftance, after ha¬
ving run pure for about too yards, (more or lefs, no
doubt, according to different circumftances), begins to
colled cinders, ftones, and a feum is formed on the
furface. Our author informs us, that the lava which
he obferved, with its feum, had the appearance of the
river Thames, as he had feen it, after a hard froft
and a great fall of fnow, when beginning to thaw,
carrying down vaft mafles of fnow and ice. In fome
places it totally difappeared, and ran in a fubterra-
neous paflage formed by the feum for feveral paces;
after which it came out pure, having left the feum
behind, though a new one was quickly formed. This
lava at the fartheft extremity from its fource did not
appear liquid, but like a heap of red-hot coals, form¬
ing a wall in fome places to or 12 feet high, which
rolling from the top foon formed another wall, and fo
on.—While a lava is in this ftate. Sir William is of
opinion, that it is very pradicable to divert it into
another channel, in a manner fomewhat fimilar to
what is pra&ifed with rivers. This he was afterwards
told had been done with fuccefs during the great
eruption of ./Etna in 1669 : that the lava was di/edling
its coiirfe towards the walls of Catania, and advan¬
cing very flowly, when they prepared a channel for it
round the walls of the town, and turned it into the
fea. A fucceffion of men, covered with (heep-fldns
wetted, were employed to. cut through the tough
flanks of lava, till they made a paflage for that in the
centre, which was in perfeA fufion, to difgorge itfelf
into the channel prepared for it. It hath been alfo 4 ,
obferved of the lavas of iEtna, that they do not con- wa°,sn(ie_a‘"
ftantly fall down to the loweft places, but will fome-fcen(i |0the
times afeend in fuch a manner as to make the valleys loweft pla-
rife into hills- On-this Sir William Hamilton has the ccs-
following note: “ Having heard the fame remark
with regard to the lavas of Vefuvius, I determined,
during an eruption of that volcano, to watch the pro¬
grefs of a current of, lava, and I was fooh enabled to
comprehend this feeming phenomenon ; though it is,
I fear, very difficult to explain. Certain it is, that
the lavas, while in their moft fluid ftate, follow always
the laws of other fluids; but, when at a great diftancc
from their fource, and confequently encumbered with
fcorias and cinders, the air likewife having rendered
their outward coat tough, they will fometimes (as I
have feen) be forced up a fmall afeent, the frefti mat¬
ter puftting forward that which went before it, and
the exterior parts of the lava ailing always as con¬
ductors (or pipes, if I may be allowed the expreffion)
for the interior parts, that have retained their fluidity
from not being expofed to the air.’> ^
The compofition of the lavas of different volcanoes,-obferva-
and even of different parts ofthofe of the fame volcano, dons on tlis
is extremely different. Sir William Hamilton is ofd’:fferen.t
opinion that this difference in compofition contributes
not a little to the facility or difficulty with which they vas by sir
afterwards receive earth capable of vegetation. “ Some W. Hamii-
(fays he) have been in. a more perfect ftate of vitrifi-'ton-
cation than others, and are confequently lefs liable
to the impreffions of time. I have often obferved on
mount
i
LAV [ 4124 ] LAV
Lava, mount VeTuvius, when I have been clofe to a mouth were fprinkled with rays and grains refembling quartz, La'
‘ from whence the lava was difgorging itfelfr that the and fome few flakes of mica. They fufed with great
quality of it varied greatly from time to time. I have difficulty in the fire; with fal fodae they (hewed fome
feen it as fluid and coherent as elafs when in fufion ; effervefcence at firft, but which ceafed in a ftiort time.
and I have feen it farinaceouSj the particles feparating
as they forced their way out, juft like meal coming
from under the grindftones. A ftream of lava of this
fort being lefs compaft, and containing more earthy
particles, would certainly be much fooner fit for ve¬
getation, than one compofed of the more perfeft vi¬
trified matter.”—No perfon, however, hath yet ac-
$ curately analyfed any lava ; neither is it an eafy
By Mr taflc to do fo. Mr Bergman hath indeed made
Bergman. fome obfervations upon the Icelandic lavas, which
throw a good deal of light upon this fubjedt. One
kind of this lava, he tells us, is very coarfe, heavy, and
hard, full of bladders, almoft black, intermixed with
white grains refembling quartz, which in fome places
have a figure not very unlike a fquare. This black
matter is not attrafted by the magnet; but if a piece
of it is held againft a compafs, the needle vifibly
moves. When tried in the crucible, it yields from 10
to 12 pounds of iron in every hundred weight. It
does not difiblve in the leaft with fal fodx, and very
difficultly with borax, and hardly'vifible with urinous
fait. It feems to contain a great deal of clay in its
compdfition, which may be extradled by all acid fol-
vents. This laft he is likewife, from experiments,
aflured is the cafe with the lava of Solfaterra in Italy.
The white lava, which pofleffes more or lefs of
thofe tranfparent grains or rays with which lavas are
generally chequered, does not feem to be of the na¬
ture of quartz, as it cannot be attacked by fal fodas;
it is, however, foluble with fome difficulty by borax
and fnfible urinous fait, or microcofmic acid. Thefe
effedls are perfe&ly fimilar to thofe produced upon the
diamond, ruby, fapphire, topaz, and hyacinth. The
chryfolite, garnet, tourmalin, and fhirl, can neither be
diflblved by fal fodae, though they are fomewhat at¬
tacked by it when reduced to a fine powder ; and
upon the two laft-mentioned ones it produces a flight
effervefcence ; on which account, fays Mr Bergman,
it is poffible that the precious ftones found upon
mount Vefuvius, which are fold at Naples, are nearer
related to the real precious ftones than is generally
imagined. He found no fuch grains in a finer kind
of lava, quite porous within, and entirely burnt out,
and confiderably lighter than the former ones.
The Iceland agate is of a black or blackifh-brown
colour, a little tranfparent at the thin edges like glafs,
and gives fire with fleel. It cannot eafily be melted
by itfelf; but becomes white, and flies in pieces. It
can hardly be diffolved in the fire by fufible urinous
fait; but it fucceeds a little better with borax, though
with fome difficulty. With fal fodae it diffolves very
little; though in the firft moments fome ebullition is
perceived, and the whole mafs is afterwards reduced
to powder. Hence’ Mr Bergman concludes-, that this
agate hath been produced by an exceflive fire out of
the black lava formerly mentioned.
In the Iceland pumice-ftone, quartz and cryftals
are often found, particularly in the black and reddifh-
brown kind. The ftones thrown out of the volcano,
whether grey, or burnt brown, feemed to confift of a
hardened clay, mixed with a filiceous earth. They
The parts refembling quartz produced no motion at
all; from whence Mr Bergman concludes, that the
black lava already mentioned proceeds principally
from this mafs. Several other ftones which were fent
him from Iceland, Mr Bergman fuppofed to have no
connexion with the eruptions, but to have been pro¬
duced in fome other way.
In Mr Ferber’s travels through Italy, we are in- y
formed, that he has feen a fpecies of lava fo exadfly re- By Mr |
fembling blue iron flags, that it was not to be diftin- I,erb<:r- j
guifhed from them but with great difficulty. The fame
author tells us likewife, that “ the Vicentine and Ve-
ronefe lavas and volcanic afhes contain inclofed feveral
forts of fire-ftriking and flint-horn ftones, of a red,
black, white, green, and variegated colour, fuch as
jafpers and agates; that hyacinths, cryfolites, and
pietre obftdianc, defcribed by Mr Arduini in his Gior-
tiale cTItalia, are found at Leonedo; and that chalce¬
dony, or opal, pebbles, and noduli with inclofed water-
drops, (cbalcedonii opali enbydri), are dug out of the
volcanic cineritious hills near Vicenza. One might con-
fider thefe flints as being torn and dragged from the
fcaglia, and thence to have been by floods heaped to¬
gether with afhes and lavas; becaufe it is a faft, that
innumerable quantities of flints, jafpers, and agates,
are found in the china and potters clay-hills near
S. Ulderico nel Tretto, (exaftly as fimilar flints are found
in the Saxonian and other china clays.) But how did
they come into thefe volcanic hills, which like thofe
of St Rocco near S. Ulderico, never contain any clay
whatever? Suppofing their having been by fubterrane-
ous fire feparated from veins pre-exifting in or near the
very bottom of the ancient volcanoes; this explains
pretty well how they came into their lava and the china
clay, when in an aqueous diffolution or mixture it was
vomited, fince fragments of quartz-cryftallization,
marble, and other pre-exifting ftones, are likewife found
in thefe argillaceous beds, &c.—All thefe circum-
ftances agree in fupport of Mr Arduini’s affertion,
that the beforementioned flint-horn ftones found among
volcanic materials are owing to fubterraneous fire and
its meltings. Knowing that by vitrefcent compofi-
tions and chemical fire even the hardeft precious ftones
can be nearly imitated, why fhould we deny the fame
power to nature and its greater fubterraneous fur¬
naces?” g
On this paffage Mr Rafpe has the following note. Mr Rafpe’j
“ To prevent miftakes, and the charge of inconfe- criticifm oi
quent writing or reafoning, the author fhould have ex- Mr Berbe*
plained himfelf with more propriety, and with more
juftice to nature, and perhaps to Mr Arduini. There¬
fore the tranflator, who has examined feveral volcanoes,
and ftudied nature in her own manufaftories or offi-
cines, endeavours to fet him right. His obfervations
are fo far agreeing with Meffrs Ferber’s and Arduini’s.
that he confiders the chalcedonies as volcanic produc¬
tions, but in acquire different fenfe from that in which
the afhes and lavas, with their various inclofed fherl-
cryftallizations, chryfolite or hyacinth-like vitrifica¬
tions, and pietre oblidiane,. are called fo. Thefe are
undoubtedly immediate productions of the fire, and
violent
LAV [ 4125 ] LAV
Lava. vIoient>melting; the former being but parajiticalflows
of volcanic matrices ; that is to fay, but mediate pro-
dufiions of the fire, as being vifibly produced by wa¬
ter, either foaking through and into the holes of vol¬
canic ftones, and depofiting therein the flint-like fire*
ftriking fediment of chalcedony; or, if properly qua¬
lified and heated by natural fire or fermentation, pre¬
cipitating the fame under other circumftances. The
former appears to convict ion by the Vicentine and Ice¬
land chalcedonies ; the latter by a fingular phenome¬
non, which I lhall take notice of. The Vicentine
chalcedonies found in volcanic tufo, contain now and
then, inclofed in their middle, drops of the water
which produced them; and the Iceland-chalcedonies
bear likewife undoubted marks of an aqueous origin.
The tranflator knows, by good authority, that they
have been difeovered but of late; and ocular infpec-
tion has convinced him, not only that thefe Iceland-
chalcedonies are equal in grain and colour to the Ori¬
ental ones, but remarkably fuperior to them on account
of their bignefs. He had large pieces fent him from
Copenhagen above a foot fquare ; and, what is more to
the fubje<Sl, in^fed in a brownilh tufo, in w'hich they
appeared to have been ftratified, or fucccflively depo-
fitedby water; confifting more or lels of white tranf-
parent beds, about an inch thick, and flicking as clofc
together as the fimilar ftrata of the coloured agates
or onyx. Mr Banks’s late voyage to Iceland brings
us ftill a ftep further. He examined there the marvel¬
lous intermittent fpouting hot wells, called the Geyflers,
at Laugafell, which in the middle of a folfatara, or an¬
cient volcano, by their accumulated fediments have
produced or raifed a wide floping hill of white lebes
or pot-ftone. I forbear to draw from this fingular
phenomenon the many confequences which it offers for
natural hiftory; obferving only what is more to the
purpofe, that in fome harder pieces of white lebes, kept
in Mr Banks’s Iceland colleftion, there appears'a ftra¬
tified white chalcedony which cannot be confidered as
adventitious; and undoubtedly is produced either by
a finer fediment, or by its greater faturation; proving,
that the fubftantial earth of chalcedony and lebes
are the fame, and that both at c nearly related to the
lapis nephriticus, the ferpentine, the bacon-ftone, the
amianth, and the talc, which are found in many volca¬
nic places; and, according to Mr Marggraaff’s experi¬
ments, have been by many miners logifts wrongly
placed among the argillaceous ftones. Similar opera¬
tions of properly qualified hot w'ells, fo common and
various in volcanic countries, might very well anfwer
for the jafpers, agates, and other flints in the china
clays and boles. But whether they have in fadl pro¬
duced them, muft be left to future proper inquiries in
the volcanic countries where they are fo very common.”
Eafahes The fame author is alfo of opinion, that the bafaltes
Jfuppofed to itfelf, or thofc pillars of which the Giants Caufeway in
be afpecies Ireland and the ifland of Staffa in the Hebrides con-
of lava. ;s no 0thcr than a fpecies of lava, which has taken
upon itffelf thefe regular figures during the time of its
cooling, as Glauber falls and fome others likewife take
upon them a kind of columnar figure during the time
of their cryftallization. Of this cryftallization of lavas
Mr Berber tells us he had an inftance in the black kind
formerly mentioned. At the time he went from Rome
to Oftia, they were paving the road with this fort of
Vol. VI.
lava. In fome of the broken pieces he obferved little Lav^
empty holes of the bignefs of a walnut, incruftated all
around their inner fides by white oramethyftinc femi*
pellucid, pointed, or truncated pyramidal cryftalliza-
tions, entirely refembling the agate nodules or geodes,
which commonly are filled with quartz-cryftallizations.
There was no crack or fiffure in the ambient corapaft
lava; the cryftal fherls were pretty hard, and might
rather be called quartz. In the reft of the holes was
fome fine brownifh dull, impalpable and light as afhes.
In another place alfo, he tells us, that in the greateft
part of the Vicentine, Veronefe, and Paduan lavas, is
to be found an infinite quantity of white polygonal
ftierl-cryftallizations, whofe figure is as regular, and
ftill more polygonal than the bafaltes; and can only be
fuppofed to have been formed in the lava while in a
fluid (late. It is indeed very improbable that fuch fub-
ftances fhould be thrown up along with the lava un¬
changed, feeing the intenfe heat muft have been fuffi-
cient to melt the moft refra&ory fubftance we can ima¬
gine, and we have no evidence of fuch numbers of thefe
fubftances exifting at the bottoms of the burning
mountains. Still, however, neither Mr Berber, nor
Mr Rafpe, nor any other advocate for the volcanic
origin of bafaltes, hath been able to find a bafaltic
column either in the lavas of Vefuvius, .£tna, or the
Iceland volcanoes; fothat this faft muft be in fome mea-
fure dubious, though the analogical reafoning Ihould
be ever fo ftrong. Mr Rafpe indeed attempts to fo've
this difficulty by another. “ The queftion, (fays
he), Why do not all lavas cryftallize into prifmatical
bafalts, or why do not the Vefuvian lavas (hew that
form ? is the fame as afking. Why does not every quartz
appear in cryftallizations?” But the infufficiency of
fuch anfwers is evident.—On the production of bafaltes,
&c. from the lava of volcanoes, Mr Bergman gives his
opinion in the following words. IfJ
“ As it is not uncommon, even in the profeffors of Mr Berg-
morality, to pafs from one wrong ftep to another, fo man’s opi-
are we not without examples of this kind in thofe whon'on•
make nature their ftudy. Ten years ago it was a ge¬
neral opinion that the furface of the earth, together
with the mountains upon it, had been produced by
moifture. It is true, fome declared the fire to be the
firft original caufe; but the greater number paid little
attention to this opinion. Now, on the contrary, that
a fubterraneous fire had been the principal agent, gains
ground daily: every thing is fuppofed to have been
melted, even to the granite. My own opinion with
regard to it is this, That both the fire and water have
contributed their fliare in this operation, though in fuch
a proportion, that the force of the former extends
much further than the latter; and, on the contrary, that
the fire has only worked in fome parts of the furfacc
of the earth.
“ Of all the mountains hitherto known, there are
without doubt none more remarkable than thofe
that are compofed of angular pillars. A few years
ago only one or two of this kind were known ; but
new ones are daily difeovered; which is a plain proof
how much our attention requires being rouzed, to pre¬
vent it from flumbering, even on the moft important oc-
cafions.
“ It cannot much be doubted, that there has been
fome conne&ion between thefe pillars and the effefts
23 L of
LAV [41
Lava.. 0f fubterraneous fire, as they are found hi places where
the figns of fire are yet vifible, and as they are even
found mixed with lava, tophus, and other fubftances
produced by fire.
“ The caufe of the regular form of thefe pillars is
a problem which we have hitherto been unable to folve
fatisfa&orily. This difficulty has appeared fo infur-
rnountable to fome, that they have thought it impof-
lible for them to be the effedls of nature, and have
confidered them as works made by human hands : this
idea betrays the utmoft ignorance in regard to the true
nature of thefe mountains of pillars, and does not even
deferve a refutation.
“ As far as we know, nature makes ufe of three
methods to produce regular forms in the mineral king¬
dom: 1. That of cryltallization, or precipitation;
1. The crufting or fettling of the external furface of a
liquid mafs whillt it is cooling; and, 3. The burfting
of a moift fubtlance while it is drying.
“ The firft method is the molt common; but, to all
appearance, nature has not made ufe of this in the pre-
fent cafe. Cryllals are feldom or never found in any
confiderable quantity running in the fame direftion,
but either inclining from one another, or, what is ftill
more common, placed towards one another, in floping
dire&ions. They are alfo generally feparated a little
from one another when they are regular; the nature
of the thing requires this, becaufe the feveral particles
of which the cryftals are compofed muft have the li¬
berty of following that power which affe&s their re¬
gular difpofition.
“ The bafaltic columns, on the contrary, whofe
height is frequently from 30 to 40 feet, are placed
parallel to one another in confiderable numbers, and
fo clofe together, that the point of a knife can hardly
be introduced between them. Befides, in moft places,
each pillar is divided into feveral parts or joints, which
feem to be placed upon one another: and indeed, it is
not uncommon for cryftals to be formed above one
another in different layers, when the folvent has been
vifibly diminilhed at different times ; but then the
upper cryftals never fit fo exa&ly upon the lower ones
as to produce connefted prifms of the fame length and
depth as all the ftrata taken together; but each ftra-
tum feparately taken, forms its own cryftals.
“ How then can. the Giant’s Caufeway in the
county of Antrim, Fingal’s Cave at Staffa, and all
other affemblages of pillars of the fame kind, be con¬
fidered as cryftallizations ! Precipitation, both in the
wet and dry manner, requires that the particles ftiould
be free enough to fix themfelves in a certain order;
and as this is not practicable in a large melted mafs,
no cryftallizations appear in it, except on its furface
or in its cavities.
“ Add to this, that the bafalts in a frelh fradlure
do not (hew a plain fmooth furface under the micro-
fcope; but appear fometimes like grains of different
magnitude, and at other times refemble fine rays run¬
ning in different directions, which does not correfpond
with the internal ftruCture of the cryftals.
“ From what I have hitherto mentioned, the opi¬
nion: that the bafalts have been produced by cryftal-
lization becomes at leaft lets probable, whether we
admit the wet or the dry method. But I muft not
omit, that the fpars exhibit a kind of cryftallization,
26 ] LA V
which at firft fight refembles a heap of balalts; but, Lav
upon a clofer examination, a very great difference is
obferved. The form of the fpar is every-where alike,
but the bafalts differ from one another in point of fixe
and number of fides: the former when broken confifts
of many fmall unequal cubes, but the bafalt does not
feparate in regular parts, &c. &c.
“ Nature’s fecond method to produce regular forms
is that of crufting the outer-furface of a melted mafs.
By a fudden refrigeration, nature, to effedthis purpofe,
makes ufe of polyhedrous and irregular forms. If we
fuppofe a confiderable bed which is become fluid by
fire, and fpread over a plain, it evidently appears that
the furface muft,firft of all lofe the degree of heat re-
quiiite for melting, and begin to congeal ; but the
cold requifite for this purpofe, likewife contracts the
uppermoft congealed ftratum into a narrower fp.ace,
and confequently caufes it to feparate from the re¬
maining liquid mafs, as the fide expofed to the air is
already too ftiff to give way. In this manner a ftra¬
tum is produced running in a parallel direction with
the whole mafs; others ftill are produced by the fame
caufe, in proportion as the refrigeration penetrates
deeper.
“ Hence we may, in my opinion, very plainly fee
how a bed may be divided into ftrata. In the fame
manner the refrigeration advances on the fides, which
confequently divides the ftrata into polyhedrous pil¬
lars, which can hardly ever be exaCtly fquare, as the
ftrongeft refrigeration into the inner-parts of the mafs
advances a!moft in a diagonal line from the corners.
If we add to this, that a large mafs cannot be equal
through its compofition, nor every-where liquid in
the fame degree; it will be eafy to difeover the
caufe of feveral irregularities. If the depth of the
bed is very confiderable in proportion to its breadth*
prifmatic pillars, without crofs divifions, are pro¬
duced, at leaft lengthways, from the uppermoft furface
downwards.
The third way is perfeClly fimilar to the prece¬
ding in refpeft to the effeCf; but is different from it
by the mafs being foaked with water, and by the
burfting of it afunder, being the effeCI of the con¬
traction whilft it is drying. If we fuppofe fuch a
bed to be fpread over a level fpace, the drying ad¬
vances in the fame manner as the refrigeration in tha
former cafe.
“ This feparation into ftrata properly happens
when a confiderable quantity of clay enters into the
whole compofition, becaufe the clay decreafes more
than any other kind of earth in drying.”
Our author now proceeds to confider the manner
in which he thinks the bafaltes moft probably may be
produced; and having rejected the hypothefis cf thofa
who derive them from a cryftallization of melted lava,
he gives his own opinion as follows. “ It feems more
credible to me, that they have been produced out
of their fubftance whilft it was yet foft, or at
leaft not too hard to be foftened by exhalations.
If we therefore fuppofe that a bed is fpread over a
place where a volcano begins to work, it is evident
that a great quantity of the water, always prefent oa
thefe occafions, is driven upwards in exhalations or
vapours: thefe it is well known poffefs a penetrating
foftening power, by means of which they alfo produce
their
LAV [41
Lava, their firft effect; but when they are increafeci to a
fufficiertt quantity, they force this tough moiil fub-
ftance upwards, which then gradually falls, and
during this time burfts in the manner defcribed^
above.
“ My reafons for this opinion are thefc : Fii ft, we
do not Hnd the internal grain of the bafalts melted or
vitrified, which however foon happens by fufion, and
for which purpofe only a very fmall degree of fire is
requifite. It confequently is very hard to explain,
how this fubftance could have been fo fluid, that no
traces of bubbles appear in it (at leaft I have not
been able to difcover any, after the niceft examination
into the Scotch and Icelandic bafalts), and yet when
broken appear dull and uneven. I know very well,
that lava is feldom vitrified within ; but the great
number of bubbles and pores which are found in the
whole mafs, are more than fufiicient proofs that it has
not been perfedly melted to its fmalleft parts, but has
only been brought to be near fluid. Secondly, the
bafalts fo much referable the finer trapp, both in
refped. to their grain and original cotnpofition, that
they can hardly be diftinguilhed in fmall frag¬
ments.”
Thefe are the principal arguments on both fides of
the queftion with regard to bafaltes, which yet feem
» Jt far from being decifive on either.
Vaft qnan- The quantity of matter thrown out from vol-
tities of lava canoes under the name'of is prodigious. Af-
throwu out. ter the great eruption of uEtna in 1669, Borelli
went from Pifa to Sicily to obferve the effe&s of
it. The matter thrown out at that time amounted
to 93)830,750 cubical paces ; fo that, had it been
extended in length upon the furface of the earth, it
would have reached more than four times round
the whole earth. All this matter, however, was
not lava, but confifted alfo of fand, ftone, gravel,
&c. The lava he computed at 6,300,000 paces,
which formed a river, according to our author, fome-
times two miles broad, but according to others it was
fix or feven miles broad, and fometimes 20 or 30 yards
in depth. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the
lavas of iEtna are very' commonly 15 or 20 miles in
length, fix or feven in breadth, and 50 feet deep. The
moil confiderable is fcarce lefs than 30 miles long and
15 broad. The moft confiderable lavas of Vefuvius
do not exceed feven miles in length. The fame au¬
thor, however, tells us, that the lava which iffued
from Vefuvius in 1767, was fix miles long, two in
breadth, and in moft places 60 or 70 feet deep. In
one place it had run along a hollow-way made by cur¬
rents of rain not lefs than 200 feet deej) and 100
wide; and this vaft hollow it had in one place fill¬
ed up. He fays, he could not have believed that fo
great a quantity of matter could have been thrown out
in fuch a fliort time, if he had not examined the whole
j,, courfe of it himfelf.
I Require a As the lavas are thrown out from the volcanoes in
I long time the higbeft degree of ignition, it may eafily be fup-
tocool. p0feci that fuch vaft bodies will retain their heat
for a long time. It would indeed be well worth
obferving, what length of time is required to cool a
lava perfeflly; as from thence we might in fome
meafure judge how far thofe philofophers are in the
27 ] LAV
right, who argue concerning the length of time re- Lava
quired to cool an ignited globe of the lize of our earth LavaBduta-.
or larger. Sir William Hamilton tells us, that in the
month of April 1771, hethruft (ticks into fome of the
crevices of the lava which had iftued from Vefuvius in
O&ober 1767, and they immediately took fire. On
mount iEtna, in 1769, he obferved the lava that had
been difgorged three years before to fmoke in many
parts. No particular obfervation, however, hath been
made in what proportion the heat of lavas is gradually
loft.
Sir William Hamilton informs us of a curious fa&Cold and
relating to a lava in the ifland called I.acco. Here is noxious va-
a cavern (hut up with a door ; and this cavern is madePours Pro;
ufe of to cool liquors and fruit, which it does in a |,a“caej<1,)yo^
ftiort tirfie as effcdlually as ice. Before the door was*
opened, he felt the cold on his legs very fenfibly ; but
when it was opened, the cold rufhed out fo as to give
him pain ; and within the grotto it was intolerable.
He was not fenfible of wind attending this cold ; tho’
upon Mount ./Etna and Vefuvins, where there are ca¬
verns of this kind, the cold is evidently occafioned by
a fubterraneous wind : the natives call fuch places v:n-
taroli. From old lavas there alfo frequently happens
an eruption of noxious vapours called viofetes. Thefe
likewife break out from wells and fubterraneous places
in the neighbourhood of a volcano before an eruption.
Our author tells us, that the vapour affefts the noftrils,
throat, and ftomach, juft as the fpirit of hartlhorn or
any ftrong volatile fait; and would foon prove fatal if
you did not immediately withdraw from it. Thefc
mofetes, he fays, are at all times to be met with utidcr
the ancient lavas of Vefuvius, particularly the great
eruption of 1631. r4
As to the nature and quality of lavas, Sir William Ufesotkvj.
Hamilton informs us, that thofe of ./Etna and Vefu¬
vius are much the fame, but thofe of ./Etna rather
blacker and more porous than thofe of Vefuvius. Some
kinds of lava take a finepoliftt, and are frequently ma-
nufadlured into boxes, tables, &c. In Naples, the
inhabitants commonly make ufe of it for paving the
ftreets, and even the fubterraneous cities of Pompeii
and Herculaneum have been paved with the fame fub¬
ftance. A fine large cubic piece of lava is preferved
in the hall of the Britiih Mufeum.
LAVANDULA, lavender, a genus of the gym-
nofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The fpica, or lavender fpike, hath a
(hort (hrubby ftatk, rifing two or three feet high; fmail
fpear-fhaped entire leaves; and from the ends of the
branches, numerous, long, eredi, naked fpikes of
fmall ringent flowers, of different colours in the varie¬
ties. The varieties of this are common narrow-leaved
lavender, with blue flowers, and with white flowers—
broad-leaved lavender—dwarf lavender: all of them
flowering in July. This fpecies is the common laven¬
der ; but the narrow-leaved variety, with blue flowers,
is the fort commonly cultivated for its flowers for me¬
dicine, &c. The ftceclms, or French lavender, hath
a (hrubby very branchy ftalk, rifing two or three feet
high ; very narrow fpear-ftiaped, pointed, hoary leaves,
oppofite; and all the branches terminated by fhort
bufhy fpikes of purple flowers in June and July ; fuc-
•2 3 L 2 ceeded
LAV [41
is ’ula eeeded by feeds in Au'guft. There is a variety with
j! white flowers. 3. The dental?., or dentate-leaved
“tory‘ ftcechas, hath a woody flalk, branching on every fide
three or four feet high ; leaves deeply indented in a
pinnated manner; and the branches terminated by
fcaly four-cornered fpikes of flowers, appearing moft
part of fummer.
Culture. All the forts are propagated plentifully
by flips or cuttings of their young fhoots in fpring.
In March or April, take off a quantity of flips or cut¬
tings, from three or four to fix inches long; ftrip off
the under leaves; then plant them in a fhady border,
four inches afunder; give a good watering, repeat it
occafionally in dry weather, and the plants will be well-
rooted in fummer, and each become a good plant fit
to be tranfplanted into any place early in autumn, that
is September or Oftober ; removing them, if poflible,
with balls of earth ; and if intended to plant them for
ufe, fet them in rows two or three feet afunder, and
two feet diftance in each row : if any are defigned for
the fhrubbery, they fhould be ftationed fingly at good
diftances near the front. Thofe of the third fort being
tender, (hould be potted to move to ftielter in winter.
The lavendula ftcechas is alfo often raifed from feed,
fown in March or April, in abed of light earth.
Ufes. The two firft fpecies are proper both for
the kitchen-garden, for medicinal and other family-
ufes ; and to plant in the pleafure-ground to adorn the
front of fmall flirubbery compartments, where they will
increafe the variety very agreeably; and are finely-
fcented aromatics, both when growing, and their flow¬
ers when gathered, efpecially thofe of the firft fpecies,
which are in great efteem for putting among cloaths,
and for diftilling and other cCconomical ufes. The flow¬
ers of the firft fort are gathered for ufe in July; which
being the time of their perfe&ion, cut off the fpikes
clofe in a dry day, and tie them in fmall bunches for
ufe. Thefe and the fummits are in a very eminent de¬
gree cephalic and nervine. They are given in pal-
lies, vertigos, lethargies, tremors, and fuppreflion of
the menftrual evacuation. The compound fpirit di-
ftilled from them is famous in thefe and many other
like cafes. The diftilled oil is particularly celebrated
for deftroying the ptdiculi ir.guinales, and other cu¬
taneous infefts. If foft fpongy paper, dipt in this
oil, either alone, or mixed with oil of almonds, be
applied at night to the parts infe&ed, the infefts
will certainly, fays Geoffroy, be all found dead in the
morning.
LAVATERA, in botany, a genus of the polyan-
dria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafa of
plants. There are feveral fpecies, moft of them her¬
baceous flowery annuals, or fhrubby perennials, grow¬
ing ereft from two or three to eight or ten feet high,
garniihed with large roundifli, heart-fliaped, and angu¬
lar leaves, and quinquepetalous flowers of the mallow
kind. They are eafily propagated by feed in the open
ground in the fpring; and thrive beft when fown where
they are defigned to remain.
LAVATORY, or Lavadero, a name given to
certain places in Chili and Peru, where gold is got out
of earth by walking.
M. Frezier gives us the following defeription of the
lavatories of Chili; “ They dig deep into the earth,
;n fuch places as they have reafon to expeft gold in ;
>3 ] „ L A U
and, in order to facilitate this digging, turn a ftream Lauh.-.ch,
of water upon the fpet, loofening the earth as much
as poffibie all the time, that the current may have the
greater effeft, and tear up the earth more ftrongly.
When they are got to the earth they want, they turn
off the ftream, and dig dry.
“ The earth that they now get, is carried on mules,
and difeharged into a bafon, made fomewhat in the
manner of a fmith’s bellows ; into which a little rivu¬
let of water runs with a great deal of rapidity, diffol-
ving the parts of the earth, and carrying every thing
away with it, excepting the particles of gold, which,
by their great weight, precipitate to the bottom of the
bafon, and mix with a fine black fand, where they
are almoft as much hidden as they were before in the
earth.
“ Sometimes they find very confiderable pieces in
lavatories, particularly pieces of 24 ounces each.—
There are feveral lavatories, where they find pepitas,
or pieces of virgin gold, of a prodigious fize. A-
mong others, they tell of one that weighed 512
ounces, bought by the count de la Moncloa, viceroy
of Peru.
“ Nine or ten leagues to the eaft of Coquimbo, are
the lavatories of Andacoll, the gold whereof is 23
carats fine.—Their work, here, always turn to great
profit, excepting when the water fails them.—The
natives maintain that the earth is creative, that is,
it produces gold continually ; bccaufe, after having
been wafhed 60 or 80 years, they find it impreg¬
nated afrelh, and draw almoft as much out of it as
at firft.
LAUBACH, a handfome and ftrongtown of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Auftria, and in Carniola, with
a bilhop’s fee, a caftle, and very handfome houfes. It
is feated ■on a river of the fame name, wherein are the
largeft craw-fifli in Europe. E. Long. 14. 45. N.
Lat. 46. 20.
LAUD (William), archbifhop of Canterbury in
the 17th century, was born at Reading in 1573, and
educated in St John’s college, Oxford, of which he
was afterwards a fellow and grammar-reader. In
j6io, he went into orders. In 1611, he was eledled
prefident of St John’s college ; but his election being
difputed, it was confirmed tgr his majefty. The fame
year he was fworn the king’s chaplain. In 1621,
he was nominated bifhop of St David’s. In 1628, he
was tranflated to the bifhopric of London. In 1630,
he was elefted chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford.
In 1633, he attended the king into Scotland, and was
fworn a privy-counfellor for that kingdom. During
his ftay in Scotland, he formed the refolution of bring¬
ing that church to an exa£t conformity with the church
of England. In the fame year, he fucceeded archbi¬
fhop Abbot in the fee of Canterbury ; and foon after
came out his majefty’s declaration about lawful fports
on Sundays, which the archbifhop was charged with
having revived and enlarged, and that with the vexa¬
tious profecutions of fuch clergymen as refufed to
read it in their churches.
In 1634-5, t^e archbifhop was put into the great
committee of trade and the king’s revenue ; on the
fourth of March following, he was appointed one of
the commifiioners of the treafury ; and on the fixth of
March 1635-6, he received the ftaff of lord high-trea-
furer "
L A U [ 4031 ] L A U
I.and furer of England.
li In order to prevent the printing and publishing
^ughter. what he thought improper books, he procured a de¬
cree to be pafled in the ftar-chamber, on the iiih of
July 1637, whereby it was enjoined that the mailer-
printers (hould be reduced to a certain number, and
that none of them Ihould print any books till they
were licenfed either by the archbilhcp, or the hi-
fhop of London, or feme of their chaplains, or by
the chancellors or vice-chancellors of the two univer-
lities.
A new parliament being fummoned, met on the 13th
of April 1640 ; and the convocation the day follow¬
ing : but the commons lanching out into complaints
againft the archbifhop, and infilling upon a redrefs of
grievances before they granted any fupply, the parlia¬
ment was diflblved on the 7th of May. The convo¬
cation, however, continued fitting ; and made 17 ca¬
nons, which were fuppofed to be formed under the im¬
mediate dire&ion of the archbilhop; In the begin¬
ning of the long parliament he was attacked on ac¬
count of thofe canons : and they being condemned by
the houfe of commons on the 16th of December 1640,
“ as containing many things contrary to the king’s
prerogative, to the fundamental laws and ftatutes of
this realm, to the rights of parliament, to the proper¬
ty and liberty of the futrjedl, and tending to fedition,
and of dangerous confequence he was, on the 18th
of December, accufed by the commons of high treafon,
and fent to the Tower. Being tried before the houfe
of lords, for endeavouring to fubvert the laws, and to
overthrow the Proteftant religion, he was found guil¬
ty, and beheaded on Tower-hill on January 10th fol¬
lowing, in the 72d year of his age.
This learned prelate, notwithftanding his being
charged with a defign to bring in Popery, wrote an
anfwer to Dr Filher, which is efteemed one of the bed
pieces that has been printed againft that religion. He
was temperate in his diet, and regular in his private
life: but his fondnefs for introducing new ceremonies,
in which he fhewed a hot and indifereet zeal, his en-
I couraging of fports on Sundays, his illegal and cruel
feverity in the ftar-chambcr and high-commiffion
courts, and the fury with which he perfecuted thedif-
fenters, and all who prefumed to contradict his fenti-
ments, expofed him to popular hatred. Befides his
Anfwer to Filher, he publilhed feveral Sermons, and
other works.
LAUDANUM. See Opium.
LAVENDER. See Lavandula.
LAUGHTER, an affeftion peculiar to mankind,
©ccafioned by fomething that tickles the fancy.
In laughter, the eye-brows are railed about the
middle, and drawn down next the nofe; the eyes are
almoft {hut ; the mouth opens and (hows the teeth, the
corners of the mouth being drawn back and railed
up; the cheeks feem puffed up, and almoft hide the
eyes; the face is ufually red, the noftrils arc open; and
the eyes wet. See Plate XCV.
Authors attribute laughter to the fifth pair of nerves,
which fending branches to the eye, ear, lips, tongue,
palate, and mufcles of the cheek, partaof the mouth,
praecordia, &c. there hence arifes a fympathy, or con¬
tent, between all thefe parts; fo that when one of
them is afted upon, the others are proportionably af-
Efled. Hence a favoury thing feen, or fmelt, affe&s Langb
the glands, and parts of the mouth; a thing feen, or
heard, that is fiiameful,affeds the cheeks with blufties:
on the contrary, if it pleafe and tickle the fancy, it af-
fe&s the prrccordia, and mufcles of the mouth and face
with laughter; if it caufe fadnefs and melancholy, it
likewife affe&s the pnecordia, and demonft rates itfelf
by caufing the glands of the eyes to emit tears. Dr
Willis accounts for the pleafurc of killing from the
fame caufe; the branches of this fifth pair being fpread
to the lips, the prascordia, and the genital parts;
whence arifes a fympathy between thofe parts.
The affedlion of the mind by which laughter is pro¬
duced, is feemingly fo very different from the other
paffions with which we are endowed, that it hath en¬
gaged the attention of very eminent perfons to find it
out.—1. Ariftotle, in the fifth chapter of his Poetics,
obferves of comedy, that “ it imitates thofe vices or
meanneffes only which partake of the ridiculousnow
the ridiculous (fays he) confifts of fome fault or tur¬
pitude not attended with great pain, and not deftruc-
tive.” 2. “ The palfion of laughter, (fays Mr Hobbes)
is nothing elfe, but fudden glory arifing from fomc
fudden conception of fome eminency in ourfelves,
by comparifon with the infirmity of others, or with
our own formerly. For men (continues he) laugh
at the follies of themfelves paft, when they come fud-
denly to remembrance, except when we bring with
them any fudden dilhonour.” 3. Akenfide, in the
third book of his excellent poem, treats of ridicule
at confiderable length. He gives a detail of ridi¬
culous chara&ers ; ignorant pretenders to learning,
boaftful foldiers, and lying travellers, hypocritical
churchmen, conceited politicians, old women that
talk of their charms and virtue, ragged philofophers
who rail at riches, virtuofi intent upon trifles, ro¬
mantic lovers, wits wantonly fatirical, fops that out
of vanity appear to be difeafed and profligate, daftards
who are afhamed or afraid without reafon,. and fools
who are ignorant of what they ought to know. Ha¬
ving finilhed the detail of charaflers he makes fome
general remarks on the caufe of ridicule ; and explains
himfelf more fully in a profe definition illuftrated by
examples. The definition, or rather defeription, is in
thefe words. “ That which makes objedls ridiculous,
is fome ground of admiration or efteem connedled
with other more general circumftances comparatively
worthlefs or deformed or it is fome circumftance of
turpitude or deformity conneded with what is in ge¬
neral excellent or beautiful ; the inconfiftent proper¬
ties exifting either in the objeds themfelves, or in the
apprehenfion of the perfon to whom they relate ; be¬
longing always to the fame order or clafs of being ;
implying fentiment and defign, and exciting no acute
or vehement commotion of the heart.”—4. Hutchefon
has given another account of the ludicrous quality,
and feems to think that it is the contrail or oppofi-
tion of dignity nad meannefs which occafions laugh¬
ter.
All thefe opinions are refuted by Dr Beattie in his
Effay on Laughter and Ludicrous Compofition, where
he has treated the fubjed in a mafterly manner. “ To
provoke laughter, (fays he), is not efiential either to wit
or humour. For though that unexpeded difeovery cf
refemblance between ideas fuppofed diffimilar, which is
called
L A U
[
]
L A U
4130 _
Laughter, called Wit—and that comic exhibition cyffingularcharac- very common oflate) I fhouldterm_/e’»*'?w»i?<7/.—Smiles Laughter.
ters,fentiments, and imagery, which is denominated i/a- admit of fimilar divifions. Not to mention the fcornful, «
mour,—do frequently raife laughter, they do not raife it the envious, the malevolent fmile, I would only re-
always. Addifon’s poem to Sir Godfrey Kneller, in mark, that of the innocent and agreeable fmile there
which the Britifh kings are likened to heathen gods, are two forts. The one proceeds from the rifible emo-
is exquilitely witty, and yet not laughable. Pope’s tion, and has a tendency to break out into laughter,
Efiay on Man abounds in ferious wit; and examples The other is the efFe<£k of good-humour, complacency,
of ferious humour are not uncommon in Fielding’s and tender affedion. This laft fort of fmile renders a
Hiftory of Parfon Adams, and in Addifon’s account countenance amiable in the higheft degree. Homer
of Sir Roger de Coverley. Wit, when the fubjed is afcribes it to Venus in an epithet which
grave, and the allufiofls fublime, raifes admiration in- Dryden and Pope, after Waller, improperly tranflate
Head of laughter : and if the comic Angularities of a laughter-loving ; an idea that accords better with the
good man appear in circumftances of real diftrefs, the charader of a romp or hoyden, than with the goddefs
imitation of thefe Angularities in the epic or dra- of love and beauty.
matic comedy will form a fpecies of humour, which, if “ Animal-laughter admits of various degrees ; from
it fhould force a fmile, will draw forth a tear at the the gentle impulfe excited in a child by moderate joy,
fame time. An inquiry, therefore, into the diftin- to that terrifying and even mortal convulAon which
guifliing charaders of wit and humour has no neceflary has been known to accompany a change of fortune,
conedion with the prefent fubjed. This paffion may, as well as joy and forrovv, be com-
“ Some authors have treated of ridicule, without municated by fympathy ; and I know not whether the
marking the ditlindion between ridiculous and ludi- entertainment we receive from the playful tricks of
crous ideas. But I prefume the natural order of pro- kittens and other young animals, may not in part be
ceeding in this inquiry, is to begin with afcertaining refolved into fomething like a fellow-feeling of their
the nature of what is purely ludicrous. Things ludi- vivacity.-—Animal and fentimental laughter are fre-
crous and things ridiculous have this in common, that quently blended ; but it is eafy to di&inguifh them,
both excite laughter ; but the former excite pure The former is often exceflive ; the latter never, unlefs
laughter, the latter excite laughter mixed with difap- heightened by the other. The latter is always plea-
probation and contempt. My deAgn is to analyfe and fing, both in itfelf and in its caufe ; the former may
explain that quality in things or ideas, which makes be painful in both. But their principal difference is
them provoke pure laughter, and entitles them to the this The one always proceeds from a fentiment or
name of ludicrous or laughable. emotion excited in the mind, in confequence of cer-
“ When certain objeds, qualities, or ideas, occur to tain ideas or objeds being prefented to it, of which
our fenfes, memory, or imagination, we fmile or laugh emotion we may be confcious even when we fupprels
at them, and exped that other men fliould do the laughter the other arifes not from any fentiment, or
fame. To fmile on certain occafions is not lefs natu- perception of ludicrous ideas, but from fome bodily
ral, than to weep at the Aght of dillrefs, or cry out feeling, or fudden impulfe on what is called the ani-
when we feel pain. vialfpirits, proceeding, or feeming to proceed, from
“ There are different kinds of laughter. As a boy, the operation of caufes purely material. The prefent
paffing by night through a church-yard, Angs or inquiry regards that fpecies that is here dirtinguifhed
whiffles in order to conceal his fear even from bimfelfby the name of fentimental laughter.
fo there are men, who, by forcing a fmile, endeavour “ The pleafmg emotion, ariAng from the view of
fometimes to hide from others, and from themfelves ludicrous ideas, is known to every one by experience ;
too perhaps, their malevolence or envy. Such laugh- but, being a fimple feeling, admits not of deAnition,
ter is unnatural. The found of it offends the ear ; It is to be diftinguifhed from the laughter that gene-
the features diftorted by it feem horrible to the eye. rally attends it, as forrow is to be diftinguifhed from
A mixture of hypocrify, malice, and cruel joy, thus tears; for it is often felt in a high degree by thofe
difplayed on the countenance, is one of the moft hate- who are remarkable for gravity of countenance. Swift
ful fights in nature, and transforms the “ human face feldom laughed ; notwithftanding his uncommon ta-
divine” into the vifage of a Aend.—Similar to this is lents in wit and humour, and the extraordinary delight
the fmile of a wicked perfon pleaAng bimfelf with the he feems to have had in furveying the ridiculous Ade
hope of accomplifhing his evil purpofes. Milton gives of things. Why this agreeable emotion fhould be
a ftriking pi&ure of it in that well-known paffage : accompanied with laughter as its outward Agn, or
f   r„ :.r it ^  \ , >■
He ceas’d ; for both feemed highly pleas’d ; and Death
Grinn’d horrible a ghaftly fmile, to hear
His famine fhould be fill’d, and bleft his maw
Deftin’d to that good hour. 
But enough of this. Laughter that makes
forrow exprefs itfelf by tears, or fear by trembling or
palenefs, I cannot ultimately explain, otherwife than
by faying-, that fuch is the appointment of the Au¬
thor of nature.—-All I mean by this inquiry is, to de-
•  .1 • ,• .
- .   termine, “ What is peculiar to thofe things which
fiend or a monlter, I have no inclination to analyfe. produce laughter ;—or rather, which raife in the mind
My inquiries are conAned to that fpecies of laughter that pleaAng fentiment or emotion whereof laughter
which is at once natural and innocent. is the external Agn.”
“ OUhis there are two forts. The laughter occa- “ Philofophers have differed in their opinions con-
fioned by tickling or ghdnefs is different from that cerning this matter. In Ariftotle’s deAnition quoted
which arifes on reading the Tale of a Tub. The above, it is clear that he means to chara&erife, not
.ormer may be called ansnial laughter : the latter, (if laughable qualities in general (as fome have thought),
it were lawful to adopt a new word which has become but the obie&s of comic ridicule onlv : and in this
d which has become but the obje&s of comic ridicule only; and in this
L A U [4
Laughter, view the definition Is juft, however It may have been
overlooked or defpifed by comic writers. Crimes
and misfortunes are often in modern plays, and
were fometimes in the ancient, held up as objefts
of public merriment; but if poets had that reverence
for nature which they ought to have, they would not
{hock the common fenfe of mankind by fo abfurd a
H , reprefentation.—The definition from Ariftocle does
not, however, fuit the general nature of ludicrous
ideas; for it will appear by and by, that men laugh
at that in which there is neither fault or turpitude of
any kind.
“ The theory of Mr Hobbes would hardly have
deferved notice, if Addifon had not fpoken of it with
approbation in the 47th paper of the Spettator. He
juftly obferves, after quoting the words of Mr Hobbes
formerly mentioned, that, “ according to this account,
when w^ hear a man laugh exceffively, inftead of fay¬
ing thatj he is very merry, we ought to tell him that
he is very proud.” It is ftrange, that the elegant au¬
thor Ihould be aware of this confequence, and yet ad¬
mit the theory: for fo good a judge of human nature
could not be ignorant, that laughter is not confidered
as a fign of pride; perfons of lingular gravity being
often fufpe&ed of that vice, but great laughers feldom
or never. When we fee a man attentive to the inno¬
cent humours of a merry company, and yet maintain
a fixed folemnity of countenance, is it natural for us
to think that he is the humbleft, and the only humble
perfon in the circle ?
“ Another writer in the Spe&ator, n° 249, remarks,
in confirmation of this theory, that the vaineft part of
mankind are moft addifted to the paffion of laughter.
Now, how can this be, if the proudejl part of mankind
are alfo moft addided to it, unlefs we fnppofe vanity
and pride to be the fame thing ? But they certainly
are different paffions. The proud man defpifes other
men, and derives his chief pltafure from the contem¬
plation of his own importance : the vain man (lands in
need of the applaufe of others, and cannot be happy
without it. Pride is apt to be referved and fullen; va¬
nity is often affable, and officioufly obliging. The
proud man is fo confident of his merit, and thinks it
fo obvious to all the world, that he will fcarce give
himfelf the trouble to inform you of it: the vain man,
|j to raife your admiration, fcruples not to tell you, not
only the whole truth, but even a great deal more. In
the fame perfon thefe two paflions may, no doubt, be .
united ; but fome men are too proud to be vain, and
fome vain men are too confcious of their own we-aknefs
to be proud. Be all this, however, as it will, we have
not as yet made any difeovery of the caufe of laugh¬
ter: in regard to which, I apprehend, that'the vain are
not more intemperate than other people ; and l am fure
that the proud are .much lefs fo.
“ Hutchefon’s account of the origin of laughter is
equally unfatisfaftory. Granting what he fays tobetruei
I would obferve, in the firft place, what the ingenious
If. author feems to have been aware of, that there may be
a mixture of meannefs and dignity where there is no¬
thing ludicrous. A city, confidered as a colledtion of
low and lofty houfes, is no laughable objedl. Nor was
: . that perfon either ludicrous or ridiculous, whom Pope
fo juftly charadterifes,
“ The greateft, wifeft, meaneft, of mankind.”
I3I ] L A U
— But, fecondly, cafes might be mentioned, of laugh- Laughter,
ter arifing from a group of ideas or objedls, where-  
in there is no difcernible oppofition of meannefs or
dignity. We are told of the dagger of Hudibras,
that
“ It could ferape trenchers, or chip bread,
“ Toaft cheefe or bacon, though it were
“ To bait a moufe-trap, ’twould not care;
“ ’Twou’d make clean (hoes, or in the earth
“ Set leeks and onions, and fo forth.”
The humour of the paffage cannot arife from the mean-
ntfs of thefe offices compared with the dignity of the
dagger, nor from any oppofition of meannefs and dig¬
nity in the offices themfdves, they being all equally
mean ; and mud therefore be owing to fome peculia¬
rity in the defeription. We laugh, when a droll mi¬
mics the folemnity of a grave perfon; here dignity and
meannefs are indeed united: but we laugh alfo, (thos
not fo heartily perhaps), when he mimics the peculia¬
rities of a fellow as infignificant as himfelf, and dif-
plays no oppofition of dignity and meannefs. The le¬
vities of Sancho Panca oppofed to the folemnity of his
mafter, and compared with his own fchemes of prefer¬
ment, form an entertaining contrail: but fome of the
vagaries of that renowned fquire are truly laughable
even when his preferment and his mafter are out of the
queftion. Men laugh at puns; the wifeft and wittieft
of our fpecies have laughed at them; queen Elifabetb,
Cicero, and Shakefpear, laughed at them; clowns and
children laugh at them; and moft men, at one time or
other, are inclined to do the fame: but in this fort of
low wit, is it an oppofition of meannefs and dignity
that entertains us? Is it not rather a mixture of fame-
nefs and diverfity,—famenefs in the found, and diver-
fity in the fignification ?
“ In the charaders mentioned by Akerifide,. the
author does not diftinguKh between what is laughable
and what is contemptible; fo that we have no reafon to
think, that he meant to fpecify the qualities peculiar
to thofe things which provoke pure laughter; and
whatever account we may make of his definition, which
to thofe who acq.uiefce in the foregoing reafonings
may perhaps appear not quite fatisfadory, there is in
the poem a paflage that deferves particular notice, as
it feems to contain a more exad account of the ludi¬
crous quality, than is to be found in any of the theo¬
ries abovementioned. This paffage we (hall foon have
occafion to quote.”
Our author now goes on to lay down his own theory
concerning the origin of laughter, which he fuppofes
to arife from the view of things incongruous united in
the fame aflemblage. “ However imperfed (fays
he) the abovementioned theories may appear, there is
none of them deftitute of merit; and indeed the mod
fanciful philofopher feldom frames a theory without
confulting nature in fome of her more obvious appear¬
ances., Laughter very frequently arifes from the view
of dignity and meannefs united in the fame objed;
fometimesj no doubt, from the appearance of affumed
inferiority, as well as of fmall faults and unimportant
turpitudes; and fometimes, perhaps, though rarely,
from that fort of pride which is deferibed in the paf¬
fage already quoted from Hobbes.
“ All thefe accounts agree in this, that the caufe of
laughter-
L A U
L A U [ 4132 j
Laughter, laughter is fomething compounded; or fomething tliat
difpofes the mind to form a comparifon, by pafllng
from one objeft or idea to another. That this is in
faft the cafe, cannot be proved £ priori; but thisholds
in all the examples hitherto given, and will be found
to hold in all that are given hereafter. May it not then
be laid down as a principle, That laughter arifes from
the view of two or more objefts or ideas difpofing the
mind to form a comparifon? According to the theory
of Hobbes, this comparifon .would be between the lu¬
dicrous objeft and ourfelves; according to thofe wri¬
ters who mifapply Ariftotle’s definition, it would feem
to be formed between the ludicrous objedt and things
or perfons in general; and if we incline to Hutchefon’s
theory, which is the beft of the three, we (hall think
that there is a comparifon of the parts of the ludicrous
objeft, firft with one another, and fecondly with ideas
or things extraneous.
“ Further: every appearance that is made up of
parts, or that leads the mind of the beholder to form a
comparifon, is not ludicrous. The body of a man or
woman, of a horfe, a fifh, or a bird, is not ludicrous,
though it confids of many parts; and it may be com¬
pared to many other things without raifing laughter :
but the pifture defcribed in the beginning of the e-
pidle to the Pifo's, with a man’s head, a horfe’s neck,
feathers of different birds, limbs of different beads, and
the tail of a fifh, would have been thought ludicrous
1800 years ago, if we believe Horace, and in certain
circumdances would no doubt be fo at this day. It
would feem then, that ‘ the parts of a laughable af-
femblage mud be in fome degree unfuitable and hete¬
rogeneous.’
“ Moreover: any one of the parts of the Horatian
monder, a human head, a horfe’s neck, the tail of a
fiih, or the plumage of a fowl, is not ludicrous in it-
felf; nor would thofe feveral parts be ludicrous, if at¬
tended to in fucceffion, without any view to their u-
nion. For to fee them difpofed on the different fhelves
of a mufeum, or even on the fame fhelf, nobody would
laugh, except, perhaps, the thought of uniting them
were to occur to his fancy, or the paffage of Horace
to his memory. Itfeemsto follow, that “ the incon¬
gruous parts of a laughable idea or objedf mud either
be combined fo as to form an affemblage, or mud be
fuppofed to be fo combined.”
“ May we not then conclude, that “ laughter arifes
from the view of two or more inconfident, unfuitable,
or incongruous parts or circumdances, confidered as
united in one complex object or affemblage, or as ac¬
quiring a fort of mutual relation from the peculiar
manner in which the mind takes notice of them.” The
lines from Akenfide formerly referred to, feem to point
at the fame doctrine:
Where-e’er the pow’r of ridicule difplays
Her quaint-eye’d vifage,ySwe incongruous form^
Some Jlubborn dijfonance of things combined,
Strikes on the quick obferver.
And to the fame purpofe, the learned and ingenious
Dr Gerard, in his Ejfay on Tajle: < The fenfe of ri¬
dicule is gratified by an inconfidence and diffonance
of circumdances in the fame objedt, or in obje&s nearly
related in the main; or by a fimilitude or a relation
unexpe&ed between things on the whole oppofite and
unlike.’ Laughte
“ And therefore, indead of faying, with Hutchefon,
that the caufe or objedt of laughter is an ‘ oppofition
of dignity and meannefs;’ I would fay, in more gene¬
ral terms, that it is ‘ an oppofition of fuitablenefs or
unfuitablenefs, or of relation and the want of relation,
united, or fuppofed to be united, in the fame affem¬
blage.’ Thus the offices aferibed to the dagger of
Hudibras feem quite heterogeneous ; but we difeover
a bond of connedlion among them, when we are told
that the fame weapon could occafionally perform them
all. Thus, even in that mimicry which difplays no op¬
pofition of dignity and meannefs, we perceive the ac¬
tions of one man joined to the features and body of J
another; that is, a mixture of unfuitablenefs, or want :
of relation, arifing from the difference of perfons, with *
congruity and fimilitude, arifing from the famenefs of
the adtions. And here let it be obferved in general, J
that th: greater number of incongruities that are !
blended in the fame affemblage, the more ludicrous it
will probably be. If, as in Butler’s refemblance of
the morning to a boiled lobfter, there is a mixture of ;
dignity and meannefs, as tvell as of likenefs and diffi- .
militude, the effedt of the contraft. will be more power¬
ful, than if only one of thefe oppofitions had occurred
in the ludicrous idea. The fublimity of Don Quixote’s
mind, contrafted and connedted with his miferable
equipage, forms a very comical exhibition ; but when
all this is ftill further connedted and contrafted with :
Sancho Panca, the ridicule is heightened exceedingly. 1
Had the knight of the lions been better mounted and
accoutred, he would not have made us fmile fo often;
becaufe, the hero’s mind and circumftances being more
adequately matched, the whole group would have
united fewer inconfiftencies, and reconciled fewer j
incongruities. Butler has combined a ftill grea¬
ter variety of uncouth and jarring circumftances
in Ralpho and Hudibras: but the pidlure, though
more elaborate, is lefs natural. Yet this argues no de-
fedt of judgment. His defign was, to make his hero j
not only ludicrous but contemptible; and therefore he
jumbles together, in his equipage and perfon, a num- '
ber of mean and difgufting qualities, pedantry, igno-
ranee, naftinefs, and extreme deformity. But the ’
knight of La Mancha, though a ludicrous, was never j
intended for a contemptible, perfonage. He often
moves our pity, he never forfeits our efteem; and his <[ 1
adventures and fentiments are generally interefting:
which could not have been the cafe if his ftory had not
been natural, and himfelf been endowed with great as
well as good qualities. To have given him fuch a
fhape, and fuch weapons, arguments, boots, and
breeches, as Butler has beftowed on his champion, j
would have deftroyed that folemnity which is fo ftri- i
king a feature in Don Quixote ; and Hudibras, with
the manners and perfon of the Spanifh hero, would
not have been that paltry figure which the Englifti poet
meant to hold up to the laughter and contempt of his
countrymen. Sir Launcelot Greaves is of Don Quix¬
ote’s kindred, but a different chara&er. Smollet’s de¬
fign was, not to expofe him to ridicule; but rather to
recommend him to our pity and admiration. He has
therefore given him youth, ftrength, and beauty, as
well as courage and dinity of mind; has mounted him
on a generous fteed, and arrayed him in an elegant fuit
of
L A U
Laughter 0f armour. Yet, that the hiftory might have a comic
I air, he has been careful to contraft and conneft Sir
I ^aunC • Launcelot with a fqnfre and other affociates of very dif-
fimilar tempers and circumftances.
“ What has been faid of the caufe of laughter does
not amount to an exaft defcription, far lefs to a logi¬
cal definition: there being innumerable combinations
of congruity and inconfiftency, of relation and contra-
K riety, of Ifkenefs and diffimilitude, which are not lu¬
dicrous at all. If we could afcertain the peculiarities
of thefe, we fhould be able to charadferife with more
accuracy the general nature of ludicrous combination.
But before we proceed to this, it would be proper to
evince, that of the prcfent theory thus much at lead is
true, that though every incongruous combination is
not ludicrous, every ludicrous combination is incon¬
gruous.
“ It is only by a detail of fadls or examples that
any theory of this fort can be either eftablilhed or
overthrown. By fuch a detail, the foregoing theories
have been, or may be, fhewn to be ill-founded, or not
fufficiently comprehenfive. A fingle inftance of a
laughable objeft, which neither unites, nor is fuppo-
fed to unite, incongruous ideas, would likewife fhow the
infufficiency of the prefent; nor will I undertake to
prove, (for indeed I cannot), that no fuch inftance
can be given. A conplete enumeration of ludicrous
objefls it would be vain to attempt: and therefore
we can never hope to afcertain, beyond the poffibility
of doubt, that common quality which belongs to all
ludicrous ideas that are, or have been, or may be ima¬
gined. All that can be done in a cafe of this kind is
to prove by a variety of examples, that the theory now
propofed is more comprehenfive, and better founded,
than any of the foregoing.” This our author after¬
wards {hews at full length; but as the variety of ex¬
amples adduced by him would take up too much room
to be inferted here, and as every reader muft be ca¬
pable of adducing numberlefs inftances of ludicrous
cafes to himfelf, we lhall content ourfelves with the
above explanation of the different theories of laughter,
referring thofe who defire further'fatisfa&ion to the
treatife already quoted.
Involuntary Laughter. See (the Index} fubjoin-
cd to Medicink.
Sardonic Laughter. Ibid.
LAVINIUM, (anc. geog.) a town of Latium, fix
miles to the eaft of Laurentum, according to an an¬
cient map ; fo named from Lavinia, confort of AL-
neas, and daughter of king Latinus; and built by
the Trojans. The firft town of Roman original in
Latium, and the feat of the Dii Penates, (Livy:) fi¬
ltrated near the river Numicus, or Numicius ; between
which and the Tiber jEneas landed, according to Vir¬
gil. Holftenius fuppofes the town to have ftood on
an eminence, now called il Monte di Levano.
LAUNCESTON, a town of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Tamar on the top of a fmall
hill, and is a large corporation fending two mem¬
bers to parliament. It was formerly defended by a
caftte, which is now in ruins. W. Lorig. 4. 55. N.
Lat. 50. 40.
LAUNCH, in the fea-language, fignifies to put
out: ^ Launch the Jhip^ that is,"Put her out of dock ;
launch aft, or forward, fpeaking of things that are
Vol. VI.
4r33 ]
L A U
ftowed in the hold, is, put them more forward; launch
ho ! is a term ufed when a yard is hoifted high enough,
and fignifies, hoijl no more.
LAURA, in church-hiftory, a name given to a
colle&ion'of little cells at fome diftance from each
other, in which the hermits in ancient times lived toge¬
ther in a wildernefs.
Thefe hermits did not live in community, but each
monk provided for himfelf in his diftindt cell. The
moft celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclefiaftical hi¬
ftory were in Paleftine ; as the laura of St Euthy-
mus, at four or five leagues diftance from Jerufa-
lem; the laura of St Saba, near the brook Ce-
dron ; the laura of the Towers, near the river Jor¬
dan, &c.
Poet-LAUREATE, an officer of the houfehold
of the kings of Britain, whofe bufinefs confifts only in
compofing an ode annually on his majefty’s birth-day,
and on the new-year; fometimes alfo, though rarely,
on occafion of any remarkable vidtory.—Of the. firft
inftitution of poets laureate, Mr Wharton has given
the following account in his hiftory of Englifli poetry.
“ Great confufion has entered into this fubjedf,on ac¬
count of the degrees in grammar, which included rhe¬
toric and verfification, anciently taken in our univerfi-
ties, particularly at Oxford: on which occafion, a
wreath of laurel was prefented to the new graduate,
who was afterwards ufually ftyled Poeta Laureatus.
Thefe fcholaftic laureations, however, feem to have
given rife to the appellation in queftion. I will give
fome inftances at Oxford, which at the fame time will
explain the nature of the ftudies for which our acade¬
mical philologifts received their rewards. About the
year 1470, one John Watfon, a ftudent in grammar,
obtained a conceffion to be graduated and laureated in
that fcience; on condition that he compofed one hun¬
dred Latin verfes in praife of the univerfity, and a La¬
tin comedy. Another grammarian was diftinguiffied
with the fame badge, after having ftipulated, that, at
the next public aft, he would affix the fame number
of hexameters on the great gates of St Mary’s church,
that they might be feen by the whole univerfity. This
was at that period the moft convenient mode of publi¬
cation. About the fame time, one Maurice Byrchen-
faw, a fcholar in rhetoric, fupplicated to be admitted
to read leftures, that is, to take a degree, in that fa¬
culty ; and his petition was granted, with a provifion,
that he flrould write one hundred verfes on the glory
of the univerfity, and not fuffer Ovid’s Art of Love,
and the Elegies of Pamphilus, to be ftudied in audi¬
tory. Not long afterwards, one John Bulman, ano¬
ther rhetorician, having complied with the terms im-
pofed, of explaining the firft book of Tully’s Offices,
and likewife the firft of his Epiftles, without any pe¬
cuniary emolument, was graduated in rhetoric ; and a
crown of laurel was publicly placed on his head by the
hands of the chancellor of the univerfity. About the
year 1489, Skelton was laureated at Oxford, and in
the year 1493 was permitted to wear his laurel at
Cambridge. Robert Whittington affords the laft in¬
ftance of a rhetorical degree at Oxford. He was a fe-
cular prieft, and eminent for his various treatifes in
grammar, and for his facility in Latin poetry : having
exereifed his art many years, and fubmitting to the
cuftomary demand of an hundred verfes, he was ho,-
23 M noured
L A U [ 4134 ] L A U
Laureate noured with the laurel in the year 1512.
II . “ With regard to the poet-laureate of the kings of
x^aurentius. £ng]an(jt j8 undoubtedly the fame that is ftyled the
king’s verifier, and to whom 100 Ihillings were paid as
his annual ftipend, in the year 1251. But when or
how that title commenced, and whether this officer
was ever folemnly crowned with laurel at his firft inve-
ftiture, I will not pretend to determine, after the
fearches of the learned Selden on this queftion have
proved unfuccefsful. It feems moft probable, that the
barbarous and inglorious name of verfifier gradually
gave way to an appellation of more elegance and dig¬
nity : or rather, that at length thofe only were' in
general invited to this appointment, who had received
academical fan£Hon, and had merited a crown of lau¬
rel in the univerfities for their abilities in Latin com-
pofition, particularly Latin verfification. Thus the
king’s laureate was nothing more than “ * graduated
rhetorician employed in theferviceof the king.” That
he originally wrote in Latin, appears from the ancient
title verjificator: and maybe moreover colle&ed from
the two Latin poems, which Balton and Gulielmus,
who appear to have refpeftively a£ted in the capacity
of royal poets to Richard I. and Edward II. official¬
ly compofed on Richard’s crufade, and Edward’s fiege
of Striveling caftle.
“ Andrew Bernard, fucceffively poet-laureate of
Henry VII. and VIII. affords a ftill Wronger proof
that this officer was a Latin fcholar. He was a na¬
tive of Tholoufe. and an Auguftine monk. He was
not only the king’s poet-laureate, as it is fuppofed,
but his hiftoriographer, and preceptor in grammar to
Prince Arthur. He obtained many ecclefiaftical pre¬
ferments in England. All the pieces now to be found,
which he wrote in the chara&er of poet laureate, are
in Latin. Thefe are, “ An Addrefs to Henry VIII.
for the moft aufpicious beginning of the 10th year of
his reign, with an Epithalamium on the marriage of
Francis the dauphin of France with the king’s daugh¬
ter A Ne<w Tear's Gift for the 1515 ; and, Verfes
wiihing profperity to his majefty’s 13th year. He has
left fome Latin hymns; and many of his Latin profe
pieces, which he wrote in the quality of hiftoriogra¬
pher to both monarchs, are remaining.
“ I am of opinion, that it was not cuftomary for
the royal laureate to write in Engliffi, till the refor¬
mation of religion had begun to diminifh the venera¬
tion for the Latin language; or rather, till the love
of novelty, and a better fenfe of things, had baniflied
the narrow pedantries of monaftic erudition, and taught
us to cultivate our native tongue.”
LAURENTALIA, or Larentalia, called alfo
Larentinalia, Laurentales, and Larentales, feafts ce¬
lebrated among the Romans on the tenth of the kalends
of January, or 23d of December, in memory of Acca
Laurentia, wife of the fhepherd Fauftulus, and nurfe
of Romulus and Remus.
LAURENTIUS,. one of the firft printers, and,
according to fome, the inventor of the art, was born
at Harleim about the year 1370, and executed feveral
departments of magiftracy of that city. Thofe wri-
ters_are miftaken, who affign to him the furname of
Cofler, or affert that the office of aedituus was heredi¬
tary in his family. In a diploma of Albert of Bava¬
ria in 1380, in which, among other citizens of Har¬
leim, our Lautentius’s is mentioned by theLaurtn,iu*
name of yoannes Laurentii filius,” Beroldus is call¬
ed who was furely of another family; and
in 1396 and 1398, Henricus a Lunen enjoyed that of¬
fice ; after whofe refignation. Count Albert confer¬
ring on the citizens the privilege of elefting their
aedituus, they, probably foon after, fixed on Lauren-
tius; who was afterwards called Cojier, from his of¬
fice, and not from his family-name, as he was defcend-
ed from an illegitimate branch of the Gens Bredero-
dia. His office was very lucrative ; and that he was a
man of great property, the elegance of his houfe may
teftify. That he was the inventor of printing, is af¬
fected in the narrative of Junius. His firft work was
an Horarium, containing the Letters of the alphabet,
the Lord’s prayer, the apoftles creed, and two or
three (hort prayers; the next was the Speculum falutis,
in which he introduced piflures on wooden blocks ; then
Donatus, the larger fize ; and afterwards the fame '
work in a lefs fize. All tbefe were printed on feparatt
moveable wooden types faftened together by threads.
If it be thought improbable, that fo ingenious a man
ffionld have proceeded no farther than the invention t
of wooden types; it may be anfwered, that he printed
for profit, not for fame; and wooden types were not
only at that time made fooner and cheaper than me¬
tal could be, but were fufficiently durable for the
fmall impreffions of each book he muft neceffarily have
printed.—His prefs was nearly (haped like the com-
mon wine-prefles.— He printed fome copies of all his
books both on paper and vellum.—It has been very
erroneoufly fuppofed, that he quitted the profeffion,
and died broken-hearted : but it is certain, that he
did not live to fee the art brought to perfeftion.—He
died in 1440, aged 70 ; and was fucceeded either by
his fon-in-law Thomas Peter, who married his only
daughter Lucia ; or by their immediate defcendents,
Peter, Andrew, and Thomas.; who were old enough
(even if their father was dead, as it is likely he was)
toconduft the bufinefs, the eldeft being at leaft 22- or
23. What books they printed, it is not eafy to der - 4
termine ; they having, after the example of Lauren.-
tius (more anxious for profit than for fame), neither
added to their books their names, the place where
they were printed, or the date of the year. Their
firft effays were new editions of Donatus and the Speeu- < i
lum. They afterwards re-printed the latter, with a
Latin tranflation; in which they ufed their grandfa.-
ther’s wooden pi&ures ; and printed the book partly !
on wooden blocks, partly on wooden feparate types, ac¬
cording to Mr Meerman, who has given an exaft en<-
graving of each fort, taken from different parts of the
fame book, which was publifhed between the years
.1442 and 1450. Nor did they flop here: they conti- i
nued to print feveral editions of the Speculum, both
in Latin and in Dutch; and many other works, par¬
ticularly “ Hiftoria AlexandriMagni;” “ Flavii Vedatii
[for Vegetii'] Renati Epitome de Re. Militariand
“ Opera varia aThomas Kempis.” Of each of thefe Mr
Meerman has given an engraved fpecimen. They were,
all printed with feparate wooden types ; and, by their
great neatnefs, are a proof that the defeendants of
Laurentius were .induftrious in improving his inven¬
tion. Kempis was printed at Harleim in 1472, and
was the laft known work of Laurentius’s. defeendants,
who
L A U [ 4135 ] L A U
who foon after difpofed of all their materials, and
probably quitted the employment; as the ufe of fufile
types was about that time univerfally dilfufed through
Holland, by the fettling of Martens at Aloft, where
he purfued the art with reputation for upwards of 60
years. See (/7j/?oryof) Printing.
LAURENTIUM, (anc. geog.), a town of La-
tium, fuppofed to be the royal refidence of thofe moft
ancient kings Latinus, Picus, and Faunus, (Virgil).
Hither the emperor Commodus retired, during a pe-
ftilence. Its name was from an adjoining grove of
bay-trees, midway between Oftia and Antium. Sup-
pofed to have flood in the place now called San Lo¬
renzo ; which feems to be confirmed from the Via
Laui entina leading to Rome.
LAURO (Philippo), a celebrated painter, born
at Rome in 1623. He learned the firft rudiments
of the art from his father Balthafar, who was him-
felf a good painter. He afterward ftudied un¬
der Angelo Carofello, his brother-in-law; and pro¬
ved fo great a proficient, that in a fhort time he
far furpafled his tutor in defign, colouring, and ele¬
gance of tafte. He applied himfelf to painting hi-
ftorical fubjefts in a fmall fize, enriching the back¬
grounds with lively landfcapes, that afforded the eye
and the judgment equal entertainment; but though his
fmall paintings are beft approved, he finifhed feveral
grand compofitions for altar-pieces that were highly
efteemed. He died in 1694; and his works are ea¬
gerly bought up at high prices all over Europe.
LAURUS, the bay-tree; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the enneandria clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The nobilis, or common bay-tree, is a
native of Italy, and hath an upright trunk branching
on every fide from the bottom upward, rifing 20 or 30
feet high ; fpear-fhaped, nervous, ftiff, evergreen
leaves, three inches long and two broad ; with fmall,
yellowifh, quadrifid, dioecious flowers, fucceeded by
red berries in autumn and winter. Of this fpecies
there are varieties, with broad, narrow, ftriped, or wa¬
ved leaves. 2. The teftivalis grows naturally in North
America. It rifes with an upright ftem, branching
eight or ten feet high, covered with a purplifli bark ;
oblong, oval, acuminated, veined, deciduous leaves,
two or three inches long, and half as broad, growing
oppofite; with fmall white flowers fucceeded by red
berries in thofe places where it is native, but not in
this country. 3. The benzoin, or benjamin tree, is
alfo a native of North America; grows 15 or 20 feet
high,divided into a very branchy head; with oval, acute,
unveined, deciduous leaves, three or four inches long,
and half as broad ; and fmall yellowifh flowers, not fuc¬
ceeded by berries in this country. 4. The fafl’afras
is a native of the fame country. It hath a fltrub-like
ftraight ftem, branching 10 or 15 feet high ; garnifh-
ed with both oval and three-lobed, fhining, deciduous
leaves, of different fizes, from three to fix inches long,
and near as broad, with fmall yellowifh flowers fuc¬
ceeded by blackifh berries, but not in this country.
5. The indica, or indian bay-tree, rifes with an up¬
right ftraight trunk,. branching regularly 20 or 30
feet high; adorned with very large, fpear-fhaped,
plane, nervous, evergreen leaves on reddifh footftalks;
%nd bunches of fmall whitifh-green flowers, fucceeded
by large oval black berries which do not ripen in this Esurus,
country. 6. The borbonia, or Carolina red bay-tree, ’
rifes with an upright ftraight ftem, branching 15 or 20
feet high; with large, fpear-fhaped, evergreen leaves,
tranfverfely veined; and long bunches of flowers on red
footftalks, fucceeded by large blue-berries fitting in
red cups. 7. The camphora, or camphor-tree, grows
naturally in the woods of the weftern parts of Japan,
and in the adjacent iflands. The root fmells ftronger
of camphor than any of the other parts, and yields it
in greater plenty. The bark of the ftalk is outward¬
ly fomewhat rough; but in the inner furface fmooth
and mucous, and therefore eafily feparated from the
wood, which is dry and of a white colour. The leaves
Hand upon (lender footftalks, have an entire undulated
margin, running out into a point; have the upper fur-
of a lively and fhining green, the lower herbaceous and
filky; and are furnifhed with a few lateral nerves,
which ftretch archwife to the circumference, and fre¬
quently terminate in fmall warts; a circumftance pecu¬
liar to this fpecies of laurel. The flowers are produ-
duced on the tops of footftalks, which proceed from
the arm-pits of the leaves; but not till the tree has at¬
tained confiderable age and fize. The flower-ftalks
are flender, branched at the top, and divided into very
fhort pedicles, each fupporting a Angle flower. Thefc
flowers are white, and confift of fix petals, which are
fucceeded by a purple and fhining berry of the fize of
a pea, and in figure fomewhat top fhaped. It is com-
pofed of a foft pulpy fubftance that is purple, and has
the tafte of cloves and camphor ; and of a nucleus or
kernel of the fize of a pepper, that is covered with a
black, fhining, oily corticle, of an infipid tafte.
8. The cinnamomum, or cinnamon-tree, is a native
of Ceylon. It hath a large root, and divides into fe¬
veral branches, covered with a bark, which on the outer
fide is of a greyifh brown, and on the infide has a red¬
difh caft. The wood of the root is hard, , white, and
has no fmell. The body of the tree, whichi grows to
the height of 40 or 50.feet, is.covered, as well as its-
numerous branches, w ith a bark which at firft is green
and afterwards red. The leaf is longer and narrower
than the common bay-treet When firft unfolded, it is of
a flame colour: but after it has-been for fome time expo-
fed to the air and grows dry, it changes to a deep green
on the upper furface, and to a lighter on the lower.
The flowers-are fmall and white,. and grow in large
bunches at the extremity of the branches; they have,
an agreeable fmell, fomething like that of the lily of
the valley.. The fruit is fhaped like an acorn, but is
not fo large;
Culture. The common fort is propagated-cither by
feed, layers, or fuckers. The feed fhould be fowed.
after the berries are ripe, or early: in the fpring, co¬
vering them with earth near an inch deep, or in drills
half a foot afunder, the fame depth. The. plants will
come up late in the fpring. Thiey muft be frequently
watered during fummer, and in winter fpreened from,
the fevere froft by means of mats or fome other cover¬
ing ; and after having two fummers growth in the
feed-bed, tranfplant the ftrongeft of them in the fol¬
lowing fpring two feet afunder, and. a foot apart in
each row ; giving water in dry weather till they have
taken good root, .and hoeing, down the weeds in fumi
mer. Here they may remain till half a yard or two
L A U [ 4136 ] LAW
Latlftts. or three feet high; and then planted out into the Ihrub-
bery in autumn or fpring. If the berries are lowed in
pots and plunged in a hot-bed in fpring, it will bring
the plants better forward. The deciduous bay, Ben¬
jamin, and fafiafras-tree, are propagated in the fame
manner. The Indian bay, the camphor, and the cinna¬
mon-tree, require the treatment common togreen-houfe
plants.
Ufes. The leaves and berries of the common bay-
tree have a moderately ftrong aromatic fmell, and a
warm,bitterilh, pungent talle: the berries are flronger
in both refpe&s than the leaves, and afford in diftilla-
tion a larger quantity of effential aromatic oil; they
yield alfo an almoft infipid oil to the prefs, in confe-
quence of which they prove un&uous in the mouth.
They are warm carminatives, and fometimes exhibited
in this intention againft flatulent colics, and likewife
in hyfterical diforders. Their principal ufe in the pre-
fent praftice is in glyfters, and fome external applica¬
tions. The ufes of benzoin and camphor have been
explained under thefe articles and the places referred
to. The root of the faffafras has a fragrant fmell, and
a fweetifh, aromatic, fubacrid tafte; the bark taftes
much ftronger than any other part; and the fmall
twigs flronger than the large pieces. It is a warm
aperient and corroborant, and frequently employed
with good fuccefs for purifying and fweetening the
blood and juices. For thefe purpofes, infufions made
from the rafped root or bark maybe drank as tea. In
fome conftitutions indeed, fuch liquors are, by their
fragrance, apt, on firft taking them, to affedl the
head ; but in fuch cafes they may be advantageoufly
freed from their flavour by boiling. A decodtion of
faffafras, boiled down to the confiflence of an extraft,
proves Amply bitterifh and fubaflringent. Hoffman
affures us, that he has frequently given this extraft to
the quantity of a fcruple at a time, with remarkable
fuccefs, for ftrengthening the tone of the vifcera in ca¬
chexies ; as alfo in the decline of intermittent fevers,
and in hypochondriacal fpafms. Saffafras yields in di-
flillation an extremely fragrant oil of a penetrating
pungent tafle, fo ponderous (notwithftanding the
lightnefs of the drug itfelf) as to fink in water. Rec¬
tified fpirit extrads the whole tafte and fmell of faffa-
~fras ; and elevates nothing in evaporation : hence the
fpirituous extrad proves the moft elegant and effica¬
cious preparation, as containing the virtue of the root
entire.
The cinnamon is the under-bark of the laurus cin-
namomnm above-defcribed. The beft feafon for fepa-
rating it from the outer-bark, which is grey and
rugged, is the fpring, when the fap flows in the
greateft abundance. It is cut into thin flices, and ex-
pofed to the fun, and curls up in drying.—The old
trees produce a coarfe kind of cinnamon ; the fpice is
in perfedion only when the trees are not older than
three or four years. When the trunk has been ftripped
©f its bark, it receives no further nourifhment; but the
root is ft ill alive, and continues to throw out frefh
fhoots. The fruit of the tree is fhaped like an acorn,
but is not fo large. It contains a feed from whence
the tree may be raifed, and is commonly ripe in Sep¬
tember. When boiled in water, it yields an oil which
fwims at top, and takes fire. If left to cool, it hardens
into a white fubftance, of which candles are made Laufannj
which have an agreeable fmell, and are referred for (I
the ufe of the king of Ceylon. The cinnamon is not Law*
reckoned excellent unlefs it be fine; fmooth, brittle,
thin, of a yellow colour inclining to red ; fragrant,
aromatic, and of a poignant, yet agreeable tafte. The
connoiffeurs give the preference to that the pieces of
which are long, but flender. That which comes to
us is generally mixed with the Caflia bark ; but this
laft is eafily diftinguiftied. Cinnamon fplinters in
breaking, and has a roughnefs along with its aromatic
flavour; while the Caflia breaks over fmooth, and has
a mucilaginous tafte. Cinnamon is a very elegant and
ufeful aromatic, more grateful both to the palate and
ftomach than moft other fubftances of this clafs. By
its aftringent quality it likewife corroborates the vif¬
cera, and proves of great fervice in feveral kinds of
alvine fluxes, and immoderate difcharges from the
uterus.
LAUSANNE, a large, ancient, and handfome
town of Switzerland, capital of the country of Vaud,
and in the canton of Bern, with a famous college, and
bifhop’s fee. The town-houfe and the other public
buildings are magnificent. It is feated between three
hills, near the lake of Geneva, in E. Long. 6. 35.
N. Lat. 46. 30.
LAVORI (terra di), a province of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, bounded on the weft by the Cam-
pagna of Rome, and by Farther Abruzzo ; on the
north, by the Citerior Abruzzo, and by the county of
Moliffa; on the eaft, by the Ultra Principato; and on
the fouth, by the Principata Citra. It is about 63
miles in length, and 35 in breadth ; and is fertile
in corn, excellent vines, and other fruits. There are
alfo feveral mineral fprings, and mines of fulphur;
Naples is the capital town.
LAW (John), of Edinburgh, the famous proje&or,
who raifed himfelf to the dignity of comptroller-ge¬
neral of the finances of France, upon the ftrength of a
fcheme for eftablifhing a bank, an Eaft-India and
a Miffiflippi company, with the profits of which, the
national debt of France was to be paid off. He firfl:
offered his plan to Vtftor Amadeus, king of Sardinia;
who told him, “ he was not powerful enough to ruin
himfelf.” The French miniftry accepted it in 1710.
In 1716 he opened a bank in his own name, under
the prote&ion of the duke of Orleans, regent of
France: moft of the people of property of every rank
in France, feduced by the profpeft of immenfe gains,
fubfcribed for (hares in the bank and the companies.
In 1718, Law’s was declared a royal bank, and the
fhares rofe to more than 20 times the original value}
fo that, in 17x9, they were worth more than 80 times
the amount of all the current fpecie in the kingdom.
But the following year, this great fabric of falfe cre¬
dit fell to the ground, and almoft overthrew the French
government, ruining fome thoufands of families; and
it is remarkable, that the fame defperate game was
played by the South-fea direflors in England, in the
fame fatal year, 1720. Law being exiled as foon as
the credit of his projedls began to fail, retired to Ve¬
nice, where he died in 1729.
LAW.
Part I.
LAW.
( i )
Part I. Of the NATURE of LAWS in general.
, T AW, in its moft general and comprehenfive fenfe.
Definition; fignifies a rule of a£tion ; and is applied indifcri-
gene.al, minately to all kinds of adlion, whether animate or in-
a,ld animate, rational or irrational. Thus we fay, the laws
of motion, of gravitation, of optics, or mechanics, as
well as the laws of nature and of nations. And it is
that rule of a&ion, which is prescribed by fome fupe-
rior, and which the inferior is bound to obey.
Thus when the Supreme Being formed the univerfe,
and created matter out of nothing, he imprefled cer¬
tain principles upon that matter, from which it can
never depart, and without which it would ceafe to be.
When he put that matter into motion, he eftablithed
certain laws of motion, to which all moveable bodies
muft conform. And, to defcend from the greateft o-
perations to the fmalleft, when a workman forms a
clock, or other piece of mechanifm, he eftablifhes at his
own pleafure certain arbitrary laws for its dire&ion ;
as, that the hand fhall defcribe a given fpace in a given
time ; to which law as long as the' work conforms, fo
long it continues in perfedtion, and anfwers the end of
its formation.
If we farther advance, from mere inadh’ve matter
to vegetable and animal life, we fhall find them ftill
governed by laws ; more numerous indeed, but equally
fixed and invariable. The whole progrefs of plants,
from the feed to the root, and from thence to the feed
again ; the method of animal nutrition, digeflion, Se¬
cretion, and all other branches of vital ceconomy;—
ave not left to chance, or the will of the creature it-
feif, but are performed in a wondrous involuntary
manner, and guided by unerring rules laid down by
the great Creator.
This then is the general fignification of law, a rule
of a&ion di&ated by fome Superior being; and, in
thofe creatures that have neither the power to think,
nor to will, fuch laws mull be invariably obeyed, fo
long as the creature itfelf fubfifts, for its exiftence de¬
pends on that obedience. But laws, in their more
confined fenfe, and in which it is our prefent bufinefs
fcticukr to con^c^er them> denote the rules, not of adion in ge-
^ neral, but of human adion or condud : that is, the
precepts by which man, the nobleft of all fublunary
beings, a creature endowed with both reafon and free¬
will, is commanded to make ufe of thofe faculties in
the general regulation of his behaviour.
Man, confidered as a creature, muft neceflarily be
fubjed to the laws of his Creator, for he is entirely a
dependent being. A being, independent of any other,
has no rule to purfue, but fuch as heprefcribes tohim-
felf: but a ftate of dependence will inevitably oblige
the inferior to take the will of him on whom he de¬
pends, as the rule of his condud ; not indeed in every
particular, but in all thofe points wherein his depend-
ance confifts. This principle therefore has^ more or
lefs extent and effed, in proportion as the fuperiority
of the one and the dependance of the other is greater
or lefs, abfolute or limited. And confequently, as
man depends abfolutely upon his Maker for every thing,
it is neceffary that he fhould in all points conform to
his Maker’s will.
This will of his Maker is called the law of nature. Law
For as God, when he created matter, and endued it nature,
with a principle of mobility, eftablifhed certain rules
for the perpetual diredion of that motion ; fo, when
he created man, and endued him with freewill to con¬
dud himfelf in all parts of life, he laid down certain
immutable laws of human nature, whereby that free¬
will is in fome degree regulated and reftrained, and
gave him alfo the faculty of reafon todifcover the pur¬
port of thofe laws.
Confidering the Creator only as a being of infinite
power, he was able unqueftionably to have prefcribed
whatever laws he pleafed to his creature, man, how¬
ever unjuft or fevere. But as he is alfo a Being of in¬
finite wifdom, he has laid down only fuch laws as were
founded in thofe relations of juftice that exifted in the
nature of things antecedent to any pofitive precept.
Thefe are the eternal, immutable laws of good and evil,
to which the Creator himfelf in all his difpenfations con¬
forms ; and which he has enabled human reafon to dif-
cover, fo far as they are neceflary for the condud of
human adions. Such, among others, are thefe prin¬
ciples : That we ftiould live honeftly, fhould hurt no¬
body, and (hould render to every one his due ; to which
three general precepts Juftinian has reduced the whole
dodrine of law.
But if the difcovery of thefe firft principles of the
law of nature depended only upon the due exertion of
right reafon, and could not otherwife be obtained than
by a chain of metaphyfical difquifitions, mankind would
have wanted fome inducement to have quickened their
inquiries, and the greater part of the world would have
retted content in mental idolence, and ignorance its in-
feparable companion. As therefore the Creator is a
being, not only of infinite power and wifdom, but
alfo of infinite goodnefs, he has been pleafed fo to con¬
trive the conllitution and frame of humanity, that we
fhould want no other prompter to inquire after and
purfue the rule of right, but only our own felf-love,
that univerfal principle of adion. For he has fo inti¬
mately conneded, fo infeparably interwoven, the laws
of eternal juftice with the 1 uppinefs of each individual,
that the latter cannot be attained but by obferving the
former ; and, if the former be pundually obeyed, it
cannot but induce the latter. In confequencc of which
mutual connedion of juftice and human felicity, he has
not perplexed the law of nature with a multitude cf
abllraded rules and precepts, referring merely to the
fitnefs or unfitnefs of things, as fome have vainly fur-
mifed ; but has gracioufly reduced the rule of obedience
to this one paternal precept, “ that man fhould pur¬
fue his own happinefs.” This is the foundation of
what we call ethics, or natural law *. For the feveral *
articles, into which it is branched in our fyftems, a- ra!,lJ'
mount to no more than demonftrating, that tip’s.or that
adion tends to man’s real happinefs; and therefore very
juftly concluding, that the performance of it is a part
[ » ] of
( 2 ) L A W. ' Part I.
Of Laws of the law of nature ; or, on the other hand, that this by the natural law ; and from thefe prohibitions arifes Of Laws
or that aftion is deftru&ive of man’s real happinefs, the true unlawfulnefs of this crime. Thofe human laws, in generalj|
... and therefore that the law of nature forbids it. that annex a punilhment to it, do not at all increafe its
This law of nature, being coeval with mankind, and moral guilt, or fuperadd any frelh obligation in foro
diftated by God himfelf, is of courfe fuperior in ob- confcientia to abilain from its perpetration. Nay, if
ligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, any human law fliould allow or enjoin us to commit it,
in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are we are bound to tranfgrefs that human law, orelfe we
of any validity, if contrary to this ; and fuch of them muft offend both the natural and the divine. But with
as arc valid derive all their force, and all their autho- regard to matters that are in themfelves indifferent, and
rity, mediately or immediately, from this original. are not commanded or forbidden by thofe fuperiorlaws;
But in order to apply this to the particular exigen- fuch, for inftance, as exporting of wool into foreign
cies of each individual, it is ftill neceffary to have re- countries ; here the inferior legiflature has fcope and
courfe to reafon: whofe office it is to difcover, as was opportunity to interpofe, and to make that a&ion un-
before obferved, what the law of nature diredls in e- lawful which before was not fo.
very circumftance of life ; by confidering, what method If man were to live in a (late of nature, unconnefted
will tend the moft effeftually to our own fubftantial with other dividuals, there would be no occafion for
happinefs. And if our reafon were always, as in our any other laws than the law of nature and the law
firft anceftor before his tranfgreffion, clear and perfect, of God. Neither could any other law poffibly exilt:
unruffled by paffions, unclouded by prejudice, unim- for a law always fuppofes fome fuperior who is to make
paired by difeafe or intemperance, the talk would be it; and in a date of nature we are all equal, without
pleafant and eafy; we fhould need no ofher guide but any other fuperior but him who is the Author of our
this. But every man now finds the contrary in his being. But man was formed for fociety ; and, as is
own experience ; that his reafon is corrupt, and his un- demon(Irated,by the writers on this fubjcdl, is neither
derftanding full of ignorance and error. capable of living alone, nor indeed has the courage ta
This has given manifold occafion for the benign in- do it. However, as it is impoffible for the whole race
terpofition of Divine Providence; which, in compaffion of mankind to be united in one great fociety, they muft
to the frailty, the imperfe&ion, and the blindnefs of neceffarily divide into many; and form feparate ftates,
human reafon, hath been pleafed, at fundry times and commonwealths, and nations, entirely independant of
in divers manners, to difcover and enforce its laws by each other, and yet liable to a mutual intercourfe.
^ an immediate and diredf revelation. The doftrines Hence arifes a third kind of law to regulate this mu- Ljw ^
Law of re- thus delivered, we call the revealed or divine lanv, and tual intercourfe, called the lanu of nations: which, as nations. |
vdation. they are to be found only in the Holy Scriptures. Thefe none of thefe ftates will acknowledge a fuperiority in
precepts, when revealed, are found upon comparifon the other, cannot be didlated by either; but depends
to be really a part of the original law of nature, as entirely upon the rules of natural law, or upon mutual
they tend in all their confequences to man’s felicity, compadts, treaties, leagues, and agreements, between
But we are not from thence to conclude, that the know- thefe feveral communities : in the cqnftrudtion alfo of
ledge of thefe truths was attainable by reafon, in its which compadts we have no other rule tt> refort to, but
prefent corrupted ftate ; fince we find, that, until they the law of nature ; being the only one to which both
were revealed, they were hid from the wifdom of ages, communities are equally fubjedl: and therefore the ci-
As then the moral precepts of this law are indeed of vil law very jultly obferves, that quod naturalis ratia
the fame original with thofe of the law of nature, fo inter omnes homines conjiituit, vacatur jus gentium.
their intrinfic obligation is of equal ftrength and per- To the contideration, then, of the law of nature,
petuity. Yet undoubtedly the revealed law is of infi- the revealed law, and the law of nations, fucceeds Mur
nitely more authenticity than that moral fyftem which that of the municipal or civil law ; that is, the rule by orei
is framed by'ethical writers, and denominated the na- which particular diftridts, communities, or nations are
tural law : becaufe one is the law of nature, exprefsly governed; being thus defined by Juftinian, “ jus ci-
declared fo to be by God himfelf; the other is only vile ejl quod quijque fibi populus conjiituit.” We call
what, by the affiftance of human reafon, we imagine it municipal law, in compliance with common fpeech ;
to be that law. If we could be as certain of the lat- for though, ftridtly, that expreffion denotes the particu-
ter as we are of the former, both would have an equal lar cuftoms of one fingle municipium or free town, yet
authority : but, till then, they can never be put in any it may with fufficient propriety be applied to any one
competition together. ftate or nation which is governed by the fame laws
Upon thefe two foundations, the law of nature and and cuftoms.
the law of revelation, depend all human laws; that is Municipal law, thus underftood, is properly defined
to fay, no human laws fhould be fullered to contradidl to be “ a rule of civil condudt prefcribed by the fu- ii
thefe. There are, it is true, a great number of indif- preme power in a ftate, commanding what is right and
ferent points, in which both the divine law and the prohibiting what is wrong.” Let us endeavour to ex¬
natural leave a man at his own liberty ; but which are plain its feveral properties, as they arife out of this
found neceffary, for the benefit of fociety, to be reftrained definition..
within certain limits. And herein it is that human And, firft, it is a rule: not a tranfient hidden Its firft fl ,t
laws have their greateft force and efficacy : for, with order from a fuperior to or concerning a particular per-pro?*11!1 ■
regard to fuch points as are not indifferent, human laws fan; but fomething permanent, uniform, and univerfal.
are only declaratory of, and adl in fubordination to, Therefore a particular adt of the legiflature to confif-
the former. To inftance in the cafe of murder : this cate the goods of Titius, or to attaint him of high trea-
i# exprefsly forbidden by the divine, and demoiiftrably fon, does not enter into the idea of a municipal law:
for;
Part I. LAW. ( 3 )
[ Of Laws for the operation of this aft is fpent upon Titius only,
| in general. an(} has no relation to the community in general; it is
rather a fentence, than a law. But an aft to declare
that the crime of which Titius is accufed lhall be
deemed high treafon; this has permanency,-uniformity,
and univerfality, and therefore is properly a rule. It
is alfo called a rule, to diftinguilh it from advice or
counfel, whiph we are at liberty to follow or not as we
fee proper, and to judge upon the reafonablenefs or
unreafonajblenefs of the thing advifed: whereas our
obedience to the law depends not upon our approbation,
but upon the Maker's ’will. Counfel is only matter of
perfuafion, law is matter of injunftion; counftl afts
only upon the willing, law upon the unwilling alfo.
It is alfo called a rule, to diltinguiih it from &com-
patt or agreement; for a compaft is a promife proceed¬
ing from us, law is a command direfted to us. The
language of a compaft is, “ I will, or will not, do this
that of a law is, “ Thou (halt, or (halt not, do it.” It
is true there is an obligation which a compaft carries
with it, equal in point of confidence to that of a law;
but then the original of the obligation is different. In
compafts, we ourfelves determine and promife what
fhall be done, before we are obliged to do it; in laws,
we are obliged to aft without ourfelves determining or
promifing any thing at all. Upon thefe accounts law
is defined to be “ a rule.”
Municipal law is alfo “ a rule of civil condu(l.,i
9 This diftinguiflies municipal law from the natural, or
[Second revealed : the former of which is the rule of moral cpn-
Hproperty. . an(j the ]atter not on]y rule 0f mora] cofiduft,
but alfo of faith. Thefe regard man as a creature;
and point out his duty to God, to himfelf, and to his
neighbour, confidered in the light of an individual.
But municipal or civil law regards him alfo as a citizen,
and bound to other duties towards his neighbour, than
thofe of mere nature and religion : duties, which he
I has engaged in by enjoying the benefits of the com¬
mon union ; and which amount to no more, than that
he do contribute, on his part, to the fubfiftence and
peace of the fociety.
It is likewife “ a rule prefcribed.” Becaufe a bare
L refolution, confined in the breaft of the legiflator, with-
iTliird out manifefting itfelf by fome external fign, can never
^property, be properly a law. It is requifite that this refolution
be notified to the people who are to obey it. But the
manner in which this notification is to be made, is mat¬
ter of very great indifference. It may be notified by
univerfal tradition and long praftice, which fuppofes
a previous publication, and is the cafe of the common
law of England and of Scotland. It may be notified viva
voce, by officers appointed for that purpofe; as is done
with regard to proclamations, andfuch afts of parliament
as are appointed to be publicly read in churches and other
affemblies. It may, laltly, be notified by writing, print¬
ing, or the like ; which is the general courfe taken
with all our afts of parliament. Yet, whatever way is
made ufe of, it is incumbent on the promulgator's to
do it in the moil public and perfpicuous manner ; not
like Caligula, who (acording to Dio Caffius) wrote
his laws in a very fmall charafter, and hung them up
upon high pillars, the more effeftually to enfnare the
people. There is ftill a more unreafonable method than
this, which is called making of laws ex pojl fatto;
when after an aftion (indifferent in itfelf) is committed,
the legifiator then for the firft time declares it to have Of Laws
been a crime, and inflifts a puniffiment upon the per- in generaL
fon who has committed it. Here it is impoffible that
the party could fore fee, that an aftion, innocent when
it was done, ffiould be afterwards converted to guilt by
a fubfequent law: he had therefore no caufe to abltain
from it; and all puniffiment for not abitaining mull of
confequence be cruel and unjuft. All laws ffiould be
therefore made to commence in futuro, and be notified
before their commencement; which is implied in the
term “ prefcribed.” But when this rule is in the ufual
manner notified, or prefcribed, it is then the fubjeft’s
bufinefs to be thoroughly acquainted therewith ; for
if ignorance, of what he might know, were admitted
as a legitimate excufe, the laws would be of no effeft,
but might always be eluded with impunity.
But further: Municipal law is “ a rule of civil con-
duft prefcribed by the ftpreme power in a Jlate.” For Fouuh
legiftature, as was before obferved, is the greateft aft property.
of fuperiority that can be exercifed by one being over
another. Wherefore it is requifitc to the very effence
of a law, that it be made by the fupreme power. So¬
vereignty and legiflature are indeed convertible terms;
one cannot fubfift without the other.
This will naturally lead us into a ffiort inquiry con¬
cerning the nature of fociety and civil government; and
the natural inherent right that belongs to the fove-
reignty of a ftate, wherever that fovereignty be lodged,
of making and enforcing laws.
The only true and natural foundations of fociety are »2
the wants and fears of individuals. Not that we can c.ivi* ^
believe, with fome theoretical writers, that there ever cle'^’
was a time when there was no fuch thing as fociety;
and that, from the impulfe of reafon, and through a
fenfeof their wants and weakneffes, individuals mettoge-
ther in a large plain, entered into an original contraft,
and chofe the talleft man prefent to be their governor.
This notion, of an aftually exifting unconnefted ftate
of nature, is too wild to be ferioufly admitted: and
befides, it is plainly contradiftory to the revealed ac¬
counts of the primitive origin of mankind, and their
prefervation 2000 years afterwards; both which were
effefted by the means of Angle families. Thefe formed
the firft fociety, among themfelves ; which every day
extended its limits ; and when it grew too large to fub¬
fift with convenience in that paftoral ftate wherein the
patriarchs appear to have lived, it neceffarily fubdivided
itfelf by various migrations into more. Afterwards, as
agriculture increafed, which employs and can maintain
a much greater number of hands, migrations became
lefs frequent : and various tribes, which had formerly
feparated, reunited again ; fometimes by compulfion
and conqueft, fometimes by accident, and fometimes
perhaps by compaft. But though fociety had not its
formal beginning from any convention of individuals,
actuated by their wants and their fears ; yet it is the
fenfe of their weaknefs and imperfeftion that keeps
mankind together ; that demonftrates the neceffity of
this union ; and that therefore is the folid and natural
foundation,, as well as the cement, of fociety. And
this is what we mean by the original contraft of fo¬
ciety; which, though perhaps in no inftance it has
ever been formally expreffed at the firft inftitution of
a ftate, yet in nature and reafon muft always be un-
derftood and implied in the very aft of affociating
£ a 2 J to-
(4)
Qf Laws
»3
Govern-
Bient.
Different
forms
thereof.
L A W.
Part I.
together: namely, that the whole fhould proteft all
its parts, and that every part fhould pay obedience to
the will of the whole ; or, in other words, that the com¬
munity fhould guard the rights of each individual mem¬
ber, and that (in return for this protection) each in¬
dividual fhould fubmit to the laws of the community ;
without, which fubmiffion of all, it was impoflible that
protection could be certainly extended to any.
For when fociety is once formed, government refults
of cburfe, as neeeffary toprefcrveandto keep that fociety
in order. Unlefs fome fuperior be conftituted, whofe
commands and decilions all the members are bound to
obey, they would (till remain as in a ftate of nature,
without any judge upon earth to define their feveral
rights, and redrefs their feveral wrongs. But, as all
the members of fociety are naturally equal, it may be
aiked, In whofe hands are the reins of government to
be entrufted ? To this the general anfwer is eafy; but
the application of it to particular cafes has occafioned
one half of thofe mifchiefs which are apt to proceed
from mifguided political zeal. In general, all man¬
kind will agree, that government fhould be repofed in
fuch perfons, in whom thofe qualities are moil likely
to be found, the perfection of which is among the at¬
tributes of him who is emphatically ftyled the Supreme
Being ; the three grand requifites, namely, of wifdom,
«f goodnefs, and of power : wifdom, to difcern the
real intereft of the community; goodnefs, to endeavour
always to purfue that real intereft; and ftrength, or
power, to carry this knowledge and intention into ac¬
tion. Thefe are the natural foundations of foveregnity,
and thefe are the requifites that ought to be found in
every well conftituted frame of government.
How the feveral forms of government we now fee
in the world at firft actually began, is matter of great
uncertainty, and has bccafioned infinite difputes. It
is not our bufinefs or intention to enter into any of
them. However they began, or by what right foever
they fubfift, there is and muft be in all of them a fu-
preme, irrefiftible, abfolute, uncontrolled authority, in
which the jura fummi imperii, or the rights of fove-
reignty, refide. And this authority is placed in thofe
hands, wherein (according to the opinion of the foun¬
ders of fuch refpeClive Hates, either exprefsly given,
or collefted from their tacit approbation) the qualities
requifite for fupremacy, wifdom, goodnefs and power,
are the moft likely to be found.
The political writers of antiquity will not allow
more than three regular forms of government: the firft,
when the fovereign power is lodged in an aggregate
affembly confiding of all the members of a community,
which is called a democracy; the fecond, when it is
lodged in a couned compofed of feled members, and
then it is ftyled an arijiocracy; the laft, when it is en¬
trufted in the hands of a fingle perfon, and then it takes
the name of a monarchy. All other fpecies of govern-
ment, they fay, are either corruptions of, or reducible
to, thefe three.
By the fovereign power, as was before obferved, is
meant the making of laws; for wherever that power
rendes, all others muft conform to and be directed by
it, whatever appearance the outward form and admi-
niftration of the government may put on. For it is at
any time in the option of the legiflature to alter that
-ornr and. admimftraUon by a new edict or rule, and to
put the execution of the laws into whatever hands it Of Laws
pleafes: and all the other powers of the ftate muft obey >" general
the legillative power in the execution of their feveral ~ ^
fundions, or elfe the conftitution is at an end.
In a. democracy, where the right of making laws
refides in the people at large, public virtue, or goodnefs
of intention, is more likely to be found, than either of
the other qualities of government. Popular affemblies
are frequently foolifh in their contrivance, and weak
in their execution; but generally mean to do the thing
that is right and and juft, and have always a degree of
patriotifm or public Ipirit. In aritlocracies there is
more wifdom to be found than -in the other forms
of government; being compofed, or intended to be
compofed, of the moft experienced citizens: but there
is lefs honefty than in a republic, and lefs ftrength
than in a monarchy. A monarchy is indeed the molt
powerful of any, all the finews of government being
knit and united together in the hand of the prince; but
then there is imminent danger of his employing that
ftrength to improvident or oppreflive purpofes.
Thus thefe three fpecies of government have, all of
them, their feveral perfections and imperfections. De¬
mocracies are ufually the belt calculated to direCf the
end of a law; ariftocracies, to invent the means by
which that end ihall be obtained; and monarchies, to
carry thofe means into execution. And the ancients,
as was oblerved, had in general no idea of any other
permanent form of government but thefe three : for
though Cicero declares himfelf of opinion, “ ejfe optirne
confiitutam rempublicam, qua: ex tribus generibus Mis,
regali, optima, et populari,fit modice confufayet Ta¬
citus treats this notion of a mixed government, formed
out of them all, and partaking of the advantages of
each, as a vilionary whim, and one that, if tffeaed,
could never be lading or fecure.
But, happily for us of this illand, the Britilh confti¬
tution has long remained, and we truft will long conti- ,s ■ |>
nue, a Handing exception to the truth of this obferva- BritiihCor) D
tion. For, as with us the executive power of the laws Hhution. i h
is lodged in a fingle perfon, they have all the advan¬
tages of ftrength and difpatch that are to be found in
the moft abfolute monarchy: and, as the legiflature of
the kingdom is entrufted to three diftinft powers, en¬
tirely independant of each other; firft, the king; fe-
condly, the lords fpiritual and temporal, which is an
ariftocratical affembly of perfons feleCIed for their piety,
their birth, their wifdom, their valour, or their pro¬
perty ; and, thirdly, the houfe of commons, freely
chofen by the people from among themfelves, which
makes it a kind of democracy; as this aggregate body,
aftuated by different fprings and attentive to different
interefts, compofes the Britifti parliament, and has the
fupreme difpofal of every thing, there can no incon¬
venience be attempted by either of the three branches,
but will be withftood by one of the other two, each
branch being armed with a negative power fufficient
to repel any innovation which it fliall think inexpedient
or dangerous.
Here, then, is lodged the fovereignty of the Britiflr
conftitution; and lodged as beneficially as is poffible
for fociety. For in no other fhape could we be fo cer¬
tain of finding the three great qualities of government fo
well and fo happily united. If the fupreme power
were lodged in any one of the three branches fepa-
rately<,
Part I. LAW. ( 5 )'
Of Lsws rately, wc maft be expofed to the inconveniences of nmllitude, to give injuniSUons to every particular man, Of Laws
Ml general, either abiblute monarchy, ariftocracy, or democracy; relative to each particular aftion, therefore the ftate in gc‘ier:i1-
and fo want two of the three principal ingredients of eftablKhes general rules, for the perpetual information 
good polity, either virtue, wiidom, or power. If it and diredion of all perfons in all points, whether of
were lodged in any two of the branches ; for inftance,
in the king and houfe of lords ; our laws might be pro¬
vidently made and well executed, but they might not
pofitive or negative duty. And this, in order that
every man may know what to look upon as.his own
what as another’s; what abfdlute and what relativt
always have the good of the people in view: if lodged duties are required at his hands; what is to be efteemed
in the king and commons, we fhould want that circum- honett, difhoneft, or indifferent; what degree every
fpedion and mediatory cautioo, which the wifdom of man retains of his natural liberty, and what he has given
the peers is to afford : if the fupreme rights of legifla- up as the price of the benefits of fociety; and after
ture were lodged in the two houfes only, and the king what manner each perfon is to moderate the ufe and
had no negative upon their proceedings, they might be exercife of thofe rights which the (late affigns him, in
tempted to encroach upon the royal perogative, or per- order to promote and fecure the public tranquillity,
haps to abolifh the kingly office, and thereby weaken (if From what has been advanced, the truth of the for- Second
not totally deftroy) the flrengthofthe executive power, mer branch of our definition is (we truft) fufficiently branch
But the conllitutional government of this ifland is fo evident ; that “ municipal law is a rule of civil con- dcfini*
admirably tempered and compounded, that nothing du&, prefcribedfy the fupreme po-joer in a (late." We ft0'1’ 1"“’
can endanger or hurt it, but deftroying the equili- proceed now to the latter branch of it; that it is a rule
brium of power between one branch of the legflature fo prefcribed, “ commanding what is right, and pro-
and the reft. For if ever it fhould happen, that the in- hibiting what is wrong.” * ^
dependence of any oneof the three fhould be loft, or that Now, in order to do this completely, it is firft of all
it fhould become fubfervient to the views of either of neceffary that the boundaries of right and wrono- be
the othertwo, there would foon be an end of ourconftitu- eftablifhed and afcertained by law. And when this is
tion. Thelegiflature would be changed from that which once done, it will follow of courfe, that it is likewife
was originally fet up by the general confent and funda- the bufinefs of the law, confidered as a rule of civil
mental ad of the fociety: and fuch a change, how- condud, to enforce thefe rights, and to reftrain or re-
ever effeded, is, according to Mr Locke, (who perhaps drefs thefe wrongs. It remains therefore only to confi-
carries his theory too far), at once an entire diffolution der, in what manner thelaw is faidto afcertain the boun-
of the bands of government; and the people are there- daries pf right and wrong; and the methods which it
by reduced to a (fate of anarchy, with liberty to con- takes to command the one and prohibit the other
ftitute to themfelves a new legiflative power. For this purpofe, every law may be faid to confift off
Having thus curforily confidered the three ufual feveral parts : one, declaratory; whereby the rights to
fpecies of government, and oCfr own Angular conftitu- be obferved, and the wrongs to be efchewed, are clearly
tion feleded and compounded from them all, we proceed defined and laid down : another, dire&ory ; whereby-
to obferve, that, as the power of making laws confti- the fubjea is inftruded and enjoined to obferve thofe
tutes the fupreme authority, fo wherever the fupreme rights, and to abftain from the commiffion of thofe
authority in any date refides, it is the right of that wrongs: a third, remedial; whereby a method is
authority to make laws; that is, in the words of our Pointed out torecover a man’s private rio-hts, or redrefa
definition, tcpreferibe tbs rule of sivilanion. And this his private wrongs : to which may be added a fourtV
may be difeovered from the very end and inftitution of ufually termed ihe fanfiion, or vindicatory branch of
civil ftates. For a date is a colie&ive body, com- the law; whereby it is fignified what evil or penalty
pofed of a multitude of individuals, united for their (hall be incurred by fuch as commit any public wrongs^
fafety and convenience, and intending to aft together and tranfgrefs or negleft their duty ^ ’
as one man. If it therefore is to aft as one man it With regard to the firft of thefe, the declaratory '*
ought to aft by one uniform will. But, inafmuch as part of the municipal law ; this depends not fo much Dt,c!ar3torr
political communities are made up of many natural per- upon the law of revelation or of nature as upon the T'* °f thar'
ions, each of whom has his particular will and inclina- wifdom and will of the legiflator. This doftriim which **
tion, thefe feveral wills cannot by any natural union be before was flightly touched, deferves a more particuW
joined together, or tempered and difpofed into a lad- explication. Thofe rights, then, which God and nature
mg'harmony, fo as to confhtute and produce that one have eftablifhed, and are therefore called
uniform will of the whole. It can therefore be no fuch as are life and liberty, need not the'aid of human
otherwile produced than by a political muon ; by the laws to be more effeftually invefted in every man than
confent of all perfons to fubmit their own private wills they are; neitherdo they receive any additional ftren-th
to the will of one man, or of one or more affemblies of when declared by the municipal laws to be inviolable
men, to whom the fupreme authority is entrufted; and, On the contrary, no human legiflature has power to
this will of that one man, or affcmblage of men, is in abridge or deftroy them, unlefs the owner (hall in¬
different ftates, according to their different conffitu- felf commit fome aft that amounts to‘ a forfeiture*
tions, underftood to be law. Neither do divine or natural (fuch as, for in-
Thus far as to the of the fupreme power to fiance, the worfhip of God, the maintenance of chii-
make aws : but farther, it is its duty hkewife. For dren, and the like) receive any ftron^er fanftion from
fince the refpeftive members are bound to conform being alfo declared to be duties by th°e law of the land
themfelves to the will of the ftate, it is expedient that The cafe is the fame as to crimes and mifdemea.iorS;
they receive direftmns from the ftate declaratory of that are forbidden by the fuperior laws, and therefore
that its will. But as it is unpoffible, in fo great a ftyled mala infe, fuch as murder, theft, and perjury
whiclte
t6) . .. . L
Of Laws which contraft no additional turpitude from being de-
m general. clarecj unlawful by the inferior legiflature. For that
degiflature in all thefe cafes afts only, as was before
obferved, in fubordination to the Great Lawgiver,
tranfcribing andpublilhing his precepts. So that, upon
upon the whole, the declaratory part of the municipal
law has no force or operation at all, with regard to
actions that are naturally and intrinfically right or
wrong.
But with regard to things in themfelves indifferent,
the cafe is entirely altered. Thefe become either right
or wrong,, juft or unjuft, duties or mifdemeanors, ac¬
cording as the municipal legiflator fees'-proper, for
promoting the welfare of the fociety, and more effec¬
tually carrying on the purpofes of civil life. Thus
our own common law has declared, that the goods of
the wife do inftantly upon marriage become the pro¬
perty and right of the hufband ; and our ftatute law
has declared all monopolies a public offence: yet that
right, and this offence, have no foundation in nature ;
but are merely created by the law, for the purpofes of
civil foc-iety. And fometimes, where the thing itfelf
has its rife from the law of nature, the particular cir-
cnmftances and mode of doing it become right or wrong,
as the laws of the land fhali diredt. Thus, for inftance,
in civil duties ; obedience to fuperiors is the dodlrine
of revealed as well as natural religion : but who thofe
fuperiors fhall be, and in what circumftances, or to
what degrees they fhall be obeyed, is the province of
human laws to determine. And fo, as to injuries or
crimes, it muft be left to our own legiflature to decide,
in what cafes the feizing another’s cattle fhall amount
to the crime of robbery ; and where it fhall be a juf-
tifiable a£lion, as when a landlord takes them by way
19 of diftrefs for rent.
Direftory Thus much for the declaratory part of the municipal
I581*" law; and the directory Hands much upon the fame
footing ; for this virtually includes the former, the de¬
claration being ufually colleded from the dire&ion.
The law that fays, “ Thou (halt not fteal,” implies a
■declaration that Healing is a crime. And we have feen,
that, in things naturally indifferent, the very effence
of right and wrong depends upon the direftion of the
5o laws to do or to omit them.
Remedial The remedial part of a law is fo neceffary a confe-
part. quence of the former two, that laws muft be very
vague and imperfeft without it. For in vain would
rights be declared, in vain dire&ed to be obferved, if
there were no method of recovering and aflerting thofe
rights when wrongfully withheld or invaded. This
is what we mean properly, when we fpeak of the pro-
teftion of the law. When, for inftance, the declaratory
part of the law has faid, “ that the field or inheritance,
which belonged to Titius’s father, is veiled by his
death in Titiusand the directory part has “ forbid¬
den any one to enter on another’s property, without
the leave of the ownerif Gains after this will pre¬
fume to take poffeflion of the land, the remedial part
of the law will then interpofe its office; will make
Gains reftore the poffeffion to Titius, andalfopay him
damages for the invafion.
With regard to the fan&ion of laws, or the evil
that may attend the breach of public duties; it is ob¬
ferved, that human legiflators have for the moft part
chofen to make the fan ft ion of their laws rather
A W. Part I.
vindicatory than remuneratory, or to confill rather in Of Laws I
punifhments than in aftual particular rewards; Be- in general^
caufe, in the firft place, the quiet enjoyment and
proteftion of all our civil rights and liberties, which
are the fure and general confequence of obedience
to the municipal law, are in themfelves'the bell and
moll valuable of all rewards : becaufe alfo, were the
exercife of every virtue to be enforced by the pro-
pofal of particular rewards, it were impoffible for any
{late to furnifh Hock enough for fo profufe a bounty:
and farther, becaufe the dread of evil is a much more
forcible principle of human aftions than the profpeft
of good. For which reafons, though a prudent be-
ftowihg of rewards is fometimes of exquifite ufe, yet
we find that thofe civil laws, which enforce and enjoin
our duty, do feldom, if ever, propofe any privilege or
gift to fuch as obey the law ; but do conftantly come
armed with a penalty denounced againfl tranfgrefibrs,
either exprefly defining the nature and quantity of the
punifhment, or elfe leaving it to the difcretion of the
judges, and thofe who are entrulled with the care bf
putting the laws in execution. 1
Of all the parts of a law the moft effeftual is the vin- Vindicator]
dicatory. For it is but loft labour to fay, “ do this, or part. j
avoid that,” unlefs we alfo declare, “ this fhall be the
confequence of your non-compliance.” We piufl there¬
fore obferve, that the main llrength and force of a law
confifts in the penalty annexed to it. Herein is to be
found the principal obligation of human laws.
Legiflators and their laws are faid to compel and
oblige', not that, by any natural violence, they fo con-
ftrain a man as to render it impofiible for him to aft
otherwife than as they direft, which is the ftrift fenfe
of obligation: but becaufe, by declaring and exhibit¬
ing a penalty againfl offenders, they bring it to pafs
that no man can eafily choofe to tranfgrefs the law;
fince, by reafon of theimpending correftion, compliance
is in a high degree preferable to difobedience. And,
even where rewards are propofed as well as punifhments
threatened, the obligation of the law feems chiefly
to confift in the penalty: for rewards, in their nature,
can only perfuade and allure; nothing is compulfory
but punifhment.
It is true, it hath been holden, and very juftly, by
the principal of our ethical writers, that human laws
are binding upon mens confciences. But if that were
the only or mofl forcible obligation, the good only
would regard the laws, gnd the bad would fet them at
defiance. And, true as this principle is, it muft flill
be underftood with fome reftriftion. It holds, we ap¬
prehend, as to rights-, and that, when the law has de¬
termined the field to belong to Titius, it is matter of
confcience no longer to withhold or to invade it. So t
alfo in regard to natural duties-, and fuch offences as are
mala in fe : here we are bound in confcience, becaufe
we are bound by fuperior laws, before thofe human
laws were in being, to perform the one and abftain
from the other. But in relation to thofe laws which
enjoin only pofitive duties, and forbid only fuch things
as are not mala in fe, but mala prohibita merely, with¬
out any intermixture of moral guilt, annexing a pe¬
nalty to non-compliance; here feems to be confcience
no farther concerned, than by directing a fubmiffion
to the penalty, in cafe of our breach of thofe laws :
for otherwife the multitude of penal laws in a ftate
would
Part I. L P
Of Laws would not only be looked upon as an Impolitic, but would
in general. alf0 fog a very wicked, thing ; if every fuch law were a
" fnare for the confcience of the fubjedt. But in thefe
cafes the alternative is offered to every man ; “ either
abftain from this, or fubmit to fuch a penalty:” and
his confcience will be clear, whichever fide of the al¬
ternative he thinks proper to embrace. Thus, by the
ftatutes for preferving the game, a penalty is denounced
againfl every unqualified perfon that kills a hare, and
againft every perfon who pofTeffes a partridge in Au-
gu!t. And fo too, by other ftatutes, pecuniary pe¬
nalties are inflidted for exercifing trades without fer-
ving an apprentice fhip thereto, for eredling cottages
without annexing four acres of land to each, for not
burying the dead in woollen, for not performing fta-
tute-work on the public roads, and for innumerable
other pofitive mifdemeanors. Now thefe prohibitory
laws do not make the tranfgreffion a moral offence, or
fin ; the only obligation in confcience is to fubmit to
the penalty if levied. It muft, however, be obferved,
that we are here fpeaking of laws that are Amply and
purely penal, where the thing forbidden or enjoined is
wholly a matter of indifference, and where the penalty
inflicted is an adequate compenfation for the civil in¬
convenience fuppofed to arife from the offence. But
where difobedience to the law involves in it alfo any
degree of public mifchief or private injury, there it falls
within our former diftindtion, and is alfo an offence
againft confcience.
We have now gone through the definition laid down
©f a municipal law ; and have (hewn that it is “ a
rule---of civil condudl-—prefcribed---by the fupreme
ower in a ftate---commanding what is right, and pro-
ibiting what is wrong in the explication of which
we have endeavoured to interweave a few ufeful prin¬
ciples, concerning the nature of civil government, and
the obligation of human laws. Before we conclude
this part, it may not be amifs to add a few obferva-
tions concerning the intepretation of laws.
€)f the^in- When any doubt arofe upon the conrtrudlion of the
terpretation Roman laws, the ufage was to ftate the cafe to the
»f laws. emperor in w'riting, and take his opinion upon it.
This was certainly a bad method of interpretation.
To interrogate the legiflature to decide particular dif-
putes, is not only endlefs, but affords great room for
partiality and oppreffion. The anfwers of the empe¬
ror were called his refcripts, and thefe had in fucceeding
cafes the force of perpetual laws; though they ought
to be carefully diftinguiflied, by every rational civilian,
from thofe general conftitutions which had only the
nature of things for their guide. The emperor Ma-
erinus, as his hiftorian Capitolinus informs us, had
once refolved to abolifti thefe refcripts, and retain only
the general edidls : he could not bear that the hafty
and crude anfwers of fuch princes as Commodus and
Caracalla ftiould be reverenced as laws. But Juftinian
thought otherwife, and he has prtferved them all..
In like manner the canon laws, or decretal epiftles of
the popes, are all of them refcripts in the ftri&eft
fenfe. Contrary to all true forms of reafoning, they
argue from particulars to generals.
The faireft and moft rational method to interpret
the will of the legiflator, is by exploring his intentions
at the time when the law was made, by figns the moft
natural and probable. And thefe figns are either the
L W. ( 7 )
words, the context, the fubjed-matter, the effe&s of Laws
and confequence, or the fpirit and reafon of the law. in general.
Let us take a ftiort view of them all.  
1. Words are generally to be underftood in their
ufual and moft known fignification ; not fo much re- **
garding the propriety of grammar, as their general
and popular ufe. Thus the law mentioned by Puffen-
dorf, which forbad a layman to lay hands on a prieft,
was adjudged to extend to him who had hurt a prieft
with a weapon. Again: Terms of art, or technical
terms, muft be taken according to the acceptation of
the learned in each art, trade, and fcience. So in the
ad of fettlement, where the crown of England is li¬
mited “ to the princefs Sophia, and the heirs of her
body being Proteftants,” it becomes neceffary to call
in the afiiftance of lawyers, to afcertain the precife
idea of the wrords “ heirs of her body;” which in a
legal fenfe comprife only certain of her lineal defcen-
dants. Laftly, where words are clearly repugnant in
two laws, the later law takes place of the elder ; leges
pojlerlores prlores contrarias abrogant, is a maxim of
univerfal law, as well as of our own conftitutions. And
accordingly it was laid down by a law of the twelve
tables at Rome, quod populus pojlremum jujfit, id jus
ratum efto.
2. If words happen to be ftill dubious, we may ef» ^
tablifh their meaning from the context; with which
it may be of fingular ufe fo compare a word or a fen-
tence, whenever they are ambiguous, equivocal, or in¬
tricate. Thus the proeme, or preamble, is often called
in to help the conftrudion of an ad of parliament.
Of the fame nature and ufe is the comparifon of a law
with other laws, that are made by the fame legiflator,
that have fome affinity with the fubjed, or that ex¬
prefly relate to the fame point. Thus, when the law
of England declares murder to be felony without be¬
nefit of clergy, we muft refort to the fame law of Eng¬
land to lean* what the benefit of clergy is : and, when
the common law cenfures fimoniacal contrads, it affords
great light to the fubjed to confider what the canon
law has adjudged to be fimony.
3. As to the fubjeli-matter, words are always to be
underftood as having a regard thereto; for that is al-
ways fuppofed to be in the eye of the legiflator, and
all his expreffions'direded to that end. Thus, when
a law of Edward III. forbids all ecclefiaftical per-
fons to purchafe provilions at Rome, it might feem to
prohibit the buying of grain and other vidual ; but
when we confider that the ftatute was made to reprefs
the ufurpations of the papal fee, and that the nomina¬
tions to benefices by the Pope were called provifions,
we ffiall fee that the reftraint is intended to-be laid
upon fuch provifions only.
4. As to the effeds and confequence, the rule is,
That where words bear either none, or a very abfurd
fignification, if literally underftood, we muft a little
deviate from the received fenfe of them. Therefore
the Bolognian law, mentioned by Puffendorf, which
enaded “ that whoever drew blood in the ftreets Ihould
be punifhed with the utmoft feverity,” was held after
long debate not to extend to the furgeon who opened
the vein of a perfon that fell down in the ftreet with a
fit.
5. But, laftly, the moft univerfal and effedual way
of difcoveiing the true meaning of a law, when the 3?
words
( 8 ')
Of Laws
’in general,
'[18] 34
iEquity.
3«
fCommon
law.
L
wolds are dubious, is by confidering the reafun and
fpirit of it, or the caufe which moved the legiflator to
enaft it. For when this reafon ceafes, the law itfelf
ought likewife to ceafe with it. An inftance of this is
given in a cafe put by Cicero, or whoever was the au-
of the rhetorical treatife infcribed to Herennius, There
■was a law, That thofe who in a ftorm forfook the (hip
fhould forfeit all property therein, and the fliip and
lading (hould belong entirely to thofe who (laid in it.
In a dangerous tempeft, all the mariners forfook the
fliip, except only one lick palfenger, who by reafon of
his difeafe was unable to get out and efcape. By
chance the Ihip came fafe to port. The fick man kept
■pofleffion, and claimed the benefit of the law. Now
here all the learned agree, that the fick man is not
within the reafon of the law; for the reafon of making
it was, to give encouragement to fuch as fliould ven*
tore their lives to fave the veffel; but this is a merit
which he could never pretend to, who neither flaid in
the (hip upon that account, nor contributed any thing
'to its prefervalioo.-
From this method of interpreting laws by the rea¬
fon of them, arifes what we call equity: which is thus
defined by Grotius, “ the correftion of that, wherein
the law (by reafon of its univerfality) is deficient.”
For fince in laws all cafes cannot be forefeen or expref-
fed, it is neceffary, that, when the general decrees of
the law come to be applied to particular cafes, there
fliould be fomewhere a power veiled of defining thofe
circumfiances, which (had they been forfeen) the legis¬
lator himfelf would have expreffed. And thefe are
the cafes which, according to Grotius, tilex non exafte
definite fed arbitrio boni viri permit tit.”
A W. Part IJ
Equity thus depending, efientially, upon the parti- Of Laws j
cular circumflances of each individual cafe, there can in general.j
be no eftablifhed rules and fixed precepts of equity laid H
down, without deftroying its very eflence, and reducing
it to a pofitive law. And, on the other hand, the li¬
berty of confidering all cafes in an equitable light, mufl
not be indulged too far; lell thereby we deftroy all law,
and leave the decifion of every queftion entirely in the
breaft of the judge. And law, without equity, tho’
hard and difagreeable, is much more defirable for the
public good, than equity without law ; which would
make every judge a legiflator, and introduce moft in¬
finite confufion; as there would then be almofl as many
different rules of a£lion laid down in our courts, as there
are differences of capacity and fentiment in the human
mind.
Having thus confidered the nature of laws in gene- Plan of thij
ral, we fliall proceed to give a view of the particular two follow-
laws of our own countiy; i.OfEngland, 2. Of Scot-inS Parts' i
land. The Englifh law, however, being too extenfive
to admit of detail in a body, we can only here give fuch a
fketch of it as may be fufficient to (how the connexion
of its parts; but the principal of thefe parts themfelves
are explained at large, under their proper names, in
the general alphabet.—A contrary method is followed
with regard to the law of Scotland. This being lefs
extenfive, is given in a body, with all its parts not only
in regular conne£lion, butfufficiently explained; thefe
parts, again, not being explained in the order of the
alphabet, but'marked with numerical references to their
explanations in the fyflem.
Part II. Th e L A W o f ENGL AND.
INTRODUCTION.
>nnHE municipal law of England, or the rule of ci-
•A vil conduct prefcribed to the inhabitants of that
kingdom, may with fufficient propriety be divided into
two kinds: the /ex non fcripta, the unwritten or com¬
mon law ; and the lex fcriptat the written or llatute
law.
The lex non fcripta, or unwritten law, includes not
only general cufloms, or the common law properly fo
called ; but alfo the particular cufloms of certain parts
of the kingdom, and likewife thofe particular laws
that are by cuftom obferved only in certain courts and
jurifdidtions.
In calling thefe parts of the law leges non fcripta,
we would not be underflood as if all thofe laws were at
prefent merely oral, or communicated from the former
ages to the prefent folely by word of mouth. It is
true indeed, that, in the profound ignorance of letters
which formerly overfpread the whole weflern world,
all laws were entirely traditional; for this plain reafon,
that the nations among which they prevailed had but
little idea of writing. Thus the Britifh as well as the
Gallic druids committed all their laws as well as learn¬
ing to memory ; and it is faid of the primitive Saxons
here, as well as their brethren on the continent, that
legesfola mernoria et ufu retinebant. But, with us at
prefeat, the monuments and evidences of our legal cuf-
toms are contained in the records of the feveral courts
of juflice, in books of reports and judicial decifions,
and in the treatifes of learned fages of the profef-
fion, preferved and handed down to us from the times
of highefl antiquity. However, we therefore ftyle thefe
parts of our law leges non fcripta, becaufe their original
inflitution and authority are not fet down in writing,
as adls of parliament are; but they receive their bind-
ing power, and the force of laws, by long and imme¬
morial ufage, and by their univerfal reception through¬
out the kingdom: in like manner as Aulus GelHus
defines the jus non fcriptum to be that, which \% tacito
et iUiterato hominum confenfu et moribus exprcffutn.
Our ancient lawyers, and particularly Fortefcue,
infill with abundance of warmth, that thefe culloms
are as old as the primitive Britons, and continued down
through the feveral mutations of government and inha¬
bitants, to the prefent time, unchanged and unadulter¬
ated. This may be the cafe as to fome. But in general,
as Mr Selden in his notes obferves, this aflertion mull be
Underdood with many grains of allowance ; and ought
Only to fignify, as the truth feems to be, that there
never Was arty formal exchange of one fyllein of laws for
another: though doubtlefs, by the intermixture of ad¬
ventitious nations, the Romans, the Pidls, the Saxons,
the Danes, and the Normans, they mull have infenfibly
introduced and incorporated many of their own culloms
with thofe that were before ellablilhed ; thereby, in all
probability,
Part II. L A
Law of improving the texturtf and wifdom of the whole, by the
England, accumulated wifdom of divers particular countries. Our
" laws, faith lord Bacon, are mixed as our language ; and
as our language is fo much the richer, the laws are the
more complete.
And indeed our antiquarians and firft hMtorians do
all pofitively affure us, that our body of laws is of this
compounded nature. For they tell us, that in the
time of Alfred the local cuftoms of the feveral provinces
of the kingdom were grown fo various, that he found
it expedient tocompilehis dome-book, ovliber judicialis,
for the general ufe of the whole kingdom. This book
is faid to have been extant fo late as the reign of Ed¬
ward the fourth, but is now unfortunately loft. It
contained, we may probably fuppofe, the principal
maxims of the common law, the penalties for mifde-
meanours, and the forms of judicial proceedings. Thus
much may at lead be colledted from that injunftion to
obferve it, which we find in the laws of king Edward
the elder, the fon of Alfred. Omnibus qui reipublicce
pnrfunt etiam atque etiam mando, ut omnibus aquas fe
prabeant judices, perinde ac in judiciali libra fcriptum
babetur : nec quiquam formident quin jus commune au-
dafter libereque dicant.
But the irruption and eftablifhment of the Danes in
England, which followed foon after, introduced new
cuftoms, and caufed this code of Alfred in many pro¬
vinces to fall into difufe, or at leaft to be mixed and
debafed with other laws of a coarfer alloy. So that,
about the beginning of the IIth century, there were
three principal fyftems of laws prevailing in different
dirt rifts, i. The Mercen-Lage, or Mercian laws,
which were obferved in many of the inland counties, and
thofe bordering on the principality of Wales, the re¬
treat of the ancient Britons ; and therefore very pro¬
bably intermixed with the Britifti or Druidical cuf¬
toms. 2. Thz Wejl Saxon-Lage, or laws of the Weft
Saxons, which obtained in the counties to the fouth
and weft of the ifland, from Kent to Devonfhire. Thefe
were probably much the fame with the laws of Alfred
above-mentioned, being the municipal law of the far
moft confiderable part of his dominions, and particu¬
larly including Berkftiire, the feat of his peculiar re-
fidence. 3. The Dane-Lage, or Danifh law, the very
name of which fpeaks its original and compofition.
This was principally maintained in the reft of the mid¬
land counties, and alfb on the eaftern coaft, the part
moft expofed to the vifits of that piratical people. As
for the very northern provinces, they were at that time
under a diftinff government.
Out of thefe three laws, Roger Hoveden and Ra-
nulphus Ceftrenfis inform us, king Edward the con-
feifor extrafted one uniform law, or digeft of laws, to
be obferved throughout the whole kingdom ; though t
Hoveden and the author of an old manufcript chronicle
allure us likewife, that this work was proje&ed and
begun by his grandfather king Edgar. And indeed
a general digeft of the fame nature has been conftantly
found expedient, and therefore put in practice by other
great nations, which were formed from an affemblage
of little provinces, governed by peculiar cuftoms. As
in Portugal, under king Edward, about the beginning
of the 15th century. In Spain, under Alonzo X. who
about the year 1250 executed the plan of his father
St Ferdinand, and colle&ed all the provincial cuftoms
W. ( 9 )
into one uniform law, in the celebrated code entitled Law of
las partidas. And in Sweden, about the fame sera, England,
a univerfal body of common law was compiled out of
the particular cuftoms eftabliftied by the laghman of
every province, and entitled the land's lagh, being
analogous to the common law of England.
Both thefe undertakings, of king Ejdgar and Edward
the confeflbr, feem to have been no more than a new
edition, or frefh promulgation, of Alfred’s code or
dome-book, with fuch additions and improvements as
the experience of a century and an half had fuggefted.
For Alfred is generally ityled by the fame hiftorians
the legum Anglicanarum conditor, as Edward the con¬
feflbr is the rejlitutor. Thefe, however, are the laws
which our hiftories fo often mention under the name
of the laous of Edtvard the confejfor ; which our ancef-
tors ftruggled fo hardly to maintain, under the firft
princes of the Norman line ; and which fubfequent
princes fo frequently promifed to keep and to reftore,
as the moft popular adl they could do, when prefled
by foreign emergencies or domeftic difcontents. Thefe
are the laws, that fo vigoroufly withftood the repeated
attacks of the civil law ; which eftabliflied in the 12th
century a new Roman empire over moft of the ftates
on the continent: ftates that have loft, and perhaps
upon that account, their political liberties ; while the
free conftitution of England, perhaps upon the fame
account, has been rather improved than debafed. Thefe,
in Ihort, are the laws which gave rife and original to
that colle&ion of maxims and cuftoms which is now 38
known by the name of the common law. A name ci- Common
ther given to it, in contradiftinftion to other laws, as law-
the ftatute law, the civil law, the law merchant, and
the like ; or, more probably, as a law common to all
the realm, the jus commune or folcright mentioned by
king Edward the elder, after the abolition of the fe¬
veral provincial cuftoms and particular laws before-
mentioned.
But though this is the moft likely foundation of
this colleftion of maxims and cuftoms; yet the maxims
and cuftoms, fo colle&ed, are of higher antiquity than
memory or hiftory can reach : nothing being more
difficult than to afcertain the precife beginning and
firft fpring of an ancient and long-eftabliflied cuftom.
Whence it is that in our law the goodnefs of a cuftom
depends upon its having been ufed time out of mind;
or, in the folemnity of our legal phrafe, time whereof
the memory of man runneth not to the contrary. This
it is that gives it its weight and authority ; and of this
nature arc the maxims and cuftoms which compofe the
common law, or lex non fcripta, of this kingdom.
This unwritten, or common law, is properly dif-
tinguilhable into three kinds: 1. General cuftoms;
which are the univerfal rule of the whole kingdom, and
form the common law in its ftri&er and more ufual
fignification. 2. Particular cuftoms ; which for the
moft part affeft only the inhabitants of particular dif-
tri&s. 3. Certain particular laws; which by cuftom
are adopted and ufed by fome particular courts, of
pretty general and extenfive jurifdidtion.
I. As to general cuftoms, or the common law pro- Firft branch
perly fo called; this is that law, by which proceed- of_the un-
ings and determinations in the king’s ordinary courts *rittcn law:
of juftice are guided and dire&ed. This, for the moft cuftoms.
part, fettles the courfe in which lands defcend by in-
[ b ] heritance;
( 1°
Law of
England.
) LAW. Part IT.
heritance; the manner and: form of acquiring and
transferring property ; the folemnities and obligation
of contrails ; the rules of expounding wills, deeds,
and ails of parliament; the refpeitive remedies of ci-
•»il injuries ; the feveral fpecies of temporal offences,
with the manner and degree of pumfhment; and an
infinite number of minuter particulars, which diffufe
tHemfelves as extenfively as the ordinary diftribution
of common juftice requires. Thus, for example, that
there lhall be four fuperior courts of record, the chan¬
cery, the king’s bench, the common pleas, and the
exchequer ;--that the eldeft fon alone is heir to his
anceftor ;---that property may be acquired and tranf-
ferred by writing-that a deed'is of no Validity unlefs
fealed and deliveredthat wills (hall be conftrued
more favourably, and deeds more (triilly;---that mo¬
ney lent upon bond is recoverable by aition of debt;
---that breaking the public peace is an offence, and
punifhable by fine and imprifonment: --all thefe are
dodlrines that are not fet down irt any written (latute
or ordinance ; but depend merely upon immemorial
ufage, that is, upon common law, for thdr Tupport.
Some have divided the common law into two prin¬
cipal grounds or foundations : i. EflaMifhed cuftonis;
fuch as that, where there are three brothers, the eldeft
brother fhall be heir to the fecond, in excltifion of the
youhgeft: and, 2. Eftabliftied rules and maxims ; as,
“ that the king can do no wrong, that no man (hall
« be bound to aceufe himfelf,” and the like. But thefe
feem to be one and the fame thing. For the authority of
thefe maxims refts entirely upon general reception and
ufage; and the only method of proving that this or
that maxim is a rule of the common law, is by (hewing
that it hath been always the cuftom to obferve it.
But here a very natural, and very material, queftion
arifes: How are thefe cuftoms or maxims to be known,
and by whom is their validity to be determined ? The
anfwer is, By the judges in the feveral courts of juftice.
They are the depofitary of the laws; the living oracles
who muft decide in all cafes of doubt, anB who are
bound by an oath to decide according to the law of the
laud. Their knowledge of .that law is derived from
*xperience and ftudy ; from the viginti annorum lucu-
Irationes, which Fortefcue mentions ; and from being
long perfonally accuftomed to the judicial decifions of
their predeceffors. And indeed thefe judicial decifions
-are the principal and moft authoritative evidence, that
can be given, of the exiftence of fuch a cuftom as (hall
form a part of the,common law. The judgment itfelf,
and all the proceedings previous thereto, are carefully
regiftered and preferved under the name of records, in
public repofitories fet apart for that particular purpofe;
and to them frequent recourfe is had, wh.en any critical
queftion arifes, in the determination of which former
precedents may give light or affiftance. And there¬
fore, even fo early as the conqueft, we find the pra-
teritorum memories eventorum reckoned up as one of
the chief qualifications of thofe who were held to be
legibus patrice optime injiituti. For it is an eftablifhed
rule. To abide by former precedents, where the fame
points come again in litigation : as well to keep the
fcale of juftice even and fteady, and not liable to waver
with every new judge’s opinion ; as alfo becaufe the
law in that cafe being folemnly declared and determined,
wbat before was uncertain, and perhaps indifferent, is
now become a permanent rule, which it is not in the Law of
breaft of any fubfequent judge to alter or vary from England*
according to his private fentiments : he being fworn "
to determine, not according to his own private judge¬
ment, but according to the known laws and cuftoms of
the land ; not delegated to pronounce a new law, but
to maintain and expound the old one. Yet this rule
admits of exception, where the former determination
is moft evidently contrary to reafon ; much more if it
be contrary to the divine law. But, even in fuch cafes,
the fubfequent judges do not pretend to make a new
law, but to vindicate the old one from mifreprefenta-
tidn. For if it be found that the former decifiou is
manifeftly abfurd or Unjijft, it is declared, not that
fuch a fentence was bad law, but that it was not law;
that is, that it is not the eftabli(bed cuftom of the realm,
as has been erroneoufly determined. And hence it is
that our lawyers are with juftice fo copious in their en¬
comiums on the reafon of the common law ; that they
tell us, that the law is the perfection of reafon, that
it always intends to conform thereto, and that what is
hot reafon is not law. Not that the particular reafon.
of every rule in the law can at this diftance of time be
always precifely afiigned ; but it is fufficient that there
be nothing in the rule flatly contradi&ory to reafon,
and then the lavy will prefume it to be well founded.
And it hath been an ancient obfervation in the laws of |
England, that whenever a (landing rule of law, of
which the reafon perhaps could not be remembered or
difeerned, hath been wantonly broke in upon by fta-
tutes or new refolutions, the wifdom of the rule hath
in the end appeared from the inconveniences that have
followed the innovation.
The do&rine of the law then is this: That precedents
and rules muft be followed, unlefs flatly abfurd or un¬
juft: for though their reafon be not obvious at firft
vitw, yet we owe fuch a deference to former times, as
not to fuppofe they afted wholly without confideration.
To illuftrate this doftrine by examples. It has been
determined, time out of mind, that a brother of the
half blood (hall never fucceed as heir to the eftate of
his half brother, but it (hall rather efeheat to the king,
or other fuperior lord. Now this is a pofitive law,
fixed and eftabliftied by cuftom ; which cuftom is evi¬
denced by judicial decifions ; and therefore can never
be departed from by any modern judge without a
breach of his oath and the law. For herein there is .!
nothing repugnant to natural juftice ; though the arti¬
ficial reafon of it, drawn from the feodal law, may not
be quite obvious to every body. And therefore, on
account of a fuppofed hardthip upon the half brother,
a modern judge might wifti it had been otherwife
fettled ; yet it is not in his power to alter it. But if
any court were now to determine, that an elder bro¬
ther of the half blood might enter upon and feize any i £
lands that were purchafed by his younger brother, no
fubfequent judges would fcruple to declare that fuch prior
determination was unjuft, was unreafonable, and there¬
fore was not law. So that^the law, and the opinion of
the judge, are not always convertible terms, or one and
the fame thing; fince it fometimes may happen that
the judge may miftake the law. Upon the whole,
however, we may take it as a general rule, “ That the
decifions of courts of juftice are the evidence of what
is common lawin the fame manner as, in the civil
law.
Part IL
LAW.
( )
Law of law, what the emperor had once determined was to
England. ferve for a guide for the future.
The decifions therefore of courts are held in the
higheft regard, and are not only preferved as authentic
records in the treafuries of the feveral courts, but are
handed out to public view in the numerous volumes of
reports which furnilh the lawyer’s library. Thefe re¬
ports are hiftories of the feveral cafes, with a fliort
fummary of the proceedings, which are preferved at
large in the record ; the arguments on both fides, and
the reafons the court gave for its judgment; taken
down in ihort notes by perfons prefent at the determi¬
nation. And thefe ferve as indexes to, and alfo to
explain, the records; which always, in matters of con-
fequence and nicety, the judges diredl to be fearched.
The reports are extant in a regular feries from the
reign of king Edward the fecond inclufive ; and from
his time to that of Henry the eighth were taken by
the prothonotaries, or chief fcribes of the court, at the
expenfe of the crown, and publilhed annually, whence
they are known under the denomination of the year¬
books. And it is much to be wifhed that this benefi¬
cial cuftom had, under proper regulations, been con¬
tinued to this day: for, though king James the firft, at
the inftance of lord Bacon, appointed two reporters
with a handfome llipend, for this purpofe; yet that wife
inftitution was foon neglefted, and from the reign of
Henry the eighth to the prefent time this talk has
been executed by many private and cotemporary hands;
who fometimes through hafte and innacuracy, fome-
times through miftake and want of fldll, have publifhed
very crude and imperfedf (perhaps contradi&ory) ac¬
counts of one and the fame determination. Some of
the moft valuable of the ancient reports are thofe pub-
liihed by lord chief juftice Coke; a man of infinite
learning in his profefiion, though not a little infefted
with the pedantry and quaintnefsof the times he lived in,
which appear ftrongly in all his works. However, his
writings are fo highly efteemed,that they are generally
cited without the author’s name, (a).
Befides thefe reporters, there are alfo other authors,
to whom great veneration and refpeft are paid by the
Undents of the common law. Such are Glanvil and
Bra&on, Britton and Fleta, Littleton and Fitzberbert,
with fome others of ancient date, whofe treatifes are
cited as authority; and are evidence that cafes have
formerly happened in which fuch and fuch points were
determined, which are now become fettled and firfi:
principles. One of thelail of thefe methodical writers
in point of time, whofe works are of any intrinfic au¬
thority in the courts of juftice, and do not entirely de¬
pend on the ftrength of their quotations from older
authors, is the fame learned judge we have juft men¬
tioned, Sir Edward Coke ; who hath written four vo¬
lumes of Inftitutes, as he is pleafed to call them, though
they have little of the inftitutional method to warrant
fuch a title. The firft volume is a very extenfive com- Law of
ment upon a little excellent treatife of tenures, compiled Eng|alu1'
by judge Littleton in the reign of Edward the fourth.
This comment is a rich mine of valuable common-law
learning, colle&ed and heaped together from the an¬
cient reports and year-books, but greatly defe&ive in
method (b). The fecond volume is a comment upon
many old afts of parliament, without any fyftematica}
order; the third a more methodical treatife of the pleas
of the crown; and the fourth an account of the feveral
fpecies of courts (c).
And thus much for the firft ground and chief corner^
ftone of the laws of England ; which is general imme¬
morial cuftom, or common law, from time to time'de¬
clared in the decifions of the courts of juftice; which
decifions gire preferved among the public records, ex¬
plained in the reports, and digefted for general ufe in
the authoritative writings of the venerable fages of the
law.
The Roman law, as praftifed in the times of its li¬
berty, paid alfo a great regard to cuftom; but not fo
much as our law: it only then adopting it, when the
written law was deficient. Though the reafons al-
ledged in the digeft will fully juftify our praftice, in
making it of equal authority with, when it is not con-
tradi&ed by, the written law. “ For fince (fays Juli-
anus) the written law binds us for no other reafon but
becaufe i{ is approved by the judgment of the people,
therefore thofe laws which the people have approved
without writing ought alfo to bind every body. For
where is the difference, whether the people declare
their affent to a law by fuffrage, or by a uniform courfe
of acfing accordingly?” Thus did they reafon while
Rome had fome remains of her freedom; but, when
the imperial tyranny came to be fully eftabliftied, the
civil laws fpeak a very different language. £>uod
principi placuit legis habet vigorem, cum populus ei et in
eum omne futun imperium et potejlatem confsrat, fays
Ulpian. Iviperator folus et' conditor et interpres legis
exi/limatur, fays the code. And again, Sacrilegii injiar
ejl refcriptoprincipis obviari. And indeed it is one of
the chara&eriftic marks of Britifti liberty, that the
common law depends upon cuftom; which carries
this internal evidence of freedom along with it it, that
it probably was introduced by the voluntary confent
of the people.
II. The fecond branch of the unwritten laws of Second*
England are particular cuftoms, or laws which affeeft branefi of
only the inhabitants of particular diftrids. the unwiit-
Thefe particular cuftoms, or fome of them, are with-
out doubt the remains of that multitude of local cub cuftoms.
toms before-mentioned, out of which the common law,
as it now (lands, was colleded at firft by king Alfred,
and afterwards by king Edgar and Edward the con-
feffor: each diftrid mutually facrificing fome of its
own fpecial ufages, in order that the whole kingdom
[ b 2 ] might
(a) His reports, for inftance, are ftyled xar1 “ the reportsand in quoting them we ufually fay, x or a Rep.
not i or 2 Coke’s Rep. as in citing other authors. The reports of judge Croke are alfo cited in a peculiar manner, by
the name of thofe' princes in whole reigns the cafes reported in his three volumes were determined ; viz. queen Eli¬
zabeth, king James, and king Charles the firft; as well as by the number of each volume. For fometimes we call
them i, 2, and 3 Cro.; but more commonly Cro. Eliz, Cro. Jac. and Cro. Car.
(b) It is ufually cited either by the name of Co. Litt. or as 1 Inft.
(c) Thefe are cited as 2, 3, or 4 inft. without any author’s name. An honorary diftindion, which, we obferved,
is paid to the works of no other writer; the generality of reports and other trads being quoted in the name of the
compiler, asiVentris, 4 Leonard, 1 Siderfifl, and the like.
A
( 12 ) L
L*w of might enjoy the benefit of one uniform and univerfal
England- fyftem of laws. But, for reafons that have been now
long forgotten, particular counties, cities, towns, ma¬
nors, and lordfliips, were very early indulged with the
privilege of abiding by their own cuftoms, in contra-
diftindtion to the reft of the nation at large: which
privilege is conlimed to them by feveral ads of par¬
liament.
Such is the cuftom of gavelkind in Kent and fome
other parts of the kingdom (though perhaps it was
alfo general till the Norman conqueft); which ordains,
among other things, that not the eldeft fon only of
the father (hall fucceed to his inheritance, but all the
fons alike; and that, though the anceftor be attainted
and banged, yet the heir (hall fucceed to his eftate,
without any efcheat to the lord.---Such is the cuftom
that prevails in divers ancient boroughs, and there¬
fore called borougb-englijh, that the youngeft fon (hall
inherit the eftate, in preference to all his elder bro¬
thers.---Such is the cuftom in other boroughs, that a
■widow (hall be intitled, for her dower, to all her huf-
b^ind’s lands; whereas at the common law (he (hall be
endowed of one third part only.---Such alfo are the
fpecial and particular cuftoms of manors, of which
every one has more or lefs, and which bind all the co¬
pyhold tenants that hold of the faid manors.—Such
likewife is the cuftom of holding divers inferior courts,
with power of trying caufes, in cities and trading
towns; the right of holding which, when no royal
grant can be (hewn, depends entirely upon immemorial
and eftabliihed ufage.---Such, laftly, are many par¬
ticular cuftoms within the city of London, with regard
to trade, apprentices, widows, orphans, and a variety
of other matters. All thefe are contrary to the gene¬
ral law of the land, and are good only by fpecial ufage ;
though the cuftoms of London are alfo confirmed by
aft of parliament.
To this head may moft properly be referred a par¬
ticular fyftem of cuftoms ufed only among one fet of
the king’s fubjefts, called the cuftom of merchants, or
lex mercatoria: which, however different from the ge¬
neral rules of the common law, is yet ingrafted into it,
and made a part of it; being allowed, for the benefit
of trade, to be of the utmoft validity in all commer¬
cial tr'anfaftions; for it is a maxim of law, that cui-
libet in fua arte credendum ejl.
Hi The rules relating to particular cuftoms regard ei¬
ther the proof of their exiftence ; their legality when
proved ; or their ufual method of allowance. And
firft we will confider the rules of proof.
As to gavelkind, andborough-englifh, the law takes
particular notice of them; and there is no occafion to
prove, that fuch cuftoms aftually exift, but only that
the lands in queftion are fubjeft thereto. All other
private cuftoms muft be particularly pleaded; and as
well the exiftence of fuch cuftoms muft be (hewn, as
that the thing in difpute is within the cuftom alleged.
The trial in both cafes (both to (hew the exiftence of
the cuftom, as, “ that in the manor of Dale lands
fhall defcend only to the heirs male, and never to the
heirs femaleand alfo to (hew “ that the lands in
queftionare within that manor”) is by a jury of J2 men,
and not by the judges ; except the fame particular cuf¬
tom has been before tried, determined,, and recorded,
In the fame court.
w. Part H.
The cuftoms of London differ from all others in of
point of trial: for, if the exiftence of the cuftom be Efl5lall(lv
brought in queftion, it (hall not be tried by a jury, ~ *
but by certificate from the lord mayor and aldermen
by the mouth of their recorder; unlefs it be fuch a
cuftom as the corporation is itfelf interefted in, as a
right of taking toll, &c. for then the law permits them
not to certify on their own behalf.
When a cuftom is adtually proved to exift, the next
inquiry is into the legality of it; for, if it is not a
good cuftom, it ought to be no longer ufed. Malits
ufus abolendus ef, is an eftabliflied maxim of the law.
To make a particular cuftom good, the following are
neceffary requifites.
1. That it have been ufed fo long, that the memory
of man runneth not to the contrary. So that, if any
one can (hew the beginning of it, it is no good cuf¬
tom. For which reafon, no cuftom can prevail againft
an exprefs aft of parliament ; fince the ftatute itfelf is
a proof of a time when fuch a.cuftom did not exift.
2. It muft have betv\‘continued. Any interruption
Would caufe a temporary ceafing : the revival gives it
a new beginning, which will be within time of me¬
mory, and thereupon the cilftom will be void. But
this muft be underftood with regard to an interruption
of the right; for an interruption of thepoffeffion only,
for 10 or 20 years, will not deftroy the cuftom. As
if the inhabitants of a parifti have a cuftomary right of
watering their cattle at a certain pool, the cuftom is
not deftroyed though they do not ufe it for to years;
it only becomes more difficult to prove : but if the
right, be any how difeontinued for a day, the cuftom
is quite at an end,
3. It muft have been peaceable, and acquiefced in;
not fubjefl to contention and difpute. For as cuftoms
owe their original to common confent, their being im-
memorially difputed, either at law or otherwife, is a
proof that fuch confent was wanting.
4. Cuftoms muft be reafonable; or rather, taken ne¬
gatively, they muft not be unreafonable. Which is
not always, as Sir Edward Coke fays, to be under¬
ftood of every unlearned man’s reafon ; but of artificial
and legal reafon, warranted by authority of law. Upon
which account a cuftom may be good, though the par¬
ticular reafon of it cannot be afligned ; for it fufficeth,
if no good legal reafoh can be afligned againft it. Thus
a cuftom in a parifti, that no man (hall put his beads
into the common till the third of O&ober, would be
good ; and yet it would be hard to (hew the reafon why
that day in particular is fixed upon, rather than the
day before or after. But a cuftom, that no cattle (haft
be put in till the lord of the manor has firft put in his,
is unreafonable, and therefore bad : for peradventure
the lord will never put in his ; and then the tenants
will lofe all their profits.
5. Cuftoms ought to be certain. A cuftom, that
lands fhall dtfeend to the moft worthy of the owner’s
blood, is void; for how (hall this worth be determined ?
but a cuftom to defcend to the next male of the blood
exclufive of females, is certain, and therefore good.
A cuftom to pay two pence an acre in lieu of tithes,
is good; but to pay fometimes two pence and fometimes
three pence, as the occupier of the land pleafes, is bad
for its uncertainty. Yet a cuftom, to pay a year’s im¬
proved valufe for a fine on a copyhold eftate, is good ;
though
Part II.
L A W.
( i3 )
Law of though the value is a thing uncertain ; for the value
may at any time be afcertained ; and the maxim of law
is, Id certum eft, quod cerium reddi poteft.
6. Cuftoms, though ellabliihed by confent, mud be
(when eftablifhed) compitlfory: and not left to the op¬
tion of every man, whether lie will ufe them or no.
Therefore a cuftom, that all the inhabitants ihall be
ratedloward the maintenance of a bridge, will be good;
but a cuftom, that every man is to contribute thereto
at his own pl&afure, is idle and abfurd, and indeed no
cuftom at all.
7. Laftly, cuftoms mull be conjiftent with each o-
ther. One cuftom cannot be fet up in oppofition to
another. For if both are really cuftoms, then both are
of equal antiquity, and both eftablifhed by mutual con¬
fent : which to fay of contradictory cuftoms, is abfurd.
Therefore, if one man prefcribes that by cuftom he
has a right to have windows looking into another’s gar¬
den ; the other cannot claim a right by cuftom to flop
uporobftru&thofewindows: forthefe twocontradidtory
cuftoms cannot both be good, nor both ftand together.
He ought rather to deny the exiftence of the former
cuftom.
Next, as to the allowance of fpecial cuftoms. Cuf¬
toms, in derogation of the common law, mull be con-
ftrued ftridUy. Thus, by the cuftom of gavelkind, an
infant of 15 years may by one fpecies of conveyance
(called a deed of feoffment) convey away his lands in fee
fimple, or for ever. Yet this cuftom does not impower
him to ufe any other conveyance, or even to leafe them
for feven years: for the cuftom muft be ftridfly pur-
fued. And, moreover, all fpecial cuftoms muft fub-
mit to the king’s prerogative. Therefore, if the king
purchafes lands of the nature of gavelkind, where all
the fons inherit equally ; yet, upon the king’s demife,
his eldeft fon ftiall fucceed to thofe lands alone. And
thus much for the fecond part of the leges non fcripta,
or thofe particular cuftoms which affedf particular per-
42 fons or diftrids only.
Third III. The third branch of them are thofe peculiar laws
branch of which by cuftom are adopted and ufed only in certain
ten laws"1" Pecu^ar courts and jurifdiftions. And by thefe are un-
derftood the civil and canon laws.
It may feem a little improper, at firft view, to rank
thefe laws under the head of leges non fcripta, or un¬
written laws, feeing they are let forth by authority in
their pande&s, their codes, and their inftitutions;
their councils, decrees, and decretals ; and enforced by
an immenfe number of expofitions, decifions, and trea-
tifes of the learned in both branches of the law. But
this is done after the example of Sir Matthew Hale, be-
caufe itismoft plain, that it is not on account of their being
written laws, that either the canon law, or the civil
law, have any obligation within this kingdom : neither
do their force and efficacy depend upon their own in-
trinfic authority ; which is the cafe of our written laws
or afts of parliament. They bind not the fubjefts of
England, becaufe their materials were colleAed from
popes or emperors ; were digefted by Jultinian, or de¬
clared to be authentic by Gregory. Thefe confidera-
tions give them no authority here : for the legiflature
of England doth not, nor ever did, recognize any fo¬
reign power, as fuperior or equal to it in this kingdom ;
or as having the right to give law to any, the meaneft,
of it fubjeds. But all the ftrengththat either the pa¬
pal or imperial laws have obtained in this realm (or Law of
indeed in any other kingdom in Europe) is only be- Englanc*‘
caufe they have been admitted and received by imme¬
morial ufage and cuftom in fome particular cafes, and
fome particular court?; and then they form a branch of
the leges non feripta, or cuftomary law : or elfe, be¬
caufe they are in fome other cafes introduced by con¬
fent of parliament, and then they owe their validity
to the leges feriptte, or ftatute law. This is exprefsly
declared in thofe remarkable words of the ftatute ty
Hen. VIII. c. 21. addrefled to the king’s royal ma-
jefty.---“ This your grace’s realm, recognizing no fu-
“ perior under God but only your grace, hath been
“ and is free from fubjedion to any man’s laws, but
“ only to fuch as have been devifed, made, and or-
“ dained within this realm for the wealth of the fame;
“ or to fuch other as, by fufferance of your grace and
“ your progenitors, the people of this your realm have
“ taken at their free liberty, by their own confent, to
“ be ufed among them ; and have bound themfelves
“ by long ufe and cuftom to the obfervance of the
“ fame: not as to the obfervance of the laws of any
“ foreign prince, potentate, or prelate ; but as to the
“ cuftomed and ancient laws of this realm, originally
“ eftablilhed as laws of the fame, by the faid ftiffer-
“ ance, confents, and cuftom ; and none otherwife.”
1. By the civil law, abfolutely laken, is generally un- civiUawv
derftood the civil or municipal law of the Roman em¬
pire, as comprifed in the inftitMtes, the code, and the
digeft of the emperor Juftinian, and the novel confti-
tutions of himfelf and fome of his fucceflbrs ; of which
it may not be amifs to give a Ihort and general ac¬
count.
The Roman law (founded firft upon the regal con-
ftitutions of their ancient kings, next upon the 12 tables
of the decemviri, then upon the laws or ftatutes enabled
by the fenate or people, the edidls of the prsetor, and
the refponfa prudentum or opinions of learned law¬
yers, and laftly upon the imperial decrees or conftitu-
tions of fuccelfive emperors) had grown to fo great a
bulk, or, as Livy exprefles it, tam immenfus aliarum
fuper alias acervatarum legubi cumulus, that they were
computed to be many camels load by an author who
preceded Juftinian. This was in part remedied by the
colleftions of three private lawyers, Gregorius, Her-
mogenes, and Papirius; and then by the emperor Theo-
dofius the younger, by whofe orders a code was com¬
piled, A. D. 438, being a methodical colle&ion of
all the imperial conftitutions then in force : which
Theodofian code was the only book of civil law re¬
ceived as authentic in the weftern part of Europe, till
many centuries after; and to this it is probable that
the Franks and Goths might frequently pay fome re¬
gard, in framing legal conftitutions for their newly
erefled kingdoms. For Juftinian commanded only iu
the eaftern remains of the empire; and it was under
his aufpices, that the prefent body of civil law was
compiled and finilhed by Tribonian and other lawyers,
about the year 533.
This confifts of, 1. The inftitutes ; which contain 4<?-
the elements or firft principles of the Roman law, in
four books. 2. Thedigefts orpande&s, in yobooks;
containing the opinions and writings of eminent law¬
yers, digefted in a fyftematical method. 3. A new
code, or colle&ion of imperial conftitutions; the lapfe
o£
( 14 ) L A
L»w of of a whole century having rendred the former code of
England. Theodofius imperfeft. 4* The novels, or new con-
ftitutions, pofterior in time to the other books, and
amounting to a fupplement to the code; containing
new decrees of fucceffive emperors, as new queftions
happened to arife. Thefe form the body of Roman
law, or corpus juris civilis, as publifhed about the time
of Juftinian : which, however, fell foon into negledt and
oblivion, till about the year 1130, when a copy of the
digefts was found at Amalfi in Italy; which accident,
concurring with the policy of the Roman ecclefiaftics,
fuddenly gave new vogue and authority to the civil
law, introduced it into feveral nations, and occafioned
that mighty inundation of voluminous comments, with
which this fyftem of law, more than any other, is now
loaded.
4S 2. The canon law is a body of Roman ecclefiaftical
Canon law. jaw^ re]at;ve t0 fuch matters as that church either has, or
pretends to have, the proper jurifdiftion over. This is
compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin fathers,
the decrees of general councils, the decretal epiftles
and builes of the holy fee. All which lay in the fame
diforder and confufion as the Roman civil law : till,
about the year 1151, one Gratian an Italian monk,
animated by the difcovery of Juftinian’s pande&s, re¬
duced the ecclefiaftical conflitutions alfo into fome me¬
thod, in three books ; which he entitled Concordia dif-
cordantium canonum, but which are generally known
by the name of Decretum Gratiani. Thefe reached as
low as the time of pope Alexander III. The fubfe-
quent papal decrees, to the pontificate of Gregory IX.
were publifhed in much the fame method under the
aufpices of that pope, about the year i2 30, in five
books ; entitled Dccrctalia Gregorii noni. A fixth book
was added by Boniface VIII. about the year 1298,
which is called Sextus Decretalium. The Clementine
conftitutions, or decrees of Clement V. were in like
manner authenticated in 1317 by his fucceffor John
XXII.; who alfo publifhed 20 conftitutions of his oWn,
called the Extravagantes Joannis; all which in fome
meafure anfwer to the novels of the civil law. To thefe
have been fince added fome decrees of later popes in
five books, called Extravagantes Communes. And all
thefe together, Gratian’s decree, Gregory’s decretals,
the fixth decretal, the Clementine conftitutions, and
the extravagants of John and his fucceffors, form the
corpus juris canonic!, or body of the Roman canon
law.
Befides thefe pontifical colle&ions, which during the
times of popery were received as authentic in this ifland,
as well as in other parts of Chriftendom, there is alfo
a kind of national canon law, compofed of lega-
tine and provincial conftitutions, and adapted only
to the exigencies of this church and kingdom. The
legatine conftitutions were ecclefiaftical laws, enadted
in national fynods, held under the cardinals Otho and
Othobon, legates from pope Gregory IX. and pope
Clement IV. in the reign of king Henry III. about
the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial conftitutions
are principally the decrees of provincial fynods, held
under divers archbifhops of Canterbury, from Stephen
Langton in the reign of Henry III. to Henry Chi¬
chele in the reign of Henry V. ; and adopted alfo by
the province of York in the reign of Henry VI. At
the dawn of the reformation, in the reign of king
W. Part n.
Henry VIII. it was enafted in parliament, that a re- Law of
view fhould be had of the canon law; and till fuch re- England.
view (hould be made, all canons, conftitutions, ordi¬
nances and fynodals provincial, being then already
made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the
king’s prerogative, {hould ftill be ufed and executed.
And, as no fuch review has yet been perfe&ed, upon
this ftatute now depends the authority of the canon law
in England.
As for the canons enafted by the clergy under
James I. in the year 1603, and never confirmed in
parliament, it has been folemnly adjudged upon the
principles of law and the conftitution, that where they
are not merely declaratory of the ancient canon law,
but are introdu&ory of new regulations, they do not
bind the laity, whatever regard the clergy may think
proper to pay them.
There are four fpecies of courts, in which the civil 4
and canon laws are permitted under [different re-
ftridlions to be ufed. 1. The courts of the archbi¬
fhops and bifhops, and their derivative officers ; ufually
called courts Chri/iian, (curia Chrijlianitatis), or the
ecclefiajiicalcourts* 2. The military courts. 3. The
courts of admiralty. 4. The courts of the two univer-
fities. In all, their reception in general, and the dif¬
ferent degrees of that reception, are grounded entirely
upon cuftom ; corroborated in the latter inftance by adt
of parliament, ratifying thofe charters which confirm
the cuftomary law of the univerfities. The more mi¬
nute confideration of them will fall under their
proper articles. It will fuffice at prefent to remark
a few particujars relative to them all, which may ferve
to inculcate more ftrongly the do&rine laid down con¬
cerning them.
1. And firft, the courts of common law have the
fuperintendency over thefe courts ; to keep them within
their jurifdidtions ; to determine wherein they exceed
them; to reftrain and prohibit fuch excefs; and (in cafe
of contumacy) to punifh the officer who executes, and
in fome cafes the judge who enforces, the fentence fo
declared to be illegal.
2. The common law has referved to itfelf the expo-
fition of all fuch afts of parliament, as concern either
the extent of thefe courts, or the matters depending
before them. And therefore, if thefe courts either re-
fufe to allow thefe atts of parliament, or will expound
them in any other fenfe than what the common law
puts upon them, the king’s courts at Weftminfter will
grant prohibitions to reftrain and control them.
3. An appeal lies from all thefe courts to the king,
in the laft refort; which proves that the jurifdiftion
exercifed in them is derived from the crown of Eng¬
land, and not from any foreign potentate, or intrinfip
authority of their own.---And, from thefe three ftrong
marks and enfigns of fuperiority, it appears beyond a
doubt, that the civil and canon laws, though admitted
in fome cafes by cuftom in fome courts, are only fub-
ordinate and leges fub graviori lege ; and that thus ad¬
mitted, reftrained, altered, new-modelled, and amended,
they are by no means with us a diftindl independent
fpecies of laws, but are inferior branches of the cufto¬
mary or unwritten laws of England, properly called
the king’s eccle/tajlical, the king's military, the king's
maritime, or the king's academical, laws.
Let ,us next proceed to the. leges fcripta, the written
laws
Part II.
Law of laws of the kingdom ; which are ftatutes, a£ts, or
England. ec];fts> macle by the king’s majefty, by and with the
47 advice of the lords fpiritual and temporal and commons
[jrhe written in parliament aflembled. The oldeft of thefe now ex-
  tant, and printed in our ftatute books, is the famous
viagna carta, as confirmed in parliament 9 Hen. III.
though doubtlefs there were many afts before that
time, the records of which are now loft, and the deter¬
minations of them perhaps at prefent currently received
for the maxims of the old common law.
The manner of making thefe ftatutes being explained
under the articles Bill and Parliament, we (hall here
only take notice of the different kinds of ftatutes; and
of fame general rules with regard to their conftruc-
tion (d).
Birft, as to their feveral kinds. Statutes are either
general or fpecial, public or private. A general or
public a£t is an univerfal rule that regards the whole
community: and of this the courts of law are bound
to take notice judicially and ex officio, without the fta¬
tute being particularly pleaded, or formally fet forth,
by the party who claims an advantage under it, Spe¬
cial or private afts are rather exceptions than rules,
being thofe which only operate upon particular perfons
and private concerns ; fuch as the Romans entitled fe-
natus-decreta, in contradiftin&ion to the fenatus-con-
fulta, which regarded the whole community; and of
thefe the judges are not bound to take notice, unlefs
they be formally fhewn and pleaded. Thus,, to {hew
the diftinftion, the ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. to prevent
fpiritual perfons from making leafes for longer terms
than 21 years or three lives, is a public aft ; it being
A W. ( 15 )
change of time and circumflances, from the nviftakes Law of
a rule prefcribed to the whole body of fpiritual perfons ^  ^
in the nation : but an aft to enable the bifhop of Chefter let long and unreasonable leafes, to the iinDOveriftiment
• a n r a   • r . 1 ■ r «r . .1 , r ,
and unadvifed determinations of unlearned judges, or Eng|and-
from any other caufe whatfoever. And this being
done, either by enlarging the common law where it
was too narrow and circumfcribed, or by reftrainingit
where it was too lax and luxuriant, hath occafioned
another fubordinate divifion of remedial afts of parlia¬
ment into enlarging and rejlraining ftatutes. To in-
ftance again in the cafe of treafon. Clipping the cur¬
rent coin of the kingdom was an offence not fufficiently
guarded againft by the common law: therefore it was
thought expedient by ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 11. to make
it high treafon, which it was not at the common law: fo
that this was an enlarging ftatute. At common law,
alfo, fpiritual corporations might leafe out their eftates
for any term of years, till prevented by the ftatute 13
Eliz. before-mentioned : this was therefore a rejlrain¬
ing ftatute. 49
Secondly, the rules to be obferved with regard to' Conftruc
the conftruftion of ftatutes are principally thefe which ji00 of
follow. natutes:
t. There are three points to be confidered in the
conftruftion of all remedial ftatutes; the old law, the
mifchief, and the remedy: that is, how the common
law flood at the making of the aft; what the mifchief
was, for which the common law did not provide; and
what remedy the parliament hath provided to cure
this mifchief. Audit is thebufinefs of the judges fo to
conftrue the aft, as to fupprefs the mifchief and ad¬
vance the remedy. Let us inftance again in the fame
reftraining ftatute of 13 Eliz. c. xo. By the common
law, ecclefiaftical corporations might let as long leafes
"" they thought proper: the mifchief was, that they
to make a leafe to A. B. for 60 years, is an exception
to this rule ; it concerns only the parties and the bi-
fliop’s fucceffors, and is therefore a private aft.
Statutes alfo are either declaratory of the common
law, or remedial of fome defefts therein. Declaratory,
where the old cuftom of the kingdom is almoft fallen
into difufe, or become difputable ; in which cafe the
parliament has thought proper, in perpetuum rei tejli-
vioniuTn,, and for avoiding all doubts and difficulties,
to declare what the commort law is and ever hath been.
Thua-the ftatute of treafons, 25 Edw. III. cap. 2. doth
not make any new fpecies of treafons ; but only, for
the benefit of the fubjeft, declares and enumerates
thofe feveral kinds of offence which before were trea¬
fon at the common law. Remedial ftatutes are thofe
which are made to fupply fuch defefts, and abridge
fuch fuperfluities, in the common law, as arife either
from the general imperfeftion of all human laws, from
of their fucceffors : the remedy applied by the ftatute
was by making void all leafes by ecclefiaftical bodies
for longer terms than three lives or 21 years. Now in the
conftruftion of this ftatute it is held, that leafes, tho’
for a longer term, if made by a bifhop, are not void
during the bifhop’s continuance in his fee; or, if made
by a dean and chapter, they are not void during the
continuance of the dean ; for the .aft was made for
the benefit and proteftion of the fucceffor. The mif¬
chief is therefore fufficiently fuppreffed by vacating
them after the determination of the intereft of the
granters ; but the leafes, during their continuance,
being not within the mifchief, are not within the re¬
medy.
2. A ftatute, which treats of things or perfons of
an inferior rank, cannot by any general 'wordi be ex¬
tended to thofe of a fuperior. So a ftatute, treating
of “ deans, prebendaries, parfons, vicars, and others
having
(d) The method of citing thefe afts of parliament is various. Many of the ancient ftatutes are called after the
name of the place where the parliament was held that made them; as the ftatutes of Merton and Marleberge, of
'Weftminfter, Glocefter, and Winchefter. Others are denominated entirely from their fubjeft; as the ftatutes of
Wales and Ireland, the articuli cleri, and the prerogativa regis. Some are diftinguiftied by their initial words, a
method of citing very ancient: being ufed by the Jews, in denominating the books of the pentateuch ; by the Chriftian
church, in diftinguifhing their hymns and divine offices; by the Romanifts, in deferibing their papal bulles; and in fhort
by the whole body of ancient civilians and canonifts, among whom this method of citation generally prevailed, not
only with regard to chapters, but inferior feftions alfo ; in imitation of all which we ftill call fome of the old ftatutes
by their initial words, as the ftatute of quia emptores, and that of circuftifpctte agatis. But the moft ufual method
of citing them, efpecially fince the time of Edward the fecond, is by naming the year of the king’s reign in which the
ftatute was made, together with the chapter or particular aft, according to its numeral order; as, 9 Geo. II. c. 4.
For all the afts of one feffion of parliament taken together make properly but one ftatute: and therefore, when two
feffions have been held in one year, we ufually mention ftat, 1. or a. Thus the bill of rights is cited, as 1 W. & M.
ft. 2. c. a. figmfying that it is the fecond chapter or aft of the fecond ftatute or the laws made in the fecond fduons
or parliament held in the firft year of king William and queen Mary.
( .6 ) I.
kawof having'fpiritualpromotion'' is held not to extend to
England. bJlhop^ though they have fpiritual promotion ; deans
being the higheft perfons named, and bilhops being of
a ftili higher order.
3. Penal ftatutes muft be conftrued ftri&ly. Thus
the ftatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. having enafted that thofc
who are convicted of dealing horfes Ihould not have the
benefit of clergy, the judges conceived that this did
not extend to him who (hould deal but one horfe, and
therefore procured a new aft for that purpofe in the
following year. And, to come nearer to our own
times, by the datute 14 Geo. II. c. 6. dealing deep or
other cattle, was made felony without benefit of clergy.
But thefe general words, “ or other cattle,” being
looked upon as much too loofe to create a capital of¬
fence, the aft was held to extend to nothing but mere
deep. And therefore, in the next feffions, it was
found neceffary to make another datute, 15 Geo. II.
c. 34. extending the former to bulls, cows, oxen, deers,
bullocks, heifers, calves, and lambs, by name.
4. Statutes againd frauds are to be liberally and be¬
neficially expounded. This may feem a contradiftion
to the lad rule; mod datutes againd frauds being in
their confequences penal. But this difference is here
to be taken : where the ftatute afls upon the offender,
and infliffs a penalty, as the pillory or a fine, it is then
to be taken ftriftly ; but when the ftatute afls upon
the offence, by fetting afide the fradulent tranfaflion,
here it is to be conftrued liberally. Upon this footing
the ftatute of 13 Eliz. c. 5. which voids all gifts of
goods, fee. made to defraud creditors and others, was
held to extend by the general words to a gift made to
defraud the queen of a forfeiture.
5. One part of a ftatute mud be fo conftrjued by
another, that the whole may (if poffible) ftand: utres
magis valeat quam pereat. As if land be vefted in the
king and his heirs by afl of parliament, faving the
right of A; and A has at that time a leafe of it for three
years; here A ftiall hold it for his term of three years,
and afterwards it fhall go to the king. For this inter¬
pretation furnifhes matter for every claufe of the fta¬
tute to work and operate upon. But,
6. A faving, totally repugnant to the body of the
aft, is void. If therefore an aft of parliament vefts
land in the king and his heirs, faving the right of all
perfons vvhatfoever ; or vefts the land of A in the king,
faving the right cf A : in either of thefe cafes the fa¬
ving is totally repugnant to the body of the ftatute,
and (if good) would render the ftatute of no effeft or
operation ; and therefore the faving is void, and the
land vefts abfolutely in the king.
7. Where the common law and a ftatute differ, the
common law gives place to the ftatute ; and an old
ftatute gives place to a new one. And this upon the
general principle laid down in the laft feftion, that
leges pojleriores priores contrarias ahrogant. But this
is to be underftood, only when the latter ftatute is
couched in negative terms, or by its matter neceffarily
implies a negative. As if a former aft fays, that a juror
upon fuch a trial (hall have twenty pounds a-year, and
anew ftatute comes and fays he fhall have twenty merks;
here the latter ftatute, tho’ it does not exprefs, yet ne¬
ceffarily implies, a negative, and virtually repeals the
former. For if twenty marks be made qualification
fufficient, the former ftatute which requires twenty
A W.
Part II.
pounds is at an end. But if both afts be merely af¬
firmative, and the fubftance fuch that both may ftand
together, here the latter does not repeal the former, but
they fhall both have a concurrent efficacy. If by a for¬
mer law an offence be indiftable at the quarter-feffions,
and a later law makes the fame offence indiftable at the
affizes ; here the jurifdiftionof the feffions is not taken
away, but both have a concurrent jurifdiftion, and the
offender may be profecutedat either: unlefs the new fta¬
tute fubjoins exprefs negative words; as, that the offence
fhall be indiftable at the affizes, and not elfenuhere.
8. If a ftatute, that repeals another, is itfelf re¬
pealed afterwards, the firft ftatute is hereby revived,
without any formal words for that purpofe. So when
the ftatutes of 26 and 35 Hen. VIII. declaring the
king to be the fupreme head of the church, were re¬
pealed by a ftatute 1 and 2 Philip and Mary, and this
latter ftatute was afterwards repealed by an aft of
1 Eliz. there needed not any exprefs words of revival
in queen Elizabeth’s ftatute, but thefe afts of king
Henry were impliedly and virtually revived.
9. Afts of parliament derogatory from the power of
fubfequent parliaments bind not. So the ftatute 11
Hen. VII. c. 1. which direfts, that no perfon for af-
fifting a king de faflo fhall be attainted of treafon
by aft of parliament or otherwife, is held to be good
only as to common profecutions for high treafon;
but will not reftrain or clog any parliamentary at¬
tainder. Becaufe the legiflature, being in truth the
fovereign power, is always of equal, always of abfo-
lute authority : it acknowleges no fuperior upon earth,
which the prior legiflature muft have been if its ordi¬
nances could bind the prefent parliament. And upon
the fame principle Cicero, in his letters to Atticus,
treats with a proper contempt thefe reftraining claufes,
which endeavour to tie up the hands of fucceeding le-
giflatures. “ When you repeal the law itfelf, (fays he,)
you at the fame time repeal the prohibitory claufe
which guards againft fuch repeal.”
10. Laftly, afts of parliament that are impoffible
to be performed are of no validity : and if there arife
out of them collaterally any abfurd confequences, ma-
nifeftly contradiftory to common reafon, they are with
regard to thofe collateral confequences void. ^Ve lay
down the rule with thefe reftriftions ; though we know
it is generally laid down more largely, that afts of par¬
liament contrary to reafoh are void. But if the parlia¬
ment will pofitively enaft a thing to he done which is
unreafonable, we know of no power that can control
it: and the examples nfually alleged in fupport of
this fenfe of the rule do none of them prove, that, where
the main objeft of a ftatute is unreafonable, the judges
are at liberty to rejeft it; for that were to fet the ju¬
dicial power above that of the legiflature, which would
be fubverfive of all government. But where feme col¬
lateral matter arifes out of the general words, and hap¬
pens to be unreafonable ; there the judges are in de¬
cency to conclude that this cortfequence w’as not fore-
feen by the parliament, and therefore they are at li¬
berty to expound the ftatute by equity, and only
hoc difregard it. Thus if an aft of parliament gives a
man power to try all caufes that arife within his ma¬
nor of Dale ; yet, if a caufe ffiould arife in which he
himfclf is party, the aft is conftrued not to extend to
that, becaufe it is unreafonable that any man Ihould
deter*
Law of
England, j
Fart II. L A
Law of determine his own quarrel. But, if we could conceive
En§la^> it poffible for the parliament to enaft, that he fhould
try as well his own caufes as thofe of other perfons,
there is no court that has power to defeat the intent of
the legiflature, when couched in fuch evident and ex-
prefs words as leave no doubt whether it was the in¬
tent of the legiflature or no.
Thefe are the feveral grounds of the lawsof England:
over and above which, equity is aifo frequently called
in to affift, to moderate, and to explain them. What
equity is, and how impoffible in its very effence to be
reduced to dated rules, hath been fhewn above. It
may be fufficient, therefore, to add in this place, that
(befides the liberality of fentiment with which our com¬
mon-law judges'interpret a&s of parliament, and fuch
rules of the unwritten law as are not of a pofitive kind)
there are alfo courts of equity eftablifhed for the bene¬
fit of the fubjeft, to deled, latent frauds and conceal¬
ments, which the procefs of the courts of law is not
adapted to reach ; to enforce the execution of fuch
matters of truft and confidence, as are binding in con-
fcience, though not cognizable in a court of law ; to
deliver from fuch dangers as are owing to misfortune
or overfight ; and to give a more fpecilic relief, and
more adapted to the circumftances of the cafe, than
can always be obtained by the generality of the rifles
of the pofitive or common law. This is the bufinefs
of the courts of equity, which however are only con-
verfant in matters of property. For the freedom of
our conftitution will not permit, that in criminal cafes
a power ftiould be lodged in any judge to conftrue the
law otherwife than according to the letter. This cau¬
tion, while it admirably protefts the public liberty, can ,
never bear hard upon individuals. A man cannot fuf-
fer more punilhment than the law affigns, but he may
fuffer lefs. The laws cannot be ftrained by partiality
to inflid a penalty beyond what the letter will warrant;
but, in cafes where the letter induces any apparent
hardfliip, the crown has the power to pardon.
The objeds of the laws of England are, I. The
rights of perfons. 2. The rights of things. 3. Pri-
1 . vate wrongs. 4. Public wrongs.
CHAP. r.
Of fAe Rights of Persons.
[xliv.J Sect. I. Of the abfolute rights of individuals.
(1.) HP HE objeds of the Zirou/of England are,
I. Rights, 2. Wrongs,
(2.) Rights are the rights of perfons, or the rights
of things.
(3.) The rights oiperfons are fuch as concern, and
are annexed to, the perfons of men : and, when the
perfon to whom they are due is regarded, they are
> called rights ; but, when we confider the per¬
fon from whom they are due, they are then denomi¬
nated duties.
(4.) Perfons are either natural, that is, fuch as
they are formed by nature; or artificial, that is,
created by human policy, as bodies politic or corpora,
tions.
(5.) The rights of natural perfons are, t. Abfolyte,
or fuch as belong to individuals. 2. Relative, or fuch
w. ( 17 )
as regard members of fociety. ■Law of
(6.) The alfolute rights of individuals, regarded by
the municipal laws, (which pay no attention to duties   ^
of the abfolute kind) compofe what is called political
or civil liberty.
(7.) Political or civil liberty is the natural liberty of
mankind, fo far rettrained by human laws as is necef-
fary for the good of fociety.
(8.) Theabfolute rights or civil liberties of Englifh-
men, as frequently declared in parliament, are princi¬
pally three ; the right of perfonal fecurity, of perfonal
liberty, and of private property.
(9.) The right of perfonal fecurity confifts in the le¬
gal enjoyment of life, limb, body, health, and repu¬
tation.
(10.) The right of perfonal liberty confifts in the
free power of loco-motion, without illegal reftraint or
banifliment.
(11.) The right of private property coafifts in every
man’s free ufe and difpofal of his own lawful acquifi-
tions, without injury or illegal diminution.
(12.) Befides thefe three primary rights, there are
others which are fecondary and fubordinate ; viz. (to
preferve the former from unlawful attacks) 1. The
conftitution and power of parliaments; 2. The limi¬
tation of the king’s prerogative : —And (to vindicate
them when a&ually violated) 3. The regular admini-
ftration of public juftice ; 4. The right of petitioning
for redrefs of grievances ; 5. The right of having and
ufingarms for felf-defence.
Sect. II. Of the parliament. [xlv.]
(1.) The relations of perfons are, 1. Public. 2. Pri¬
vate. The public gelations are thofe of magiftrates and
people. Magiftrates are fupreme or fubordinate. And
oi fupreme magittrates, in England, the parliament is
the fupreme legiftative, the king the fupreme executive.
(2.) Parliaments, in fome fhape, are of as high
antiquity as the Saxon government in this illand ; and
have fubfifted, in their prefent form, at leaft five hun¬
dred years.
(3.) The parliament is afiembled by the king’s
writs, and its fitting mutt not be intermitted above
three years.
(4.) Its conftituent parts are the king’s majefty, the
lords fpiritual and temporal, and the commons repre-
fented by their members: each of which parts has a ne¬
gative, or neceflary, voice in making laws.
(5.) With regard to the ^ewra/law of parliament ;
its power is abfolute : each houfe is the judge of its
own privileges ; and all the members of either houfe are
entitled to the privilege of fpeech, of perfon, of their
domeftics, and of their lands and goods.
(6.) rlhe peculiar privileges of the lords (befides
their judicial capacity) are to hunt in the king’s fo-
refts; to be attended by the fages of the law; to make
proxies; to enter protefts ; and to regulate the eleftion
of the 16 peers of North-Britain.
(7.) The peculiar privileges of the commons are to
frame taxes for the fubjeft ; and to determine the me- -
rits of their own elections, with regard to the qualifi¬
cations of the ele&ors and ele&ed, and the proceed¬
ings at eleftions themfelves.
(8.) Bills are ufually twice read in each houfe, com¬
mitted, engroffed, and then read a third time ; and '
[ c ] when
( '8
Englanfl,
[xlvi.]
fxlvii.]
Nviii.J
) L A
when they have obtained the concurrence of both
houfes, and received the royal afient, they become ^<7/
of parliament.
(9.} The houfcs may adjourn themfelves; but the
king only can prorogue the parliament.
(10.) Parliaments are diffolved, 1. At the king’s
will. 2. By the demife of the crown, that is, within
fix months after. 3. By length of time, or having
fat for the fpace of feven years.
Sect. III. Of the king and his title.
(t.) The fupreme executive\>ovrzr o.f this kingdom
is lodged in a Angle perfon ; the king or queen.
(2.) This royal perfon may be coniidered with re¬
gard to, 1. His title. 2. His royal family. 3. His
councils. 4. His duties. 5. His prerogative. 6. His
revenue.
(3.) With regard to his title ; the crown of England,
by the pofitive conliitution of the kingdom, hath ever
been defcendible, and fo continues.
(4.) The crown is defcendible in a Courfe peculiar to
itfelf.
(5.) This courfe of defcent is fubjeft to limitation
by parliament.
(6.) Notwithftanding fuch limitations, the crown re¬
tains its defcendible quality, and becomes hereditary in
the prince to whom it is limited.
(7.) King Egbert, king Canute, and king Wil¬
liam I. have been fucceffiveiy conflituted the common
ftocks, or anceftors, of this defcent.
(8.) At the revolution the convention of eftates, or'
reprefentative body of the nation, declared, that the
mifconduft of king James'II. amounted to an abdica¬
tion of the government, and that the throne was there¬
by vacant.
(9.) In confequence of this vacancy, and from a re¬
gard to the ancient line, the convention appointed the
nextproteftant heirs of theblood royal of kingCharles I.
to fill the vacant throne, in the old order of fucceflion ;
with a temporary exception, or preference, to the per¬
fon of king William III.
(10.) On the impending failure of the proteftant line
of king Charles I. (whereby the throne might again
have become vacant) the king and parliament extended
the fettlement of the crown to the proteftant line of
king James I. viz. to the princefs Sophia of Hanover,
and the heirs of her body, being Proteftants: And
fhe is now the common flock, from whom the heirs of
the crown muft defeend.
Sect. IV. Of the king's royal family.
(1.) The king’s royal family confifts, firft, of the
queen : who is regnant, confort, or dowager.
(2.) The queen confort is a public perfon, and hath
many perfonal prerogatives and diftindl revenues.
(3.) The prince and princefs of Wales, and the prin •
cefs-royal, are peculiarly regarded by the law.
(4.) The other princes of the blood-royal are only
intitled to precedence.
Sect. V. Of the councils belonging to the king.
(1.) The king's councils are, t. The parliament.
2. The great council of peers. 3. The judges, for
matters of law. 4. Thecouncil.
(2.) In privy-counfellors may be confidered, 1, Their
W. ' Part II.
creation. 2. Their qualifications. 3. Their duties. Law of
4. Their powers. 5. Their privileges. 6. Their dif- England, i
folution. ;
Sect. VI. Of the kings duties. [xlix-J fj
(1.) The king's duties are to govern his people ac¬
cording to law, to execute judgment in mercy, and to
maintain the eftabliftied religi'on. Thefe are his part
of the original contraft between himfelf and the peo¬
ple ; founded in the nature of fociety, and exprefledin
his oath at the coronation.
Sect. VII. Of the king's prerogative. 1. j
(1.) Prerogative is that fpecial power and pre¬
eminence, which the king hath above other perfons,
and out of the ordinary courfe of law, in right of his
regal dignity.
(2.) Such prerogatives are either direCl, or incidental.
The incidental, arifing out of other matters, are con¬
fidered as they arife: We now treat only of \.\\e direfi.
(3.) The divert prerogatives regard, 1. The king's
dignity, or royal chara&er; 2. His authority, or regal
power; 3. YWs revenue, or royal income.
(4.) The king's dignity confifts in the legal attributes
of, 1. Perfonal fovereignty. 2. Abfolute perfe&ion.
3. Political perpetuity.
(5.) In the king s authority, or regal power, confifls
the executive part of government.
(6.) Inyare/^/z concerns; the as the reprefenta¬
tive of the nation, has the right or prerogative, 1. Of
fending and receiving embafladors. 2. Of making trea¬
ties. 3. Of proclaiming war or peace. 4. Of iffuing
reprifals. 5. Of granting fafe-condu&s.
(7.) In aWe/S'/c-affairs; theis, firft, a conftituent
part of the fupreme legiflative power; hath a negative
upon all new laws; and is bound by no ftatute, unlefs
fpecially named therein.
(8.) He is alfo confidered as the general of the king¬
dom, and may raife fleets and armies, build forts, ap¬
point havens, creft beacons, prohibit the exportation
of arms and ammunition, and confine his fubjedls with¬
in the realm, or recall them from foreign parts.
(9.) The king is alfo the fountain of juftice, and
general confervator of the peace; and therefore may
ere<ff courts (wherein he hath a legal ubiquity) pro-
fecute offenders, pardon crimes, and iffue proclama¬
tions.
(10.) He is like wife the fountain of honour, of of¬
fice, and of privilege.
(11.) He is alfo the arbiter of domefic commerce;
(not of foreign, which is regulated by the law of mer¬
chants) ; and is therefore entitled to the eredlion of i
public marts, the regulation of weights and meafures; \
and the coinage or legitimation of money.
(12.) Tbe king is, laftly, the fupreme head of the
church; and, as fuch, convenes, regulates and diffolves
fynods, nominates bifhops, and receives appeals in all
eccleliaftical caufes.
Sect.-VIII. Of the king's revenue. ^ j
(*•)' The king's revenue is either ordinary or extra- ^
dinary. And the ordinary is, 1. Eccleftafical. 2. Tem¬
poral.
(2.) The king's ecclefiaflical revenue confifts in,
1. The cuftody of the temporalties of vacant bifhop-
ricks.
Part II. L A
|t.aw of rkks. 2. Corodies and penfions. 3. Extra-parochial
England, 4. The firft fruits and tenths of benefices.
ara'yzed. ^.) The king's ordinary temporal revenue confifts
in, 1. The detnefne lands of the crown. 2. The here¬
ditary excife ; being part of the confideration for the
purchafe of his feudal profits, and the prerogatives of
purveyance and pre-emption. 3. An annual fum ifiTuing
from the duty on wine licences ; being the refidue of
the fame confideration. 4. His forefis. 5. His courts
of juitice. 6. Royal fifh. 7. Wrecks, and things jet-
fam, flotfam, and ligan. 8. Royal mines. 9. Trea-
fure trove. 10. Waifs. n.Eftrays. 12. Forfeitures
for offences, and deodands. 13. Efcheats of lands.
14. Cuftody of ideots and lunatics.
(4.) The king's extraordinary revenue confifts in
aids, fubfidies, and/applies, granted him by the com¬
mons in parliament.
(5.) Heretofore thefe'were ufually raifed by grants
of the (nominal) tenth or fifteenth part of the move¬
ables in every townfhip; or by fcutages, hydages, and
talliages ; which were fucceeded by fubjidies afTeffed
upon individuals, with refpedt to their lands and goods.
(6.) A new fyftem of taxation took place about the
time of the revolution: our modern taxes are therefore,
j. Annual. 2. Perpetual.
(7.) The *?»««*/taxer are, x. The land-tax, or the
ancient fubfidy raifed upon a new afTeflinent. 2. The
malt-tax, being an annual excife on malt, mum, cyder,
and perry.
(8.) The perpetual taxes are, 1. The cufloms, or
tonnage and poundage of all merchandife exported or
imported. 2. The excife-duty, or inland impofition
on a great variety of commodities. 3. The falt-duty,
or excife on fait. 4. The poft-office, or duty for the
carriage of letters. 5. The ftamp-duty on paper,
parchment, &c. 6. The duty on houfes and windows.
7. The duty on'licences for hackney coaches and chairs.
8. The duty on offices and penfions.
(9. ) Part of this revenue is applied to pay the inte-
reft of the national debt, till the principal is difchar-
ged by parliament.
(10.) The produce of thefe feveral taxes were ori¬
ginally feparate and fpecific funds, to anfwer fpecific
"loans upon their refpe&ive credits ; but are now con-
fblidated by parliament into three principal funds, the
dggregate, general, and South-fea funds, to anfwer all
the debts of the nation: the public faith being alfo fu-
peradded, to fupply deficiencies, and firengthen the
fecurity of the whole.
(11.) The furpluffes of thefe funds, after paying the
intereft of the national debt, are carried together, and
denominated the Jinking fund : which, unlefs otherwife
appropriated by parliament, is annually to be appilied
towards paying off fome part of the principal.
(12.) But, previous to this, the aggregate fund is
now charged with an annual fum for the civil lift;
which is the immediate proper revenue of the crown,
fettled by parliament on the king at his acceffion, for
defraying the charges of civil government.
■flii. Sect. IX. Of fubordinate magiftrates.
(1.) Subordinate magiftrates, of the raoft gene¬
ral ufe and authority, are, 1. Sheriffs. 2. Coroners.
3. Juftices of the Peace. 4. Cbnftables. 5. Surveyors
w. ( 19 )
of the highways. 6. Cverfeers of the poor. Law of
(2.) ihe Jheriff is the keeper of each county, an-
Dually nominated in due form by the king ; and is ana ^ze
(within his county) a judge, a confervator of the
peace, a minifterial officer, and the king’s bailiff.
(3.) Coroners are permanent officers of the crown in
each county, ele&ed by the freeholders; whofe office
it is to make enquiry concerning the death of the king’s
fubje&s, and certain revenues of the crown; and alfo,
in particular cafes, to fupply the office of fheriff.
(4.) fujliccs of the peace are magiftrates in each
county, ftatutably qualified, and commiffioned by the
king’s majefty: with authority to conferve the peace 5
to hear and determine felonies, and other mifdemeanours;
and to do many other adts, committed to their charge
by particular ftatutes.
(5.) Conftables zre officers of hundreds and town-
fliips, appointed at the leet, and empowered to preferve
the peace, to keep watdi and ward, and to apprehend
offenders.
(6.) Surveyors of the highways are officers appoint¬
ed annually in every parifh; to remove annoyances in,
and to direft the reparation of, the public roads.
(7.) Overfeers of the poor are officers appointed an¬
nually in every parifh; to relieve fuch impotent, and
employ fuch fturdy poor, as are fettled in each parifh,
—by birth,—by parentage,—by marriage,—or by
forty days refidence; accompanied with, i. Notice.
2. Renting a tenement of ten pounds annual value.
3. Paying their afleffed taxations. 4. Serving an an¬
nual office. 5. Hiring and fervice for a ye'ar. 6. Ap-
prenticefhip for feven years. 7. Having a fufficient
eftate in the parifh.
Sect. X. Of the people, whether aliens, denizens, liij.
or natives.
(1.) The people are either aliens, that is, born out
of the dominions, or allegiance, of the crown of Great
Britain; ot natives, that is, born within it.
(2.) Allegiance is the duty of all fubjefts; being
the reciprocal tie of the people to the prince, in return
for the protedlion he affords them ; and, in natives, this
duty of allegiance is natural and perpetual; in aliens,
is local and temporary only.
(3.) The rights of natives are alfo natural and per¬
petual : thofe oialiens, local and temporary only; un¬
lefs they be made denizens by the king, or naturalized
by parliament.
Sect. XI. Of the clergy. liv.
(1.) The people, whether aliens, denizens, or na¬
tives, are alfo either clergy, that is, all perfons in holy
orders, or in ecclefiaftical offices; ox laity, which com¬
prehends the reft of the nation.
(2.) The clerical part of the nation, thus defined,
are, 1. Archbifhops and bifheps; who are eledt^d by
-their feveral chapters, at the nomination of the crown,
and afterwards confirmed and confecrated by each other.
2. Deans and chapters. 3. Arch-deacons. 4. Rural
deans. 5. Parfons (under which are included appro-
priators), and vicars; to whom there are generally re-
quifite, holy orders, prefentation, inftitution, and in-
du&ion. 6. Curates. To which may be addedj
7. Churchwardens. 8. Parifh-clerks and fextons.
[ c 2 ]
Sect.
L
( 20 )
Errand, Sect. XII. Of the civil fate.
analyzed. ^ ^ The laity are divifiblc into three Hates; civil,
l'r- military, and maritime.
(2.) The civil ftate (which includes all the nation,
except the clergy, the army, and the navy; and many
individuals among them alfo,) may be divided into the
nobility, and the commonalty.
(3.) The nobility are dukes, marquifes, earls, vif^-
counts, and barons. Thefe had anciently duties annex¬
ed to their refpe&ive honours: they are created either
by writ, that is, by fummons to parliament; or by the
king’s letters-patent, that is, by royal grant: and they
enjoy many privileges, exclufive of their fenatorial ca¬
pacity.
(4.) The commonalty confift of. knights of the gar¬
ter, knights bannerets, baronets, knights of the bath,
knights bachelors, efquires, gentlemen, yeomen, tradef-
men, artificers, and labourers.
Ivi. Sect. XIII. Of the military and maritime fates.
(1.) The military ftate, by the (landing conftitu-
tional law, confifts of the militia of each county, rai-
fed from among the people by lot, officered by the
principal landholders, and commanded by the lord lieu¬
tenant.
(2.) The more difciplined occafional troops of the
kingdom are kept on foot only from year to year, by
' parliament; and, during that period, are governed by
martial law, or arbitrary articles of war, formed at the
pleafure of the crown.
(3.) The maritime ftate confifts of the officers and
mariners of the Britilh navy; who are governed by ex-
prefs and permanent laws, or the articles of the navy,
eftabliftied by a& of parliament.
Iv.. Sect. XIV. Of mafer and fervant.
(1.) The private, ceconomical, relations of perfons
are thofe of, 1. Mafer and fervant. 2. Hujband and
wife. 3. Parent and child. 4. Guardian and ward.
(2.) The firft relation may fubfift between a majler
and four fpecies of fervants\ (for flavery is unknown
to our laws): viz. 1. Menial fervants; who are hired.
2. Apprentices; who are bound by indentures. 3. La¬
bourers; who are cafually employed. 4. Stewards, bai¬
liffs, and factors ; who are rather in 3 miniferial (late.
(3.) From this relation refult divers powers to the
mailer, and emoluments to the fervant.
(4.) The mafter hath a property in the fervice of
his fervant; and muft be anfwerable for fuch a£ls as
the fervant does by his exprefs, or implied, command.
jv... Sect. XV. Of hifhand and wife.
(1.) The fecond private relation is that of mar¬
riage; which includes the reciprocal rights and duties
of hufand and ’wife.
(2.) Marriage is duly contra&ed between perfons,
j, Confenting: 2. Free from canonical impediments,
which make it voidable: 3. Free alfo front the civil im¬
pediments,—of prior marriage;—of vyant of age;—of
non-confent of parents or guardians,. where requifite ;
—and of want of reafon ; either of which make it to¬
tally void. And it muft be celebrated by a clergyman,
in due form and place.
(3.) Marriage is diffolved, 1. By death. 2* Bydi-
A W, Part II.
vorce in the fpiritual court; not a menfa el thoro only, Law of
but a vinculo matrimonii, for canonical caufe exifting Enfla"c!’
previous to the contract. 3-*By a£t of parliament,  1—I.
as for adultery.
(4.) By marriage the hulband and wife become one
perion in law; which unity is the principal foundation
of their refpeftive rights, duties, and difabilities.
Sect. XVI. Of parent and child. j-;*.
(1.) The third, and mod univerfal, private relation
is that of parent and child.
(2.) Children'.we, x. Legitimate; being thofe who
are born in lawful wedlock, or within a competent time
after. 2. Baflards, being thofe who are not fo.
(3.) The duties of parents to legitimate children are,
I. Maintenance. 2. Proteftion. 3. Education.
(4.) The power of parents confifts principally in
corredion, and confent to marriage. Both may after
death be delegated by will to a guardian; and the for¬
mer alfo, living the parent, to a tutor or mafter.
(5.) The duties of/eg-xV/wtf/e children to parents arc *
obedience, prote&ion, and maintenance.
(6.) The duty of parents to bajlards is only that of
maintenance.
(7.) The rights of a bafard are fuch only as he can
acquire; for he is incapable of inheriting any thing.
Sect. XVII. Of guardian and ward. he.
(1.) The fourth private relation is that at guardian
and ward, which is plainly derived from the lalt; thefe
being, during the continuance of their relation, reci¬
procally fubjedl to the fame rights and duties.
(2.) Guardidns are of divers forts: 1. Guardians by-
nature, or the parents. 2. Guardians for nurture, af-
figned by the ecclefiaftical courts. 3. Guardians in fo-
cage, affigned by the common law. 4. Guardians by
ftatute, affigned by the father’s will. 'All fubjedl to
the fuperintendance of the court of chancery.
(3.) Full age in male or female for all purpofes is
the age of 2J years, (different ages being allowed for
different purpofes;) till which age the perfon is an in¬
fant.
(4.) Kn infant, in refpett of his tender years, hath
various privileges, and various difabilities, in law;
chiefly with regard to fuits, crimes, eftates, and con-
tra&s.
Sect. XVIII. Of corporations.
(1.) Bodies politic, or corporations, which are ar¬
tificial perfons, are eftablifiied for preferving in perpe¬
tual fucceffion certain rights; which, being conferred
on natural perfons only, would fail in procefs of time-
(2.) Corporations are, 1. Aggregate, confiding of
many members. 2. Sole, confiding of one perfon only.
(3.) Corporations are alfo either fpiritual, ereded to
perpetuate the rights of the church; or lay. And the
layqare, \. Civil; ereded for many temporal purpofes.
2. Eleemofynary; ereded to perpetuate the charity of
the founder.
<4.) Corporations are tifually ereded, and named,
by virtue of the king’s royal charter; but may be crea¬
ted by ad of parliament.
(5.) The powers incident to all corporations are,
1. To maintain perpetual fucceffion.' 2. To ad in their
corporate capacity like an individual. 3. To hold lands,
fubjed
Part IT. L A
Law of fubjeft to the ftatutes of mortmain. 4. To have a com-
England, mon fea], make by-laws. Which lalt power,
analyzed. -n fpjr;tua] or eleemofynary corporations, may be ex¬
ecuted by the king or the founder.
(6.) The duty of corporations is to anfwer the ends
of their inftitution.
I (7.) To enforce this duty, all corporations may be
vifited: fpiritual corporations by the ordinary; lay
corporations by the founder, or his reprefentatives; viz.
the civil by the king (who is the fundator incipiens of
all) reprefented in his court of king’s bench; the elee-
mofynary by the endower, (who is the fundator perfi-
dens of fuch), or by his heirs or affigns.
(8.) Corporations may be diffolved, I. By a& of
parliament. 2. By the natural death of all their mem-
bers. 3. By furrender of their franchifes. 4. By for¬
feiture of their charter.
CHAP. II.
3xi1, Of the Rights t/" T ji i n g s.
Ixiii. Sect. I. Of Property in general.
(1.) A LL dominion over external objefis has its ori-
ginal from the gift of the Creator to man in
general.
(2,) The fubjiance of things was, at firft, common
to all mankind ; yet a temporary property, in the ufe
of them, might even then be acquired, and continued,
by occupancy.
(3.) In procefs of time a permanent property was
eftabliihed in the fubjiance, as well as the life, of things;
which was alfo originally acquired by occupancy only.
(4.) Left this property (hould determine by the
owner’s derelidtion or death, whereby the thing would
again become common, focieties have eftablilhed con¬
veyances, on ills, and heirfdps, in order to continue the
property of the firft occupant: and, where by accident
fnch property becomes difcontinued or unknown, the
thing ufually refults to the fovereign of the ftate, by
virtue 6f the municipal law.
(5.) But of fome things, which are incapable of per¬
manent fubftantial dominion, there ftill fubfifts only the
fame tranfient ufufrudluary property, which originally
fubfifted in all things.
]X-1V< Sect. II. Of real property; and, firjl, of corpo¬
real hereditaments.
(1.) In this property, or exclufive dominion, confift the
lights of things; which are, 1. Things real. 2. Things
perfonal.
(2.) In things real may be confidfered, 1. Their fe-
veral kinds. 2. The tenures, by which they may be
holden. 3. The ejlates which may be acquired there¬
in. 4. Their title, or the means of acquiring and lo-
fi ng them.
(3.) AH the feveral kinds of things real are redu¬
cible to. one of thefe three, viz. lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments; whereof the fecond includes the firft, and
the third includes the firft and fecond.
(4.) Hereditaments therefore, or whatever may come
to be inherited, (being the moft comprehenfive deno¬
mination of things real,) are either corporeal or incor¬
poreal.
\V. ( 21 )
(5.) (Tijr/ijrez?/hereditaments confifi. wholly ofLaw of
in their largeft legal fenfe ; wherein they include not
only the face of the earth, but every other objeft of 1 1
fenfe adjoining thereto, and fubfifting either above or
beneath it.
Sect. III. Of incorporeal hereditaments. 1^.
(1.) Incorporeal hereditaments are rights iffuing
out of things corporeal, or concerning, or annexed to,
or exercifibie within, the fame.
(2.) Incorporeal hereditaments are, 1. Advooufons.
2. Tithes. 3. Commons. 4. Ways. 5. Offices. 6. Dig¬
nities. 7. Franchifes. 8. Corodies orpenfions. 9. An¬
nuities. IO. Rents.
(3.) An advooufon is a right of prefentation to an
ecclefiaftical benefice ; either appendant, or in grofs.
This may be, t. Prefentative. 2. Collative. 3. Do¬
native.
(4.) Tithes are the tenth part of the increafe yearly
•arifing from the profits and ftock of lands, and the per¬
fonal induftry of mankind. Thefe, by the ancient and
pofitive law of the land, are due of common right to
the parfon, or (by endowment) to the vicar; unlefs
fpecially difeharged, 1. By real compofition. 2. By
Prefcription, either de modo decimandi, or de non deci-
mando.
(5.) Common is a profit which a man hath in the
lands of another; being, 1. Common ofpafture; which
is either appendant, appurtenant, becaufe of vicinage,
or in grofs. 2. Common of pifeary. 3. Common of
turbary. 4. Common of eftovers, or botes.
(6.) Ways are a right of palling over another man’s
ground.
(7.) Offices are the right to exercife a public or pri¬
vate employment.
(8.) Fox dignities, which are titles of honour, fee
Chap. I. Seft. 12.
(9.) Franchifes are a royal privilege, or branch of
the king’s prerogative, fubfiiting in the hands of a fub-
jed.
(ro.) Corodies are allotments for one’s fuftenance;
which may be converted into penfions. (See Chap. 1.
Sed. 8.)
(11.) An annuity is a yearly fum of money, char¬
ged upon the perfon, and not upon the lands of the
grantor.
(12.) Rents are a certain profit iffuing yearly out
of lands and tenements; and are reducible to, 1. Rent-
fervice. 2. Rent-charge. 3. Rent-feck.
Sect. IV. Of the Feodal Syjlem. ixv;,
(1.) The dodrine of tenures is derived from the
feodal law; which was planted in Europe by its nor¬
thern conquerors at the diffolution of the Roman em¬
pire.
(2.) Pure and proper feuds were parcels of land al¬
lotted by a chief to his followers, to be held on the
condition of perfonally rendering due military fervice
to their lord.
(3.) Thefe were granted by inveftiture ; were held
under the bond of fealty; were inheritable only by de-
feendants ; and could not be transferred without the
mutual confent of the lord and vaffal.
(4.) Improper feuds were derived from the other;
but
( 22
Law of
England,
analyzed.
L A W.
Part If.
but differed from them in their original, their fervices
and renders, their defcent, and other circumftances.
(5.) The lands of England were converted into
feuds, of the improper kind, foon after the Norman
conqueft: which gave rife to the grand maxim of te¬
nure, viz. That all lands in the kingdom are holden,
mediately or immediately, of the king.
Sect. V. Of the ancient Englijh tenures.
(1.) The diftin&ion of tenures confided in the na¬
ture of their fervices : as, 1. Chivalry, or knight-fervice;
where the fervice was free, but uncertain. 2. Free
focage; where the fervice was free, and certain. 3.
Pure villenage; where the fervice was bafe, and uncer-
tain. 4. Privileged viHenage, or villein focage; where
the fervice was bafe, but certain.
(2.) The mod univerfal ancient tenure was that in
chivalry, or by knight fervice; in which the tenant of
every knight’s fee was bound, if called upon, to attend
his lord to the wars. This was granted by livery,, and
perfe&ed by homage and fealty; which ufually drew
after them fuit of court.
(3.) The other fruits and confequences of the tenure
by knight-fervice were, 1. Aid. 2. Relief. 3. Primer
feifin. 4. Warddiip. 5. Marriage. 6. Fines upon
alienation. 7. Efcheat. f
(4.) Grand ferjeanty differed from chivalry princi¬
pally in its render, or fervice; and not in its fruits and
confequences.
(■5.) The perfonal fervice in chivalry was at length
gradually changed into pecuniary affeffments, which
wer,e called fcutage or efcuage.
- (6.) Thefe military tenures (except the fervices of
grand ferjeanty) were, at the redoration of King
Charles, totally aboliihed, and reduced to free focage
by a& of parliament.
Sect. VI. Of the modern Englijh tenures.
(1.) Free focage is a tenure by any free, certain,
and determinate fervice.
(2.) This tenure, the relic of Saxon liberty, includes
petit ferjeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavelkind.
(3 ) Free focage lands partake drongly of the feo-
dal nature, as well as thofe in chivalry : being holden ;
fubje<Sd to fome fervice, at the lead to fealty and fuit
of court; fubjeft to relief, to wardlhip, and to efcheat,
but not to marriage; fubjeft alfo formerly to aids, pri¬
mer feifin, and fines for alienation.
(4.) Pure villenage was a precarious and flavidi te¬
nure, at the abfolute will of the lord, upon uncertain
fervices of the bafed nature.
(5.) From hence, by tacit confent or encroachment,
have arifen the modern copyholds, or tenure by copy of
court-roll; in which lands may be dill held at the
(nominal) will of the lord, (but regulated) according
to the cudom of the manor.
(6.) Thefe are fubjeft, like focage lands, to fervi¬
ces, relief, and efcheat; and alfo to heriots, wardlhip,
and fines upon defcent and alienation.
(7.) Privileged villeriage, or villein focage, is an
exalted fpecies of copyhold tenure, upon bafe, but cer¬
tain, fervices; fubfiding only in the ancient demefnes
of the crown; whence the tenure is denominated the
tenure in ancient demefne.
(8.) Thefe copyholds of ancient demefne have di¬
vers immunities annexed to their tenure; but are dill Law of
held by copy of court-roll, according to the cudom of England,,
the manor, though not at the will of the lord. anal)zed.^
(9.) Frankalmoign is a tenure by fpiritual fervices
at large, whereby many ecclefiadical and eleemofynary
corporations now hold their lands and tenements ; be¬
ing of a nature didin& from tenure by divine fervice
in certain.
Sect. VII. Of freehold eftates of inheritance. ix;x, (
(1.) Estates in lands, tenements, and heredita¬
ments, are fuch intered as the tenant hath therein ; to
afcertain which, may be confidered, 1. The quantity
of interef. 2. The time of enjoyment. 3. The num¬
ber and connexions of the tenants.
(2.) Edatea, with refpeft to their quantity of inte-
rejl, or duration, are either freehold, or lefs than free¬
hold.
(3.) A freehold edate, in lands, is fuch as is created
by livery of feifin at common law; or, in tenements of
an incorporeal nature, by what is equivalent thereto.
(4.) Freehold edates are either edates of inheri¬
tance, or not of inheritance, viz. for life only : and in¬
heritances are, 1. Abfolute, or fee ft tuple. 2. Limited
fees.
(5.) Tenant vafeeftmple is he that hath lands, te¬
nements, or hereditaments, to hold to him and his heirs
for ever.
(6.) Limited fees are, 1. Qualified, or bafe, fees.
2. Fees conditional at the common law.
(7.) Qualified or bafe fees are thofe which, having
a qualification fubjoined thereto, are liable to be de¬
feated when that qualification is at an end.
(8.) Conditional fees, at the common law, were fuch
as were granted to the donee, and the heirs of his bo¬
dy, in exclufion of collateral heirs.
(9.) Thefe were held to be fees, granted on condi¬
tion that the donee had iffue of his body; which con¬
dition being once performed by the birth of iffue, the
donee might immediately aliene the land : but, the
datute.^/if donis being made to prevent fuch alienation,
thereupon from the divifion of the fee'(by conftruftion
of this ftatute) into a particular eftate and a reverfion,
the conditional fees began to be called fees-tail.
(10.) All tenements real, or favouring of the realty,
are fubjeft to entails.
(11.) Eftates tail may be, r. general, or fpecial;
2. male, or female; 3. given in frank marriage.
(12.) Incident to eftates tail are, 1. Wafte. 2.
Dower. 3. Curtefy. 4. Bar;—by fine, recovery, or
lineal warranty with aflets.
(13.) Eftates tail are now, by many ftatutes and re-
folutions of the courts, almoft brought back to the
ftate of conditional fees at the common law.
Sect. VIII. Of freeholds, not of inheritance. ixx, |
(1.) Freeholds, not of inheritance, or for life only,
are, 1. Conventional, or created by the aft of the par¬
ties. 2. Legal, or created by operation of law.
(2.) Conventional eftates for life are created by an
exprefs grant for term of one’s own life, or pur auter
vie.} or by a general grant, without exprefiing any
term at all.
(3.) Incident to this, and all other eftates for life,
are eftovers, and emblements: and to eftates pur auter
Part II. L A W.
fij Law of vie general occupancy was alfo Incident; as fpecial oc-
1 f nflaed’ cuPancy ft'*! 's> ceJ?uy <lue vie furvives the tenant.
| —! yzC (4.) Legal eftates for life are, 1. Tenancy in.tail,
after poj/ibility of iffue extinft. 2. Tenancy by the
curtefy of England. 3. Tenancy in dower.
(5.) Tenancy in tail, after pofibility of ifiue ext ini},
is where an eftate is given in fpecial tail ; and, before
■ iffue had, a perfon dies from whofe body the iffue was
fofpring; whereupon the tenant (if furviving) becomes
tenant in tail, after pofibility of iffue extintt.
(6.) This eftate partakes both of the incidents to an
eftate tail, and thofe of an eftate for life.
(7.) Tenancy by the curtefy of England is where a
man’s wife is feifed of an eftate of inheritance; and he
ft' by her has iffue, born alive, which was capable of in-
ieriting her.eftate ; in which cafe he ftiall, upon her
death, hold the tenements for his own life, as tenant
~ by the curtefy.
{%.) Tenancy in dower is where a woman’s hufband
is feifed of an eftate of inheritance, of which her iffue
might by any pofllbility^have been heir; and the huf¬
band dies: the woman is hereupon entitled to
or one third part of the lands and tenements, to" hold
for her natural life.
(9.) Dower is either by the common law; by fpe¬
cial cuftom; ad ojlium ecclefia;; or, ex ajfenfu patris.
(to.) Dower may be forfeited or barred, particu¬
larly by an eftate in jointure.
Sect. IX. Of eftates lefs than freehold.
(1.) Estatesthan are, 1. Eftates for
years. 2. Eftates at will. 3. Eftates at fufferance.
(2.) An eftate for years is where a man, feifed of
lands and tenements, letteth them to another for a cer¬
tain period of time, which transfers the intereft of the
term; and the leffee enters thereon, which gives him
poffeffion of the term, but not legal feifin of the
land.
(3.) Incident to this eftate are eftovers; and alfo
emblements, if it determines before the full end of the
term.
(4.) An eftate at will is where lands are let by one
man to another, to hold at the will of both parties;
and the leffee enters thereon.
(5.) Copyholds are eftates held at the will of the lord,
(regulated) according to the cuftom of the manor.
(6.) An eftate at fufferance is where one comes into
poffefiion of land by lawful title, but keeps it after¬
wards without any title at all.
!, ixnii. Sect. X. Of eftates upon condition.
(1.) Estates (whether freehold or otherwife) may
alfo be held upon condition; in which cafe their ex-
iftence depends on the happening, or not happening, of
fome uncertain event.
(2.) Thefe eftates are, 1. On condition implied.
2. On condition exprejfed. 3. Eftates in gage. 4. E-
ftates by fat ute, merchant or ftaple. 5. Eftates by
elegit.
(3.) Eftates on condition implied are where a grant
of an eftate has, from its effence and conftitution, a
condition infeparably annexed to it; though none be
expreffed in words. •
(4.) Eftates on condition exprejfed wee. where an ex-
prefs qualification or provifion is annexed to the grant
of an eftate.
(5.) On the performance of thefe conditions either
expreffed or implied (if precedent) the eftate may be
vefted or enlarged: or, on. the breach of them (if
fubfequent) an eftate already vefted may be defeated.
(6.) Eftates in gage, in vadio, or in pledge, are e-
ftates granted as a fecurity for money lent; being
1. In vivo vadio, or livi?ig gage ; where the profits of
land are granted till a debt be paid, upon which pay¬
ment the granter’s eftate will revive. 2. In mortuo va¬
dio, \n dead, ox mart gage; where an eftate is granted,
on condition to be void at a day certain, if the gran-
ter then repays the money borrowed; on failure of
which, the eftate becomes abfolutely dead to the
granter.
(7.) Eftates by fatute-mcxchznt, or/?#/«/e-ftaple,
are alfo eftates conveyed to creditors, in purfuance of
certain ftatutes, till their profits (hall difeharge the
debt.
(8.) Eftates by elegit are where, in confequence of a
judicial writ fo called, lands are delivered by the (heriff
to a plaintiff, till their profits fliall fatisfy a debt ad¬
judged to be due by law.
Sect. XI. Of efiates in pojfejjion, remainder, and
reverfion.
(1.) Estates, with refpeft to their time of enjoy-
ment, are either in immediate pojfejfton, or in expettan-
cy ; which eftates in expellancy are created at the fame
time, and are parcel of the fame eftates, as thofe upon
which they are expe&ant. Thefe are, 1. Remainders.
2. Reverftons.
(2.) K remainder is an eftate limited to take effeft,
and be enjoyed, after another particular eftate is de¬
termined.
_ (3.) Therefore, 1. There muft be a precedent par¬
ticular eftate, in order to fupport a remainder. 2. The
remainder muft pafs out of the granter, at the creation
of the particular eftate. 3. The remainder muft veil
in the grantee, during the continuance, or at the de¬
termination, of the’particular eftate.
(4.) Remainders are, 1. Veiled; where the eftate
is fixed to remain to a certain perfon, after the particu¬
lar eftate is fpent. 2. Contingent; where the eftate
is limited to take effect, either to an uncertain perfon,
or upon an uncertain event.
(5.) An executory devife is fuch a difpofition of
lands, by will, that an eftate fhall not veil thereby at
the death of the devifor, but only upon fome future
contingency, and without any precedent particular e-
ftate to fupport it.
(6.) A reverfion is the refidue of an eftate left in the
granter, to commence in poffeffion after the determi¬
nation of fome particular eftate granted : to which are
incident fealty, and rent.
(7.) Where two eftates, the one lefs, the other
greater, the one in poffeffion, the other in expeftan-
cy, meet together in one and the fame perfon, and
in one and the fame right, the lefis is merged in the
greater.
Sect. XII. Of eftates, in feveralty, joint tenancy,
coparcenary, and common.
(1.) Estates, with refpeft to the number and con¬
nections of their tenants, may be held, x. In feveral-
ty.
*3 >
England,
Ixxiii.
Ixxiv,
( H )
ty. 2. In joint-tenancy. 3. In coparcenary. 4. In
common.
(2.) An eftate in feveralty is where one tenant holds
it in his own foie right, without any other perfon be¬
ing joined with him.
(3.') An eftate in joint-tenancy is where an eftate is
granted to two or more perfons; in which cafe the
law conftrues them to be joint-tenants, unlefs the
words of the grant exprefsly exclude fuch conftru&ion.
(4.) Joint-tenants have an unity of intereft, of title,
of time, and of poffeffion : they are feifed per my <b per
tout: and therefore upon the deceafe of one joint-te¬
nant, the whole intereft remains to the furvivor.
(5:) Joint-tenancy may be difiblved, by deftroying
one of its four conftituent unities.
(6.) An eftate in coparcenary is where an eftate of
inheritance defcends from the anceftor to two or more
perfons who are called parceners, and all together
■make but one heir.
(7.) Parceners have an unity of intereft, title, and
poffeffion ; but are only feifed/w ?»/, and not per tout:
wherefore there is no furvivorlhip among parceners.
(8.) Incident to this eftate is the law of hotchpot.
(9.) Coparcenary may alfo be diffolved, by deftroy¬
ing any of its three conftituent unities.
(10.) An eftate in common is where two or more per¬
fons hold lands, poffibly by diftinft titles, and for di-
ftinft interefts; but by unity of polfeffion, becaufe
none knoweth his own feveralty.
(11.) Tenants in common have therefore an unity
of poffeffion, (without furvivorffiip; being feifed per
my, and not per tout;) but no neceffary unity of title,
time, or intereft.
(12.') This eftate may be created, 1. By diffolving
the conftituent unities of the two former ; 2. By ex-
prefs limitation in a grant: and may be deftroyed,
1. By uniting the feveral titles in one tenant; 2. By
partition of the land.
England)
Tyzed
A W. Part II.)
(4.) The rules of defcent, or canons of inheritance, Law of
obferved by the laws of England, are thefe : Engl J
. \Jl, Inheritances fhall lineally defcend to the ipfiie of ana*
the perfon laft actually feifed, in infinitum ; but (hall
never lineally afcend.
2d, The mate iffue (hall be admitted before the female.
$d, Where there are two or more males in equal de¬
gree, the eldeft only ftiall inherit; but the females
all together.
\th. The lineal defcendants, In infinitum, of any per¬
fon deceafed (hall reprefent their anceftor ; that is,
{hall ftand in the fame place as the perfon himfelf
would have done, had he been living.
$th. On failure of lineal defcendants, or iffue, of the
perfon laft feifed, the inheritance {hall defcend to the
blood of the firjl pur chafer; fubjeft to the three pre¬
ceding rules. To evidence which blood, the two
following rules are eftablifhed.
(sth. The collateral heir of the perfon laft; feifed muft
be his next collateral kinfman, of the blood.
7th, In collateral inheritances, the male{hall be
preferred to the female; that is, kindred derived
frbm-the blood of the male anceftors {hall be admit¬
ted before thofe from the blood of the female : un¬
lefs where the lands have, in faft, defcended from a
female.
Sect. XIII. Of the title to things real, in ge¬
neral.
(1.) A title to things real is the means whereby a
man.cometh to the juft poffeffion of his property
(2.) Herein may be confidered, 1. A mere or naked
poffeffion. 2. The right of poffeffion ; which is, ijl, an
apparent, 2^/y, an aftual, right. 3. The mere right
of property. 4. The conjunftion of adlual poffef¬
fion with both thefe rights; which conftitutes a per¬
fect title.
lxxvi Sect. XIV. Of title by defcent.
(1.) The title to things real may be reciprocally ac¬
quired or loft, t. By dejcent. 2. By purchafe.
(2.) Defcent is the means whereby a man, on the
death of his anceftor, acquires a title to his eftate, in
right of reprefentation, as his heir at law.
(3.) To underftand the doftrine of defcents, we muft
form a clear notion of confanguinity ; which is the con¬
nexion, or relation, of perfons defcended from the fame
ftock or common anceftor; and it is, 1. Lineal, where
one of the kinfmen is lineally defcended from the o-
ther. 2. Collateral, where they are lineally defcended,
not one from the other, but both from the fame com¬
mon auceftor.
Sect. XV. Of title by purchafe, and firft by Ixxvitj t
ejcheat.
(1.) Purchase, or perquifition, is the poffeffion of
an eftate which a man hath by his own aft or agree¬
ment ; and not by the mere aft of law, or defcent from
any of his anceftors. This includes, 1. Efcbeat.
2. Occupancy. 3. Prefcription. 4. Forfeiture. 5. A-
lienation.
(2.) Efcheat is where, upon deficiency of the. te¬
nants inheritable blood, the eftate falls to the lord of
the fee.
(3.) Inheritable blood is wanting to, 1. Such as are
not related to the perfon laft feifed. 2. His maternal
relations in paternal inheritances, and vice verfa. 3. His
kindred of the half blood. 4. Monfters. 5. Baftards.
6. Aliens, and their iffue. 7. Perfons attainted of
treafon or felony. 8. Papifts, in refpeft of themfelves
only, by the ftatute law.
Sect. XVI. Of title by occupancy. lxsvl#
(1.) Occupancy is the taking poffeffion of thofe
things which before had no owner.
(2.) Thus, at the common law, where tenant pur
auter vie died during the life of cejiuy que vie, he, who
could firft enter, might lawfully retain the poffeffion ;
unlefs by the original grant the heir was made aJpecial
occupant.
(3.) The law of dereliftions and alluvions has nar¬
rowed the title by occupancy.
Sect. XVII. Of title by prefcription. Ixxix. i
(x.) Prescription (as diftinguiflied from cufiomt) is
a perfonal immemorial ufage of enjoying a right in fome
incorporeal hereditament, by a man, and either his an¬
ceftors or thofe whofe eftate of inheritance Iw bath: of
which the firft is called preferibing in his ancejlors, the
latter in a que eftate.
Sect.
L
W.
Part II.
A
( 25 )
j England, Sect. XVIII. Of title by forfeiture.
analyzed. Forfeiture is a punidiment annexed by law
Ixxx. to fome illegal aft, or negligence, in the owner of
things real; whereby the ellate is transferred to ano¬
ther, who is ufually the party injured.
(2.) Forfeitures are occalioned, 1. By crimes. 2. By
alienation, contrary to law. 3. By lapfe. 4. By fi-
vwny. 5. By nonperformance of conditions. 6. By
nvafe. 7. By breach of copyhold cujioms. 8. By bank¬
ruptcy.
(3.) Forfeitures for crimes, or mifdemeanours, are for,
1. Treafon. 2. Felony. 3. Mifprifion of treafon.
4. Prscmunire. 5. Affaults on ajudge, and batteries,
fitting the courts. 6. Popiih recufancy, &c.
(4.) Alienations, or conveyances, which induce a
forfeiture, are, 1. Thofe in mortmain, made to cor¬
porations contrary to the ftatute law. 2. Thofe made
to aliens. 3. Thofe made by particular tenants, when
larger than their eftates will warrant.
(5.) Lapfe is a forfeiture of the right of prefenta-
tion to a vacant church, by negle& of the patron to
prefent within fix calendar months.
(6.) Simony is the corrupt prefentation of any one
to an ecclefiaftical benefice, whereby that turn becomes
forfeited to the crown.
(7.) For forfeiture by nonperformance of conditions,
fee Seft. 10.
(8.) Waft is a fpoil, or deftru&ion, in any corporeal
hereditaments, to the prejudice of him that hath the in¬
heritance.
(9.) Copyhold eftates may have alfo other peculiar
caufes of forfeiture, according to the cuftom of the
manor.
(10.) Bankruptcy is the aft of becoming * bank¬
rupt ; that is, a trader who fecretes himfelf, or does
certain other afts tending to defraud his creditors,
(See Seft. 22.)
(11.) By bankruptcy all the eftates of the bankrupt
are transferred to the afiignees of his commiffioners, to
I be fold for the benefit of his creditors.
|!| rxxxi. Se£t. XIX. Of title by alienation.
(1.) Alienation, conveyance, or purchafe in its
more limited fenfe, is a means of transferring real e-
ftates, wherein they are voluntarily religned by one
man, and accepted by another.
(2.) This formerly could not be done by a tenant,
without licence from his lord } nor by a lord, without
attormnent of his tenant.
(3.) All perfons are capable of purchafing ; and all
that are in poffeffion of any eftates, wet capable ol con¬
veying them : unlefs under peculiar difabilities by law;
as being attainted, non compotes, infants, under durefs,
feme-coverts, aliens, or papifts.
(4.) Alienations are made by common ajfurances;
which are, 1. By deed, or matter in pais. 2. By mat¬
ter of record. 3. By fpecial cufom. 4. By devife.
1 . .. Seft. XX. Of alienation by deed.
Sj Ixxxn. J J
(1.) In affurances by deed may be confidered, 1. Its
general nature. 2. Its feveral fpecies.
! (2.) A deed, in general, is the folemn aft of the
parties ; being, ufually, a writing fealed and delivered;
and it may be, 1. A deed indented, or indenture. 2. A
deed-poll. Law of
(3.) The requiftes of a deed are, 1. Sufficient/^- Eng|an<b
ties, and proper fubjeft-matter. 2. A good and fuffi- aniil>'*cd-
cient confderation. 3. Writing on paper, or parch-
ment, duly ftamped. 4. Legal and orderly parts:
(which are ufually, ift, the premifes; 2dly, the ha¬
bendum : 3dly, the tenendum ; 4thly, the reddendwn ;
ythly, the conditions; 6thly, the warranty, which is
either lineal or collateral ; 7thly, the covenants ;
Sthly, the conclufion, which includes the date.)
5. Reading it, if defired. 6. Sealing, and, in many
cafes, fgning it alfo. 7. Delivery. 8. Attefatiotu
(4.) A deed may be avoided, 1. By the want of
any of the requifites before-mentioned. 2. By fubfe-
quent matter ; as, ift, Rafure, or alteration. 2dly, De¬
facing its feal. 3dly, Cancelling it. 4thly, Difagree-
ment of thofe whofe confent is neceflary. ythly, Judg¬
ment of a court of juftice.
(5.) Of the feveral fpecies of deeds, fome ferve to
convey real property, fome only to charge and dif-
charge it.
(6.) Deeds which ferve to convey real property, or
conveyances, are either by common law, or by fatute.
And, of conveyances by common law, fome are origi¬
nal or primary, others derivative or fecondary.
(7.) Original conveyances are, 1. Feoffments. 2 Gifts.
3. Grants. 4. Leafes. 5. Exchanges. 6. Parti¬
tions. Derivative are, 7. Releafes. 8. Confirma¬
tions. 9. Surrenders. 10. Alignments, u. De¬
feazances.
(8.) & feoffment is the transfer of any corporealhc-
reditament to another, perfefted by livery offeifin, or
delivery of bodily pofTeffion from the feoffor to the fe¬
offee ; without which no freehold eftate therein can be
created at common law.
(90 A gift i6 properly the conveyance of lands in
tail.
(jo.) K grant is the regular method, by common
law, of conveying incorporeal hereditaments.
(11.) A leafe is the demife, granting, or letting to
farm of any tenement, ufually for a lefs term than the
leffor hath therein ; yet fometimes pofflbly for a great¬
er ; according to the regulations of the reftraining and
enabling ftatutes.
(12.) An exchange \s the mutual conveyance of equal
interefts, the one in confideration of the other.
(13.) A partition is the divifion of an eftate held in
joint-tenancy, in coparcenary, or in common, between
the refpeftive tenants ; fo that each may hold his di-
ftinft part in feveralty.
(14.) A releafe is the difeharge or conveyance of a
man’s right, in lands and tenements, to another that
hath fome former eftate in poffeffion therein.
(15.) A confirmation is the conveyance of an eftate
or right in effe, whereby a voidable eftate is made fure,
or a particular eftate is increafed.
(16.) A furrender is the yielding up of an eftate
for life, or years, to him that hath the immediate re¬
mainder or reverfion; wherein the particular eftate may
merge.
(17.) An afftgnment is the transfer, or making over
to another, of the whole right one has in any eftate;
but ufually in a leafe, for life or years.
(18.) A defeazance is a collateral deed, made at
the fame time with the original conveyance; contain-
[ d ] ing
( 26
Law of
England,
analyzed.
i'xxxiii.
) . L
ing fome condition, upon which the eftate may be de¬
feated.
(19.) Conveyances by Jlcitute depend much on the
dodtrine of ufes and trujis : which are a confidence re-
pofed in the terre-tenant, or tenant of the land, that
he {hall permit the profits to be enjoyed, according to
the dire&ions of cejluy que ufe, or cejhiy que truj}.
(20.) The ftatute of ufes, having transferred all ufes
into adtual pofieflion, (or, rather, having drawn the
the pofleffion to the ufe), has given birth to divers o-
ther fpecies of conveyance: 1. A covenantXo ftand feifed
to ufe. 2. A bargain and file, enrolled. 3. A leafe
and release. 4. A deed to lead or' declare the ufe of
other more diredt conveyances. 5. A revocation of
life! ; being the execution of a power, referred at the
creation of the ufe, of recalling at a future time the ufe
or eftate fo creating. All which owe their prefent o-
peration principally to the ftatute of ufes.
(21.) Deeds which do hot convey, but only charge
real property, and dfcharge it, are, ). Obligations.
2. Recognizances. 3. Defeazances upon both.
Sect. XXI. Of alienation by matter of record.
(1.) Assurances by matter at record are where the
fandlion of fome court of record is called in, to fub-
ftantiate and witnefs the transfer of real property.
Thefe are, t. Private atts of parliament. 2. The
king's grants. 3. Fines. 4. Common recoveries.
(2.) Private alls of parliament are a fpecies of af-
furances, calculated to give (by the tranfcendent au¬
thority of parliament) fuch reafonable powers or re¬
lief as are beyond the reach of the ordinary courfe
©f law.
(3.) The king's grants, contained in charters or
letters patent, are all entered on record, for the dig¬
nity of the royal perfon, and fecurity of the royal re¬
venue.
(4.) Kfine (fometimes faid to be a feoffment of re¬
cord) is an amicable compofition and agreement of
an adtual, or fidlitious, fuit; whereby the eftate in
queftion is acknowledged to be the right of one of the
parties.
(5.) The parts of a fine are, 1. The writ of cove¬
nant. 2. The licence to agree. 3. The conCord.
4. The note. 5. The foot. To which the ftatute
hath added, 6. Proclamations.
A W. part II.
remainders and reverfions expe&ant thereon ; provided Law of
the tenant in tail either fuffers, or is vouched in, fuch
recovery. atia|y2etl’
(10.) The ufes of a fine or recovery may be directed
by, 1. Deeds to lead fuch ufes; which are made pre¬
vious to the levying or fuffering them. 2. Deeds to</e-
clare the ufes; which are made fubfequent.
Sect. XXII. Of alienation by fpecial cujlom. ixxxjv, ;
(1.) Assurances by fpecial cujlom are confined to
the transfer ot copyholdeftates.
(2.) This is efte&ed by, 1. Surrender by the tenant
into the hands of the lord to the ufe of another, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the manor. 2. Preferment,
by the tenants or homage, of fuch furrender. 3. Ad¬
mittance of the furrenderee by the lord, according to
the ufes exprefied in fuch furrender.
(3.) Admittance may alfo be had upon original
grants to the tenant from the lord, and upon defeents
to the heir from the anceftor.
Sect. XXIII. Of alienation by devife. ixxxv. J
(1.) Devise is a difpofitions of lands and tenements,
contained in the laft will and teftament of the owner.
(2.) This was not permitted by the common law, as
it flood fince the conqueft ; but was introduced by
the ftatute law, under Henry VIII. fince made more
univerfal by the ftatute of tenures under Charles II.
with the introdudlion of additional folemnities by the
ftatute of frauds and perjuries in the fame reign.
(3-) The conjlruliion of all common afnrances fhould
be, 1. Agreeable to the intention. 2. To the words,
of the parties. 3. Made upon the entire deed. 4. Bear¬
ing ftrongeft againft the contractor. 5. Conformable
to law. 6. Rejecting the latter of two totally repug¬
nant claufes in a deed, and the former in a will.
7. Moft favourable in cafe of a devife.
Sect. XXIV. Of things perfonal. ixxxvt. I
(1.) Thwgs perfonal are comprehended under the
general name of chattels; which includes whatever
wants either the duration, or the immobility, attend¬
ing things real.
(2.) In thefe are to be confidered, 1. Their dijlri-
bution. 2. The property of them. 3. The////e to that
property.
(6.) Fines are of four kinds: 1. Sur cognizance de
droit, come ceo que il ad defon done. 2. Sur cognizance
de droit tantum. 3. Sur concejfit. 4. Sur done, vrant,
et render ; which is a double fine.
(7.) The force and effeft of fines (when levied by
fuch as have themfelvcs any intereft in the eftate) are
to affure the lands in queftion to the cognizee, by
barring the refpe&ive rights of parties, privies, and
fti angers.
(8.) A common recovery is by an aftual, or fifti-
tious, fuit or adlion for land, brought againft the te¬
nant of the freehold ; who thereupon vouches another,
who undertakes to warrant the tenant’s title : but, up¬
on fuch vouchee’s making default, the land is recovered
by judgment at law againft the tenant; who, in re¬
turn, obtains judgment againft the vouchee to recover
lands of equal value in recompenfe.
(9.) 'The force and effell of a recovery are to aflure
lands to the recovercr, by barring eftates tailj and all
(3 ) As to the dijlribution of chattels, they are,
1. Chattels real. 2. Chattels/>er/SW.
(4.) Chattels are fuch quantities of intereft, in
things immoveable, as are fhort of the duration of free¬
holds ; being limited to a time certain, beyond which
they cannot fuhfift. (See Se&. 7.)
(5.) Chattels perfonal are things moveable; which
may be transferred from place to place, together with
the perfon of the owner.
Sect. XXV. Of property in things perfonal.
(1.) Property, in chattels perfonal, is either inpof
feffon, or in allion.
(2.) Property in poffeffion, where a man has the ac¬
tual enjoyment of the thing, is, 1. Abfolute. 2. Qua-
lifed.
{3.) Abfolute property is where a man has fuch an
exclufiye right in the thing, that it cannot ceafe to be
bis, without his own after default.
Ixxxvii. i./
(4*)
Part II. L
Law of (4.) Qualified property is fuch as is not, in its na-
Lngland, ture} permanent . but may fometimes fubfift, and at 0-
ther times not fubfifV.
(5.) This may arife, 1. Where the fubjeft is inca¬
pable of abfolute ownerfhip. 2- From the peculiar cir-
cumllances of the owners.
(6.) Property in aftion, is where a man hath not
the actual occupation of the thing 5 but only a right \.o
it, arifing upon fome contract, and recoverable by an
a&ion at law.
(7.) The property of chattels perfonal is liable to
remainders, expedfant on eilates for life ; to joint-te¬
nancy ; and to tenancy in common.
Ixxxviii. Sect. XXVI. Of title to things perfonal by
occupancy.
(1.) The title to things perfonal may be acquired
or loft: by, Occupancy. 2. Prerogative. 3. Forfei¬
ture. 4. Cuflom. 5. Succcjfion. 6. Marriage. 7. Judg¬
ment. 8. Gift, or grant. 9. Contract. 10. Bank¬
ruptcy. II. Fefiament. 12. Adyniniftration.
(2.) Occupancy ftill gives the firft occupant a right
to thofe few things, which have no legal owner, or
which are incapable of permanent ownerlhip. Such
as, 1. Goods of alien enemies. 2. Things found.
3. The benefit of the elements. 4. Ammzhferce na¬
ture. 5. Emblements. 6. Things gained by accef-
fion; or, 7. By confufion. 8. Literary property.
Ixxxix. Sect. XXVII. Of title by prerogative^ and for¬
feiture.
(1.) By prerogative'^ veiled in the crown, or its
grantees, the property of the royal revenue; (fee
Chap. I. Sedt. 8.) and alfo the property of all game
in the kingdom, with the right of purfuing and ta¬
king it.
(2.) By forfeiture, for crimes and mifdemeanours,
the right of goods and chattels maybe transferred from
one man to another ; either in part or totally.
(3.) Total forfeitures of goods arife from convidlion
of, 1. Treafon, and mifprifion thereof. 2. Felony.
3. Excufable homicide. 4. Outlawry for treafon or
felony. 5. Flight. 6. Standing mute. 7. Affaults
on a judge ; and batteries, fitting the courts. 8. Prce-
tnunire. 9. Pretended prophecies. 10. Owling. n.Re-
fiding abroad of artificers. 12. Challenges to fight,
for debts at play.
xc. Sect. XXVIII. Of title by cuflom.
(1.) By cuflom, obtaining in particular places, a
right may be acquired in chattels : the moft ufual of
which cuftoms are thofe relating to, 1. Heriots. 2. Mor¬
tuaries. 3. Heir-looms.
(2.) Heriots are either \\tx\o\.-fervice, which dif¬
fers little from a rent; or heriot-cuftom, which is a
cuftomary tribute, of goods and chattels, payable to
the lord of the fee on the deceafe of the owner of
lands.
(3.) Mortuaries are a cuftomary gift, due to the
minifter in many parilhes, on the death of his pa-
riftiioners.
(4.) Heir-looms net fuch perfonal chattels, asdefeend
by fpecial cuftom to the heir, along with the inheri¬
tance of his anceftor.
A W. ( 27 )
Sect. XXIX. Of title by fucceffon, marriage, E^gTaml
and judgment. antlyzcd,
(l.) By fuccefion the right of chattels is veiled in 1
corporations aggregate ; and likewife in fuch corpora¬
tions foie as are the heads and reprefentatives of bo*
dies aggregate.
(2.) By marriage the chattels real and perfonal of
the wife are veiled in the hulband, in the fame degree
of property, and with the fame powers, as the wife
when foie had over them ; provided he reduces them to
pofiefiion.
(3.) The wife alfo acquires, by marriage, a pro¬
perty in her paraphernalia.
(4.) 'byjudgment, confequent on a fuitat law, a man
may in fome cafes, not only recover, but originally ac¬
quire, a right to pcrfonal property. As, 1. To penal¬
ties recoverable by a&ion popular. 2. To damages.
3. To colls of fuit.
Sect. XXX. Of title by gift, grant, and con- xc!*
traEl.
(1.) A gift, or grant, is a voluntary conveyance of
a chattel perfonal in polfellion, without any confidera-
tion or equivalent.
(2.) A eontraB is an agreement, upon fufficientCon-
fideration, to do or not to do a particular thing: and,
by fuch eontradl, any perfonal property (either in pof-
feffion or in aftion) may be transferred.
(3.) Contrads may either be exprefs or implied;
either executed or executory.
(4.) The confideratibn of contrads is, 1. A good
confideration. 2. A valuable conlideration ; which is,
i.Do,utdes. 2. Facto, utfacias. 3. Facto, ut des.
4. Do, ut facias.
(5.) The moft ufual fpecies of perfonal contrads
are, 1. Sale or exchange. 2. Bailment. 3. Hiring
or borrowing 4. Debt.
(6.) Sale or exchange is a tranfmutation of property
from one man to another, in confideration of fome re-
compenfe in value.
(7.) Bailment is the delivery of goods in trull; up¬
on a contrad, exprefs or implied, that the trull lhall
be faithfully performed by the bailee.
(8.) Hiring or borrowing is a contrad, whereby the
pollefiion of chattels is transferred for a particular time,
on condition that the identical goods (or, fometimes,
their value) be reftored at the time appointed; toge¬
ther with (in cafe of hiring) a ftipend or price for the
ufe.
(9.) This price, being calculated to anfwer the ha¬
zard as well as inconvenience of lending, gives birth
to the dodrine of interejl, or ufury, upon loans ; and,
confequently, to the dodrine of bottomry or refponden-
tia, and infurance.
(10.) 'Debt is any contrad, whereby a certain fum
of money becomes due to the creditor. This is, 1. A
debt of record. 2. A debt upon fpecial contrad.
3. A debt upon y£w/>/<? contrad ; which laft includes
paper credit, or bills of exchange, and promillbry
notes.
Sect. XXXI. Of title by bankruptcy. xcil.
(1.) Bankruptcy (as defined in Sed. 18.) is the
[da] ad
L
( *3 )
A W.
Part IT.
Law of aft of becoming a bankrupt.
England, Herein may be conlidered, i. Who may be-
analyzed. come a bankrupt. 2. The atts whereby he may be¬
come a bankrupt. 3. The proceedings on a commif-
fion of bankrupt. 4. How his property is transferred
thereby.
(3.) Perfons of full age, ufmg the trade of merchan¬
dize, by buying, and felling, and feeking their liveli¬
hood thereby, are liable to become bankrupts; for
debts of a fufficient amount.
(4.) A trader, who endeavours to avoid his credi¬
tors, or evade their juft'demands, by any of the ways
fpecified in the feveral ftatutes of bankruptcy, doth
thereby commit an att of bankruptcy.
(5.) The proceedings on a commiffion of bankrupt,
fo far as they affeft the bankrupt himfelf, are princi¬
pally by, 1. Petition. 2. Commiflion. 3. Declara¬
tion of bankruptcy. 4. Choice of aflignees. 5. The
bankrupt’s furrender. 6. His examination. 7. His
difcovery. 8. His ^certificate. 9. His allowance.
IO. His indemnity.
(6.) The property of a bankrupt’s perfonal eftate is,
immediately upon the aft of bankruptcy, veiled by
conftruftion of law in the aflignees: and they, when
they have collefted, diftribute the whole by equal di¬
vidends among all the creditors.
xciii. Sect. XXXII. Of title by tejlamenty and admini-
Jlration.
(1.) Concerning tejiaments and adminiftrations,
confidered jointly, are to be obferved, 1. Their ori¬
ginal and antiquity. 2. Who may make a teftament.
3. Y\.s nature and incidents. 4. What are executors and
adminiftrators. 5. Their office and duty.
(2.) Tejiaments have fubfifted in England immemo-
rially ; whereby the deceafed was at liberty to difpofe
of his perfonal eftate, referring anciently to his wife
and children their reafonable part of his effefts.
(3.) The goods of intejlates belonged anciently to
the king; who granted them to the prelates to be dif-
pofed in pious ufes : but, on their abufe of this truft
in the times of popery, the legiflature compelled them
to delegate their power to admhiiflrators exprefsly pro¬
vided by law.
(4.) j4U perfons may make a teflament, unlefs
difabled by, 1. Want of difcretion. 2. Want of free¬
will. 3. Criminal conduft.
(5.) Tef aments are the legal declaration of a man’s
intentions, which he wills to be performed after his
death. Thefe are, 1. Written. 2. Nuncupative.
(6.) An executor is he, to whom a man by his will
commits the execution thereof.
( 7.). Adminiftrators are, 1. Durante minore net ate of
an infant executor or adminiftrator ; or durante abfen-
tia; or pendente lite. 2. Cum tefamento annexe ; when
no executor is named, or the executor refufes to aft.
3. General adminiftrators; in purfuance of the ftatutes
of Edward III. and Henry VIII. 4. Adminiftrators
de bonis non ; when a former executor or adminiftrator
dies without completing his truft.
(8.) The office and duty of executors, (and, in many
points, of adminiftrators alfo,) are, 1. To bury the
deceafed. 2. To prove the will, or take out admini-
ftration. 3. To make an inventory. 4. To colleft
the goods and chattels. 5. To pay debts; obferving
the rules of priority. 6. To pay legacies, cither ge- Law of
neral or fpecific ; if they be veiled, and not lapfed. Eng'and»
7. To diftribute the undevifed furplus, according to iina>yze<t‘
the ftatute of diftributions.
CHAP. III.
{^Private Wrongs.
Sect. I. Of the redrefs of private wrongs, by xcv* I
the mere att of the parties.
(1.) "VX7"R°ngs are the privation of right; and are,
'» X. Private. .2. Public.
(2.) Private wrongs, or civil injuries, are an in¬
fringement, or privation, of the civil rights of indivi¬
duals, confidered as individuals.
(3.) The redrefs of civil injuries is one principal ob-
jeft of the laws of England.
(4.) This redrefs is effefted, I. By the mere ^of
the parties. 2. By the mere operation of law. 3. By
both together, or fuit in courts.
(5.) Redrefs, by the mere aft of the parties, is that
which arifes," 1. From the foie pft of the party inju¬
red. 2. From the joint aft of all the parties.
(6.) Of the firfl fort are, 1. Defence of one’s felf,
t>r relations. 2. Recaption of goods. 3. Entry on
lands and tenements. 4. Abatement of nufances.
5. Diftrefs ; for rent, for fuit or fervice, for amerce¬
ments, for damage, or for divers ftatutable penalties ;
—made of fuch things only as are legally diftreinable;
and taken and difpofed of according to the due courfe
of law. 6. Seifing of heriots, &c.
(7.) Of the fecond fort are, 1. Accord. 2. Arbi¬
tration.
Sect. II. Of redrefs by the mere operation of law. ycv;
Redress, effefted by the mere operation of law,
is, 1. In the cafe of retainer; where a creditor is
executor or adminiftrator, and is thereupon allowed
to retain his own debt. 2. In the cafe of remitter;
where one, who has a good title to lands, &c. comes
into poffeflion by a bad one, and is thereupon remitted
to his ancient good title, which protefts his ill-acqui¬
red poffeflion.
Sect. III. Of courts in general.
(1.) Redress, that is effefted by the at? both of
law and of the parties, is by fuit or a Cion in the courts
of juftice.
(2.) Herein may be confidered, 1. The courts ihem-
felves. 2. The cognizance oi wrongs, or injuries, there¬
in. And, of courts, 1. Their nature and incidents.
2. Their fevetal fpecies.
(3.) A court is a place wherein juftice is judicially
adminiftered, by ofiicers delegated by the crown ; be¬
ing a court either of record, or not of record.
(4.) Incident to all courts are a plaintiff, defendant,
and judge: and, with us, there are alfo ufually attor¬
neys ; and advocates or counfel, viz. either barrifters,
or ferjeants at law.
Sect. IV. Of the public courts of common law and scvtii,
equity.
(1.) Courts of juftice, with regard to their feveral
fpecies.
Part II. L
Law of fpecies, are, I. Of a public, or general, jurlfdi&ion
England, throughout the realm. 2. Of a private, orfpecial, ju-
ana yze rifdiftion.
(2.) Public courts of juftice are, 1. The courts of
common lavo and equity. 2. The ecclejiajlical courts.
3. The military courts. 3. The maritime courts.
(3.) The general and public courts of common lanv
and equity are, 1. The court of piepoudre. 2. The
court-baron. 3. The hundred court. 4. The county
court. 5. The court of common pleas. 6. The court
of king’s bench. 7. The court of exchequer. 8. The
court of chancery. (Which two laft are courts of e-
quity as well as law.) 9. The courts of exchequer-
chamber. to. The houfe of peers. To which maybe
added, as auxiliaries, 11. The courts of affife and
prius.
xcix. Sect. V. Of courts ccclefaflical, military, and
maritime.
(1.) Ecclesiastical courts, (which were feparated
from temporal by William the Conqueror,) or courts
Chrijlian, are, 1. The court of the archdeacon. 2. The
court of the bilhop’s confiftory. 3. The court of arches.'
4. The court of peculiars. 5. The prerogative court.
6. The court of delegates. 7. The court of review.
(2.) The only permanent military court is that of
chivalry; the courts martial, annually eftabliihed by
adl of parliament, being only temporary.
(3.) Maritime courts are, 1. The court of admi¬
ralty and vice-admiralty. 2. The court of delegates.
3. The lords of the privy council, and others, autho-
rifed by the king’s commiffion, for appeals in prize-
caufes.
c. Sect. VI. Of courts of a fpecial jurfdiftion.
Courts of a fpecial or private jurifdidfion are,
1. The foreft courts; including the courts of attach¬
ments, regard, fwienmote, and juftice-feat. 2. The
court of commifiioners of fewers. 3. The court of po¬
licies of afiurance. 4. The court of the marlhalfea and
the palace court. 5. The courts of the principality of
Wales. 6. The court of the duchy-chamber of Lan-
cafter. 7. The courts of the counties palatine, and
other royal franchifes. 8. The ftannery courts. 9. The
courts of London, and other corporations:—To which
may be referred the courts of requdls, or courts of con-
fcience; and the modern regulations of certain courts
baron and county courts. 10. The courts of the two
univerfities.
«i. Sect. VII. Of the cognifance 6f private wrongs.
(1.) All private wrongs or civil injuries are cogni-
fable either in the courts ecclefafieal, military, mari¬
time, or thofe of common law.
(2.) Injuries cognifable in the ecclefqftical courts
are, 1. Pecuniary. 2. Matrimonial. 3. Tef amen¬
tary.
(3.) PecKW/tf/7 injuries, here cognifable, are, 1. Sub¬
traction of tithes. For which the remedy is by fuit to
compel their payment, or an equivalent; and alfo their
double value. 2. Nonpayment of ecclefiaftical dues.
Remedy: by fuit for payment. 3. Spoliation. Re¬
medy: by fuit for reftitution. 4. Dilapidations. Re¬
medy: by fuit for damages. 5. Non-repair of the
church, &c.j and nonpayment of church-rates. Re-
\ w. (29 )
medy : by fuit to compel them. Ijaw of
(4.) Matrimonial injuries are, 1. Jaftitation of
marriage. Remedy: by fuit for perpetual lilence.   L
2. Subtraction of conjugal rights. Remedy : by fuit
for reftitution. 3. Inhability for thci marriage ftate.
Remedy: by fuit for divorce. 4. Refufal of decent
maintenance to the wife. Remedy : by fuit for ali¬
mony.
(5.) Teflamentary injuries are, 1. Difputing the va¬
lidity of wills. Remedy: by fuit to eftablilh them.
3. QbftruCiing of ad)ninif rations. Remedy: by fuit for
the granting them. 3. Subtraction of legacies. Re¬
medy: by fuit for the payment.
(6.) The courfe of proceedings herein is much con¬
formed to the civil and canon law: but their only com-
pulfive procefs is that of Excommunication ; which is
enforced by the temporal writ oifgnifcavit, or de ex¬
communicato capiendo.
(7.) Civil injuries, cognifable in the court military,
or court of chivalry, are, 1. Injuries in point of ho¬
nour. Remedy: by fuit for honourable amends.
2. Encroachments in coat-armour. See. Remedy: by
fuit to remove them. The proceedings are in a fum-
mary method.
(8.) Civil injuries cognifable in the courts maritime,
are injuries, in their nature of common-law cognifance,
but arifing wholly upon the fea, and not within the
precinfts of any county. The proceedings are herein
alfo much conformed to the civil law.
(9.) All other injuries are cognifable only in the
courts of common law: of which in the remainder of
this chapter.
(10.) Two of them are, however, commiflible by
thefe, and other, inferior courts; viz. 1. Reftfal, or
negleCt, of juflice. Remedies : by writ of procedendo,
or mandamus. 2. Encroachment of jurifdiCiion. Re¬
medy: by writ of proliibition.
Sect. VIII. Of wrongs, and their remedies, re- c;j
fpcSling the rights of perfons,
(l.) In treating of the cognifance of injuries by the
courts of common law, may be confidered, x. The in¬
juries themfelves, and their refpe&ive remedies. 2. The
purfuit of thofe remedies, in the fcveral courts.
(2.) Injuries between fubjeft and fubject, cogni¬
fable by the courts of common law, are in general re¬
medied by putting the party injured into poflefiion of
that right whereof he i$ unjuftly deprived.
(3.) This is effedted, ■ 1. By delivery of the thing
detained to the rightful owner. 2. Where that remedy
is either impofiible or inadequate, by giving the party
injured a fatisfaCiion in damages. °
(4.) The inftruments, by which thefe remedies may¬
be obtained, are fuits or actions; which are defined to
be the legal demand of one’s right: and thefe are,
1. Perfonal. 2. Real. 3. Mixed.
(5.) Injuries (whereof fome are with, others without,
force,) are, 1. Injuries to the rights of perfons. 2. In¬
juries to the rights of property. And the former are,
1. Injuries to the alfolute, 2. Injuries to the relative,
rights of perfons.
(6.) The abfolute rights of individuals are, 1. Per¬
fonal fecurity. 2. Perfonal liberty. 3. Private pro¬
perty. (See Chap. I. Seft. 1.) To which the injuries
mult be correfpondent.
(7.)
( 3°
Law of
England,
analyzed.
)
LAW.
Part II.
(7.) Injuries to psrjonal fecurity are, 1. Againft a
man’s///e. 2. Againft his limbs. 3. Againft his lody.
4. Againft his health. 5. Againft his reputation.—
The firft mu ft be referred to the next chapter.
(8.) Injuries to the limbs and body are, 1. Threats.
2. Ajfault. 3. Battery. 4. Wounding. 5. Mayhem.
Remedy: by a&ion of trefpafs, vi et armis ; for da¬
mages.
(9.) Injuries to health, by any unwholi’ome prac¬
tices, are remedied by a fpecial aftion of trefpafs, oh
the cafe ; for damages.
(10.) Injuries to reputation are, 1. Slanderous and
malicious won//. Remedy: by adtion on the cafe; for
damages. 2. Libels. Remedy: the fame. 3. Mali¬
cious ^royeo«//o«/. Remedy: by adlion of confpiracy,
or on the cafe ; for damages.
(it.) The foie injury to perfonal liberty is falfe im-
prifonment. Remedies: 1. By writ of, trt, Main-
prize; zdly, Odio et atia ; 3dly, Nomine replegiando.
4thly, Habeas corpus; to remove the wrong. 2. By
adlion of trefpafs; to recover damages.
(12.) For injuries to private property, fee the next
fedlion.
(13.) Injuries to relative rights affedt, 1. Hujlands.
2. Parents. 3. Guardians. 4. Majlers.
(14.) Injuries to an hujland are, 1. Abduftion, or
taking away his wife. Remedy: by adtion of trefpafs,
da more rapta et abdufla ; to recover pofieflion of his
wife, and damages. 2. Criminalconverfation with her.
Remedy: by adtion on the cafe; for damages. 3. Beat¬
ing her. Remedy: by adtion on the cafe,/<?r cw/-
fortium amifit; for damages.
(15.) The only injury to a parent, or guardian, is
the abduttion of their children or wards. Remedy: by
adtion of trefpafs, de filiis, vel cujlodiis, raptis vel ab-
duftis; to recover poffefGon of them, and damages.
(16.) Injuries to a m'ajier axe, 1. Retaining his fer-
vants. Remedy: by adtion on the cafe; for damages.
2. Beating them. Remedy: by adtion on the cafe,
per quod fervitium amifit; for damages.
Sect. IX. Of injuries to perfonal property.
(1.) Injuries to the rights of property are either to
thofe of perfonal, or real, property.
(2.) Perfonal property is either in pojfejfion, or in
allion.
(3.) Injuries to perfonal property in pojfejfion are,
1. By difpojjefion. 2. By damage, while the owner
remains in poffeffion.
(4.) may be effedted, 1. By an unlaw¬
ful taking. 2. By an unlawful detaining.
(5.) For the unlawful taking of goods and chattels
perfonal, the remedy is, 1. Adtual reftitution, which
(in cafe of a wrongful diftrefs) is obtained by adtion of
replevin. 3. Satisfadtion in damages: if, in cafe of
refcous, by adtion of refcons, poundbreach, or on the
cafe; “idly, in cafe of other unlawful takings, by ac¬
tion of trefpafs, or trover.
(6.) For the unlawful detaining oi goods lawfully
taken, the remedy is alfo, 1. Adtual reftitution; by
adtion of replevin, or detinue. 2. Satisfadtion in da¬
mages : by adtion on the cafe, for trover and conver-
fion.
(7.) For damage to perfonal property, while in the
owner’s pofleffion, the remedy is in damages j by ac¬
tion of trefpafs vi et armis, in cafe the adt be immedi¬
ately injurious; or by adtion of trefpafs on the cafe, to
redrefs confequential damage.
(8.) Injuries to perfonal property, in aMon, arife by
breach of contrails, I. Exprefs. 2. Implied.
(9.) Breaches of <?.Y/>n?//contradts are, 1. non¬
payment of debts. Remedy: if, Specific payment;
recoverable by adtion of debt. 2dly, Damages for non¬
payment; recoverable by adtion on the cafe. 2. By
nonperformance of covenants. Remedy: by adtion of
covenant, 1/?, to recover damages, in covenants per¬
fonal; idly, to compel performance, in covenants real.
3. By nonperformance ofpromifes, or ajfumpfts. Re¬
medy: by aftion on the cafe; for damages.
(10.) /«?/>//>(/contradts are fuch as arife, 1. From
the nature and conftitution of government. 2. From
reafon and the conftrudtion of law.
(11.) Breaches of contradts, implied in the nature of
government, are by the nonpayment of money which the
Taws have diredted to be paid. Remedy: by adlion of
debt; (which, in fuch cafes, is frequently a popular,
frequently a qui tarn, adtion) to compel the fpecific pay¬
ment; - or, fometimes, by adtion on the cafe; for da¬
mages.
(12.) Breaches of contradts, implied in reafon and
conftrudtion of law, are by the nonperformance of legal
prefumptive ajfumpfts: for which the remedy is in da¬
mages ; by an adtion on the cafe, on the implied af-
fumpfts, 1. Of a quantum meruit. 2. Of a quantum
vdlebat. 3. Of money expended for another. 4. Of
receiving money to another’s ufe. 5. Of an infmul
computajfent, on an account ftated ; (the remedy on an
account undated being by adtion of account.) 6. Of
performing one’s duty, in any employment, with inte¬
grity, diligence, and Ikill. In fome of which cafes an
adtion of deceit (or on the cafe, in nature of deceit,)
, will lie.
Sect. X. Of injuries to real property; and,firfy
of difpofejfon, or oufter, of the freehold.
(1.) Injuries affedting real property are, 1. Oufer.
2. Trefpafs. 3. Nufance. 4. Wafe. 5. Subtrallion.
6. Difurbance.
(2.) Oufer is the amotion of pOfieffion; and is,
1. From freeholds. 2. From chattels real.
(3.) Oufter from freeholds iseffedted by, 1. Abate¬
ment. 2. Int rtf on. 3. Diffefn. 4. Difcontinuance.
5. Deforcement.
(4.) Abatement is the entry of a ftranger, after the
death of the anceftor, before the heir.
(5.) Intrufon is the entry of a ftranger, after a par¬
ticular eftate of freehold is determined, before him in
remainder or reverfion.
(6.) Dijfeifn is a wrongful putting out of him that
is feifed of the freehold.
(7.) Difcontinuance is where tenant in tail, or the
hulband of tenant in fee, makes a larger eftate of the
land than the law alloweth.
(8.) Deforcement is any other detainer of the free¬
hold from him who hath the property, but who never
had the pofleffion.
(9.) The univerfal remedy for all thefe is reftitutioa
or delivery of pofleffion; and, fometimes, damages for
the detention. This is effedted, 1. By mere entry.
2. By adtion poffeffory. 3. By writ of right.
(10.)
Law of
England,
analyzed.
civ.
Part II. L A W. ( 31 )
Law of (fO.) Mere entry on lands, by him who hath the
England, apparent right of pofleffion, will (if peaceable) deveft
■analyzed. t^e mere p0jefjion 0f a wrongdoer. But forcible entries
are remedied by immediate reftitution, to be given by
a juftice of the peace.
(i i.) Where the wrongdoer hath not only mere pof-
fefiion, but alfo an apparent right of pofleffion, this
may be devefted by him who hath the aftual right of
i poffeffion, by means of the pojfejfory a&ions of •writ of
entry, or a fife.
(12.) A writ of entry is a real aftion, which dif-
proves the title of the tenant, by {hewing the unlawful
means under which he gained or continues pofleffiom
And it may be brought either againft the wrongdoer
himfelf, or in the degrees called the per, the per and
cui, and the poft.
(13.) An ajjife is a real aftion, which proves the
title of the demandant, by {hewing his own, or his an-
ceftor’s, pofleffion. And it may be brought either to
remedy abatements; viz. the affife of mart d’anceflor,
&c. : Or to remedy recent diffeilins; viz. the affife of
novel dijfeifin.
(14 ) Where the wrongdoer hath gained the aftual
right of pojjejfion, he who hath the right of property can
only be remedied by a writ of right, or fome writ of a
fimilar nature. As, 1. Where i'uch right of poflefffion
is gained by the difcontinuance of tenant in tail. Re¬
medy, for the right of property: by writ of forme don.
2. Where gained by recovery in a pofieflbry aftion, had
againft tenants of particular eftates by their own de¬
fault. Remedy : by writ of quod ei deforceat. 3. Where
gained by Recovery in a poflefibry aftion, had upon the
merits.—4. Where gained by the fiatute of limitations.
Remedy, in both cafes: by a mere writ of right, the
higheft writ in the law.
£v. Sect. XI. Of dijpojfcffion, or outer, of chattels
real.
(1.) Ouster from chattels real is, 1. From eftates
hy fatute and elegit. 2. From an eftate {oryears.
(2.) Oufter from eftates by fatute or elegit, is ef¬
fected by a kind of diffeiffin. Remedy: reftitution
and damages ; by affize of novel dijfeifin.
(3.) Oufter from an eftate for years, is effeCted by
a like difleifm, or ejeminent. Remedy: reftitution,
and damages; 1. By writ of ejettione firma. 2. By
writ of quare ejecit infra terminum.
(4.) A writ of ejeftione firmx, or adtion of trefpafs
in ejedtment, lieth where lands, &c. are let for a term
of years, and the leflee is oufted or ejected from his
term; in which cafe he {hall recover pofleffion of his
term, and damages.
(5.) This is now the ufual method of trying titles
to land, inftead of an aftion real: viz. By, 1. The
claimant’s making an a&ual (or fuppofed) leafe upon
the land to the plaintiff. 2. The plaintiff’s aftual (or
fuppofed) entry thereupon. 3. His a&ual (or fuppo¬
fed) oufter and ejeftment by the defendant. For which
injury this adtion is brought, either againft the tenant,
or (more ufually) againft fome cafual, or fiftitious, e-
jeftor; in whofe ftead the tenant may be admitted de¬
fendant, on condition that the leafe, entry, and oufter
be confeffed, and that nothing elfe be difputed but the
merits of the title claimed by the lefibr of the plain¬
tiff
(6.) A writ of quare ejecit infra terminum is an ac- baw of
tion of a fimilar nature; only not brought againft the *”1’
wrongdoer or eje&or himfelf, but fuch as are in pof- anayZt '
feffion under his title.
Sect. XII. Of trefpafs. cvi.
Trespass is an entry upon, and damage done to,
another’s lands, by one’s felf, or one’s cattle ; with¬
out any lawful authority, or caufe of juftification :
which is called a breach of his clofe. Remedy: da¬
mages ; by aftion of trefpafs, quare claufum fregit :
befides that of diilrefs, damage feafant. But, unlefs
the title to the land came chiefly in queftion, or the
trefpafs was wilful or malicious, the plaintiff (if the da¬
mages be under forty fhilling,) {hall recover no more
cofts than damages.
Sect. XIII. Of nufance. CVIU
(1.) Nusance, or annoyance, is any thing that
worketh damage or inconvenience : and it is either a
public and common nufance, of which in the next chap¬
ter ; or, a private nufance, which is any thing done to
the hurt or annoyance of, 1 The corporeal, 2. The
incorporeal, hereditaments of another.
(2.) The remedies for a private nufance, (befides
that of abatement,) are, 1. Damages; by a£ion on
the cafe ; (which alfo lies for fpecial prejudice by a
public nufance.) 2. Removal thereof, and damages;
by affife of nufance. 3. Like removal, and damages;
by writ of £>uod permit tat profernere-.
Sect. XIV. Of wajle. eviii.
(r.) Waste is a fpoil and deftruftion in lands and
tenements, to the injury of him who hath, 1. An im¬
mediate intereft (as, by right of common) in the lands.
2. The remainder or reverfion of the inheritance.
(2.) The remedies, for a commoner, are reftitution,
and damages; by affife of common: Or, danaages on¬
ly ; by aftion on the cafe.
(3.) The remedy', for him in remainder, or rever¬
fion, is, 1. Preventive: by writ of efrepement at law,
or injun&ion out of chancery ; to ftay wafte. 2. Cor-
re&ive: by a£lion of wafte; to recover the place
wafted, and damages.
Sect. XV. Of fubtration. ^
(1.) Subtraction is when one, who owes fervices
to another, withdraws or negle&s to perform them.
This may be, 1. Of rents, and other fervices, due by
tenure. 2. Of thofe due by cujlom.
(2.) For fubtrattion of rents and fervices, due by
tenure, the remedy is, x. Bydiftrefs; to compel the
payment, or performance. 2. By a&ion of debt;
3. By affife. 4. By writ de conftetudinibus et fervitiis;
—to compel the payment. 5. By writ of cejfavit;—
and, 6. By writ of right fur difclaimer-,—to recover the
land itfelf.
(3.) To remedy the oppreffion of the lord, the law
has alfo given, 1. The writ of Neinjufe vexes.' 2. The
writ of mefne.
(4.) For fubtraftion of fervices, due by cufom, the
remedy is. 1. By writ of Sett a ad molendinum, fur-
tium, torrale, <bc. to compel the performance, and re¬
cover damages. 2. By action on the cafe; for da¬
mages only.
Sect-
L
( 32 )
A
Law of
England,
analyzed,
cx.
Sect. XVI. 0/difturbance.
(x.) Disturbance Is the hindering, or difquieting,
the owners of an incorporeal hereditament, in their re¬
gular and lawful enjoyment of it.
(2.) Difturbances are, 1. Of franchlfes. z. Of com¬
mons. 3. Of ’ways. 4. Of tenure. 5. Of pafro-
nage.
(3.) Difturbance of franchifes, is remedied by a
fpecial aftion on the cafe ; for damages.
(4.) Difturbance of common, is, 1. Intercommoning
without right. Remedy : Damages ; by an adlion on
the cafe, or of trefpafs: befides diftrefs, damage fea-
fant; to compel fatisfaftion. 2. Surcharging the com¬
mon. Remedies: Diftrefs, damage feafant; to compel
fatisfaftion: Aftion on the cafe; for damages: or, Writ
of admeafurement of pafture; to apportion the com¬
mon ;—and writ de fecund a fuperoneratione; for the
fupernumerary cattle, and damages. 3. Inclofure, or
obftrudion. Remedies: Reftitution of the common,
and damages; by affife of novel diffeijin, and by writ of
quod permittat; or, Damages only ; by a&ion on the
cafe.
(5.) Difturbance of ’Ways, is the obftrudion, 1. Of
a way in grofs, by the owner of the land. 2. Of a
way appendant, by a ftranger. Remedy, for both :
damages; by adion on the cafe.
(6.) Difturbance of tenure, by driving away te¬
nants, is remedied by a fpecial adion on the cafe; for
damages.
(7.) Difturbance of patronage, is the hindrance of
a patron to prefent his clerk to a benefice; whereof
ufurpatiori, within fix months, is now become a fpe-
cies,
(8.) Difturbers may be, 1. The pfeudo-patron, by
his wrongful prefentation. 2. His clerk, by demand¬
ing inftitution. 3. The ordinary, by refufing the clerk
of the true patron.
(9.) The remedies are, 1. By aflife of darrein pre¬
ferment; 2. By writ of quare imp edit;—to compel
inftitution and recover damages : Confequent to which
are the writs of quare incumbravit, and quare non ad-
mijit; for fubfequent damages. 3. By writ of right
of advowfon ; to compel inftitution, or ellablilh the
permanent right.
cxi. Sect. XVII. Of injuries proceeding from, or
affeSling, the crown.
(1.) Injuries to which the crown is a party are,
I. Where the crown is the aggreflbr. 2. Where the
crown is the fufferer.
(2.) The crown is the aggrefibr, whenever it is in
poffefiion of any property to which the fubjed hath a
right.
(3.) This is remedied, 1. By petition of right;
where the right is grounded on fads difclofed in the
petition itfelf. 2. By monflrasis de droit', where the
claim is grounded on fads, already appearing on re¬
cord. The effed of both which is to remove the hands
(or pofleffion) of the king.
(4.) Where the crown k the fufferer, the king’s re¬
medies are, x. By fuch common-law adions as are
confiftent with the royal dignity. 2. By inquejl of
office, to recover poffefiion : which, when found, gives
the king his right by folemn matter of record; but
w. Par t IL J
may afterwards be traverfed by the fubjed. 3. By Law of i||
writ of fcire facias, to repeal the king’s patent or EnglamlAj
grant. 4. By information of intrufion, to give damages analyzedlr
for any trefpafs on the lands of the crown ; or of debt,
to recover moneys due upon contrad, or forfeited by
the breach of any penal ftatute ; or fometimes (in the
latter cafe) by information in rern: all filed in the ex¬
chequer ex officio by the the king’s attorney-general.
5. By writ of quo ’warranto, or information in the na¬
ture of fuch writ; to feife into the king’s hands any
franchife ufurped by the fubjed, or to ouft an ufurper
from any public office. 6. By writ of snandamus, un-
lefs caufe ; to admit or reftore any perfon intitled to a
franchife or 6ffice : to which if a falfe caufe be return¬
ed, the remedy is by traverfe, or by adion on the cafe
for damages 5 and, in confequence, a peremptory man¬
damus, or writ of reftitution.
Sect. XVIII. Of the purfuit of remedies by aSlion ; c*'h fl
and, fir ft, of the original writ.
(1.) Theof the feveral remedies furnifhed
by the laws of England, is, x. By aflion in the courts
of common law. 2. By proceedings in the courts of
equity.
(2.) Of an adion in the court of common pleas (ori¬
ginally the proper court for profecuting civil fuits) the
orderly parts are, 1. The original v/nt. 2. The pro-
cefs. 3. The pleadings. 4. The iffue, or demurrer.
5. The trial. 6. The judgment. 7. The proceed¬
ings in nature of appeal. 8. The execution.
(30 The original writ is the beginning or founda¬
tion of a fuit, and is either optional (called a prascipe),
commanding the defendant to do fometh'ing in certain,
or otherwife (hew caufe to the contrary; or peremptory,
(called z ft fecerit teyecarawz), commanding, upon fecu-
rity given by the plaintiff, the defendant to appear in
court, to (hew wherefore he hath injured the plaintiff:
both iffuing out of chancery under the king’s great
feal, and returnable in bank during term-time.
Sect. XIX. Of procefs. cxj;;. «,
(1.) Process is the means of compelling the de¬
fendant to appear in court.
(2.) This includes, 1. Summons. 2. The writ of
attachment, or pone; which is fometimes the firft or | '
original procefs. 3. The writ of diftringas, or diftrefs
infinite. 4. The w'rits of capias ad refpondendu?n, and
tefiatum capias: or, inftead of thefe, in the king’s
bench, the bill of Middlefex, and writ of latitat:—and,
in the exchequer, the writ of quo minus. 5. The alias
and pluries writs. 6. The exigent, or writ of exigi
facias, proclamations, and outlawry. 7. Appearance,
and common bail. 8. The arreft. 9. Special bail, ’ |‘|
firft to the (heriff, and then to the aftion.
Sect. XX. Of pleadings. CX;T. I ;;
Pleadings are the mutual altercations of the
plaintiff and defendant in writing; under which are
comprifed, 1. The declaration or count; (wherein, in¬
cidentally, of the vifne, nonfuit, retraxit, and difeon- | ]
tinuance.) 2. The defence, claim of cognizance, im¬
parlance, view, oyer, aid-prayer, voucher, or age;
3. The plea ; which is either a dilatory plea, (1/?, to
the jurifdiftion; zdly, in difability of the plaintiff;
idly, in abatement:) or it is a plea to the adion; fome¬
times
! Part
Law of
flEnzland.
ianalyz«d,
n. L A W. ( 33 )
times confefling the aftion, either in whole, or in part; (which is fometimes a principal challenge, fometimes to Law of
(wherein of a tender, paying money into court, and the favour,) or propter deliftum. 5. The tales de cir-
fet-off;) but ufually denying the complaint, by plead- cumjlantibus. 6. The oath of the jury. 7. The evi- -■.n.a yZ
ing cither, ift, the'general iifue ; or, adly, a fpecial dence; which is either by proofs, ift, written; adly,
bar; (wherein of julf ideations, the ftatutes of limita- parol:—or, by the private knowledge of the jurors,
tion, &c.) 4. Replication, rejoinder, furrejoinder, re- 6. The verdidf ; which may be, ift, privy; zdly,
butter, furrebutter, &c. Therein of eftoppels, colour, public ; jdly, fpecial.
” sect- xxiv-
(1.) Whatever is tranfafted at the trial, in the
Sect. XXI. Ofijfue and demurrer. court of niji prius, is added to the record under the
(1.) Issue is where the parties, in a cofirfe of name of n pojlea: confequent upon which is theyWf-
pleading, come to a point affirmed on one fide and de- merit.
uied on the other : which, if it be a matter of law, is (2.) Judgment may be arrejled or flayed for caufes,
•called a demurrer; if it be a matter of faft, ftill re- 1. Extrinfic, or dehors the record; as in the cafe of
tains the name of an iffue, of faft. new trials. 2. Intrinfic, or within it; as where the
(2.) Continuance is the detaining of the parties in declaration varies from the writ, or the verdift from
-court from time to time, by giving them a day certain the pleadings, and iffue ; or where the cafe, laid in the
to appear upon. And, if any new matter arifes fince declaration, is not fufficient to fupport the a&ion in
the laft continuance or adjournment, the defendant may point of law.
take advantage of it, even after demurrer or iffue, by (3.) Where the iffue is immaterial, or infufficient,
alleging it in a plea puis darrein continuance.
(3.) The determination of an iffue in law, or de¬
murrer, is by the opinion of the judges of the court;
which is afterwards entered on record.
Sect. XXII. Of the feveral fpecies of trial.
the court may award a repleader.
(4.) Judgment is the fentence of the law, pronoun¬
ced by the court, upon the matter contained in the re¬
cord.
(5.) Judgments are, t. Interlocutory; which are
incomplete till perfe&ed by a writ of inquiry. 2. Fi-
(1.) Trial is the examination of the matter of faA nal.
put in iffue. (6.) Cofst or expences of fuit, are now the neceffary
,(2.) The fpecies of trials are, 1. By the record, confequence of obtaining judgment.
2. By infpettion. 3. By certificate. 4. By witnejfes.
5. By wager of battel. 6. By wager of law. 7. By OECT. XXV. Of proceedings> in the nature of cxix.
jury. appeals.
(3.) Trial by the record hhad, when the exiftence (1.) Proceedings, in the nature of appeals from
of fuch record is the point in iffue. judgment, are, 1. A writ of attaint; to impeach the
(4.) Trial by infpePiion or examination is had by the verdift of a jury; which of late has been fuperfeded
court, principally when the matter in iffue is the evi- by new trials. 2. A writ of audita querela; to dif-
dent objeA of the fenfes. . . charge a judgment by matter that has fince happened.
(5.) T.rial by certificate is had in thofe cafes, 3. A writ of error, from one court of record to ano-
whtre fuch certificate muft have been conclufive to a ther ; to correA judgments, erroneous in point of law,
jury. and not helped by the ftatutes of amendment and jeo-
(6.) Trial by witnefies (the regular method in the fails,
civil law) is only nfed on a writ of dower, when the (2.) Writs of error lie, 1. To the court of king's
death of the hulband is in iffue. bench, from all inferior courts of record ; from the
(7.) Trial by wager of battel, in civil cafes, is only court of common-pleas at Weftminfter ; and from the
had on a writ of right: but, in lieu thereof, the tenant court of king’s-bench in Ireland. 2. To the courts of
may have, at his option, the trial by the grand afffe. exchequer-chamber, from the law fide of the court of
(8.) Trial by wager of law is only had, where the exchequer-, and from proceedings in the court of king's-
matter in iffue may be fuppofed to have been privily Penck by hill. 3. To the houfe of peers, from pro-
tranfaAed, between the parties themfelves, without the ceedings in the court of king’stench by original, and
intervention of other witneffes. on writs of error; and from the feveral courts of ex¬
chequer- chamber.
Sect. XXIII. Gf the trial by jury.
(l.) Trial by jury is, 1. Extraordinary; as, by
the grand affife, in writs of right; and by the grand
jury, in writs of attaint. 2. Ordinary.
(2.) The method and procefs of the ordinary trial
Sect. XXVI. Of execution.
Execution is the putting in force of the fen¬
tence or judgment of the law. Which is effeAed,
1 Where poffeffion of any hereditament is recovered:
by jury is, 1. The writ of venire facias to the ffieriff, by writ of habere facias feifmam, pojfefionem, <bc.
coroners, or elifors; with the fnbfequent compulfive 2. Where any thing is awarded to be done or render-
procefs of habeas corpora, or dijlringas. 2. The car- ed, by a fpecial writ for that purpofe: as, by writ of
rying down of the record to the court of nifi prius. abatement, in cafe of nufance; retorno habendo, and ca-
3. The ffieriff’s return; or panel of, ift, fpecial, 2dly, pias in withernam, in replevin; dijlringas and feire fa-
common jurors. 4. The challenges; ift, to the ar- c/v/, in detinue. 3. Where money only is recovered “
ray; zdly, to the polls of the jurors; either, propter by writ of, ift, capias ad. fatisfaciendum, againft the
honoris refpeOum, propter defettum, propter ajfeflum body of the defendant; or, in default, thereof^ feire fa-
[ e ] day
( 34 ) LAW. Part II.
Law of cias againft his bail. 2dly, Fieri facias, againfl his
anaf'-zed’ ^00^s an^ chattels. 3dly, Levari facias, againft his
3na vze goods and the profits of his lands. 4thly, Elegit, a-
gainft his goods, and the pojfefiiou of his lands, ythly,
Extendi facias, and other procefs, on ftatutes, recog¬
nizances, &c. againft his body, lands, anti goods.
cxxi. Sect. XXVII. Of proceedings in the courts of
equity.
(t.) Matters of eqaity which belong to the pe-
ciftiar jurifdiftion of the court of chancery, are, i. The
guardianfhip of infants. 2. The cuftody of idiots and
lunatics. 3. The fuperintendance of charities. 4. Com-
mifiions of bankrupt.
(2.) The court of exchequer and the duchy-court bf
Lancajler, have alfo fome peculiar caufes, in which the
intereft of the king is more immediately concerned.
(3.) Equity is the true fenfe and found interpreta¬
tion of the rules of law ; and, as fuch, is equally at¬
tended to by the judges of the courts both of common
law and equity.
(4.) The eflential differences, whereby the Engliftt
courts of equity are diftinguiftied from the courts of
law, are, i. The mode of proof, by a difcovery on the
oath of the party; which gives a jurifdi£tion in mat¬
ters of account, and fraud. 2. The mode of trial; by
depofitions taken in any part of the world. 3. The
mode of relief; by giving a more fpecific and exteufive
remedy than can be had in the courts of law ; as, by
carrying agreements into execution, flaying walte or
other injuries by injunction, directing the fale of in-
cumbered lands, &c. 4. The true conftruCtion offe-
curities for money, by confidering them merely as a
pledge. 5. The execution of trufts, or fecond ufes, in
a manner analogous to the law of legal eftates.
(5.) The proceedings in the court of chancery, (to
which thofe in the exchequer, &c. very nearly conform,)
are, 1. Bill. 2. Writ of fuhpcena; and, perhaps, in¬
junction. 3. Procefs of contempt; viz. (ordinarily)
attachment, attachment with proclamations, commif-
fion of rebellion, ferjeant at arms, and fequeftration.
4. Appearance. 5. Demurrer. 6. Plea. 7. Anfwer.
8. Exceptions; amendments; crofs, or fupplemental,
bills ; bills of revivor, interpleader, &c. 9. Replica¬
tion. 10. Iffue. 11. Depofitions, taken upon inter¬
rogatories; and fubfequent publication thereof. 12.
Hearing. 13. Interlocutory decree; feigned iffue,
and trial ; reference to the mafter, and report; &c.
14. Final decree. 15. Rehearing, or bill of review.
1 <5. Appeal to parliament.
CHAP. IV.
<9/Public Wrongs.
cxxiii. Sect. I. Of the nature of crimes, and their
punifhment.
(l.)TN treating of public •wrongs may be confidered,
A 1. The general nature of crimes and punifli-
ments. 2. The perfons capable of committing crimes.
3. Their feveral degrees of guilt. 4. The feveral fpe-
cies of crimes, and their refpeftive punifhments. 5.
The means of prevention. 6. The method of punijh-
vtent. .
(2. ) A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an aft committed, Law of I
or omitted, in violation of a public law either forbid- England, *
ding or commanding it. analyzed. I
(3.) Crimes are diftinguifhed from civil injuries, in
that they are a breach and violation of the public
rights, due to the whole community, confidered as a
community.
(4.) Puni/hments may be confidered with regard to,
r. The power; 2. The end; 3. The meafure.;—of their
infliftion.
(5.) The power, or right, of inffifting human pu¬
nifhments for natural crimes, or fuch as are mala in fe,
was by the law of nature vefted in every individual;
but, by the fundamental contraft of fociety, is now-
transferred to the fovereign power; in which alfo is
vefted, by the fame contraft, the right of puuifhing
pqfitive offences, or fuch as are mala prohibita.
(b.) The end of human punifhments is to prevent
future offences; 1. By amending the offender himfelf.
•2. By deterring others through his example. 3. By
depriving him of the power to do future mifehief.
(7.) The meafure of human punifhments muft be
determined by the wifdom of the fovereign power, and
not by any uniform univerfal rule: though that wif¬
dom may be regulated, and affifted, by certain gene¬
ral, equitable, principles.
Sect. II. Of the perfons capable of committing exx;Vi f
crimes. \
(1.) All perfons are capable of committing crimes*
un'lefs there be in them a defedl of will: for, to con-
ftitute a legal crime, there muft be both a vitious will,
and a vitious aft.
(2.) The will does not concur with the aft, 1. Where
there is a defeft of underfunding. 2. Where no will
is exerted. 3. Where the aft is conjlrained by force
and violence.
(3.) A vitious will may therefore be wanting, in the
cafes of, 1. Infancy. 2. Idiocy, or lunacy. 3. Drunk-
ennefs; which doth not, however, excufe. 4. Mis¬
fortune. 5. Ignorance, or miftake of faft. 6. Com-
pulfion, or neceflity ; which is, 1 ft, that of civil fub-
jeftion ; zdly, that of durefs per minus ; 3dly, that of
choofing the lead pernicious of two evils, where one is
unavoidable ; 4thly, that of want, or hunger; which
is no legitimate excufe.
(4.) The king, from his excellence and dignity, is
alfo incapable of doing wrong.
Sect. III. Of principals and accejfories. exxv. 1.
(1.) The different degrees of guilt in criminals are,
1. As principals. 2. As accejfories.
(2.) A principal in a crime is, 1. He who commits
the faft. 2. He who is prefent a‘t, aiding, and abet¬
ting, the commiffion.
(3.) An accejfory is he who doth not commit the
faft, nor is prefent at the commiffion ; but is in fome
fort concerned therein, either before or after.
(4.) Acceffories can only be in petit treafon, and
-felony: in high treafon, and mifdemeanours, all are
principals.
(5.) An acceffory, before the faft, is one who, be¬
ing abfent when the crime is committed, hath pro¬
cured, counfelled, or commanded, another to com¬
mit it.
(6.) An
| Part II. L
4 kaw of (6.) An acceffory after the fa&, is where a per-
fon, knowing a felony to have been committed, re-
.jana y ceives, relieves, comforts, or affifts, the felon. Such
acceffory ia ufually entitled; to the beneiit. of clergy;
where the principal, and acceffory before the fa£t, are
excluded from it.
::) cxxvi. Sect. IV. Of offences againft Govs and religion.
(i.) Crimes and mifdemeanours cognizable by the
laws of England are fuch as more immediately offend,
I . God, and his holy religion. 2. The law of nations.
3.. The king, and his government-. 4. The public, or
commonwealth- 5. Individuals.
(z.) Crimes more immediately offending God and
religion, are-, 1. Apojlaay. Fqr which the penalty is
incapacity, and impnifonment. i> Herefy. Penalty,
for one fpecies thereof: the fame. 3. Offences again ft
the eftablhhed cbunch:—Either, by reviling its ordinan¬
ces. Penalties: fine ; deprivation ; impriionment;
forfeiture.—Or, by nonconformity to its worftiip :
lit, Thro’ total irreligion. Penalty: fine, adl'y, Thro’
proteibnt diffent'mg. Penalty: 1'ufpended by. the to¬
leration ad. 3dJy, Through popery, either in profef-
fcirs of the popifti religion, popifti reeufants, convid,
or popifli priefts. Penalties : incapacity,; double taxes;
imprifonment ; fines; forfeitures; abjuration of the
realm; judgment of felony,, without clergy; and
judgment of high treafon. 4. Blafphemy, Penalty :
fine, imprifonroent, and corporal punilhment. 5. Pro¬
fane fvearing and curfmg. Penalty : fine, or houfe of
correction. 6. Witchcraft} or, at Icaft, the pretence
tkereto. Penalty : impriibnment,. and pillory. 7. Re¬
ligiousPenalty: fine, imprifonment, and
corporal puniftunent. 8. Sitnony. Penalties : forfei¬
ture of double value ; incapacity, y. Sabbath-break¬
ing. Penalty : fine. 10. Drunkenneft. Penalty ;
fine, or flocks, w. Lenudmfs. Penalties: fine; im¬
prifonment ; houfe of cqrnediqn.
| eKxvii. Sect- V. Ofoffences a gainft. the lava of nations.
(r.) The law of nations is a fyftem of rules, dcdti-
|| eible by natural reafon, and eftablifhed by univerfal
eonfent, to regulate the intercourfe between indepen¬
dent (late?.
(2.) In England', the/aw of nations- is adopted in
its full extent, as part of the law of the land.
(3,) Offences againft this law are principally inci¬
dent to whole ftates or nations; but, when committed
by private fubje&s, are then the objeds of the muni¬
cipal law.
(4.) Crimes againft the law of nations, animad¬
verted on by the laws, of England, are, i-. Vio¬
lation of fafe-condnBs. 2. Infringement of the rights
of embaffadors-. Penalty, in both : arbitrary. 3. Pi.
racy. Penalty ; judgment of felony, without clergy.
jj cxxviii. Sect. VI. Of high treafon.
(*.) Crimes and mifdemeanours more peculiarly
offending the king and hie government are, 1. Nigh
treafon. 2. Felonies injurious; to the prerogative.
3. Pramunire. 4. Other mifprifoons and contempts.
(2.) High trtajpn may, according to the ftatute of
Edward III. be committed, it. By ctmpafoing ox ima¬
gining the death of the king, or queen-confort, or their
eldeft fon and heir ; demonftrsted by foroe overt aQ.
A W.
( 35 )
2. By violating die king’s companion, his eldeft daugh? La tv, of
ter, or the wife of his eldeft fon. 3. By fome overt ad, England,
of levying war againft the king in his realm. 4. By an yze *,
adherence to the king’s enemies. 5. By counterfeiting
the king’s great or privy feai, 6. By counterfeiting
the king’s, money, or importing counterfeit money.
7. By the chancellor, treafurer, or king’s jufti-
ces, in the execution of their offices.
(3.) High treafons, created by fubftquent ftatutes,
are fuch as relate, 1. To papifts : as, the repeated de¬
fence of the Pope’s jurifdidion ; the coming from be¬
yond fea of a natural-born Popifh prieft ; the renoun¬
cing of allegiance, and reconciliation to the Pope or
other foreign power. 2. To the coinage, or other fig-
natures of the king : as, counterfeiting (or, import¬
ing and uttering counterfeit) foreign coin, here cur-*
rent; forging the lign manual, privy fignet, or privy
feal; fallifying, &c. the current coin. 3. To the
proteftant fouccejjion : as, correfponding with, or remit¬
ting to, the late Pretender’s fons ; endeavouring to
impede the fucceffion ; writing or printing, in defence
of any Pretender’s title, or in derogation of the ait of
fettlement, or of the power of parliament to limit the
delcent of the crown.
(4.) The punijhment of high treafon, in males, is
(generally) to be, 1. Drawn. 2. Hanged. 3. Em-
bowelled alive. 4. Beheaded. 5. Quartered. 6. The
head and quarters to be at the king’s difpofal. But, in
treafons relating to the coin, only to be drawn, and
hanged till dead. Females, in both cafes, are to be
drawn, and burned alive.
Sect. VII. Of felonies injurious to the king's cxxix.
prerogative.
(1.) Felony is that offence which occafions the
total forfeiture of lands or goods at common law; now
ufually alfo punifliable with dea.h, by hanging; unlefs
through the benefit of clergy.
(2.) Felonies injurious to the king's prerogative (of
which fome are within, others, without, clergy) arc,
1. Such as relate to the coin: as, the wilful uttering
of counterfeit money, &c.; (to which head fome infe¬
rior mifdemeanours affe&ing the coinage may be alfo
referred.). 2. Confpiring or attempting to kill a pr-hy.
counfoellor. 3. bexmogforeign ftates, or enliiling fol-
die-rs for ferwice. 4. Embezzling the king’s ur-
niour or fores. 5. Defertion from the king’s ar-mics,
by land or fea.
Sect. VIII. Of pnemunire.
(1.), Praemunire, in its. original fenfe, is the of¬
fence of adhering, to the temporal power of the Pope,
in derogation of the regal authority. Penalty : out¬
lawry., forfeiture, and impriforjinent: which hath fince
been extended to fome offences of a different nature.
(2.). Among thefe are, I. Importing Popifti trin¬
kets. 2. Contributing to the maintenance of Popifti
femiharies abroad, or Popifli priefts in England. 3. Mo-
l.efting the poffeffors of abbey-lands. 4. A&ing as
broker in an ufurious contract, for more than ten per
cent. 5. Obtaining any ttay of proceedings in fuits
for monopolies- 6- Obtaining an exclulive patent for
gunpowder or arms. 7. Exertion of purveyance or
pre-emption. 8. Afferting a legiflative authority in
beUj or either hqufe of parliament, 9. Sending any
C e 2 ] fubje4
( j6 ) L A
Law of fubje& aprlfoner beyond fea. 10. Refufing tbe oaths
Maf'zed’ °f a^eg'ance an<^ fuPrcmacy- II* Preaching, teach-
aita yZC ing, or advifed fpeaking, in defence of the right of
any pretender to the crown, or in derogation of the
power of parliament to limit the fucceffioti. 12. Treat¬
ing of other matters, by the aflembly of peers of Scot¬
land, convened for eleding their reprefentatives in
parliament. 15. Unwarrantable undertakings by un¬
lawful fubfcriptions to public funds.
cxxxi. Sect. IX. Of mifprifions and contempts affecting
the king and government.
(1.) Misprisions and conte?npts are all fuch high
offences as are under the degree of capital.
(2.) Thefe are, 1. Negative, in concealing what
ought to be revealed. 2. Pofitive, in committing what
ought not to be done.
(3.) Negative milprifions are, I. Mifprifion of trea-
fon. Penalty: forfeiture and imprifonment. 2. Mif¬
prifion of felony. Penalty: fine and imprifonmem.
3. Concealment of treafure trove. Penalty: fine and
imprifonment.
(4.) Pofitive mifprifions, or high mifdemeanors and
contempts, are, 1. Mal-adminijlration ot public trufts,
which includes the crime of peculation. Ufual penal¬
ties: banifhment; fines; imprifonment; difability.
2. Contempts againfl the king’sPenalty:
fine, and imprifonmenf. 3. Contempt againft his per-
fon and government. Penalty : fine, imprifonment, and
infamous corporal punifhment, 4. Contempts againft
V\% title. Penalties: fine, and imprifonment; or fine,
and difability. 5, Contempts againft his palaces, or
caar/r of juftice. Penalties: fine; imprifonment; cor¬
poral punifh'ment; lofs of right hand; forfeiture.
cxxxii. Sect, X. Of offences againjl public jujlice.
(i.) Crimes efpecially affefting the commonwealth
are offences, 1. Againft the public jujlice. 2. Againft
the public peace. 3. Againft the public trade. 4. A-
gainft the public health. 5. Againft the public police
or (economy.
(2.) Offences againft the public jujlice, are, 1. Em¬
bezzling or vacating records, and perfonating others in
courts of juftice. Penalty: judgment of felony, ufually
without clergy. 2. Compelling prifoners to become
approvers. Penalty: judgment of felony.—3. Objlruc-
ting the execution of procefs. 4. Efcapes. 5. Breach
of prifon. 6. /?<?/£«£.--Which four may, (according
to the circumftances), be either felonies, or mifde¬
meanors punilhable by fine and imprifonment. 7. Re¬
turning from transportation. This is felony, without
clergy. 8. Taking rewards, to help one to his flolen
goods. Penalty: the fame as for the theft. 9. Receiving
ftolen goods. Penalties: tranfportation ; fine ; and
imprifonment.—10. Theftbote. 11. Common barretry,
and fifing in a feigned name. 12. Maintenance.
13. Champerty. Penalty, in thefe four: fine, and im¬
prifonment. 14, Compounding profecutions on penal
ftatutes. Penalty: fine, pillory, and difability. \5.C0n-
fpiracy; and threats of accufation in order to extort
money, &c. Penalties: the villenous judgment; fine;
imprifonment; pillory; whipping ; tranfportation.
16. Perjury, and fubornation thereof. Penalties: in¬
famy ; imprifonment; fine, or pillory ; and, fome-
times, tranfportation or houfe of corre&ion. 17. Bri-
W. Part It
bery. Penalty: fine, and imprifonment. \%. Emlra- Law of |
eery. Penalty : infamy, fine, and imprifonment. Englan(h 1
19. Falfe verditt. Penalty: the judgment in attaint. anj ?ze • '
20. Negligence of public officers, &c. Penalty: fine,
and forfeiture of the office. 21. OppreJJion by magi-
ftrates. 22. Extortion of officers. * Penalty, in both;
imprifonnrrent, fine, and fomethnes forfeiture of the of¬
fice.
Sect. XI. Of offences againjl the public peace. cxxxiih Lju
Offences againft the public peace are, v. Riotous
affemblies to the number of twelve. 2. Appearing
armed, or hunting in difguife. 3. Threatening, or de¬
manding any valuable thing, by letter.—All thefe are
felonies, without clergy. 4. Deftroying of turnpikes,
8cc. Penalties: whipping ; imprifonment ; judg¬
ment of felony, with and withont clergy.—5. Affrays.
6. Riots, routs, and unlawful affemblies. 7. Tumul¬
tuous petitioning. 8. Forcibly entry, and detainer.
Penalty, in all four: fine, and imprifonment. 9. Go¬
ing unufually armed. Penalty: forfeiture of arms, and
imprifonment. 10. SpreadingPenalty:
fine, and imprifonment. 11. Pretended prophecies. Pe¬
nalties: fine; imprifonment; and forfeitare. 12. Chal¬
lenges to fight. Penalty: fine, imprifonment, and
fometimes forfeiture, it,. Libels. Penalty: fine, im¬
prifonment, and corporal puniffimeht.
Sect. XII. Of offences againjl public trade.
Offences againft the public frWe, are, 1. Owling.
Penalties: fines; forfeiture; imprifonment; lofs of left
hand; tranfportation; judgment of felony. 2. Smug¬
gling. Penalties : fines ; lofs of goods ; judgment of
felony, without clergy. 3. Fraudulent bankruptcy.
Penalty: judgment of felony without clergy. 5. U-
fury. Penalty: fine, and imprifonment. 5. Cheating.
Penalties: fine; imprifonment; pillory; tumbrel;
whipping, or other corporal puniffiment; tranfporta¬
tion.—6. Forejlalling. 7. Regrating. 8. EngroJJing.
Penalties, for all three: lofs of--goods; fine; impri¬
fonment; pillory. 9. Monopolies, and combinations to
raife the price of commodities. Penalties: fines; impri¬
fonment ; pillory; lofs*of ear; infamy; and, fometimes,
the pains oipratminire. 1 o. Exercifing ?i trade, not ha¬
ving ferved as an apprentice. Penalty; fine. 11. Tranf-
porting, or refiding abroad, of artificers. Penalties: fine;
imprifonment; forfeiture; incapacity; becoming aliens.
Sect. XIII. Of offences againjl the public health, cxxxv- | I
and the public police or (Economy.
(l.) Offences againft the public health are, 1. Ir¬
regularity, in the time of the plague, or of quarentine.
Penalties: whipping ; judgment of felony, with and
without clergy. 2. Selling unwholefome provifions.
Penalties: amercement; pillory; fine; imprifonment;
abjuration of the town.
(2.) Offences againft the public police and (economy
or domeftic order of the kingdom, are, 1. Thofe re¬
lating to clandejline and irregular marriages. Penal¬
ties: judgment of felony, with and without clergy.
2. Bigamy, or (more properly) polygamy. Penalty:
judgment of felony.—3. Wandering, by foldiers or ma¬
riners. 4. Remaining in England, by Egyptians; or
being in their fellowjhip one month. Both thefe are
felonies, without clergy. 5. Common nufances, ijl, by
annoy-
iTart II. L A
n Law of annoyances or purprcftures in highways, bridges, and f
^England, r;vers; 2^/y, by offenfive trades and manufa&ures ;
ynalyaed. bY diforderly houfes; 4^^, by lotteries; ^thly^by
cottages; 6tbly, by fireworks; ythly, by evefdropping.
Penally, in all ; fine.—2>thly, By common fcolding.
Penalty ; the cucking ftool. 6. Idlenefs, diforder, va¬
grancy, incorrigible roguery. Penalties: imprifon-
ment; whipping ; judgment of felony. 7. Luxury, in
diet. Penalty, difcretionary. 8. Gaming. Penalties:
9 ■ to gentlemen, fines; to others, fine and imprifonment;
to cheating gamefters, fine, infamy, and the corporal
pains of perjury. 9. Defir eying the game. Penalties:
fines, and coporal punilhment.
| cxxxvi. Sect. XIV. Of homicide.
(1.) Crimes efpecially affe&ing individuals are,
I. Againft their perfons. 2. Againit their habitations.
3. Againft their property.
(2.) Crimes againft the perfons ol individuals, are,
1. By homicide, or deftroying life. 2. By other cor¬
poral injuries.
1 4 (j.) Homicide is, 1. Jufiifiable. 2. Excufable.
!* 3. Felonious.
(4.) Homicide is jujlifiable, 1. By neceffity, and
command of law. 2. By permiffion of law; ift, for
the furtherance of public juftice; idly, for prevention,
of fome forcible felony.
(5.) Homicide is excufable, 1. Per infortunium, or
by mif-adventure. 3. Se defendendo, or in felf-defence,
by chance-medley. Penalty, in both : forfeiture of
goods; which however is pardoned of courfe.
(6.) Felonious homicide is the killing of a human
creature without juftification or excufe. This is, 1. Kil¬
ling one's felf. 2. Killing another.
(7.) Killing one's felf, or felf murder, is where one
deliberately, or by any unlawful malicious aft, puts
an end to his own life. This is felony; punilhed by
In'lCd!
W. ( 37 )
gy. 2. 'FaxcAAe. abdufiion, and marriage or defilement, I-'aw oF
of an heirefs; which is felony: alfo, fiealing, and de¬
flowering or marrying, any woman-child under the age
'offixteen years ; for which the penalty is imprifonment,
fine, and temporary forfeiture of her lands.—3. Rape,
and alfo carnal knowledge, of a woman-child under the
age of ten years. 4. Buggery, with man or beaft.
Both thefe are felonies, without clergy.—5. slfault.
6. Battery, efpecially of clergymen. 7. JVounding.
Penalties, in all three: fine; imprifonment; and other
corporal punilhment. 8. Falfe imprifomnent. Penal¬
ties : fine; imprifonment; and (in fome atrocious cafes)
the pains of pnemunire, and incapacity of office or par¬
don. 9. Kidnapping, or forcibly ftealing away the
king’s fubje&s. Penalty: fine; imprifonment; and
pillory.
Sect. XVI. Of offences againjl the habitations of cxxxvlii.
individuals.
(1.) Crimes, affe&ing theof individuals,
are, 1. Arfon. 2. Burglary.
(2.) Arfon is the malicious and wilful burning of
the houfe, or out-houfe, of another man. This is felo¬
ny ; in fome cafes within, in others without, clergy.
(3.) Burglary is the breaking and entering, by
night, into a manfion-houfe; with intent to commit a
felony. This is felony, without clergy.
Sect. XVII. Of (fences againft private property. cxxx;x,
(1.) Crimes affedting the privateof indi¬
viduals are, x. Larciny. 2. Malicious mifehief. 3.
Forgery.
(2.) Larciny is, x. Simple. 2. Mixed, or com¬
pound.
(3.) Simple larciny is the felonious taking, and
carrying away, of the perfonal goods of another. And
it is, 1. larciny; being above the value of
ignominious burial, and forfeiture of goods and chat- twelve pence. Which is felony ; in fome cafes with-
tels. in, in others without, clergy. 2. Pe///larciny; to the
(8.) Killing rfwo/for is, \. Manflaughter. 2. Mur- value of twelve pence or under. Which is alfo felony,
gerM but not capital; being punilhed with whipping, or
(9.) Manflaughter is the unlawful killing of another; tranfportation.
without malice, exprefs or implied. This is either, (4.) Mixed, or compound, larciny is that wherein
.. Voluntary, upon a fudden heat. 2. Involuntary,
in the commiffion of fome unlawful a&. Both are fe¬
lony, but within clergy; except in the cafe oi ftab-
(10.) Murder is when a perfon, of found memory
and diferetien, unlawfully killeth any reafonable crea¬
ture, in being, and under the king’s peace; with ma¬
lice aforethought, either exprefs or implied. This is
felony, without clergy; punilhed with fpeedy death,
and hanging in chains, or diffedlion.
the taking is accompanied with the aggravation of be¬
ing, 1. From the houfe. 2. From the perfon.
(5.) Larcinies from the houfe, by day or night, are
felonies without clergy, when they are, 1. Larcinies,
above twelve pence, from a church; — or by breaking a
tent or booth in a market or fair, by day or night, the
owner or his family being therein;—or by breaking a
dwelling-houfe by day, any perfon being therein;—or
from a dwelling-houfe by day, without breaking, any
perfon therein being put in fear;—or from a dwelling-
fix.) Petit treafon (being an aggravated degree of houfe by night, without breaking, the owner or his
murder) is where the fervant kills his mafter, the wife family being therein and put in fear. 2. Larcinies, of
her hulband, or the ecclefiaftic his fuperior. Penalty: five Jhillings, by breaking the dwelling-houfe, Ihop, or
..1 men, to be drawn and hanged;
drawn and burned.
I cxxxvil. Sect. XV. Of offences againjl the perfons of in¬
dividuals.
Crimes affe&ing the perfons of individuals, by other
corporal injuries not amounting to homicide, are, - - , . . -
j Mayhem', and alfo footing at another. Penalties : Jlealing, from the perfon of another, above the value of
fine • imprifonment; judgment of felony, without cler- twelve peace. 2. By robbery} or the felonious and
’ r forcible
warehoufe, by day, though no perfon be therein;—
or, by privately Healing in any Ihop, warehoufe, coach-
houfe, or liable, by day or night, without breaking,
and though no perfon be therein. 3. Larcinies, of
forty Jhillings, from a dwelling-houfe or its out-houfes,
without breaking, and though no perfon be therein.
(6.) Larciny from the perfon is, 1. By privately
(3s
England
cxl*
cxlL
calii.
>. . . L . '
forcible taking, from the perfort of another, iir or near
the highway, goods or money of any value, by put¬
ting him in fear. Thefe are both felonies without
clergy. An attempt to rob is alfo felony.
(7.) Malicious mifchief, by deftroying dikes,
goods, cattle, {hips, garments, fifltponds, trees, woods,
churches, chapels, meeting-houfes, houfes, out-houfes,
corn, hay, ftraw, fea or river banks, hopbinds, coal¬
mines (or engines thereunto belonging), or any fences
for inclofures by aft of parliament, is felony; and, in
moft cafes, without benefit of clergy.
(8.) Forgery is the fraudulent making or alteration
of a writing, in prejudice of another’s right. Penal¬
ties: fine; imprifonment; pillory; lofs of nofe and
ears; forfeiture; judgment of felony, without clergy.
Sect. XVIII. Of the means of preventing
offences.
(1.) Crimes and mifdemeanours may be prevented,
by compelling fufpefted perfons to give fecurity:
which is effefted by binding them in a conditional re¬
cognizance to the king, taken in court, or by a magi-
ftrate.
(2.) Thefe recognizances may be conditioned, 1. To
keep the peace. 2. To be of the good. Behaviour.
(3.) They may be taken by any juitice or conferva-
tor of the peace, at his own difcretion ; or, at the re-
spieft of fuch as are intitled to demand the fame.
(4.) All perfons, who have given fufficient caufe to
apprehend an intended breach, of the peace, may be
bound over to keep the peace; and all thofe, that be
not of good fame, may be bound to the good behaviour;
and may, upon refufal in either cafe, be committed to
gaol.
Sect. XIX. Of courts of a criminal jurijdihlion.
(1.) In the method of punijkment may be confider-
ed, 1. The feveral courts of criminal jiirifdiftion. 2. The
feveral proceedings therein.
(2.) The criminal courts are, 1. Thofe of a public
and general jurifdidlion throughout the realm. 2. Thofe
of a private and fpecial jurifdi&ion.
(3.) Public criminal courts are, 1. The high court
of parliament; which proceeds by impeachment. 2. The
court of the lord high fteward ; and the court of the
king in full parliament : for the trial of capitally in-
di&ed peers. 3. The court of king’s bench. 4. The
court of chivalry. 5. The court of admiralty, under
the king’s commiffion. 6. The courts of oyer and
terminer, and general goal-delivery. 7. The court of
quarter-feffions of the peace. 8. The fheriff’s tourn.
9. The court leet. 10. The court of the coroner.
11. The court of the clerk of the market.
(4.) Private criminal courts are, 1. The court of
the lord fteward, &c. by ftatute of Henry VII. 2. The
court of the lord fteward, &c. by ftatute of Henry
VIII. 3. The univerfity courts.
Sect- XX. Of fummary convictions.
(1.) Proceedings in criminal courts are, *. Sum¬
mary. 2. Regular.
(2.) Summary proceedings are fuch, whereby a man
may be convifted of divers offences, without any formal
procefe or jury, at the difcretion of the judge or
\ W. Part II.
judges appointed by adt of parliament, or common ^Lwof
(3 ) Such are, v. Trials of offences and frauds a-
gainft the laws of exeije and other branches of the
king’s revenue. 2. Convidlions before yufiices of the
peace upon a variety of minute offences, chiefly againit
the public police. 3. Attachments for contempts to
the fuperior courts of juftice.
Sect. XXI. Of arrejls. cxHii.
(r.) Regular proceedings in the courts of com¬
mon law, are, 1. Arreji. 2. Commitment and bail.
3, Profecution. 4. Procefs. 5. Arraignment, and
its incidents. 6. Plea and iffue. 7. Trial and con¬
viction. 8. Clergy. 9. 'Judgment, and. its confequen-
ces. 10. Reverfal of judgment, ii. Reprieve or par¬
don. 12. Execution.
(2.) An arreft is the apprehending, or reftraining,
of one’s perfon ; in order to be forthcoming to anfwer
a crime whereof one is accufed or fufpedted.
(3.) This may be done, 1. By warrant. 2. By an
officer, without warrant- 3. By a private perfon,
without warrant. 4. By hue and cry.
Sect. XXII. Of commitment and bail. cxliv.
(i.) Commitment is the confinement of one’s per-,
fon in prifon, for fafe cuftody, by warrant from
proper authority ; unlefs, in bailable offences, he puts
in fufficient bail, or fecurity for his future appearance.
(2.) The magiftrate is bound to take reafonable bail^
if offered ; unlefs the offender be not bailable.
(3.)’ Such are, 1. Ptrfons accufed of treafon ; or,
2. Of murder; or, 3. Of manflaughter, by indict¬
ment ; or if the prifoner was-clearly the flayer. 4. Pri-
fon-breakers, when committed f6r felony. 5. Out¬
laws. 6. Thofe who have abjured the realm. 7. Apr.
provers, and appellees. 8. Perfons taken with the
mainour. 9. Perfons accufed of arfon. 10. Excom¬
municated perfons.
(4.) The magiftrate may, at his difcretion, admit
to bail, or otherwife, perfons not of good fame,,
charged with other felonies, whether as principals or
as acceffories.
(5.) If they be of good fame, he is bound to admit
them to bail.
(6.) The court of king’s bench, or its judges in
time of vacation, may bail in any cafe whatfoever.
Sect. XXIII. Of the feveral modes of pro- Cxlv.
fecution.
(1.) Prosecution, or the manner of accufing of¬
fenders, is either by a previous, finding of a grand
jury; as, 1. By prefentment. 2. By indiftment. Or,
without fuch finding, 3. By information^ 4. By
appeal.
(2.) A prefentment is the notice taken by a grand
jury of any offence, from their own knowledge or ob-
fervation.
(3.) An indictment is a written accufation of one or
more perfons of a crime or mifdemeanour, preferred to,
and prefented on oath by, a grand jury ; expreffing,
with fufficient certainty, the perfon, time, place, and
offence.
(4.) An informations, 1. At the fait of the king
and a fubjeft, upon penal ftatutes. 4. At the fuit of
the
Part II.
.1 Law of
i| England,
i analyzed.
the king only. Either, I. Filed by the attorney-ge¬
neral fx officio, for fuch mifdemeanours as affed the
ll_ king’s perfon or government: or, 2. Filed by the ma¬
iler of the crown office (with leave of the court of
king’s bench) at the relation of fome private fubjed,
for other grofs and notorious miCdemeanours. All dif-
fering from indidments in this; that they are exhibited
by the informer, or the king’s officer; and not on the
oath of a grand jury.
(5.) A® dy/e-tf/is an accufation or fuit, brought by
one private fubjed againft another, for larciny, rape,
mayhem, arfon, or homicide ; which the king cannot
difeharge or pardon, but the party alone can releafe.
Sect. XXIV. Of procefs upon an indiElment.
(1.) Process to bring in an offender, when indided
in his abfence, is, in mifdemeanours, by venirefacias,
diftrefs infinite, and capias : in capital crimes, by ca¬
pias only : and, in both, by outlawry.
(2.) During this ftage of proceedings, the indid-
ment may be removed into the court of king’s bench
from any inferior jurifdidion, by writ of certiorari fa¬
cias : and cognizance muff be claimed in places of ex-
clufive jurifdidion.
Sect. XXV. Of arraignment, and its incidents*
(1.) Arraignment is the calling of the prifonerto
the bar of the court, to anfwer the matter of the in-
didment.
(2.) Incident hereunto are, 1. The Handing mute
of the prifoner ; for which, in petit treafon, and felo¬
nies of death, he lhall undergo the peine fort fa dure.
2. His confeffion j which is either or by way
of approvement.
Sect. XXVI. Of plea, and iffue.
(1.) The plea, or defenfive matter alleged by the
prifoner, maybe, 1. A plea to the jurifdidion. 2. A
demurrer in point of law. 3. A plea in abatement.
4. A fpecial plea in bar ; which is, ill, sduterfoits ac¬
quit ; 2dly, Auterfoits convift; jdly, Auterfoits at¬
taint; 4thly, a pardon. 5. The general iffue, not
guilty.
2. Hereupon ijfue is joined by the clerk of the ar¬
raigns, on behalf of the king.
Sect. XXVII. Of trial, and conviftion.
(1.) Trials of offences, by the laws of England*
were and are, 1. ordeal, of either fire or water.
2. By the corfned. Both thefe have been long aboliflied.
3. Jhy battel, in appeals and approvements. 4. By the
peers of Great Britain. 5. By jury.
(2.) The method and procefs of trial by^ar^ is,
1. The impanelling of the jury. 2. Challenges ;
iff, forcaufej 2dly, peremtory. 3. Tales de circum-
Jlantibus. 4. The oath of the jury. 5. The evidence.
6. The verdid, either general or fpecial.
(3.) Conviftion is when the prifoner pleads, or is
found, guilty: whereupon, in felonies, the profecutor
is intitled to, 1. His expenfes. 2. Reftitution of his
goods.
Sect. XXVIII. Of the benefit of clergy.
(l.) Clergy, or the benefit thereof, was original¬
ly derived from the ufurped jurifdidion of the Popifh
t W. (
ecclefiaftics; but hath fince been new-modelled by fe-
veral ftatutes.
(2.) It is an exemption of the clergy from any other _
fecular punifhment for felony, than imprifonment for
a year, at the court’s diferetion; and it is extended
likewife, abfolutely, to lay peers, for the firft offence;
and to all lay-commoners, for the firft offence alfo,
upon condition of branding, imprifonment, or tranf-
portation.
(3.) All felonies are intitled to the benefit of cler¬
gy, except fuch as are now oufted by particular fta¬
tutes.
(4.) Felons, on receiving the benefit of clergy, (tho*
they forfeit their goods to the crown,) are difeharged
of all clergyable felonies befo're committed, and re-
ftored in all capacities and credits.
Sect. XXIX. Of judgment, and its confequences.
(1.) Judgment (unlefs any matter be offered in ar-
reft thereof) follows upon conviction ; being the pro¬
nouncing of that punifhment which is cxpreffly ordain¬
ed by law.
(2.) Attainder of a criminal is the immediate
confequence, 1. Of having judgment of death pronoun¬
ced upon him. 2. Of outlawry for a capital offence.
(3.) The confequences of attainder are, 1. Forfei¬
ture to the king. 2. Corruption of blood.’
(4.) Forfeiture to the king, is, I. Of real eftates,
upon attainder;—in high treafon, abfolutely, till the
death of the late Pretender’s fons;—in felonies, for the
king’s year, day, and wafle;—in mifprifion of treafon,
affaults on a judge, or battery fitting the courts ; du¬
ring the life of the offender. 2. Of perfonal eftates,
upon conviftion ; in all treafon, tnifprifion of treafon,
felony, excufable homicide, petit larciny, {landing
mute upon arraignment, the abovenamed contempts of
the king’s courts, and flight.
(5.) Corruption of blood is an utter extinftion of all
inheritable quality therein : fo that, after the king’s
forfeiture is firft fatisfied, the criminal’s lands efeheat
to the lord of the fee ; and he can never afterwards in¬
herit, be inherited, or have any inheritance derived
through him.
Sect. XXX. Of reverfal of judgment.
(1.) Judgments, and their confequences, maybe
avoided, I. By falfifying, or reverftng, the attainder.
2. By reprieve, or pardon.
(2.) A.ttainders may befalftfied, or reverfed, 1. With¬
out a writ of error; for matter dehors the record. 2. By
writ of error; for miltakes in the judgment, or record.
3. By a<5t of parliament; for favour.
(3.) When an outlawry is reverfed, the party is re-
ftored to the fame plight as if he had appeared upon
the capias. When a judgment, on conviction, is re¬
verfed, the party Hands as if never accufed.
Se£t. XXXI. Of reprieve and pardon.
(l.) A reprieve is a temporary fufpenfion of the
judgment, \. Exarbitrio judicis. 2. Ex neceffitatekgis;
for pregnancy, infanity, or the trial of identity of per¬
fon, which muft always be tried infianter.
(2.) A pardon is a permanent avoider of the judg¬
ment by the king’s majefty, in offences againft: his
crown and dignity ; drawn in due form of law, allowed
39 )
Law of
England,
analyzed.
w.
Part III.
( 40 ) L /
Law of in open court, and thereby making the offender a new c A vyvtt r>e Law of
Scotland. man. _ Sedt. XXXII. Of execution. Scotland^
(3.) The king cannot pardon, 1. Imprifonment of (1.) Execution is the completion of human pu-
the fqbjedt beyond the feas. 2. Offences profecuted nhhment, and muft be ftriftly performed in the man-
by appeal. 3. Common nufanees. 4. Offences againil ner which the law direfts.
cliv.
popular or penal ftatutes, after information brought by
a fubjeft. Nor is his pardon pleadable to an impeach¬
ment by the commons in parliament.
(2.) The warrant for execution is fometimes under
the hand and feal of the judge; fometimes by writ
from the king ; fometimes by rule of court; but com¬
monly by the judge’s figning the calendar of prifoners,
with their feparate judgments in the margin.
P v\ r t III. The LAW of SCOTLAND.
Regiara
Majeftatem
Authority
of the civil
and canon
laws.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
I. T^HE municipal law of Scotland, as of mod
other countries, conhfts partly of ftatutory or
written law, which has the exprefs authority of the le-
giflative power; partly of cuftomary or unwritten
law, which derives force from its prefumed or tacit
confent.
2. Under our ftatutory or written law is compre¬
hended, (1.) Our a£ls of parliament: not only thofe
which were made in the reign of James I. of Scot¬
land, and from thence down to our union with Eng¬
land in 17CJ7, but fuch of the Britifh ftatutes enabled
lince the union as concerned this part of the united
kingdom.
3. The remains of our ancient written law were pu¬
blished by Sir John Skene clerk-regifter, in the begin¬
ning of the laft century, by licence of parliament. The
books of Regiam Majeflatem, to which the whole col-
le&ion owes its title, feem to be a fyftem of Scots law,
written by a private lawyer at the command of Da¬
vid I.; and though no exprefs confirmation of that
treatife by the legiflature appears, yet it is admitted
to have been the ancient law of our kingdom by ex¬
prefs ftatutes. The borough-laws, which were alfo
ena&ed by the fame king David, and the ftatutes of
William, Alexander II. David II. and the three Ro¬
berts, are univerfally allowed to be genuine. Our
parliaments have once and again appointed commiffions
to revife and amend the Reqiam Majdftatem, and the
other ancient books of our law, and to make their re¬
port : but, as no report appears to have been made,
nor confequently any ratification by parliament, none
of thefe remains are received, as of proper authority,
in our courts ; yet they are of excellent ufe in proving
and illuftrating our moft ancient cuftoms.
4. Our written law comprehends, (2.) The a&s of
federunt, w'hich are ordinances for regulating the forms
of proceeding before the court of feffion in the admini
ftration of juftice, made by the judges, who have a de
legated power from the legiftature for that purpofe
Some of thefe afts dip upon matter of right, which de
clare what the judges apprehend to be the law of Scot¬
land, and what they are to obferve afterwards as a rule
of judgment.
5. The civil or Roman and cannon laws, though
they are not perhaps to be deemed proper parts of our
written law, have undoubtedly had the greateft in¬
fluence in Scotland. The powers exercifed by our fo-
vereigns and judges have been juftified upon no other
ground, than that they were conformable to the civil
or canon laws; and a fpecial ftatute was judged necef-
fary, upon the reformation, to refcind fuch of their
conftitutions as were repugnant to the Proteftant doc¬
trine. From that period, the canon law has been little
refpefted, except in queftions of tithes, patronages,
and fome few more articles of ecclefiaftical right: but
the Roman continues to have great authority in all
cafes where it is not derogated from by ftatute or cu-
ftom, and where the genius of our law fuffers us to
apply it.
6. Our unwritten or cuftomary law, is that which,
without being exprefsly enafted by ftatute, derives its
force from the tacit confent of king and people ; which
confent is prefumed from the ancient cuftom of the
community. Cuftom, as it is equally founded in the
will of the lawgiver with written law, has therefore the
fame effedls : hence, as one ftatute may be explained
or repealed by another, fo a ftatute may be explained
by the uniform pra&ice of the community, and even
go into difufe by a pofterior contrary cuftom. But
this power of cuftom to derogate from prior ftatutes, is
generally confined by lawyers to ftatutes concerning
private right, and does not extend to thofe which re¬
gard public policy.
7. An uniform traft of the judgments or decifions
of the court of fefiion, is commonly coniidered as part
of our cuftomary law; and without doubt, where a par¬
ticular cuftom is thereby fixed or proved, fuch cuftom
of itfelf conftitutes law: but decifions, though they
bind the parties litigating, have not, in their own na¬
ture, the authority of law in fimilar cafes; yet, where
they continue uniform, great weight is juftly laid on
them. Neither can the judgments of the houfe of peers
of Great Britain reach farther than to the parties in the
appeal, fince in thefe the peers a6t as judges, not as
lawgivers.
8. Though the laws of nature are fufficiently pub-
liftied by the internal fuggeftion of natural light, civil
laws cannot be confidered as a rule for the condu& of
life, till they are notified to thofe whofe conduct they
are to regulate. The Scots afts of parliament were, by
our moft ancient cuftom, proclaimed in all the different
fhires, boroughs, and baron-courts, of the kingdom.
But after our ftatutes came to be printed, that cuftona
was gradually negle&ed ; and at laft, the publication
of our laws, at the market-crofs of Edinburgh, was
declared fufficient; and they became obligatory forty
days thereafter. Britifh ftatutes are deemed fufficient¬
ly notified, without formal promulgation ; either be-
caufe the printing is truly a publication; or becaufe e-
very fubjedt is, by a maxim of the Englifh law, party
nar|ft
-f
Decifions
the feffioj I
Juclgmera sfl
of the hotrf
of peers.:
Part III. L A W. ( 41 )
Law of to them, as being prefent in parliament, either by him-
Seothnd. j-eif or reprefentative. After a law is publiflied, no
^ pretence of ignorance can excufe the breach of it.
9. As laws are given for the rule of our conduft,
they can regulate future cafes only; for paft aftions,
being out of our power, can admit of no rule. Decla¬
ratory laws form no exception to this ; for a ftatute,
where it is declaratory of a former law, does no more
than interpret its meaning ; and it is included in the
notion of interpretation, that it muft draw back to the
date of the law interpreted.
nterpreta- 10. By the rules of interpreting ftatute law received
tion of laws. ;n Scotland, an argument may be ufed from the title
to the aft itfelf, a rubro ad nigrum ; at leaft, where
the rubric lias been either originally framed, or after¬
wards adopted by the legiflature. The preamble or
narrative, which recites the inconveniencies that had
arifen from the former law; and the caufes inducing the
enaftment, may alfo lead a judge to the general mean¬
ing of the ftatute. But the chief weight is to be laid
on the ftatutory words.
11. Laws, being direfted to the unlearned as well
as the learned, ought to be conftrued in their moft ob¬
vious meaning, and not explained away by fubtle di-
ftinftions; and no law is to lufter a figurative interpre¬
tation, where the proper fenfe of the words is as com¬
modious, and equally fitted to the fubjeft of the fta¬
tute. Laws ought to be explained fo as to exclude ab-
furdities, and in the fenfe which appears moft agreeable
to former laws, to the intention of the lawgiver, and
to the general frame and ftrufture of the conftitution.
In prohibitory laws, where the right of afting is ta¬
ken from a perfon, folcly for the private advantage of
another, the confent of him, in whofe behalf the law
was made, (hall fupport the aft done in breach of it;
but the confent of parties immediately interefted has no
effeft in matters which regard the public utility of a
ftate. Where the words of a ftatute are capable but of
one meaning, the ftatute muft be obferved, however
hard it may bear on particular perfons. Neverthelefs,
as no human fyftem of laws can comprehend all pof-
fible cafes, more may be fometimes meant by the law¬
giver than is exprefled ; and hence certain ftatutt's,
where extenfion is not plainly excluded, may be extend¬
ed beyond the letter, to fimilar and omitted cafes: o-
thers arc to be confined to the ftatutory words.
Stri£t. 12. A ft rift interpretation is to be applied, (1.) To
correftory ftatutes, which repeal or reftrift former laws;
and to ftatutes which enaft heavy penalties, or reftrain
the natural liberties of mankind. (2.) Laws, made on
occafion of prefent exigencies in a ftate, ought not to
be drawn to fimilar cafes, after the preffure is over.
(3.) Where ftatutes eftablifti certain folemnities as re-
quifite to deeds, fuch folemnities are not fuppliable by
equivalents; for folemnities lofe their nature, when they
are not performed fpecifically. (4.) A ftatute, which
enumerates fpecial cafes, is, with difficulty, to be ex¬
tended to cafes not expreffed ; but, where a law does
not defcend to particulars, there is greater reafon to
extend it to fimilar cafes. (5.) Statutes, which carry
a difpenfation or privilege to particular perfons or fo-
cieties, fuffer a ilrift interpretation ; becaufe they de¬
rogate from the general law, and imply a burden upon
the reft of the community. But at no rate can a pri¬
vilege be explained to the prejedice of thofe in whofe
behalf it was granted. As the only foundation of cu- of
ftomary law is ufage, which confifts in faft, fuch law Scot|an(B
can go no farther than the particular ufage has gone. .
13. All ftatutes, concerning matters fpecially fa- p
voured by law, receive an ample interpretation; as laws
for the encouragement of commerce, or of any ufeful
public undertaking, for making efteftual the wills of
dying perfons, for reftraining fraud, for the fecurity of
creditors, &c. A ftatute, tho’ its fubjeft-matter ffiouid
not be a favourite of the law, may be extended to fi¬
milar cafes, which did not exift when the ftatute was
made; and for which, therefore, it was not in the law¬
giver’s power to provide.
14. Every ftatnte, however unfavourable, mull re¬
ceive the interpretation neceflary to give it effeft: and,
on the other hand, in the extenfion of favourable laws,
fcope muft not be given to the imagination, in difco-
vering remote refemblances ; the extenfion muft be li¬
mited to the cafes immediately fimilar. Where there is
ground to conclude that the legiflature has omitted a
cafe out of the ftatute purpofely, the ftatute cannot be
extended to that cafe, let it be ever fo fimilar to the
cafes expreffed.
15. The objefts of the laws of Scotland, according
to Mr Erlkine, are, Perfons, Things, and Aftions.
CHAP. I.
Of Persons.
A Mono perfons, judges, who are invefted with ju-
rifdiftion, deferve the firft confideration.
Sect. I. Ofjuri/diftion and judges in general. clvi-
Jurisdiction is a power conferred upon a judge or Jur'^’^'on
magiftrate, to take cognifance of and decide caufes
according to law', and to carry his fentences into execu¬
tion. That traft of ground, or diftrift, within which
a judge has the right of jurifdiftion, is called his ter¬
ritory : and every aft of jurifdiftion exercifed by a
judge without his territory, either by pronouncing fen-
tence, or carrying it into execution, is null.
2. The fupreme power, which has the right of en- K‘ng tje
afting laws, falls naturally to have the right of erec-
ting courts, and appointing judges, who may apply
thefe laws to particular cafes: but, in Scotland, this
right has been always intrufted with the crown, as ha¬
ving the executive power of the ftate.
3. Jurifdiftion is either fupreme, inferior, or mixed. Diflinc-
That jurifdiftion is fupreme, from which there lies no rifdiftion'1'
appeal to a higher court. Inferior courts are thofe
whofe fentences are fubjeft to the review of the fupreme
courts, and whofe jurifdiftion is confined to a particu¬
lar territory. Mixed jurifdiftion participates of the
nature both of the fupreme and inferior: thus, the
judge of the high court of admiralty, and the commif-
faries of Edinburgh, have an univerfal jurifdiftion over
Scotland, and they can review the decrees of inferior
admirals and commiffaries; but finCe their own decrees
are fubjeft to the review of the courts of feffion or ju-
fticiary, they are, in that refpeft, inferior courts.
4. Jurifdiftion is either civil or criminal: by the firft,
queftions of private right are decided ; by the other,
crimes are punifhed. But, in all jurifdiftion, though
merely civil, there is a power inherent in the judge to
[ f J punifli,
( 42 ) h /
Law of punidi,.either corporally, or by a pecuniary fine, thofe
Scotland, who offend during the proceedings of the court, or
“ who (hall afterwards obftruft the execution of the fen-
w.
Part III, i
fully fummoned to that court, by a citation at the mar- I^w of
ket-crofs of Edinburgh, and pier and fhore of Leith : Scotland,
but where a tfranger, not a native of Scotland, has on¬
ly a moveable eftate in this kingdom, he is deemed to
be fo little fubjeA to the jurifdittion of our courts, that
a&ion cannot be brought againft him till his effefts be
firlt attached by an arrettment jurifdiftionis fundandte
caufa; which is laid on by a warrant iffutng from the
fupreme courts of feffion, or admiralty, or from that
within whofe territory the fubjedt is fituated, at the
fuit of the creditor,
A judge may, in fpecial cafes, arreft or fecure ArreftmenK
tence.
5. Jurifdi&ion is either privative or cumulative.
Privative jurifdiftion, is that which belongs only to one
court, to the excluiion of all others. Cumulative, o-
therwife called concurrent, is that which may be exer-
cifed by any one of two or more courts, in the fame
caufe. In civil cumulative jurifdidlion, the private pur-
fuer has the right of ele&ion before which of the courts
he (hall fue ; but as, in criminal queltions which are   j o j- t   .    
profecuted by a public officer of court, a collifion of the perfons of fuch as have neither domicile nor eifate 0fftrai'S*r?i
jurifdi&ion might happen, through each of the judges within his territory, even for civil debts. Thus, on the
claiming the exercife of their right, that judge, by border between Scotland and England, warrants are
whofe warrant the delinquent is firft cited or appre- granted of courfe by the judge-ordinary of either fide,
bended, (which is the firil llep of jurifdidUpn), acquires againft thofe who have their domicile upon the oppo-
thereby (jure praventionis) the exclulive right of jud- file fide, for arrefting their perfons, till they give Gau¬
ging in the caufe. Uon judiciojijli: and even the perfons of citizens 
lives may be fo fecured, where there is juft reafon to fuf-
peCt that they are in meditatione fug#, i. e. that they
intend fuddenly to withdraw from the kingdom; upon
which fufpicion, the creditor who applies for the war-
6. All rights of juri(dicfion, being originally grant¬
ed in confideration of the fitnefs of the grantee, were
therefore perfonal, and died with himfelf. But, upon
the introduftion of the feudal fyftem, certain jurifdic-
tions were annexed to lands, and defcended to heirs, as rant muft make oath. An inhabitant of a borough-
well as the lands to which they were annexed; but now royal, who has furnifhed one who lives without the bo-
all heritable jurifdiftions, except thofe of admiralty and
a fmall pittance referved to barons, are either aboiilh-
ed, or refumed and annexed to the crown.
7. Jurifdi&ion is either proper or delegated. Pro-
igh in meat, clothes, or other merchandize, and who
has no fecurity for it but his own account-book, may
arreft his debtor, till he give fecurity judicioftfii.
2. A judge may be declined, e. his jurifdi&ion Grounds
Civil jurif-
diftion,
wherein
founded.
per jurifdidtion, is that which belongs to a judge or difowned judicially, 1. Ratione caufte, from hisincom- declinatu
magiftrate himfelf, in virtue of his office. Delegated, .u.. r—:_i—r„ 1 c. - n
is that which is communicated by the judge to another
who ads in his name, called a depute or deputy. Where
a deputy appoints one under him, he is called a fubjii-
tute. No grant of jurifdi&ion, which is an office re¬
quiring perfonal qualifications, can be delegated by
the grantee to another, without " ' '
grant-
8. Civil jurifdiftion is founded, 1. Ratione domicilii,
if the defender has his domicile within the judge’s ter¬
ritory. A domicile is the dwelling-place where a per-
fon lives with an intention to remain; and cuftom has
fixed it as a rule, that refidence for4odays founds ju-
rifdi&ion. If one has no fixed dwelling-place, e.g. a
foldier, or a travelling-merchant, a perfonal citation
petency to the fpecial caufe brought before him. 2. Ra¬
tione fufpetti judicis; where either the judge himfelf, or
his near kinfman, has an intereft i'n the fuit. No judge
can vote in the caufe of his farher, brother, or fon, ei¬
ther by confanguinity or affinity; nor in the caufe of’
his uncle or nephew by confanguinity. 3. Ratione
prefs power in the privilegii; where the party is by privilege exempted
from their jurifdiffion.
13. Prorogated jurifdidion (jurifdiftio in confentien- Prorogate^
tes) is that which is, by the cor.fent of parties, confer- j,lrlfd'<3l0,i
red upon a judge, who, without fuch confent, would
be incompetent. Where a judge is incompetent, every
ftep he takes muft be null, fill his jurifdidtion be made
competent by the parties adtual fubmiffion to it. It is
otherwife where the judge is competent, but may be
againft him within the territory is fufficient to found declined by the party upon privilege,
the judge s jurifdiftion over him, even in civil que- J4. In order to prorogation, the judge muft have
ftions. As the defender is not obliged to appear be- jurifdidfion, fuch as may be prorogated. Hence, pro-
fore 3. court to which he IS not marfnpr rrrnlf vn/vatirvn rwv* Km ori 4-mst /VI
fore a court to which he is not fubjedf, the purfuer muft
follow the defender’s domicile.
9. It is founded, 2. Ratione rei fit#, if the fubjedl
in queftlon lie within the territory. If that fubjedf be
immoveable, the judge, whofe jurifdi&ion is founded
in this way, is the foie judge competent, excluding the
judge of the domicile.
1 o. Where one, who has not his domicile within the
rogation cannot be admitted where the judge’s jurifdic-
tion is excluded by ftatute. Yet where the caufe is of
the fame nature with thofe to which the judge is com¬
petent, though law may have confined his jurifdidfion
within a certain fum, parties may prorogate it above
that fum unlefs where prorogation is prohibited. Pro¬
rogation is not admitted in the king’s caufes ; for the
intereft of the crown cannot be hurt by the negligence
fupplemcm territory, is to be fued before an inferior court ratione of its officers.
rei Jit x,. the court of feffion muft be applied to, whofe 15. All judges muft at their admiffion fwear, 1. The Oaths of
junfdiftion is univerfal, and who, of courfe, grants let- oath of allegiance, and fubfcribe the affurance; 2. The judges,
ters of fupplement to cite the defender to appear be- oath of abjuration; 3. The oath of fupremacy; laftly,
fore the inferior judge. Where the party to be fued The oath de fideli adtninif ratione.
refides in another kingdom, and has an eftate in this, 16. A party who has either properly declined the ^etters ,
the court of feffion is the only proper court, as the jurifdi&ion of the judge before whom he had been ci- advocatio1
commune forum to all perfons refiding abroad; and the ted, or who thinks himfelf aggrieved by any proceed-
defender? if his eftale be heritable, is confidcred as law- ings in the caufe, may, before decree, apply to the court
of
Part III. L
of feffion to Iffue letters of advocation for calling the
a£tion from before the inferior court to themfelves.
The grounds therefore, upon which a party may pray
for letters of advocation, are incompetency and iniqui-
B Advocation '* 1 '-UUll 1IV/U wait^ 1-liV.il V* IW VIIIAXV. iiiHjvii-j
it liow'limit-* in trifles, no canfe for a fum below twelve pound refumed the exercife of both rights, which continued
.td. Sterling can be advocated to the court of feffion from with the crown till the ufurpation ; when it was
w.
43 )
The judges thereof, who are veiled with an nniverfal Law of
civil jurifdi&ion, confifted originally of feven church- Scotland-
men, feven laymen, and a prefldent, whom it behoved
to be a prelate; but fpiritual judges were in 1584
ty. Under incompetency, is comprehended not only partly, and in 1640 totally, prohibited. The judges Judges, by
, ^ n 1 . 11 1 .1 r ^ I** _ r r.rtl I I * I   * j I  . _ r whnm na-
defeft of jurifdiftion, but all the grounds of declining
a jurifdiftion, in itfelf competent, ariling either from
fufpicion of the judge, or privilege in the parties. A
judge is faid to commit iniquity, when he either delays
juftice, or pronounces fentence, in the exercife of his
jurifdiction, contrary to law.
17. That the court of fefiion may not wafle their
of feffion have been always received by warrants from n1'
the crown. Anciently his majefty feems to have trans- nne
ferred to the court itfelf the right of chufing their own
prefident; and in a federunt recorded June 26. 1593,
the king condefcended to prefent to the lords, upon
every vacancy in the bench, a lilt of three perfons, out
of which they were to chufe one. But his majefty foon
the inferior judge competent: but if an inferior judge
{hall prodeed upon a caufe to which he is incompetent,
the caufe may be carried from him by advocation, let
the fubjedt be ever fo inconfiderable.
Sect. II. Of the fupreme judges and courts of
Scotland.
1. The king, who is the fountain of jurifdidtion,
might by our conftitution have judged in all cades,
either in his own perfon, or by thofe whom he was plea-
fed to veil with jurifdidlion.
2. The parliament of Scotland, as our court of the
dained, that the king (hould name the judges of the
feffion, by the advice of parliament. After the refto-
ration, the nomination was again declared to be folely
in the fovereign.
6. Though judges may, in the general cafe, be na- Their qua.
med at the age of 21 years, the lords of feffion muft ,ificadons
be at leaft 25. No perfon can be named lord of feffion, antl
who has not ferved as an advocate or principal clerk of
feffion for five years, or as a writer to the fignet for
ten: and in the cafe of a writer to the fignet, he muft
undergo the ordinary trials upon the Roman law, and
be found qualified two years before he can be named.
laft refort, had the right of reviewing the fentences of Upon a vacancy in the bench, the king prefents the
I Britain.
all our fupreme courts.
1 Parliament 3. By the treaty of union, 1707, the parliaments of
j|pf Great Scotland and England are united into one parliament
of Great Britain. From this period, the Britifti houfe
of peers, as coming in place of the Scots parlia¬
ment, is become our court of the laft refort, to which
appeals lie from all the fupreme courts of Scotland :
but that court has no original jurifdtftion in civil mat¬
ters, in which they judge only upon appeal. 'Qyart.22.
of that treaty, the Scots (hare of the reprefentation in
the houfe of peers is fixed to 16 Scots peers elective'
fucceffor by a letter addrefled to the lords, wherein he
requires them to try and admit the perfon prefented.
The powers given to them to rejedl the prefentee upon
trial are taken away, and a bare liberty to rcmonftrate
fubftituted in its place.
7. Befides the 15 ordinary judges, the king was al¬
lowed to name three or four lords of his great council,
who might fit and vote with them. Thefe extraordi¬
nary lords were fupprefled in the reign of Geo. I.
8. The appellation of the college of juflice is not con- Privileges
11c ui pteio 10 10 iw fined to the judges, who are diftinguiftied by the name the col¬
and in the houfe of commons, to 45 commoners, of of fenators; but comprehends advocates, clerks of fef- ftfcee°f'*U'
which 30 are ele&ed by the freeholders of counties, fion, writers to the fignet, and others, as deferibed,
and ry by the royal boroughs. The Scots privy coun- Sltt S. 23d Feb. 1687. Where, therefore, the college
cil was alfo thereupon abolifhed, and funk into that of of juftice is intitled to any privilege, it extends to all
Great Britain, which for the future is declared to have the members of the college. They are exempted from
no other powers than the Englifh privy council had at watching, warding, and other fervices within borough ;
the time of the union. and from the payment of minifter’s ftipends, and of all
4. A court was erefted in 1425, confifting of cer- cuftoms, &c. impofed upon goods carried to or from
tain perfons to be named by the king, out of the three the city of Edinburgh.
eftates of parliament, which was veiled with the jurif- 9. Though the jurifdiftion of the feffion be properly Jurifdi&ion
diftion formerly lodged in the council, and got the limited to civil caufes, the judges have always fuftained of ‘hefef-j
name of the fejfion, becaufe it was ordained to hold themfelves as competent to the crime of falfehood. ,'on*
annually a certain number of feffions at the places to Where the falfehood deferves death or demembration,
be fpecially appointed by the king. This court had a they, after finding the crime proved, remit the crimi-
jurifdiftion, cumulative with the judge ordinary, in nal to the court of judiciary. Special ftatute has given
fpuilzies, and other pofleffory aiftions, and in debts ; but to the court of feffion jurifdi&ion in contraventions of
they had no cognifance in queftions of property of he¬
ritable fubjefts. No appeal lay from its judgments to
the parliament. The judges of this court ferved by
rotation, and were changed from time to time, after
law-burrows, deforcements, and breach of arreftment;
and they have been in ufe to judge in battery pendente
life, and in ufury.
9. In certain civil caufes, the jurifdiftion of the fef-
having fat 40 days ; and became fo negligent in the fion is exclufive of all inferior jurifdi&ions ; as in de-
adminiftration of juftice, that it was at laft thought clarators of property, and other competitions of heri-
reffary to transfer the jurifdiction of this court to a table rights, provings of the tenor, cejjiones honontm^
£ Allege of
11 nftiee.
council to be named by the king, called the daily
council.
5. The prefent model of the court of feffion, or col¬
lege of juuice, was formed in the reign cf James V.
reftitution of minors, redudtions of decrees or of writings,
fales of the eftates of minors or bankrupts, In a
fecond clafs of caufes, their jurifdidtion can be only
exercifed in the way of review, after the caufe is brought
[ f 2 ] from
44
fufticiary
) I- A
from the inferior court; as in maritime and confiftorial
. caufes, which muft be purfued in the firil inftance be¬
fore the admiral or coinmiffary; and in aftions below
twelve pounds Sterling, which muft be commenced be¬
fore the judge-ordinary. In all civil actions, which
fall under neither of thefe clafles, the jurifdi&ion of the
feffion is concurrent, even in the firft inftance, with that
of the judge-ordinary. The fefiion may proceed as a
court of equity by the rules of confcience, in abating
the rigour of law, and giving aid in proper cafes to
fuch as in a court of law can have no remedy: and this
power is inherent in the fupreme court of every coun¬
try, where feparate courts are not eftablilhed for law
and for equity.
to. The fupreme criminal judge was ftyled the
Jufticiar; and he had anciently an univerfal civil ju-
rifdi&ion, even in matters of heritage. He was obli¬
ged to hold two juftice courts or ayres yearly at E-
"dinburgh or Peebles, where all the free-holders of the
kingdom were obliged to attend. Befides this univer¬
fal court, fpecial juftice-ayres were held in all the diffe¬
rent fliires of the kingdom twice in the year. Thefe
laft having gone into difufe, eight deputies were ap¬
pointed, two for every quarter of the kingdom, who
ftiould make their circuits over the whole in April and
O&ober.
; i. The office of deputies was fuppreffed in 1672
W. Part III.
ceeding ufed in the Englifii court of exchequer, under t.aw of
the following limitations ; that no debt due to the Scotlaml.
crown {hall affeft the debtor’s real eftate in any other .
manner than fuch eftate may be affedled by the laws of
Scotland, and that the validity of the crown’s titles to
any honours or lauds {hall continue to be tried by the
court of feffion. The barons have the powers of the
Scots court transferred to them, of palling the accounts
of ftieriffs, or other officers who have the execution of
writs iffuing from or returnable to the court of ex¬
chequer, and of receiving refignations, and palling lig-
natures of charters, gifts of cafualties, &c. But tho’
all thefe muft pafs in exchequer, it is the court of fef¬
fion only who can judge of their preference after they
are completed.
15. The jurifdidtion of the admiral in maritime
caufes was of old concurrent with that of the feffion.
The high-admiral is declared the king’s juftice-gene-
ral upon the feas, on frefh water within flood-mark, and
in all harbours and creeks. His civil jurifdidion ex¬
tends to all maritime caufes; and fo comprehends que-
ftions of charter-parties, freights, falvages, bottomries,
&c. He exercifes this fupreme jurifdidion by a dele¬
gate, the judge of the high court of admiralty; and he
may alfo name inferior deputies, whofe jurifdiftion is
limited to particular dill rids, and whofe fentences are
fubjeft to the review of the high court. In caufes which
and five lords of feffion were added, as commiffioners of are declared to fall under the admiral’s cognizance, his
Jufticiary, to the juftice-general and jurtice-clerk. The jurifdidion is foie; in fo much that the feflion it-
juftice-general, if prefent, is conftant prelident of the
court, and in his abfence the juftice-clerk. The king¬
dom is divided into three diftrids, and two of the judges
felf, though it may review his decrees by fufpenfion
or redudion, cannot carry a maritime queftion from
him by advocation. The admiral has acquired, by u-
are appointed to hold circuits in certain boroughs of fage, a jurifdidion in mercantile caufes, even where.
each diftrid twice in the year; one judge may pro¬
ceed to bulinefs in the abfencc of his collegue.
12. By an old ftatute, the crimes of robbery, rape,
murder, and wilful fire-raifing, (the four pleas of the
they are not ftridly maritime, cumulative with that of
the judge-ordinary.
16. All our fupreme courts have feals or fignets, pro- Signet,
per to their feveral jurifdidions. The courts of feffion
Grown), are faid to be referved to the King’s court of and jufticiary ufed formerly the fame fignet, which was
jufticiary; but the only crime in which, de praxi, the called the king’s, becaufe the writs iffuing from thence
->*■ loft ^11 run in the king’s name ; and though the jufticiary got
at laft a feparate lignet for itfelf, yet that of the feffion
{till retains the appellation of the ki>tg’s/ignet. In this
office are fealed fummonfes for citation, letters of exe¬
cutorial diligence, or for ftaying or prohibiting of dili¬
gence, and generally whatever paffes by the warrant of
the feffion, and is to be executed by the officers of the
court. All thefe muft, before fealing, be figned by the
writers or clerks of the fignet: But letters of diligence,
where they are granted in a depending procefs, merely
\urifdidion of Jufticiary became at laft exelufive of all
inferior criminal jurifdidion, was that of high treafon.
The court of Jufticiary, when fitting at Edinburgh, has
a power of advocating caufes from all inferior criminal
judges, and of fnfpending their fentences.
13. The circuit-court can alfo judge in all criminal
caufes which do not infer death or demembration, up¬
on appeal from any inferior court within their diftrid;
and has a fupreme civil jurifdidion, by way of appeal,
'a all caufes not exceeding twelve pounds Sterling, in
which their decrees are not fubjed to review ; but no for probation, though they pafs by the fignet, muft be
Court of
exchequer.
appeal is to lie to the circuit, till the caufe be finally
determined in the inferior court.
14. The court of Exchequer, as the King’s cham¬
berlain court, judged in all queftions of the revenue. In
purfuance of the treaty of Union, that court was abo-
liftied, and a new court ereded, confifting of the Lord
High Treafurer of Great Britain, and a chief Baron,
fubfcribed by a clerk of feffion. The clerks of the fig¬
net alfo prepare and fubfcribe all fignatures of charters,
or other royal grants, which pafs in exchequer.
Sect. III. 0/ the inferior judges and courts of
Scotland
Sheriff, from reeve, governor, and Jheer, to cut Sheriff.
with four other Barons of Exchequer; which Barons or divide, is the judge-ordinary conftituted by the
are to be made of ferjeants at law, Englifh barrifters, crown over a particular divifion or county. The Ibe-
or Scots advocates of five years {landing. This court riff’s jurifdidion, both civil and criminal, was, in an-
has a privative jurifdidion conferred upon it, as to the cient times, nearly as ample within his own territory as
duties of cuftoms, excife, or other revenues appertain- that of the fupreme courts of feffion and jufticiary was
ing to the king or prince of Scotland, and as to all ho- over the whole kingdom,
nours and eftates that may accrue to the crown • - u-- -;-:1
2. His civil jurildidion now extends to all adions
which matters, they arc to judge by the forms of pro- upon contrads, or other perfonal obligations; forth¬
comings,
Part III. L
a loot land.
ord of re-
ility.
tewart.
•race of
kotland.
comings, poindings of the ground, mails and duties;
and to all poffeflbry aftions, as removings, ejeftions,
fpuiizies, &c.; to all brieves ilfuing from the chancery,
as of inqueft, terce, divifion, tutory, &c.; and even to
adjudications of land-eftates, when proceeding on the
renunciation of the apparent heir. His prefent crimi¬
nal jurifdi&ion extends to certain capital crimes, as
theft, and even murder, though it be one of the pleas
of the crown ; and he is competent to mod queftions
of public police, and has a cumulative jurifdiftion with
juftices of the peace in all riots and breaches of the
peace.
3. Sheriffs have a minifterial power, in virtue of which
they return juries, in order to the trial of caufes that
require juries. The writs for ek&ing members of par¬
liament have been, fince the union, diredted to the Ihe-
riffs, who, after they are executed, return them to the
crown-office from whence they iflued. They alfo exe¬
cute writs iffuing from the court of exchequer; and in
general, take care of ail ellates, duties, or cafualties
that fall to the crown within their territory, fur which
they mud account to the exchequer.
4. A lord of regality was a magidrate who had a
grant of lands from the fbvereign, with royal jurifdic-
tion annexed thereto. His civil jurifdidtion was equal
to that of a fheriff; bis criminal extended to the four
pleas of the crown. He had a right to repledge or re¬
claim all criminals, fubjedf to his jurifdidtion, from any
other competent court, though it were the judiciary
itfelf, to his own. He had alfo right, according to the
mod common opinion, to the fingle efeheat of all de¬
nounced perfons reiiding within his jurildi&ion, even
though luch privilege had not been expreffed in the
grant of regality.
5. The dewart was the magidrate appointed by the
king over fuch regality lands as happened to fall to the
crown by forfeiture, &x. and therefore the dewart’s
jurifdi&ion was equal to that of a regality. The two
dewartries of Kircudbright, and of Orkney and Zet¬
land, make fhires or counties by themfelves, and fend
each a reprefentative to parliament.
6. Where lands not ereiled into a regality fell into
the king’s hands, he appointed a bailie over them,
whofe jurifdi&ion was equal to that of a ffieriff.
7. By the late jurifdi£tion-aft, 20 Geo. II. all heri¬
table regalities and bailieries, and all fuch heritable
fheriffships and dewartries as were only parts of a ffiire,
are diffolved; and the powers formerly veded in them
are made to devolve upon fuch of the king’s courts as
thefe powers would have belonged to if the jurifdi&ions
diffolved had never been granted. All fheriffships and
dewartries that were no part of a fhire, where they had
been granted, either heritably or for life, are refumed
and annexed to the crown. No high fheriff or dewart
can hereafter judge perfonally in any caufe. One fheriff
or dewart-depute is to be appointed by the king in
every fhire, who mud be an advocate of three years
danding; and after a certain term not yet expired, all
commiffions to thefe deputies are to be granted for
life.
8. The appanage, or patrimony, of the prince of
Scotland, has been long ere&ed into a regality-jurif-
di&ion, called the Principality. It is perfonal to the
king’s elded fon, upon whofe death or fucceffion it re¬
turns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, his
A W. ( 45 )
own chancery, from which his writs iffue, and may Law of
name his own chamberlain and other officers for re- ScotlanJ*
ceiving and managing his revenue. The vaffals of the
prince are intitled to eleft, or to be defied, members of
parliament for counties, equally with thofe who hold
of the crown.
9. Judices of the peace are magidrates named by
the fovereign over the feveral counties of the kingdom,
for the fpecial purpofe of preferving the public peace.
Anciently their power reached little farther than to
hind over diforderly perfons for their appearance before
the privy council or judiciary; afterwards they were
authorifed to judge in breaches of the peace, and in
mod of the laws concerning public policy. They may
compel workmen or labourers to ferve for a reafonable
fee, and they can condemn maders in the wages due to
their fervants. They have power to judge in quedions
of highways, and to call out the tenants with their cot¬
tars and fervants to perform fix days work yearly for
upholding them.
10. Since the Union, our judices of the peace, over
and above the powers committed to them by the laws
of Scotland, are authorifed to exercife whatever be¬
longed to the office of an Engliffi judice of the peace,
in relation to the public peace. From that time, the
Scots and the Engliffi commiffions have run in the fame
dyie, which contain powers to inquire into and judge
in all capital crimes, witchcrafts, felonies, and feveral
others fpecially enumerated; with this limitation fub-
joined, of which jufices of the peace may lawfully in¬
quire. Two judices can conditute a court. Special
datute has given the cognifance of feveral matters of
excife to the juffices, in which their fentences are fi¬
nal.
11. A borough is a body-corporate, made up of Boroughs,
the inhabitants of a certain tradl of ground ere&ed by
the fovereign, with jurifdi&ion annexed to it. Bo¬
roughs are eredled,. either to be holden of the fovereign
himfelf, which is the general cafe of royal boroughs;
or of the fuperior of the lands eredled, as boroughs of
regality and barony. Boroughs royal have power, by
their charters, to chufe annually certain office-bearers
or magidrates; and in boroughs of regality and ba¬
rony, the nomination of magidrates is, by their char¬
ter, lodged fometimes in the inhabitants, fometimes in
the fuperior. Bailies of boroughs have jurifdiAion in
matters of debt, fervices, and quedions of poffeffion
betwixt the inhabitants. Their criminal jurifdi&ion
extends to petty riots, and recklefs fire-railing. The
dean of guild is that magidrate of a royal-borough
who is head of the merchant-company : he has the cog¬
nifance of mercantile caufes within borough ; and the
infpedtion of buildings, that they encroach neither on
private property, nor on the public dreets; and he
may diredt infufficient houfes to be pulled down. His
jurifdi&ion has no dependence on the court of the bo¬
rough, or bailie-court.
12. A baron, in the large fenfe of that word, is one Barons,
who holds his lands immediately of the crown ; and, as
fuch, had, by our ancient conditution, right to a feat
in parliament, however fmall his freehold might have
been. The leffer barons were exempted from the bur¬
den of attending the fervice of parliament. This ex¬
emption grew infenfibly into an utter difability in all
the leffer barons from fitting in parliament, without e-
le&ion
( 4<5
Law of
Scotland.
Conftabu-
iaries.
Lyon king
Sentence-
money.
clix.
The jiope.
) L A
le&ion by the county ; though no ftatute is to be
found exprefsly excluding them.
13. To conftitute a baron in the ftrift law-fenfe, his
lands muft have been erected, or at leaft confirmed, by
the king, in liberam baroniam ; and fuch baron had a
certain jurifdidtion, both civil and criminal, which he
might have exercifed, either in his own perfon, or by
his bailie.
14. By the late jurifdi&ion-aft, the civil jurifdic-
tion of a baron is reduced to the power of recovering,
from his vaflals and tenants, the rents of his lands, and
of condemning them in mill-fervices ; and of judgiVig
in caufes where the debt and damages do not exceed
40 s. Sterling. His criminal jurifdi&ion is, by the
fame ftatute, limited to affaults, batteries, and other
fmaller offences, which may be punifhed by a fine not
exceeding 20 s. Sterling, or by fetting the offender in
the ftocks in the day-time not above three hours ; the
fine to be levied by poinding, or one month’s imprifon-
ment. The jurifdi&ion formerly competent to pro¬
prietors of mines, and coal or fait-works, over their
workmen, is referved ; and alfo that which was com¬
petent to proprietors who had the right of fairs or
markets, for corredting the diforders that might hap¬
pen during their continuance ; provided they ftiall ex-
ercife no jurifdidtion inferring the lofs of life or demem¬
bration.
15. The high conftable of Scotland had no fixed ter¬
ritorial jurifdidtion, but followed the court ; and had,
jointly with the marifcbal, the cognifance of alLcrimes
committed within two leagues of it. All other con-
ftabularies were dependent on him : thefe had cattles,
and fometimes boroughs, fubjedt to their jurifdidiion,
as Dundee, Montrofe, &c. and among other powers,
now little known, they had the right of exerciiing cri¬
minal jurifdidtion within their refpedtive territories du¬
ring the continuance of fairs. By the late jurifdidtion-
adt, all jurifdidtions of conftabulary are diffolved, ex¬
cept that of high-conftable.
16. The office of the Lyon King of arms was chiefly
minifterial, to denounce war, proclaim peace, carry
public meffages, &c. But he has alfo a right of ju¬
rifdidtion, whereby he can punilh all who ufurp arms
contrary to the law of arms, and deprive or fufpend
meffengers, heralds, or purfuivants, (who are officers
named by himfelf); but he has no cognifance of the
damage arifing to the private party through the'mef-
fenger’s fault. Meflengers are fubfervient to the fu-
preme courts of felfion and jufticiary ; and their proper
bufinefs is to execute all the king’s letters either in ci¬
vil or criminal caufes.
17. Our judges had, for a long time, no other fa-
laries or appointments than what arofe from the fen-
tences they pronounced. Our criminal judges applied
to their own ufe the fines or iffues of their feveral
courts; and regalities had a right to the fingle efcheat
of all perfons denounced, who refided within their ju-
rifdidfion ; and our civil judges got a certain propor¬
tion of the fum contained in the decree pronounced.
But thefe were all prohibited upon regular falaries be¬
ing fettled upon them.
Sect. V. Of ecclefiqftical perfons.
The Pope, or bifhop of Rome, was long acknow-
tedged, over the weftern part of Chriftendom, for the
W. Part HI.
head of the Chriftian church. The papal jurifdi&ion Law of
was abolifhed in Scotland anno 1560. The king was, Scotland,
by aft 1669, declared to have fupreme authority over 1
all perfons, and in all caufes ecclefiaftical; but this aft
was repealed by 1690, as inconfiftent with Prefbyterian
church-government, which was then upon the point of
being eltablifhed.
2. Before the reformation from Popery, the clergy CkfgT-
was divided into fecular and regular. The fecular had
a particular traft of ground given them in charge,
within which they exercifed the paftoral office of bi¬
fhop, prefbyter, or other church-officer. The regular
clergy had no cure of fouls; but were tied down to re-
fidence in their abbacies, priories, or other monafte-
ries : and they got the name of regular, from the rule*
of mortification to which they were bound, according
to the inftitution of their feveral orders. Upon the va¬
cancy of any benefice, whether fecular or regular, com-
mendators were frequently appointed to levy the fruits,
as faftors or ftewards during the vacancy. The Pope
alone could give the higher benefices in commendam;
and at laft, from the plenitude of his power, he came
to name commendators for life, and without any obli¬
gation to account. After the reformation, feveral ab¬
bacies and priories were given by James VI. in perpe-
tuam co7nmenda7n.> to laics.
3. Upon abolifhing the Pope’s authority, the regular
clergy were totally fuppreffed ; and, in place of all the
different degrees which diftinguifhed the fecular cler¬
gy, we had at firft only parochial prefbyters or mini-
fters, and fuperintendants, who had the overfight of
the church within a certain diftrift: foon thereafter
the church-government became epifcopal by archbi-
fhops, bifhops, &c.; and after fome intermediate turns,
is now prelhyterian by kirk-feffions, prefbyteries, fy-
nods, and general affemblies.
4. Prelate, in our ftatutes, fignifies a bifhop, abbot,
or other dignified clergyman, who in virtue of his of¬
fice had a feat in parliament. Every bifhop had hi*
chapter, which confided of a certain number of the
minifters of the diocefe, by whofe affiftance he ma¬
naged the affairs of the church within that diftrift.
The nomination of bifhops to vacant fees has been in
the crown fince 1540, though under the appearance of
continuing the ancient right of eleftion, which was in
the chapter. The confirmation by the crown under the
great leal, of the chapter’s eleftion, conferred a right
to the fpirituality of the benefice; and a fecond grant,
upon the confecration of the bifhop-eleft, gave a title
to the temporality ; but this fecond grant fell foon in¬
to difufe.
5. He who founded or endowed a church was in- Patrons,
titled to the right of patronage thereof, or advocatia
ecclefia: ; whereby, among other privileges, he might
prefent a churchman to the cure, in cafe of a vacancy.
The prefentee, after he was received into the church,
had a right to the benefice proprio jure; and if the
church was parochial, he was called a parfon. The
Pope claimed the right of patronage of every kirk to
which no third party could fhew a fpecial title; and,
fince the reformation, the crown, as coming in place
of the Pope; is confidered as univerfal patron, where
no right of patronage appears in a fubjeft. Where
two churches are united, which had different patrons,
each patron prefents by turns.
6. Gentle-
Part HI.
L A \V.
( 47 )
.Law of
i (Scotland.
{Patrons.
f
6. Gentlemen of eftates frequently founded colleges
or collegiate churches; the head of which got the name
■"ofprove/}, under whom were certain prebendaries, or
canons, who had their feveral ftalls in the church, where
they fung maffes. Others of lefier fortunes founded
chaplainries, which were donations granted for the
finging of maffes for deceafed friends at particular al¬
tars in a church. Though all thefe were fupprefled
upon the reformation, their founders continued pa¬
trons of the endowments ; out of which they were al¬
lowed to provide burfars, to be educated in any of the
univerfities.
7. Where a fund is gifted for the eftablifhment of a
fecond minifter in a parifh where the cure is thought
too heavy for one, the patronage of fuch benefice does
not belong to the donor, but to him who was patron
of the church, unlefs either where the donor has re-
ferved to himfelf the right of patronage in the dona¬
tion, or where he and his fucceffors have been in the
conftant ufe of prefenting the fecond minifter, without
challenge from the patron. The right of prefenting in¬
cumbents was by 1690, c. 23. taken from patrons, and
veiled in the heritors and elders of the parifh, upon
payment to be made by the heritors to the patron of
600 merks ; but it was again reftored to patrons,
10 rfn. c. 12. with the exception of the prefentations
fold in purfuance of the former a&.
8. Patrons were not fimply admkiiftrators of the
church ; for they held the fruits of the vacant benefice
as their own, for fome time after the reformation. But
that right is now no more than a truft in the patron,
who muft apply them to pious ufes within the parifh,
at the fight of the heritors, yearly as they fall due. If
he fail, he lofes his right of adminiftring the vacant
ftipend for that and the next vacancy. The king,
who is exempted from this rule, may apply the va¬
cant ftipend of his churches to any pious ufe, though
not within the parifh. If one fhould be ordained to a
church, in oppofition to the prefentee, the patron,
whofe civil right cannot be affefted by any fentence of
a church-court, may retain the ftipend as vacant. Pa¬
trons are to this day intitled to a feat and burial-place
in the churches of which they are patrons, and to the
right of all the teinds of the parifh not heritably dif-
poned.
9. That kirks may not continue too long vacant, the
patron muft prefent to the prefbytery, (formerly to the
bifhop), a fit perforn for fupplying the cure, within
^fix months from his knowledge of the vacancy, other-
wife the right of prefentation accrues to the prefbytery
jure devoluto. Upon prefentation by the patron, the
bifhop collated or conferred the benefice upon the pre¬
fentee by a writing, in^ which he appointed certain mi-
nifters of the diocefe to induce or inftkute him into the
church ; which indu&ion completed his right, and was
performed by their placing him in the pulpit, and de¬
livering him the bible and keys of the church. The
bifhop collated to the churches of which himfelf was
patron, plena jure, or without prefentation; which he
alfo did in menfal churches, whofe patronages were
funk, by the churches being appropriated to him, as
part of his patrimony. Since the revolution, a judicial
a& of admiffion by the prefbytery, proceeding either
upon a prefentation, or upon a call from the heritors
and elders, or upon their own jus devolutum, completes
the minifter’s right to the benefice. Law of
10. Soon after the reformation, the Popifh church- Scot'and.
men were prevailed upon to refign in the fovereign’s provifion
hands, a third of their benefices; which was appropri- for tj,e le.
ated, in the firft place, for the fubfiftence of the reform- formed
ed clergy. To make this fund effe&ual, particular lo- clergy,
calities were affigned in every benefice, to the extent
of a third, called the affumption of thirds ; and for the
farther fupport of minifters, Queen Mary made a grant
in their favour of all the fmall benefices not exceeding
300 merks. Bifhops, by the a& which reftored them
to the whole of their benefices, were obliged to main¬
tain the minifters within their diocefes, out of the
thirds; and in like manner, the laic titulars, who got
grants of the teinds, became bound, by their accepta¬
tion thereof, to provide the kirks within their erec¬
tions in competent ftipends.
11. But all thefe expedients for the maintenance of Commiffi-
the clergy having proved inefFc&ual, a commiffion of on for pbn-
parliament was appointed in the reign of James VI. rks’
for planting kirks, and modifying ftipends to minifters ^nds^&c.
out of the teinds; and afterwards feveral other com-
miffions were appointed, with the more ample powers
of dividing large parilhes, ere&ing new ones, &c. all
of which were, in 1707, transferred to the court of
feflion, with this limitation, that no parilh fhould be
disjoined, nor new church ere&ed, nor old one re¬
moved to a new place, without the confent of three-
fourths of the heritors, computing the votes, not by
their numbers, but by the valuation of their rents
within the parifh. The judges of feflion, when fitting
in that court, are confidered as a commiffion of par¬
liament, and have their proper clerks, macers, and o-
ther officers of court, as fuch.
12. The lowed ftipend that could be modified to a Stipends,
minifter by the firft commiffion, was 500 merks, or
five chalders of vi&ual, unlefs where the whole teinds
of the parifh did not extend fo far: and the higheft
tvas 1000 merks, or ten chalders. The parliament
1633 taifed the minimum to eight chalders of vi&ual,
and proportionably in filver ; but as neither the com¬
miffion appointed by that aA, nor any of the fubfe-
quent ones, was limited as to the maximum, the commif-
fioners have been in ufe to augment ftipends confider-
ably above the old maximum, where there is Efficien¬
cy of free teinds, and the cure is burdenfome, or living
expenfive.
13. Where a certain quantity of ftipend is modified
to a minifter out of the teinds of a parifh, without pro¬
portioning that ftipend among the feveral heritors, the
decree is called a decree of modification: but where
the commiffioners alfo fix the particular proportions
payable by each heritor, it is a decree of modification
and locality. Where a ftipend is only modified, it is
fecured on the whole teinds of the parifh, fo that the
minifter can infift againft any one heritor to the full
extent of his teinds; fuch heritor being always entitled
to relief againft the reft, for what he fhall have paid
above his juft (hare : but where the ftipend is alfo lo-
called, each heritor is liable in no more than his own
proportion.
14. Few of the reformed minifters were, at firft, Manfe.
provided with dwelling-houfes ; moft of the Popifh
clergy having, upon the firft appearance of the refor¬
mation, let their manfesin feu, or in long tacks: mi-
niftera
( 48 ) L
Lsw of nifters therefore got a right, in 1563, to as much of
Scotland. ti,efe manfes as vvould ferve them, notwithftanding
fuch feus or tacks. Where there was no parfon’s nor
vicar’s manfe, one was to be built by the heritors, at
the fight of the bilhop, (now the prefbytery), the
charge not exceeding L. 1000 Scots, nor below 500
merks. Under a manfe are comprehended (table, barn,
and byre, with a garden ; for all which, it is ufual to
allow half an acre of ground.
15. Every incumbent is intitled at his entry to have
his manfe put into good condition ; for which purpofe,
the preftytery may appoint a vifitation by tradefmen,
and order eftimates to be laid before them of the fums
necefiary for the repairing, which they may proportion
among the heritors according to their valuations. The
prefbytery, after the manfe is made fufiicient, ought,
upon application of the heritors, to declare it a free
manfe; which lays the incumbent under an obligation
to uphold it in good condition during his incumbency,
otherwife he or his executors (hall be liable in da¬
mages, but they are not bound to make up thelof. a-
rifing from the neceffary decay of the building by the
wafte of time.
Glebe, and a 6- All minifters, where there is any landward or
country-pariih, are, over and above their (Upend, in-
titled to a glebe, which comprehends four acres of a-
rable land, or lixteen fowms of pafture-ground where
there is no arable land, (a fowm is what will graze ten
iheep or one cow) ; and is to be defigned or marked
by the bifirop or prefbytery out of fuch kirk-lands
within the parifii as lie neareft to the kirk, and, in de¬
fault of kirk-lands, out of temporal lands.
17. A right of relief is competent to the heritors,
whofe lands are fet off for the manfe or glebe, againll
the other heritors of the parifh. Manfes and glebes,
being once regularly defigned, cannot be feued or fold
by the incumbent in prejudice of his fucceffors, which
is in praftice extended even to the cafe where fuch alie¬
nation evidently appears profitable to the benefice.
Grafs. jg. Minifters, befide their glebe, are intitled to
grafs for a horfe and two cows. And, it the lands,
out of which the grafs may be defigned, either lie at
a diftance, or are not fit for pafture, the heritors are
to pay to the minifter L. 20 Scots yearly as an equiva¬
lent. Minifters have alfo freedom °f foggage, paftur-
age, fewel, feal, divot, loaning, and free i(h and en¬
try, according to life and wont: what thefe privileges
are, muft be determined by the local cuftom of the fe-
veral pariflies.
Terms of 19- The legal terms at which (Upends become due
payment of to minifters are Whitfunday and Michaelmas. If the
(Upends, incumbent be admitted to his church before Whitfun¬
day, till which term the corns are not prefumed to be
fully fown, he has right to that whole year’s (Upend ;
and, if he is received after Whitfunday, and before
Michaelmas, he is intitled to the half of that year ;
becaufe, though the corns were fown before his en¬
try, he was admitted before the term at which they
are prefumed to be reaped. By the fame reafon, if
he dies or is tranfported before Whitfunday, he has
right to no part of that year ; if before Michaelmas,
to the half; and if not till after Michaelmas, to the
whole.
Annat or 30. After the minifter’s death, his executors have
ann. right to the annat; which, in the fenfe of the canon
A W. Part III. j
law, was a right referved to the Pope, of the firft Law of i
year’s fruits of every benefice. Upon a threatened in- Scotland., a
vafion from England anno 1547, the annat was given if
by our parliament, notwithftanding this right in the
Pope, to the executors of fuch churchmen as (hould
fall in battle in defence of their country : but the word
annat or «««, as it is now underftood, is the right
which law gives to the executors of minifters, of half
a year’s benefice over and above what was due to the
minifter himfelf for his incumbency.
21. The executors of a minifter need make up no
title to the ann by confirmation : neither is the right
affignable by the minifter, or affecfable with his debts;
for it never belonged to him, but is a mere gratuity
given by law to thofe whom it it is prefumed the de-
ceafed could not fufficiently provide ; and law has gi¬
ven it exprefsly to executors: and if it were to be go¬
verned by the rules of fuccefifion in executory, the wi¬
dow, in cafe of no children, would get one half, the
other would go to the next of kin ; and where there
are children, (lie would be entitled to a third, and the
other two thirds would fall equally among the children.
But the court of ftfiion, probably led by the general
pra&ice, have in this laft cafe divided the ann into two
equal parts, of which one goes to the widow, and the
other among the children in capita.
22. From the great confidence that was, in the firft . . J 111
ages of Chnftianity, repofed in churchmen, dying per-
fons frequently committed to them the care of their
eftates, and of their orphan children ; but thefe were
(imply rights of truft, not of jurifdiftion. The clergy
foon had the addrefs to eftabliftt to themfelvcs a proper
jurifdi&ion, not confined to points of ecclefiaftical
right, but extending to queftions that had no concern
with the church. They judged not only in teinds,
patronages, teftaments, breach of vow, fcandal, &c.;
but in queftions of marriage and divorce, becaufe
marriage was a facrament; in tochers, becaufe thefe
were given in confideration of marriage; in all que¬
ftions where an oath intervened, on pretence that
oaths were a part of religious worfhip, &c. As
churchmen came, by the means of this extenfive jurif-
didion, to be diverted from their proper fundions,
they committed the exercife of it to their officials or
commiffaries: hence the commiffary-court was called
the Bijhops Court, and Curia Chrijlianitatis: it was alfo
ftyled the Conjijlorial Court; from confjiory, a name firft
given to the court of appeals of the Roman emperors,
and afterwards to the courts of judicature held by
churchmen.
23. At the reformation, all epifeopa] jurifdidion, Commiffalif
exercifed under the authority of the bifhop of Rome, ry.
was abolifhed. As the courfe of juftice in confntorial I ;
caufes was thereby flopped, Q^Mary, befides naming
a commiffary for every diocefe, did, by a fpecial grant,
eftablifh a new commiffary-'court at Edinburgh, con¬
fiding of four judges or commiffaries. This court is
veiled with a double jurifdidion ; one diocefan, which
is exercifed in the ipecial. territory contained in the
grant, viz. the counties of Edinburgh, Haddington,
Linlithgow, Peebles, and a great part of 8urling(hire ;
arfd another univerfal, by which the judges confirm the
teftaments of all who die in foreign parts, and may re¬
duce the decrees of all inferior commiffaries, provided
the redudion be purfued within a year after the de¬
cree ; i :
'Partlll. LAW. (49)
11 ti Law of Cree : bifiiops, upon their re-eftabliniment in the reign refiled from, as long as matters are entire; but if Law of
j(|Scotland. Gf Jaraes VI. were reftored to the right of naming any thing be done by one of the parties, whereby a Scotland.
] their feveral commilfaries. prejudice arifes from the non-performance, the party
24. As the clergy, in times of Popery, aflumed a refiling is liable in damages to the other. The ca-
jurifdiftion independent of the civil power or any fe- nonifts, and after them our courts of juftice, explain a
cular court, their fentences could be reviewed only by copula fubfequent to a promife of marriage into a&ual
the Pope, or judges delegated by him ; fo that, with marriage.
regard to the courts of Scotland, their jurifdidtion was 3* It is not neceflary, that marriage Ihould be cele- Lorn’ of
fupreme. But, by an adt 1560, the appeals from our brated by a clergyman. The confent of parties may eelebration.
bifhops courts, that were then depending before the be declared before any magiftrate, or fimply before
Roman confittories, were ordained to be decided by witnefies: and though no formal confent fhould ap-
the court of fefiion : and by a pofterior adt, 1609, the pear, marriage is prefumed from the cohabitation, or
feffion is declared the king’s great confiltory, with living together at bed and board, of a man and wo-
power to review all fentences pronounced by the com- man who are generally reputed hufband and wife,
miffaries. Neverthelefs, fince that court had no inhe- One’s acknowledgment of his marriage to the midwife
rent jurifdidtion in confiftorial caufes prior to this fta- whom he called to his wife, and to the minifter who
tute, and fince the ftatute gives them a power of baptized his child, was found fufficient prefumptive e-
judging only by way of advocation, they have not, to vidence of marriage, without the aid either of cohabit-
this day, any proper confiftorial jurifdidlion in the firft ation, or of habite and repute. The father’s confent
inftance; neither do they pronounce fentence in any was, by the Roman law, eflential to the marriage of
confiftorial caufe brought from the commiffaries, but children in familia; but, by our law, children may
remit it back to them with inftru&ions. By theprac- enter into marriage, without the knowledge, and even
tice immediately fubfequent to the aft before quoted, againft the remonftrances, of a father.
they did not admit advocations from the inferior com- 4- Marriage is forbidden within certain degrees of Forbidden
miffaries, till the caufe was firft brought before the blood. By the law of Mofes, Leviticus xviii. which degrees,
commiflaries of Edinburgh; but that praftice is now is made ours, feconds in blood, and all remoter de¬
in difufe. _ grees, may all lawfully marry. By feconds in blood
25. The commiffaries retain to this day an exclufive are meant firft coufins. Marriage in the direft line is
power of judging in declarators of marriage, and of forbidden in infinitum; as it is alfo in the collateral
the nullity of marriage; in aftions of divorce and of line in the fpecial cafe where one of the parties is lo~
non-adherence, of adultery, baftardy, and confirma- co parentis to the other, as grand-uncle, great grand-
tion of teftaments; becaufe all thefe matters are Hill uncle, &c. with refpeft to his grand-niece, &c. The
confidered to be properly confiftorial. Inferior com- fame degrees that are prohibited in confanguinity,
miffaries are not competent to queftions of divorce, un- are prohibited in affinity; which is the tie arifing from
der which are comprehended queftions of baftardy and marriage, betwixt one of the married pair, and the
adherence, when they have a conneftion with the law- blood-relations of the other. Marriage alfo, where Other
fulnefs of marriage, or with adultery. either of the parties is naturally unfit for generation, grounds of
26. Commiffaries have now no power to pronounce or ftands already married to a third perfon, is ipfojure nullity-
decrees in abfence for any fum above L. 40 Scots, ex- null.
cept in caufes properly confiftorial: but they may au- 5. To prevent bigamy and inceftuous marriages, Proclama-
thenticate tutorial and curatorial inventories; and all the church has introduced proclamation of banns; t'on °f
bonds, contrafts, &c. which contain a claufe for re- which is the ceremony of publiftting the names and banns-
giftration in the books of any judge competent, and defignations of thofe who intend to intermarry, in the
protefts on bills, may be regilteied in their books. churches where the bride and bridegroom refide, after
Src-r VI Of marriao-p the congregation is affembled for divine fervice ; that
. ^ \ a11 perftms who know any objeftion to the marriage,
Persons, when confidered in a private capacity, may offer it. When the order of the church is ob-
are chiefly diftinguiffied by their mutual relations; as ferved, the marriage is called regular when otherwife,
hufband and wife, tutor and minor, father and child, clandejline.
mafter and fervant. The relation of hufband and 6. By marriage, a fociety is created between the Comma-
wife is conftituted by marriage ; which is the con- married pair, which draws after it a mutual communi- "ion of
junftion of man and wife, vowing to live infeparably cation of their civil interefts, in as far as is neceffary for 6oodSi
till death. _ maintaining it. As the fociety lafts only for the joint
2. Marriage is truly a contraft, and fo requires the lives of the focii; therefore rights that have the nature
confent of parties. Idiots, therefore, and furious per- of a perpetuity, which our law ftyles heritable, zrz hot
fons, cannot marry. As no perfon is prefumed capable brought under the partnerfhip or communion of goods;
of confent within the years of pupillarity, which, by as a land-eftate, or bonds bearing a yearly intereft : it
our law, lafts till the age of 14 in males, and 12 in is only moveable fubjefts, or the fruits produced by he-
females, marriage cannot be contrafted by pupils; but ritable fubjefts during the marriage, that become com-
if the married pair ffiould cohabit after puberty, fuch mon to man and wife.
acquiefcence gives force to the marriage. Marriage is 7. The hufband, as the head of the wife, has the Jus maritl
fully perfefted by confent; which, without confum- foie right of managing the goods in communion which
mation, founds all the conjugal rights and duties. The is called jus mariti. This right is fo abfolute, that it
confent requifite to marriage muft be de prafenti. A bears but little refemblance to a right of adminiftering
promife of marriage, (fiipulatio fponfalitia), may be a common fubjeft. For the hulhand can, in virtue
C 8 I thereof,
fi clx.
( 5o ) LA W. Part III. j
Law of thereof, fell, or even gift, at his plcafure, the whole rated to the intereft he has in her eftate. Itisthehuf- Law of .
Scotland. g00ds falling under communion; and his creditors band alone who is liable in perfonal dilgence for his ^C0I‘an 'j
may aft'eft them for the payment of his proper debts : wife’s debts, while the marriage fubfifts : the wife,
fo that the jus mariti carries all the charafters of an who is the proper debtor, is free from all perfonal exe-
aflignation, by the wife to her hulhand, of her move- cution upon them while (he is vejlita viro.
able eflate. It arifes///jyrov from the marriage ; and 12. The hulband by marriage becomes the perpe-The hufj!
therefore needs no other conftitution. But a ftranger tual curator of the wile. From this right it arifes, hand is ib
may convey an dlate to a wife, fo as it (hall not be 1. That no fuit can proceed againft the wife, till the wife’s cur
fubjefi: to the hulhand’s adminiftration ; or the huf- hulhand be cited for his intereft. 2. All deeds, done ^ t
band himfelf may, in the marriage-contraft, renounce by a wife without the hulband’s confent, are null; nei-
his jus mariti in all or any part of his wife’s moveable ther can (he fue in any aftion without the hufband’s
eftate. concurrence. Where the hulband refufes, or by rea-
Parapher- g. pYonj this right are excepted paraphernal goods, fon of forfeiture, kc. cannot concur ; or where the
 which, as the word is underftood in outlaw, compre- adlion is to be brought againft the hulband himfelf,
bends the wife’s wearing apparel, and the ornaments for performing his part of the marriage-articles; the
proper to her perfon, as necklaces, ear-rings, breaft judge will authorife her to fue in her own name. The
or arm jewels, buckles, &c. Thefe are neither alie- effedfs arifing from this curatorial power difeover
nable by the hulband, nor affe&able by his creditors, themfelves even before marriage, upon the publication
Things of promifeuous ufe to hulhand and wife, as of banns; after which the bride, being no longer fui
plate, medals, &c. may become paraphernal, by the juris, can contraft no debt, nor do any deed, either
hulband’s giving them to the wife, at or before mar- to the prejudice of her future hulband, nor even to
riage ; but they are paraphernal only in regard to her own.
that hulband who gave them as fuch, and are efteem- 13. If the hulband Ihould either withdraw from his Separate
ed common moveables, if the wife, whofe parapberna- wife, or turn her out of doors; or if, continuing Jo hmony. |
Ua they were, be afterwards married to a fecond huf- family with her, he Ihould by fevere treatment en-
band ; unlefs he lhall in the fame manner appropriate danger her life ; the commilTaries will authorife a fepa-
them to her. ration a tnenfa et tboro, and give a feparate alimony to
Burdens af- ^ rj’he right of the hufband to the wife's moveable the wife, fuitable to her hulband’s eftate, from the time
6 e^ate» *s burdened by the moveable debts contra&ed of fuch reparation, until either a reconciliation or a fen-
man i. ^ before marriage : and as his right is univerfal, tence of divorce.
fo is his burden ; for it reaches to her whole moveable 14. Certain obligations of the wife are valid, not- What c
debts, though they Ihould far exceed her moveable e- withftanding her beingyhi cura mariti; ex. gr. obli- gations
Hate. Yet the hulband is not confidered as the true gations arifing from delidt; for wives have no privilege j)16 "’ll®
debtor in his wife’s debts. In all adions for payment, to commit crimes. But if the punilhment refolves in-
Ihe is the proper defender : the hulband is only cited to a pecuniary mulft, the execution of it muft, from
for his intereft, that is, as curator to her, and admi- her incapacity to fulfil, be fufpended till the diffolution
ftrator of the fociety-goods. As foon therefore as the of the marriage, unlefs the wife has a feparate eftate
marriage is diffolved, and the fociety-goods thereby exempted from the jus mariti.
fuffer a divifion, the hulband is no farther concerned 15. Obligations ariling from contraft, affeft either
in the lhare belonging to his deceafed wife; and con- the perfon or the eftate. The law has been fo careful
fequently is no longer liable to pay her debts, which to proteft wives while fab cura mariti, that all per-
muft be recovered from her reprefentatives, or her fe- fonal obligations granted by a wife, though with the
parate ftate. hulband’s confent, as bonds, bills, &c. are null; with
xo. This obligation upon the hulband is perpetuated the following exceptions: (1.) Where the wife gets
againft him, (1.) Where his proper eftate, real or a feparate peculium or flock, either from her father or
perfonal, has been affefted, during the marriage, by a ftranger, for her own or her children’s alimony, Ihe
complete legal diligence ; in which cafe, the hulband may grant perfonal obligations in relation to fuch flock:
muft, by the common rules of law, relieve his pro- and by ftronger reafon, perfonal obligations granted
perty from the burden with which it Hands charged : by a wife are good, when her perfon is actually with-
but the utmoft diligence againft his perfon, is not fuf- drawn from the hufoand’s power by a judicial fepara-
ficient to perpetuate the obligation; nor even incom- tion. (2.) A wife’s perfonal obligation, granted in
plete diligence againft his eftate. (2.) The hulband the form of a deed inter vivos, is valid, if it is not to
continues liable, even after the wife’s death, in fo far take effe6t till her death. (3.) Where the wife is by the
as he is lucratus or profited by her eftate. As he was hulband pnepofita vegotiis, intrufted with the manage-
at no time the proper debtor in his wife’s moveable ment, either of a particular branch of bufinefs, or of
debts; therefore, though he Ihould he lucratus, he is, his whole affairs, all the contrafts (he enters into in the
after the diffolution, only liable for them fubftdiari'e, exercife of her praspofttura are effe&ual, even though
i. e. if her own feparate eftate is not fufficient to pay they be not reduced to writing, but Ihould arife mere-
them off. ly ex re, from furnilhings made to her: but fuch obli-
11. Where the wife is debtor in that, fort of debt, gations have no force againft the wife ; it is the huf-
which, if it had been due to her, would have excluded band only, by whofe commiffion Ihe adls, who is there-
. the jus mariti, e. g. in bonds bearing intereft, the huf- by obliged,
band is liable only for the bygone interefts, and thofe 16. A wife, while Ihe remains in family with her
that may grow upon the debt during the marriage; be- hulband, is confidered prxpoftta negotiis domeJUcis :
caufe his obligation for her debts muft be commenfu- and confequently may provide things proper for the fa¬
mily i
How ex¬
tended a-
gain ft the
hulband.
Part III.
L
Law Of mJJy J ,for the pr;ce wl)ereof the huftand Is liable, tho*
| cot and' they fliould be milapplied, or though the hulband
fhould have given her money to provide them elfe-
gain/j'a" where. A hufband who fufpefts that his wife may
hurt his fortune by high living, may ufe the remedy of
inhibition againil her ; by which all perfons are inter-
pelled from contra&ing with her, or giving her credit.
After the completing of this diligence, whereby the
prapojitura falls, the wife cannot bind the huiband, un-
lefs for fuch reafonable furnifhings as he cannot in-
ftruft that he provided her with aliunde. As’every man,
and confequently every hufband, has a right to remove
bis managers at pleafure, inhibition may pafs at the
fuit of the huiband againft the wife, though he fhould
not offer to juflify that meafure by an actual proof of
the extravagance or profufion of her temper,
tights af- 17. As to rights granted by the wife affefting her
rfting her eftate . ftc has no moveable eftate, except her para¬
phernalia ; and thefe (he may alien or impignorate,
with confent of the hufband. She can, without the
hufband, bequeath by teftament her (hare of the goods
in communion; but fhe cannot difpofe of them inter
vivos. A wife can lawfully oblige herfelf, in relation
to her heritable eftate, with confent of her hufband:
for though her perfon is in fome fenfe funk by the
marriage, fhe continues capable of holding a real e-
ftate ; and in fuch obligations, her eftate is confidered,
and not her perfon. A hufband, though he be cura¬
tor to his wife, can, by bis acceptance or interven¬
tion, authorife rights granted by her in his own fa¬
vour : for a hufband’s curatory is not intended only for
the wife’s advantage, but is confidered as a mutual be-
! nefit to both.
donations, 18* All donations, whether by the wife to the huf-
evocable band, or by the hufband to the wife, are revocable by
nd irrevo- the donor; but if the donor dies without revocation,
4 e- the right becomes abfolute. Where the donation is
not pure, it is not fubjeft to revocation : thus, a grant
made by the hufband, in confequence of the natural
obligation that lies upon him to provide for his wife, is
not revocable, unlefs in fo far as it exceeds the meafiire
of a National fettlement ; neither are i^emuneratory
grants revocable, where mutual grants are made in con-
iideration of each other, except where an onerous caufe
is fimulated, or where what is given hinc hide bears no
proportion to each other. All voluntary contrafts of
feparation, by which the wife is provided in an yearly
alimony, are effeftual as to the time paft, but revocable
either by the hufband or wife.
Ratification As wives are in the ftrongeft degree fubjeft to
wives, the influence of tbeir hufbands, third parties, in whofe
favours they had made grants, were frequently vexed
with adtions of reduftion, as if the grant had been ex¬
torted from the wife through the force or fear of the
hufband. To fecure the grantees againft this danger,
ratifications were introduced, whereby the wife, ap¬
pearing before a judge, declares upon oath, her huf¬
band not prefent, that fhe was not induced to grant
the deed ex vi aut metu. A wife’s ratification is not
abfolutely neceflary for fecuring the grantee : law in¬
deed allows the wife to bring redudtion of any deed fhe
has not ratified, upon the head of force or fear; of
which, if (lie brings fufficient evidence, the deed will be
fet afide; but if fhe fails in the proof, it will remain
efFeftual to the receiver.
a w. ( 5I )
20. Marriage, like other contradls, might, by the Law of
Roman law, be diflblved by the contrary confent of Scotland,
FairtjS hJ the la'V,°f S.cotland’ k cann°t be dif- Diffoimion
iolvedtill death, except by divorce, proceeding either of mar
upon the head of adultery, or of wilful defertion. riage.
21. Marriage is diffolved by death, either within
year and day from its being contra&ed, or after year
and day. If it is diflblved within year and day, all
rights granted in confideration of the marriage (unlefs
guarded againft in the contraft) become void, and
things return to the fame condition in which they flood
before the marriage : with this reftri&ion, that the
hufband is confidered as a bona fide pofTeffor, in rela¬
tion to what he has confumed upon the faith of his
right; but he is liable to repay the tocher, without:
any dedudlion in confideration of his family-expencc
during the marriage. If things cannot be reftored on
both fides, equity hinders the reftoring of one party,
and not the other.
22. Upon the diffolution of a marriage, after year
and day, the furviving hufband becomes the irrevocable
proprietor of the tocher ; and the wife, where fhe fur-
vives, is intitled to her jointure, or to her legal provi-
fions. She has alfo right to mournings, fuitable to
the hufband’s quality ; and to alimony from the day of
his death, till the term at which her liferent provifion,
either legal or conventional, commences. If a living
child be procreated of the marriage, the marriage has
the fame effedl as if it had fubfifted beyond the year.
A day is adje&ed to the year, in tnajorem evidential,
that it may clearly appear that the year itfelf is elap-
fed ; and therefore, the running of any part of the
day, after the year, has the fame effed as if the whole
were elapfed. The legal right of courtefy compe¬
tent to the furviving hufband is explained below,
N° clxx. 28.
23. Divorce is fuch a feparation of married perfons, Divorce,
during their lives, as loofes them from the nuptial tie,
and leaves them at freedom to intermarry with others.
But neither adultery, nor wilful defertion, are grounds
which muft neceffarily difiblve marriage ; they are
only handles, which the injured party may take hold
of to be free. Cohabitation, therefore, by the in¬
jured party, after being in the knowledge of the ads
of adultery, implies a pafling from the injury ; and no
divorce can proceed, which is carried on by collufion
betwixt the parties, left, contrary to the firft inflitu-
tion of marriage, they might difengage themfelves by
their own confent: and though, after divorce, the
guilty perfon, as well as the innocent, may contradl
fecond marriages ; yet, in the cafe of divorce upon adul¬
tery, marriage is by fpecial ftatute prohibited betwuxt
the two adulterers.
24. Where either party has deferted from the other
for four years together, that other may fue for adhe¬
rence. If this has no effe<&, the church is to proceed,
firft by admonition, then by excommunication ; all
which previous fteps are declared to be a fufficient
ground for purfuing a divorce. De praxi, the com-
miffaries pronounce fentence in the adherence, after
one year’s defertion; but four years muft intervene be¬
tween the firft defertion and the decree of divorce.
25. The legal effe&s of divorce on the head of de¬
fertion are, that the offending hufband (hall reftore the
tocher, and forfeit to-the wife all her provifions, legal
t g 2 ] and
( 52
I,-.w of
Scotland.
clxt.
Pupillarlty,
&c.
Tutors.
Agnates.
) L A
and, conventional; and on the other hand, the offend¬
ing wife {hall forfeit to the hufband her tocher, and all
the rights that would have belonged to her in the cafe
of her furvivance. This was alfo efteemed the rule in
divorces upon adultery. But by a decifion of the court
of feffion 1662, founded on a traft of ancient decifions
recovered from the records, the offending hufband was
allowed to retain the tocher.
Sect. YU. Of Minorsy and their tutors and
curators.
> i. The ftages of life principally diftinguifhed in
law are, pupillarity, pulerty or minority, and majority.
A child is under pupillarity, from the birth to 14 years
of age if a male, and till 12 if a female. Minority
begins where pupillarity ends, and continues till majo¬
rity ; which, by the law of Scotland, is the age of
21 years complete, both in males and females: but
minority, in a large fenfe, includes all under age, whe¬
ther pupils or puberes. Becaufe pupils cannot in any
degree aft for themfelves, and minors feldom with dif-
cretion, pupils are put by law under the power of tu¬
tors, and minors may put themfelves under the direc¬
tion of curators. Tutory is a power and faculty to
govern the perfon, and adminifter the eftate, of a pupil.
Tutors are either nominate, of law, or dative.
2. A tutor nominate is he who is named by a fa¬
ther, in his teftament or other writing, to a lawful
child. Such tutor is not obliged to give caution for the
faithful difcharge of his office; becaufe his fidelity is
prefumed to have been Efficiently known to the father.
3. If there be no nomination by the father, or if
the tutors nominate do not accept, or if the nomina¬
tion falls by death or otherwife, there is place for a
tutor of law. This fort of tutory devolves upon the
next agnate ; by which we underftand he who is neareft
related by the father, though females intervene.
4. Where there are two or more agnates equally near
to the pupil, he who is intitled to the pupil’s legal fuc-
ceffion falls to be preferred to the others. But as the
law fufpefts, that he may not be over careful to pre-
ferve a life which ftands in the way of his own intereft,
this fort of tutor is excluded from the cuftody of the
pupil’s perfon ; which is commonly committed to the
mother, while a widow, until the pupil be feven years
old; and, in default of the mother, to the next cog¬
nate, i. e. the nigheft relation by the mother. The
tutor of law muft. be at leaf! 25 years of age. He is
ferved or declared by a jury of fworn men, who are
called upon a brief iffuing from the chancery, which is
direfted to any judge having jurifdiftion. He mud
give fecurity before he enters upon the management.
5. If no tutor of law demands the office, any per¬
fon, even a ftranger, may apply for a tutory-dative.
But becaufe a tutor in law ought to be allowed a com¬
petent time to deliberate whether he will ferve or not,
no tutory-dative can be given till the elapfing of a year
from the time at which the tutor of law had firft a
light to ferve. It is the king alone, as the father of
his country, who gives tutors-dative, by his court of
exchequer; and no gift of tutory can pafs in exche¬
quer, without the citation or confent of the next of kin
to the pupil, both by the father and mother, nor till
the tutor give fecurity, recorded in the books of ex¬
chequer. There is no room for a tutor of law, or
w.
Part III.
tutor-dative, while a tutor-nominate can be hoped for: Law of
and tutors of law, or dative, even after they have be- Scotland.
gun to aft, may be excluded by the tutor-nominate,
as foon as. he offers to accept, unlefs he has exprefsly
renounced the office. If a pupil be without tutors of Judicial ■
any kind, the court of feffion will, at the fuit of any
kinfman, name a faftor (fteward) for the management
of the pupil’s eftate.
6. After the years of pupillarity are over, the mi¬
nor is confidered as capable of afting by himfelf, if he
has confidence enough of his own capacity and pru¬
dence. The only two cafes in which curators are im- Cura^ors»|
pofed upon minors are, (1.) Where they are named
by the father, in a ttate of health. (2.) Where the
father is himfelf alive; for a father is ipfo jure, with¬
out any fervice, adminiftrator, that is, both tutor and
curator of law, to his children, in relation to whatever
eftate may fall to them during their minority. This
right in the father does not extend to grandchildren,
nor to fuch even of his immediate children as are fo¬
risfamiliated. Neither has it place in fubjefts which
arc left by a ftranger to the minor, exclufive of the fa¬
ther’s adminiftration. If the minor chufes to be under
the direftion of the curators, he muft raife and execute
a fummons, citing at leaft two of his next of kin to
appear before his own judge-ordinary, upon nine days
warning. At the day and place of appearance, he of¬
fers to the judge a lift of thofe whom he intends for
his curators: fueh of tbvm as refolve to undertake the
office, muft fign their acceptance, and give caution ;
upon which an aft of curatory is extrafted.
7. Thefe curators are ftyled ad tie got ia ; to diftinguifh
them from another fort called curators ad lites, who
are authorifed by the judge to concur with a pupil or
minor in aftions of law, cither where he is without tu¬
tors and curators, or where his tutors and curators are
parties to the fuit. This fort is obliged to give cau¬
tion, becaufe they have no intermeddling with the mi¬
nor’s eftate: they are appointed for a fpecial purpofe; Who de-
and when that is over, their office is at an end. Wo- barredfroi
men are capable of being tutors and curators, under tu!ory ar
the following reftriftions: (1.) The office of a female curatory'
tutor or curator falls by her marriage, even though the
nomination ftiould provide otherwife; (2.) No woman
can be tutor of law. Papifts are declared incapable of
tutory or curatory. Where the minor has more tutors
and curators than one, who are called in the nomina¬
tion to the joint management, they muft all concur in
every aft of adminiftration : where a certain number is
named for a quorum, that number muft concur: where
any one is named fine quo non, no aft is valid without
that one’s fpecial concurrence. But if they are named
without any of thefe limitations, the concurrence of
the majority of the nominees then alive is fufficient. X3ifrerenc
8. In this, tutory differs from curatory, that as pu- |)eJwe(.n t3li
pils are incapable of confent, they have no perfon ca- tory and
pable of afting; which defeft the tutor fupplies: but curatory,
a minor pubes can aft for himfelf. Hence, the tutor
fubferibes alone all deeds of adminiftration: but in cu¬
ratory, it is the minor who fubferibes as the proper
party; the curator does no more than confent. Hence
alfo, the perfons of pupils are under the power either
of their tutors or of their neareft cognates; but the mi-
no^, after pupillarity, has the difpofal of his own per-
fon, and may refide where he pleafes. In molt other
par-
Part III. L A W. ( 53 )
Law of particulars, the nature, the powers, and the duties of fice of'tutor or curator; yet having once accepted, he Law of
t!,v>rLnL    cannot throw it up or renounce it without fufficient Scotland.
caufe; but, if he fticuld be guilty of mifapplying the Howtutory
minor,s money, or fail in any other part of his duty, and cura-
he may be removed at the fuit of the minor’s next in tory exjure.
kin, or by a co-tutor or co-curator. Where the mif-
conduft proceeds merely from indolence or inatten¬
tion, the court, in place of removing the tutor, either
join a curator with him, or, if he be a tutor-nominate^
they oblige him to give caution for his pait and future
management.
15. The offices of tutory and curatory expire alfo by
the pupil’s attaining the age of puberty, or the minor’s
’codand. the two 0f5ces coincide. Both tutors and curators
idicial ;n muft, previous to their adminillration, make a judicial
modes! ' inventory, fubfcribed by them and the next of kin, be¬
fore the minor’s judge-ordinary, of his whole eftate
perfonal and real; of which, one fubfcribed duplicate
is to be kept by the tutors or curators themfelves; an¬
other, by the next of kin on the father’s fide ; and a
third, by the next of kin on the mother’s. If any eltate
belonging to the minor ffiall afterwards come to their
knowledge, they muft add it to the inventory within two
months after their attaining polfeffion thereof. Should
they negle& this, the minor’s debtors are not obliged
to make payment to them: they may be removed from
their offices as fufpefted ; and they are entitled to no
allowance for the fums dilburfed by them in the mi¬
nor’s affairs, except the expence laid out upon the mi¬
nor’s entertainment, upon his lands and houfes, and
upon completing his titles.
I’owers of 9. Tutors and curators cannot grant leafes of the
an<1 minor’s lands, to endure longer than their own office;
rs‘ nor under the former rental, without cither a warrant
from the court of feffion, or fome apparent neceffity.
1 o. They have power to fell the minor’s moveables;
but cannot' fell their pupil’s land-eftate, without the
authority of a judge. But the alienation of heritage
by a minor, with confent of his curators, is valid.
Tutors and curators cannot, contrary to the na-
attaining the age of 21 years complete ; and by the
death either of the minor, or of his tutor and curator.
16. Deeds either by pupils, or by minors having cu- Etfeftof
rators without their confent, are null; but they oblige by
the granters, in as far as relates to fums profitably ap- minors'
plied to their ufe. A minor under curators can indeed
make a teftament by himfelf; but whatever is execu¬
ted in the form of a deed inter vivos, requires the cu¬
rator’s confent. Deeds by a minor who has no curators,
are as effe&ual as if he had had curators, and figned
them with their confent; he may even alien his heri¬
tage, without the interpofition of a judge.
17. Minors may be reftored againft all deeds grant¬
ed in their minority, that are hurtful to them. Deeds,
in themfelves void, need not the remedy of reftitution; Reftkution,
ture of their truft, authorife the minor to do any deed but where hurtful deeds are granted by a tutor in his
for their own benefit; nor can they qcquire any debt
affe6ling the minor’s eftate: and, where a tutor or cu¬
rator makes fuch acquifition, in his own name, for a
lefs fum than the right is intitled to draw, the benefit
thereof accrues to the minor,
pjwif oblj- x 2. By the Roman law, tutory and curatory, being
^tlons* munera puhlica, might be forced upon every one who
pupil’s affairs, or by a minor who has no curators, as
thefe deeds fubfift in law, reftitution is neceffary; and
even where a minor, having curators, executes a deed
hurtful to himfelf with their confent, he has not only
aftion againft the curators, but he has the benefit of
reftitution againft the deed itfelf. The minor cannot
be reftored, if he does not raife and execute a fummons
has not a relevant ground of excufe; but, with us, the for reducing the deed, ex capite minorennitatis et l*Ji-
perfons named to thefe offices may either accept or de¬
cline : and where a father, in liege poujle, names cer¬
tain perfons both as tutors and curators to his children]
onis, before he be 25 years old. Thefe four years, be¬
tween the age of 21 and 25, called quadriennium utile,
are indulged to the minor, that he may have a reafon-
though they have adltd as tutors, they may decline the able time, from that period, when he is firft prefumed
office of curatory. Tutors and curators having once to have the perfe& ufe of his reafon, to confider with,
accepted, are liable in diligence, that is, are accountable himfelf what deeds done in his minority have been truly
for the confequences of their negle& in any part of prejudicial to him.
their duty from the time of their acceptance. They 18. Qheftions of reftitution are proper to the court jts re,
are accountable fwguli in folidum, i. e. every one of of feffion. Two things muft be proved by the minor,
them is anfwerable, not only for his own diligence, but *1’-* —'J—»■— ~f *»-- j_.j. /_ \ nm . ,
for that of his co-tutors ; and any one may be fued
without citing the reft : but he who is condemned in
the whole, has a&ion of relief againft his co-tutors.
13. From this obligation to diligence, we may ex¬
cept, (1.) Fathers or adminiftrator&in law, who, from
in order to the reduction of the deed: (1.) That he
was minor when it was figned; (2.) That he is hurt
or lefed by the deed. This lelion muft not proceed
merely from accident; for the privilege of reftitution
was not intended to exempt minors from the common
misfortunes of life ; it muft be owing to the impru-
the prefumption that they aft to the beft of their dence or negligence of the minor, or his curator.
1 r . 1 • _e:u    l„ C. n..-! A • .  j • n 1 •
power for their children, are liable only for aftual in-
tromiffions. (2.) Tutors and curators named by the
father, with the fpecial provifos, that they fhall be li-
19. A minor cannot be reftored againft his own de¬
lift or fraud. (2.) Reftitution is excluded, if the mi-
nor, at any time after majority, has approved of the ClU C
able barely for intromiffions, not for omiffions ; and deed, either by a formal ratification, or tacitly by pay-
that each of them fhall be liable only for himfelf, and ment of intereft, or by other afts inferring approba-
not/« jfblidum for the co-tutor’s : but this power of tion. (3.) A minor, who has taken himfelf to bufi-
exemption from diligence, is limited to the eftate de¬
fending from the father himfelf. Tutors or curators
are not intitled to any falary or allowance for pains,
unlefs a falary has been exprefsly contained in thetefta-
tor’s nomination; for their office is prefumed gratuitous,
iq. Though no perfon is obliged to accept the of-
nefs, as a merchant-fhopkeeper, &c. cannot be reftored
againft any deed granted by him in the courfe of that
bufinefs, efpecially if he was proximus majorennitate at
figning the deed. (4.) According to the more com¬
mon opinion, a minor cannot be reftored in a queftiom
againft a minor, ualefs fome grofs unfairnefs fhall be
qualified
( 54
Law of
Scotland.
How tranf-
mitted to
the heir.
Minor no,
tenctnr pla
Curators <
idots and
furious pel
A
W.
Part IIP j
qualified in the bargain.
20. The privilege of reftitution does not always die
with the minor himfelf. (i.) If a minor fucceeds to
a minor, the time allowed for reftitution is governed
by the minority of the heir, not of the anceftor. (2.) If
a minor fucceeds to a major, who was not full 25, the
privilege continues with the heir during his minority;
but he cannot avail himfelf of the atini utiles, except
in fo far as they were unexpired at the anceftor’s death.
(3.) If a major fucceeds to a minor, he has only the
quadriennium utile after the minor’s death ; and if he
fucceeds to a major dying within the quadriennium, no
more of it can be profitable to him than what remain¬
ed when the anceftor died.
21. No minor can be compelled to ftate himfelf as
a defender, in any aftion, whereby his heritable eftate
flowing from afccudants may be evicted from him, by
one pretending a preferable right.
2a. This privilege is intended merely to fave minors
from the neceffityof difputing upon queftions of prefe¬
rence. It does not therefore take place, {1.) Where
the aftion is purfued on the father’s falfehood or delidt.
(2.) Upon his obligation to convey heritage. (3.) On
his liquid bond for a fum of money, though fuch ac¬
tion fliould have the effedt to carry off the minor’s e-
ftate by adjudication. (4.) Nor in actions purfued by
the minor’s fuperior, upon feudal cafualties. (5.) This
privilege cannot bogpleaded in bar of an aftion which
had been firft brought againft the father, and is only
continued againft the minor; nor where the father was
not in the peaceable poffeffion of the heritable fubjeft
at his death. Before the minor can plead it, he muft
be ferved heir to his father. The perfons of pupils are
prote&ed from imprifonment on civil debts,
f 23. Curators are given, not only to minors, but in
general to every one who, either through defedt of
" judgment, or unfitnefs of difpofition, is incapable of
rightly managing his own affairs. Of the firft fort, are
idiots and furious perfons. Idiots, or fatui, are en¬
tirely deprived of the faculty of reafon. The diftemper
of the furious perfon does not confift in the defeft of
reafon ; but in an overheated imagination, which ob-
ftru&s the application of reafon to the purpofes of life.
Curators may be alfo granted to lunatics; and even to
’ perfons dumb and deaf, though they are of found judg¬
ment, where it appears that they cannot exert it in the
management of bufinefs. Every perfon, who is come
of age, and is capable of afting rationally, has a natu¬
ral right to condudl his own affairs. The only regular
way, therefore, of appointing this fort of curators, is
by a jury fummoned upon a brief from the chancery;
which is not, like the brief of common tutorv, di-
redled to any judge-ordinary, but to the judge of the
fpecial territory where the perfon alleged to be fatuous
or furious refides; that, if he is truly of found judg¬
ment, he may have an opportunity to oppofe it: and,
for this reafon, he ought to be made a party to the
brief. The curatory of idiots and furious perfons be¬
longs to the neareft agnate ; but a father is preferred
to the curatory of his fatuous fon, and the hufband to
that of his fatuous wife, before the agnate.
24. A claufe is inferted in the brief, for inquiring
how long the fatuous or furious perfon has been in that
condition ; and the verdift to be pronounced by the
inqueft, is declared a fufficient ground, without farther
evidence, for reducing all deeds granted after the pe- Law of
riod at which it appeared by the proof that the fatuity Scotlandj
or furiofity began. But, as fatuous and furious per¬
fons are, by their very ftate, incapable of being ob¬
liged, all deeds done by them may be declared void,
upon proper evidence of their fatuity at the time of
figning, though they fliould never have been cognofced
idiots by an inqueft.
25. We have fome few inftances of the fovereign’s
giving curators to idiots, where the next agnate did not
claim ; but fuch gifts are truly deviations from our law,
fince they pafs without any inquiry into the ftate of the
perfon upon whom the curatory is impofed. Hence
the curator of law to an idiot, ferving quandocunque, is
preferred, as foon as he offers himfelf, before the cura¬
tor-dative. This fort of curatory does not determine
by the lucid intervals of the perfon fub cur a; but it
expires by his death, or perfeft return to a found judg¬
ment ; which laft ought regularly to be declared by
the fentence of a judge.
26. Perfons, let them be ever fo profufe, or liable to jnter^jc.l
be impofed upon, if they have the exercife of reafon, tion.
can effe&ually oblige th'emfelves, till they are fettered
by law. Interdi&ion is a legal reftraint laid upon fuch
perfons from figning any deed to their own prejudice,
without the confent of their curators or interdiftors.
27. There could be no interdi&ion, by our ancient
practice, without a previous inquiry into the perfon’s
condition. But as there were few who could bear the
fliame that attends judicial interdi&ion, however ne-
ceffary the reftraint might have been, voluntary inter-
diftion has received the countenance of law; which is
generally executed in the form of a bond, whereby the
granter obliges himfelf to do no deed that may affefl
his eftate, without the confent of certain friends there¬
in mentioned. Though the reafons indufltive of the
bond Ihould be but gently touched in the recital, the
interdi&ion ftands good. Voluntary interdi&ion, tho*
it be impofed by the foie aft of the perfon interdifted,
cannot be recalled at his pleafure: but it may be taken
off, (1.) By a fentence of the court of feflion, decla¬
ring, either that there was, from the beginning, no fuf¬
ficient ground for the reftraint; or that the party is,
fince the date of the bond, become rei fui providus.
(2.) It falls, even without the authority of the lords,
by the joint aft of the perfon interdifted, and his in-
terdiftors, concurring to take it off. (3.) Where the
bond of interdiftion requires a certain number as a
quorum, the reftraint ceafes, if the interdiftors fhall
be by death reduced to a leffer number.
28. Judicial interdiftion is impofed by a fentence of
the court of feffion. It commonly proceeds on an ac¬
tion brought by a near kinfman to the party; and
fometimes from the nobile officiurn of the court, when
they perceive, during the pendency of a fuit, that any
of the litigants is, from the facility of his temper, fub-
jeft to impoiition. This fort muft be taken off by the
authority of the fame court that impofed it.
29. An interdiftion need not be ferved againft the Regiftra-
perfon interdifted ; but it muft be executed, or pub- tion of id
liflied by a meffenger, at the market-crofs of the ju- terdiftions
rifdiftion where he refides, by publicly reading the in¬
terdiftion there, after three oyeffes made for convoca-
ting the lieges. A copy of this execution muft be af¬
fixed to the crofs; and thereafter, the interdiftion, with
its
its execution, mu ft be regiftrated in the boohs, both
of the jurifdiftion where the perfon interdifted resides
and where his lands lie, or in the general regifter of the
fefiion, within 40 days from the publication. An in¬
terdiction, before it is regiftered, has np effeCt againil
third parties, tho’ they fliould be in the private know¬
ledge of it; but it operates againft the interdidtors
themfelves, as foon as it is delivered to them.
30. An interdiction, duly regiftered, has this effeCt,
that all deeds done thereafter, by the perfons interdic¬
ted, without the confent of his interdiCtors, affeCting
his heritable eltate, are fubjeCt to reduction. Regi-
ftration in the general regifter fecures all his kinds
from alienation, wherever they lie; but where the in¬
terdiction is recorded in the regifter of a particular
ihire, it covers no lands except thofe fit u a ted in that
/hire. But perfons interdicted have full power to dif-
pofe of their moveables, not only by teftament, but by
prefent deeds of alienation: And creditors, in perfonal
bonds granted after interdiction, may ufe all execution
againft their debtor’s perfon and moveable eftate: fuch
bonds being only fubjeCt to reduction in fo far as di¬
ligence againft the heritable eftate may proceed upon
them.
31. AH onerous or rational deeds granted by the
perfon interdicted, are as effectual, even without the
confent of the interdiCtors, as if the granter had been
laid under no reftraint; but he cannot alter the fuccef-
flon of his heritable eftate, by any fettlcment, let it be
ever fo rational. No deed, granted with confent of
the interdiCtors, is reducible, though the ftrongeft le-
fion or prejudice to the granter fhould appear: the on¬
ly remedy competent, in fuch cafe, is an aCtion by the
granter againft his interdiCtors, for making up to him
what he has loft through their undue confent. It is no
part of the duty of interdiCtors, to receive fums or ma¬
nage any eftatej they arc given merely adaufloritatem
praftandam, to interpofe their authority to reafonable
deeds: and fo are accountable for nothing but their
fraud or fault, in confenting to deeds hurtful to the
perfon under their care.
32. The law concerning the ftate of children falls
next to be explained. Children are either born in wed¬
lock, or out of it. All children, born in lawful mar¬
riage or wedlock, are prefumed to be begotten by the
perfon to whom the mother is married; and confe-
quently to be lawful children. This prefumption is fo
ftrongly founded, that it cannot be defeated but by di-
reCt evidence that the mother’s hufband could not be
the father of the child, e. g. where he is impotent, or
was abfent from the wife till within fix lunar months
of the birth. The can on ills indeed maintain, that the
concurring teftimony of the hufband and wife that the
child was not procreated by the hufband, is fufficient
to elide this legal prefumption for legitimacy : but it
is an agreed point, that no regard is to be paid to fuch
teftimony, if it be made after they have owned the
child to be theirs. A father'has the abfolute right of
difpofing of his childrens perfon, of direfting their edu¬
cation, and of moderate chaftifement; and even after
they become puberes, he may compel them to live in
family with him, and to contribute their labour and
induftry, while they continue there, towards his fervice.
A child who gets a feparate flock from the father for
carrying on any trade or employment, even though he
A W. {
fhoi’ld continue in the father’s houfe, may be faid to
be emancipated or forisfamiliated, in fo far as concerns
that ftoek; for the profits arifing from it are his own.
Forisfamiliation, when taken in this fenfe, is alfo infer-
red by the child’s marriage, or by his living in a fepa¬
rate houfe, with his father’s permiliion or good-will.
Children, after their full age of twenty-one years, be¬
come, according to the general opinion, their own ma¬
ilers ; and from that period are bound to the father
only by the natural ties of duty, affe&ion, and grati-
tude. The mutual obligations between parents and
children to maintain each other, are explained after¬
wards, N° clxxiii. 4.
33. Children born out of wedlock, are ftyled natu¬
ral children, or baftards. Bailards may be legitimated
or made lawful, either, (1.) By the fubfequent inter¬
marriage of the mother of the child with the father.
And this fort of legitimation intitles the child to all
the rights of lawful children. The fubfequent mar¬
riage, which produces legitimation, is confidered by
the law to have been entered into when the child legi¬
timated was begotten; and hence, if he be a male, he
excludes, by ids right ot primogeniture, the fons pro¬
created after the marriage, from the fucceffion of tie
father s heritage, though thefe fons were lawful chil¬
dren from the birth. Hence, alio, thofe children only
can be thus legitimated, who are begotten of a woman
whom the father might at that jlliod have lawfully
married. (2.) Baftards are legitimated by letters of
legitimation from the fovereign. N° clxxxii. 3.
34. As to the power of mafters over their fervants:
All fervants now enjoy the fame rights and privileges
with other fubje&s, unlefs in fo far as they are tied
down by their engagements of fervice. Servants are
either neceffary or voluntary. Neceffary are thofe
whom law obliges to work without wages, of whom
immediately. Voluntary fervants engage without com-
pulfion, either for mere fubfiftence, or alfo for wages.
Thofe who earn their bread in this way, if they fliould
(land off from engaging, may be compelled to it by
the juftices of the peace, who. have power to fix the
rate of their wages.
35. Colliers, coal-bearers, and falters, and other per¬
fons neceffary to collieries and faltworks, as they are
particularly deferibed by adl 1661, were formerly tied
down to perpetual fervice at the works to which they
had once entered. Upon a fale of the works, the right
of their fervice was transferred to the new proprietor.
All perfons were prohibited to receive them into their
fervice, without a teftimonial from their laft mailer; and
if they deferted to another work, and were redemanded
within a year thereafter, he who had received them
was obliged to return them within twenty-four hours,
under a penalty. But though the proprietor fliould
negleft to require the deferter within the year, he did
not, by that fliort prefeription, lofe his property in him.
Colliers, &c. where the colliery to which they were re-
ftrided was either given up, or not fufficient for their
maintenance, might lawfully engage with others; but
if that work fliould be again fet a-going, the proprie¬
tor might reclaim them back to it.
36. By 15 Geo. III. c. 28. thefe reftraints, the only
remaining veftiges of flavery in the law of Scotland,
are abrogated ; and, after the ift July 1775, a11 co1-
liers, coal -bearers, and falters, are declared to be upon
the
ss )
Raw of
Scotland.
Baftards.
Servants,
Colliers and
falters.
Reftraints
lately ta¬
ken off.
( 56 )
\V.
Part III, i
clxii.
Property.
Ways of
-acquiring
property.
the fame footing with other fervants or labourers. The ing their poCfeffion. This was the original method of Law oB ^
aft fubjeas thofe who were bound prior to the t ft July acquiring property; and continued, under certain re- ScotUnifeil1
aa fubjeas thoYe who were bound prior to the i ft July acquiring property;
1775, to a certain number of years fervice for their ftriaions, the doarine of the Roman law, Quodnullius ~
freedom, according to the age of the perfon. eJU fit occupant is: but it can have no room in the feu-
37. The poor make the loweft clafs or order of per- dal plan, by which the king is looked on as the origi-
fons. Indigent children may be compelled to ferve any nal proprietor of all the lands within his dominions,
of the king’s fubjeas without wages, till their age of 4. Even in that fort of moveable goods which are
thirty years. Vagrants and fturdy beggars may be alfo prefumed to have once had an owner, this rule obtains
" ■ ^ ~ A ’ ’ r by the law of Scotland, Quod nullius eft, fit domini re-
gis. Thus, the right of treafures hid under ground, ’*
compelled to ferve any manufadlurer. And becaufe
few perfons were willing to receive them into their fer¬
vice, public work-houfes are ordained to be built for not acquired by occupation, but accrues to the king,
fetting them to work. The poor who cannot work,
muft be maintained by the parifhes in which they were
Thus alfo, where one finds ftrayed cattle or other
moveables, which have been loft by the former owner.
born; and where the place of their nativity is not the finder acquires no right in them, but muft give
known, that burden falls upon thepariflies where they
have had their moft common refort, for the three years
public notice thereof; and if, within year and day after
fuch notice, the proprietor does not claim his goods,
immediately preceding their being apprehended or they fall to the king, flieriff, or other perfon to whom
their applying for the public charity. Where the con- nF
tributions colle&ed at the churches to which they be¬
long, are not fufficient for their maintenance, they are
to receive badges from the minifterand kirk-feflion, in
virtue of which they may afk alms at the dwelling-
houfes of the inhabitants of the pariftu
the king has made a grant of fuch efeheats.
5. In that fort of moveables which never had an
owner, as wild-beafts, fowls, fifties, or pearls found on
the ftiore, the original law takes place, that he who firft
apprehends, becomes proprietor; in fo much, that
though the right of hunting, fowling, and fiftiing, be
reftrained by ftatute, under certain penalties, yet all
game, even what is catched in contravention of the
law, becomes the property of the catcher, unlefs where
the confifcation thereof is made part of the penalty :
but whales thrown in or killed on our coafts, belong
neither to thofe who kill them, nor to the proprietor of
the grounds on which they are call; but to the king,
providing they are fo large as that they cannot be drawn
Sect. I. Of the divifion of rights, and the feveral by a wane w;th fix oxen.
CHAP.
II.
Thi
THE things, or fubjedls, to which perfons have
, right, are the fecond obje£l of law.
•ways by which a right may be acquired.
The right of enjoying and difpofing of a fubjeft at
one’s pleafure, is called property. Proprietors are re¬
ftrained -by law from ufing their property emuloufly to
6. Accession is that way of acquiring property, by AccelEoM
which, in two things which have a connexion with or
dependence on one another, the property of the prin¬
cipal thing draws after it the property of its accefibry.
their neighbour’s prejudice. Every ftate or fovereign Thus the owner of a cow becomes the owner of the
has a power over private property, called, by fomelaw- calf; a houfe belongs to the owner of the ground 01
yers, dominium eminens, in virtue of which, the propri¬
etor may be compelled to fell his property for an ade-
which it ftands, though built with materials belonging
to and at the charge of another; trees taking root in our
quate price, where an evident utility on the part of the ground, though planted by another, become ours,
public demands it. Thus alfo. the infenfible addition made to one’s nround
Things ir
capable of
appropria-
Thus alfo, the infenfible addition made to one’s ground
Certain things are by nature itfelf incapable of by what a river walhes from other grounds, which is
appropriation; as the air, the light, the ocean, &c.: called alluvia, accrues to the mafter of the ground
none of which can be brought under the power of any which receives the addition. The Romans excepted
one perfon, though their ufe be common to all. Others from this rule the cafe of paintings drawn on another
are by law exempted from private commerce, in refpeft man’s board or canvas, in confideration of the excel-
of the ufes to which they are deftined. Of this laft
kind are, (1.) Res public#, as navigable rivers, high¬
ways, bridges, &c.: the right of thefe is vefted in the
lency of the art; which exception our pra&ice has for
a like reafon extended to fimilar cafes.
u 7. Under acceffion is comprehended Specification; Specifica-ipJ
king, chiefly for the benefit of his people, and they are by which is meant, a perfon’s making a new fpecies or tion.
called regalia. (2.) Res univerfitatis, things which fubjeft, from materials belonging to another. Where
'the new fpecies can be again reduced to the matter of
which it was made, law confiders the former mafs as
ftill exifting ; and therefore, the new fpecies, as an ac¬
cefibry to the former fubjedt, belongs to the proprietor
belong in property to a particular corporation or fo-
ciety, and whofe ufe is common to every individual in
it, but both property and ufe are fubjeft to the regu¬
lations of the fociety ; as town-houfes, corporation-
halls, market-places, church-yards, &c. The lands or of that fubjedt: but where the thing made cannot be
other revenue belonging to a corporation do not fall
under this clafs, but are juris pr ivati.
fo reduced, as in the cafe of wine, which cannot be a-
gain turned into grapes, there is no place for the fiftio
3. Property may be acquired, either by occupation juris; and therefore the workmanfhip draws after it the
or acceflion ; and transferred by tradition or preferip- property of the materials,
tion : but prefeription, being alfo a way of lofing pro- 8. Though the new fpecies (hould be produced from Commix*
perty, falls to be explained under a feparate title. Oc- the Commixtion or confufion of different fubftances tion.
cupation, or occupancy, is the appropriating of things belonging to different proprietors, the fame rule holds;
which have no owner, by apprehending them, or feiz- but where the mixture is made by the common confent
of
Part III.
L A W.
( SI )
- -Law of of the owners, fuch confent makes the whole a com-
| ?cotianJ- joon property, according to the (hares that each pro¬
prietor had formerly in the feveral fubje&s. Where
things of the fame fort are mixed without the confent
of the proprietors, which cannot again be feparated,
e. g. two hoglheads of wine, the whole likewife be¬
comes a common property; but, in the after divifion,
regard ought to be had to the different quality of the
wines : if the things fo mixed admit of a feparation,
e. g. two flocks of (beep, the property continues diftindt.
iT^ditlon. g. Property is carried from one to another by Tra¬
dition ; which is the delivery of pofieffion by the pro¬
prietor, with an intention to transfer the property to
the receiver. Two things are therefore requifite, in
order to the tranfmitting of property in this way :
i. The intention or confent of the former owner to
h transfer it on fome proper title of alienation, as fale,
exchange, gift, &c. (2.) The aftual delivery in pur-
R fuance of that intention. The firft is called the caufa,
the other the modus transferendi dominii: which la it is
fo neceflfary to the acquiring of property, that he who
gets the laft right, with the firft: tradition, is preferred,
according to the rule, Traditionibus, non midis paftis,
transferuntur rerum doviinia.
10. Tradition is either real, where the ipfa corpora
of moveables are put into the hands of the receiver; or
fymbolical, which is ufed where the thing is incapable
of real delivery, or evea when adtual delivery is only
inconvenient. Where the poffeffion or cuftody of the
fubjeft has been before with him to whom the pro¬
perty is to be transferred, there is no room for tradition.
Pofleffon; 11. PoffefTion, which is effential both to the acqui-
fition and enjoyment of property, is defined, the deten¬
tion of a thing, with a defign or animus in the detainer
of holding it as his own. It cannot be acquired by
the foie a6t of the mind, without real detention ; but,
being once acquired, it may be continued folo animo.
natural, Poffeffion is either natural, or civil. Natural poffeffion
is, when one poffeffes by himfelf: thus, we poffefs lands
by cultivating them and reaping their fruits, houfes by
inhabiting them, moveables by detaining them in our
civil, and hands. Civil poffeffion is our holding the thing, either
by the foie adt of the mind, or by the hands of another
who holds it in our name: thus, the owner of a thing
lent poffeffes it by the borrower; the proprietor of lands,
by his tackfman, truftee, or fteward; &c. The fame
fubjedl cannot be poffeffed entirely, or in folidum, by
two different perfons at one and tire fame time; and
therefore poffeffion by an aft of the mind ceafes, as
>" foon as the natural poffeffion is fo taken up by another,
that the former poffcffor is not fuffered to re-enter. Yet
two perfons may, in the judgment of law, poffefs the
fame fubjeft, at the fame time, on different rights :
thus, in the cafe of a pledge, the creditor poffeffes it in
his own name, in virtue of the right of impignoration ;
while the proprietor is confidered as poffeffing, in and
through the creditor, in fo far is neceffary for fupport-
ing his right of property. The fame doftrine holds in
liferenters, takfmen, and, generally, in every cafe where
H there are rights affefting a fubjeft, diftinft from the
property.
12. A bona fide poffeffor is he, who, though he is not
really proprietor of the fubjeft, yet believes himfelf pro¬
prietor on probable grounds. A mala fide poffeffor
knows, or is prefumed to know, that what he poffeffes
is the property of another. A poffeffor bona fide ac- Law 0f
quired right, by the Roman law, to the fruits of the. ScotlanJ-
fubjeft poffeffed, that had been reaped and confumed
by himfelf, while he believed the fubjefts his own. By
our cuftoms, perception alone, without conlumption,
fecures the poffeffor : nay, if he has fown the ground,
while his bona fides continued, he is intitled to reap the
crop, propter curam et culturam. But this doftrine
does not reach to civil fruits, e. g. the intereft of mo¬
ney, which the bona fide receiver muft reftore, together
with the principal, to the owner.
.13. Bona fides neceffarily ceafeth by the confcientia
rei alienee in the poffeffor, whether fuch confcioufnefs
(hould proceed from legal interpellation, or private
knowledge. Mala fides is fometimes induced, by the
true owner’s bringing his aftion againft the poffeffor,
fometimes not tilllitifconteftation, and, in cafes uncom¬
monly favourable, not till fentence be pronounced a-
gainft the poffeffor.
14. The property of moveable fubjefts is prefumed EfFefts of
by the bare effeft of poffeffion, until the contrary be poffeffion-
proved ; but poffeffion of an immoveable fubjeft, tho*
for a century of years together, if there is no feifin,
does not create even a prefumptive right to it: Nulla
fafina, nulla terra. Such fubjeft is confidered as ca-
duciary, and fo accrues to the fovereign. Where the
property of a fubjeft is contefted, the lawful poffeffor
is intitled to continue his poffeflltb, till the point of -
right be difeuffed; and, if he has loft it by force or
Health, the judge will, upon fummary application, im¬
mediately reftore it to him.
15. Where a poffeffor has feveral rights in his per-
fon, affefting the fubjeft poffeffed, the general rule is,
that he may aferibe his»poffeffion to which of them he
pleafes; but one cannot aferibe his poffeffion to a title
other than that on which it commenced, in prejudice
of him from whom his title flowed.
Sect. II. Of heritable and moveable rights. clxiii.
For the better underftanding the doftrine of this
title, it muft be known, that by the law of Scotland,
and indeed of moft nations of Europe fince the intro-
duftion of feus, where-ever there are two or more in
the fame degree of confanguinity to one who dies in-
teftate, and who are not all females, fuch rights belong¬
ing to the deceafed as are either properly feudal, or
have any refemblance to feudal rights, defeend wholly
to one of them, who is confidered as his proper heir ;
the others, who have the name of next of kin or execu¬
tors, muft be contented with that portion of the eftate
which is of a more pcrifhable nature. Hence has arifen
the divifion of rights to be explained under this title;
the fubjefts defeending to the heir, are ftyled heritable;
and thofe that fall to the next of kin, moveable.
3. All rights of, or affefting lands, under which are DiviRon of
comprehended houfes, mills, fifhings, teinds ; and all !'8^!s 'nto
rights of fubjefts that are fundo annexa, whether com-
pleted by feifin or not; are heritable ex fua natura. On at,;e.
the other hand, every thing that moves itfelf or can be
moved, and in general whatever is not united to land,
is moveable: as houfehold-furniture, corns, cattle, cafh,
arrears of rent and of intereft, even tho’ they fhould
be due on a right of annualrent: for though the arrears
laft mentioned are fecured on land, yet being prefently
payable, they are confidered as calh.
[ h ] 3. Debts,
( 58
Law of
Scotland.
How move¬
able rights
become he1
ritable.
Rights
partly heri¬
table, partly
moveable.
What peri'
od makes :
fjibjeft he¬
ritable or
moveable.
) L A
3. Debts, (nomina debitorim)^ when due by bill,
promifibry note, or account, arc moveable. When con-
ftituted by bond, they do not all fall under any one
head; but are divided into heritable and moveable, by
the following rules. All debts conftituted by bond
bearing an obligation to infeft the creditor in any he¬
ritable fubjeft in fecurity of the principal fum and an-
nualrent, or annualrent only, are heritable; for they
not only carry a yearly profit, but are fecured upon
land.
4. Bonds merely perfonal, though bearing a claufe
of intereft, are moveable as to fucceffion ; i. e. they go
not to the heir, but to the next of kin or executors:
but they are heritable with refptdl to the filk, and to
the rights of hulband and wife; that is, though, by the
general rule, moveable rights fall under the communion
of goods confequent upon marriage, and the moveables
of denounced perfons fall to the crown or fifk, by Angle
efeheat, yet fuch bonds do neither, but are heritable in
both refpe&s.
5. Bonds taken payable to heirs and affignees, feclu-
ding executors, are heritable in all refpe&s, from the
deftination of the creditor. But a bond, which is made
payable to heirs, without mention of executors, de-
feends, not to the proper heir in heritage, though heirs
are mentioned in the bond, but to the executor; for
the word heir, whicluds a generic term, points out him
who is to fucceed by taw in the right; and the execu¬
tor, being the heir in mobilibus, is confidered as the per-
fon to whom fuch bond is taken payable. But where
a bond is taken to heirs-male, or to a feries of heirs,
one after another, fuch bond is heritable, becaufe its
deftination neceflarily excludes executors.
6. Subje&s originally moveable become heritable,
(1.) By the proprietor’s deftination. Thus, a jewel, or
any other moveable fubjeft, may be provided to the
heir, from the right competent to every proprietor to
fettle his property on whom he pleafes. (2.) Move-
able rights may become heritable, by the fupervening
of an heritable fecurity : Thus, a fum due by a perfo¬
nal bond becomes heritable, by the creditor’s accepting
an heritable right for fecuring it, or by adjudging up¬
on it.
7. Heritable rights do not become moveable by ac-
cefibry moveable fecurities ; the heritable right being
in fuch cafe the jus nobilius, which draws the other af¬
ter it.
§. Certain fubje&s partake, in different refpe&s, of
the nature both of heritable and moveable. Perfonal
bonds are moveable in refpedt of fuccefiion; but heri¬
table as to the fiik, and hufband and wife., All bonds,
whether merely perfonal, or even heritable, on which
no feifin has followed, may be affefted at the fuit of
creditors, either by adjudication, which is a diligence
proper to heritage ; or by arreftment, which is pecu¬
liar to moveables. Bonds fecluding executors, though
they defeend to the creditor’s heir, are payable by the
debtor’s executors, without relief againft the heir; fince
the debtor’s fuccefiion cannot be affe&ed by the defti¬
nation of the creditor.
9. All queftions, whether a right be heritable or
1 moveable, muft be determined according to the condi¬
tion of the fubjeft at the time of the anceftor’s death.
If it was heritable at that period, it muft belong to the
heir} if moveable, it rauft fall to the executor, without
W. Part nr. f
regard to any alterations that may have affe&ed the of
fubje£k in the intermediate period between the ancef- Sc(>tliind-
tor’s death and the competition.
I. HERITABLE RIGHTS.
Sect. III. Of the conjlitution of heritable rights dxiv.
by charter and feifin.
Heritable rights are governed by the feudal law, Origin of
which owed its origin, or at leaft its firft improvements, d'e feudal
to the Longobards; whofe kings, upon having pene- a"’
trated into Italy, the better to preferve their conquefts,
made grants to their principal commanders of great
part of the conquered provinces, to be again fubdivided
by them among the lower officers, under the conditions
of fidelity and military fervice.
2. The feudal conftitutions and ufages were firft re¬
duced into writing, about the year 1150, by two law¬
yers of Milan, under the title of Confustudines Feudo-
rum. None of the German Emperors appear to have
exprefsly confirmed this colleftion by their authority ;
but it is generally agreed, that it had their tacit appro¬
bation, and was confidered as the cuftomary feudal law
of all the countries fubjetft to the empire. No other
country has ever acknowledged thefe books for their
law ; but each ftate has formed to itfelf fuch a fyftem
of feudal rules, as beft agreed with the genius of its
own conftitution. In feudal queftions, therefore, we
are governed, in the firft place, by our own ftatutes and
cuftoms; where thefe fail us, we have regard to the
pradtice of neighbouring countries, if the genius of
their law appears to be the fame with ou
hours; and fhould
the queftion ftill remain doubtful, we may have re-
courfe to thofe written books of the feus, as to the
original plan on which all feudal fyftems have pro¬
ceeded.
3, This military grant got the name, firft of benefit Definition
cium, and afterwards offeudum; and was defined a gra- of feus* i
tuitous right to the property of lands, made under the
conditions of fealty and military fervice, to be per¬
formed to the granter by the receiver; thexadical right
of the lands ftill remaining in the granter. Under lands,
in this definition, are comprehended ail rights or fub-
jedls fo conne&ed with land, that they are deemed a
part thereof; as houfes, mills, fifhings, jurifdi&ions,
patronages, &c. Though feus in their original nature
were gratuitous, they foon became the fubjedt of com¬
merce ; fervices of a civil or religious kind were fre¬
quently fubftituted in place qf military; and now, of a
long time, fervices of every kind have been entirely dif-
penfed with, in certain feudal tenures. He who makes Superior
the grant is called the fuperior, and he who receives it an(i vaffali Si
the vaffal. The fubjed. of x\it grant is commonly cal¬
led the feu; though that w'ord is at other times, in our
law, ufed to fignify one particular tenure. SeeSed.iv. 2.
The intereft retained by the fuperior in the feu is ftyled
dominium direttum, or the fuperiority; and the intereft
acquired by the vaffal, dominium utile, or the property.
The word fee is promifeuoufly applied to both.
4. Allodial goods are oppofed to feus; by which are Allodiil
underftood, goods enjoyed by the owner, independent goods,
of a fuperior. All moveable goods are allodial; lands
only are fo when they are given without the condition
of fealty or homage. By the feudal fyftem, the fove-
reign, who is the fountain of feudal rights, referves to
Ijimfelf
Part III. L A
I.aw of himfelf the fiiperionty of all the lands of which he makes
Scotland. tjie grant; f0 that, with us, no lands are allodial, ex¬
cept thofe of the king’s own property, the fuperiorities
which the king referves in the property-lands of his
fubjedls, and manfes and glebes, the right of which is
completed by the prefbytery’s defignation, without any
feudal grant.
5. Every perfon who is in the right of an immove-
grant feudal able fubjefl:, provided he has the free adminiftration of
rights.
I Who cat
What fub-
je£ts can b
granted in
his eftate, and is not debarred by ftatute, or by the
nature of his right, may difpofe of it to another. Nay,
a vaffal, though he has only the dominium utile, can
fubfeu bis property to a fubvafi'al by a fubaltern right,
and thereby raife a new dominium directum in himfelf,
fubordinate to that which is in his fuperior ; and fo in
infinitum. The vaffal who thus fubfeus is called the
fubvaffal’s immediate fuperior, and the vaffal’s fuperior
is the fubvaffal’s mediate fuperior.
6. All perfons who are not difabled by law, may
acquire and enjoy feudal rights. Papifts cannot pur-
chafe a land eftate by any voluntary deed. Aliens,
who owe allegiance to a foreign prince, cannot hold a
feudal right without naturalization: and therefore,
where fuch privilege was intended to be given to fa¬
voured nations or perfons, ftatutes of naturalization
were neceffary, either general or fpecial; or at leaft,
letters of naturalization by the fovereign.
7. Every heritable fubjedt, capable of commerce,
: may be granted in feu. From this general rule is ex¬
cepted, 1. The annexed property of the Crown, which
is not alienable without a previous diffolution in par¬
liament. 2. Tailzied lands, which are devifed under
condition that they lhall not be aliened. 3. An eftate
in kcereditate jacente cannot be effectually aliened by
the heir-apparent (/. e. not entered); but fuch aliena¬
tion becomes effedtual upon his entry, the fupervening
right accruing in that cafe to the purchafer; which is
a rule applicable to the alienation of all fubjedts not
belonging to the vender at the time of the fale.
f>. The feudal right, or, as it is called, invefliture,
is conftituted by charter and feifin. By the charter,
we underitand that writing which contains the grant
of the feudal fubjedt to the vaffal, whether it be exe¬
cuted in the proper form of a charter, or of a difpofi-
tion. Charters by fubjedt-fuperiors are granted, either,
1. A one de fuperiore meo, when they are to be holden,
W. ( 59 )
granter, is the narrative or recital, which expreffes the of
caufes indudtive of the grant. If the g*ant be made ScotI‘ind-
for a valuable confideration, it is faid to be onerous ;
if for love and favour, gratuitous. In the difpofttive
claufe of a charter, the fubjedls made over are deferi-
bed either by fpecial boundaries or march-ftones, (which
is called a bounding charter), or by fuch other charac¬
ters as may fufficiently diftinguifn them. A charter
regularly carries right to no fubjedls but what are con¬
tained in this claufe, though they Ihould be mentioned
in fome other claufe of the charter.
10. The claufe of tenendas (from its firft words te-
nendas pradidas terras) expreffeS the particular tenure
by which the lands are to be holden. The claufe of
reddendo (from the words, reddendo inde annuatim) fpe-
cilies the particular duty or fervice which the vaffal is
to pay or perform to the fuperior.
11. The claufe of warrandice is that by which the warfan-
granter obliges himfelf that the right conveyed (hall dice.
be effectual to the receiver. Warrandice is either per-
fonal or real. Perfonal warrandice, where the granter
is only bound personally, is either, 1. Simple, that
he (hall grant no deed in prejudice of the right; and
this fort, which is confined to future deeds, is implied
even in donations. 2. Warrandice from fadl and deed,
by which the granter warrants that the right neither
has been, nor (hall be, hurt by any fadl of his. Or, 3.
Abfolute warrandice contra omnes mortales, whereby
the right is warranted againft all legal defects in it
which may carry it off from the receiver either wholly
or in part. Where a fale of lands proceeds upon an
onerous caufe, the granter is liable in abfolute warran¬
dice, though no warrandice be expreffed; but in af-
fignations to debts or decrees, no higher warrandice
than from fadl and deed is implied.
12. Gratuitous grants by the Crown imply no war¬
randice ; and though warrandice (hould be expreffed,
the claufe is ineffedtual, from a prefumption that it
has crept in by the negligence of the Crown’s officers.
But where the Crown makes a grant, not jure coronet,
but for an adequate price, the fovereign is in the fame
cafe with his fubjedls.
13. Abfolute warrandice, in cafe of evidliofl, affords Effedb of
an adlion to the grantee, againft the granter, for mak- warrandice,
ing up to him all that he fhall have fuffered through
the defect of the right; and not fimply for his indem-
not of the granter himfelf, but of his fuperior. This nification, by the granter’s repayment of the price to
fort is called a public holding, becaufe vaffals were in him. But as warrandice is penal, and confequently
ancient times publicly received in the fuperior’s court Jlrifti juris, it is not eafily prefumed, nor is it incur-
before the pares curia or co-vaffals. Or, 2. De me, red from every light fervitude that may affedt the fub-
where the lands are to be holden of the granter. Thefe jedl, far lefs does it extend to burdens which may af-
were called fometimes3tf/e from ^<7/,/swer; and fedt the fubjedl pofterior to the grant, nor to thofe
fometimes private, becaufe, before the eftablifhment of impofed by public ftatute, whether before or after,
r records, they wer« eafily concealed from third par- unlefs fpecially warranted againft.
ties; the nature of all which will be more fully e
plained, Sedl. vii. An original charter is that by
which the fee is firft; granted: A charter by progrefs
is a renewed difpofition of that fee to the heir or af-
figney of the vaffal. All doubtful claufes in charters
grefs, if there be no exprefs alteration.
Its confti- 9. The firft claufe in an original charter, which fol-
tuent psrts. l0Ws immediately after the name and deiignation of the
4. Real warrandice is either, 1. Exprefs, whereby, Reai wav.
in fecurity of the lands principally conveyed, other randice.
lands called oxmrrandice-lands, are alfo made over, to
which the receiver may have recourfe in cafe the prin-
^ , cipal lands be evidled. Or, 2. Tacit, which is con-
by progrefs ought to be conftrued agreeably to the ftituted by the exchange or excambion of one piece of Excambi-
original grant; and all claufes in the original charter ground with another; for, if the lands exchanged are on.
are underftood to be implied in the charters by pro- carried off from either of the parties, the law itfelf,
without any padlion, gives that party immediate re¬
courfe upon his own firft lands, given in exchange for
the lands evi£led.
15. The
[ h 2 ]
( 6o )
L A \V.
Part III.
Law of 15. The charter concludes with a precept of feifin,
Scotland. wh;ch ;s the command of the fuperior granter of the
Precept of right to his bailie, for giving feifin or poffeffion to the
feifin. vaffal, or his attorney, by delivering to him the pro¬
per fymbols. Any perfon, whofe name may be inferted
in the blank, left in the precept for that purpofe, can
execute the precept as bailie; and whoever has the pre¬
cept of feilin in his hands, is prefumed to have a power
of attorney from the vafial for receiving pofleffion in
his name.
Inftrument 16 A feifin is the inftrument or atteftation of a no-
®f feifin. tary, that poffeffion was actually given by the fuperior
or his bailie, to the vaffal or his attorney; which is
eonfidered as fo neceffary a folemnity, as not to be fup-
pliablc, either by a proof of natural poffeffion, or even
of the fpecial fa6t that the vaffal was duly entered to
the poff-ffion by the fuperior’s bailie.
Symbols 17. The fymbols by which the delivery of poffeffion
ufed in fei- lo, expreffcd, are, for lands, earth and itone ; for rights
ns' of annuairent payable forth of land, it is alfo earth and
(tone with the addition of a penny money ; for parfon-
age teinds, a (heaf of corn ; for jurifdi&ions, the book
of the court; for patronages, a pfalm-book, and the
keys of the church; for fifhings, net and coble ; for
mills, dap and happer, &e. The feifin muft be taken
upon the ground of the lands, except where there is
a fpecial difpenfation in the charter from the Crown.
Regiftra- 18. All feifins muff be regiftered within fixty days
tion of fei- after their date, either in the general regifter of feifins
fins. Edinburgh, or in the regifter of the particular fhire
appointed by the ad 1617 ; which, it muft be obferved,
is not, in every cafe, the fhire within which the lands
lie. Burgage feifins are ordained to be regiftered in
the books of the borough.
19. Unregiftered feifins are ineffe&ual againft third
parties, but they are valid againft; the granters and
their heirs. Seifins regularly recorded, are preferable,
not according to their own dates, but the dates of
their regiftration.
One feifin 2°* Seifin neceffarily fuppofes a fuperior by whom
ferves in it is given; the right therefore which the fovereign,
contiguous who acknowledges no fuperior, has over the whole
ted tene"'* ^an(^s Scotland, is conftituted, jure corona, without
meats. * feifin. In feveral parcels of land that lie contiguous
to one another, one feifin ferves for all, unlefs the right
of the feveral parcels be either holden of different fu-
periors, or derived from different authors, or enjoyed
by different tenures under the fame fuperior. In dif-
contiguous lands, a feparate feifin muft be taken on
every parcel, unlefs the fovereign has united them into
one tenandry by a charter of union; in which cafe,
if there is no fpecial place expreffed, a feifin taken on
any part of the united lands #vill ferve for the whole,
even though they be fituated in different ftiires. The
only effeft of union is, to give the difcontiguous lands
the fame quality as if they had been contiguous or na¬
turally united ; union, therefore, does not take off the
neceffity of feparate feifins, in lands holden by different
tenures, or the rights of which flow from different fu-
periors, thefe being incapable of natural union.
Barony im- 21. The privilege of barony carries a higher right
plies union, than union does, and confequently includes union in it
as the leffer degree. This right of barony can neither
be given, nor tranfmitted, unlefs by the Crown; but
the quality of fijople union, being once conferred on
lands by the fovereign, may be communicated by the Law of"
vaffal to a fubvaffal. Though part of the lands united Scotl3nd: !
or erefted into a barony be fold by the vaffal to be
holden a me, the whole union is not thereby diffolved:
what remains unfold retains the quality.
22. A charter, not perfected by feifin, is a right A charter ,
merely perfonal, which does not transfer the property, becomes
(fee N° clxxiii. 1.) ; and a feifin of itfelf bears no faith,
without its warrant: It is the charter and feifin joined * er eiUU%
together that conftitutes the feudal right, and fecures
the receiver againft the efteft of all pofterior feifins, e-
ven though the charters on which they proceed Ihould
be prior to his.
23. No quality which is defigned as a lien or real All burden:
burden on a feudal right, can be effectual againft fin- n'u^ 'j6 *j|
gular fucceffors, if it be not inferted in the invefture.
If the creditors in the burden are not particularly men- *
tioned, the burden is not real; for no perpetual un¬
known incumbrance can be created upon lands. Where
the right itfelf is granted with the burden of the fum
therein mentioned, or where it is declared void if the
fum be not paid againft a day certain, the burden is
real; but where the receiver is limply obliged by his
acceptance to make payment, the claufe is effe&ual on¬
ly againft him and his heirs.
Sect. IV. Of the feveral kinds of Holding. clxv.
Feudal fubje&s are chiefly diftinguilhed by their |
different manners of holding, which were either ward,
blanch, feu, or burgage. Ward-holding, which is Ward-hold
now abolilhed by 20 Geo. IT. c. 50. was that which inS‘
was granted for military fervice. Its proper reddendo
was, fervices, or fervices ufed and wont; by which laft
was meant the performance of fervice whenever the fu-
perior’s occ:lions required it. As all feudal rights
were originally held by this tenure, ward-holding was
in dubio prefumed. Hence, though the reddendo had
contained fume fpecial fervice, or yearly duty, the
holding was prefumed ward, if another holding was
not particularly expreffed.
2. Feu-holding is that whereby the vaffal is obliged Feu-h«ld5-j
to pay to the fuperior a yearly rent in money or grain, ing. r
and fometimes alfo in fervices proper to a farm, as
ploughing, reaping, carriages for the fuperior’s ufe,
&c. nomine feudi firmce. This kind of tenure was in¬
troduced for the encouragement of agriculture, the im¬
provement of which was confiderably obftru&ed by the
vaffal’s obligation to military fervice. It appears to ;
have been a tenure known in Scotland as far back as
leges b urge ruin.
3. Blanch-holding is that whereby the vaffal is to Blanch- '
pay - to the fuperior an elufory yearly duty, as a holding-
penny money, a rofe, a pair of gilt fpurs, &c.
merely in acknowledgment of the fuperiority, no¬
mine alba firma. This duty, where it is a thing
of yearly growth, if it be not demanded within the
year, cannot be exafted thereafter; and where the
-words, fipetatur tantum, are fubjoined to the redden¬
do, they imply a releafe to the vaffal, whatever the
quality of the duty may be, if rt is not aiked within
the year.
4. Burgage-holding is that, by which boroughs- Burgage- :
royal hold of the fovereign the lands which are cos- holding. |
tained in their charters of ereftion. This, in the opi¬
nion of Craig, does not conftitute a feparate tenure,
but
(Part III. L A W. ( 61 )
jaw of but is afpecies of ward-holding ; with this fpeeiality,
ij :otIand. that the vaflal is not a private perfon, but a communi¬
ty : and indeed, watching and warding, which is the
ufual fervice contained in the reddendo of fuch char¬
ters, might be properly enough. faid, fome centuries
ago, to have been of the military kind. As the royal
borough is the king's vaflal, all burgage-holders hold
immediately of the crown : the magiftrates therefore,
when they receive the refignations of the particular
burgeffes, and give feifm to them, adt, not as fupe-
riors, but as the king’s 'bailies fpecially authorifed
thereto.
i jrtifica- S‘ Feudal fubjfeQs, granted to churches, monafte-
n. ries, or other focieties for religious or charitable ufes,
are faid to be mortified, or granted ad manum mor-
tuam ; either becaufe all cafualties mult necelfarily be
Jolt to the fuperior, where the vaifal is a corporation,
which never dies; or becaufe the property of thefe
fubjedfs is granted to a dead hand, which cannot tranf-
fer it to another. In lands mortified in times of Po¬
pery to the church, whether granted- to prelates for
the behoof of the church, or in puram eleemofynam;
the only fervices preftable by the vaffals were prayers,
and finging of mafles for the fouls of the deceafed,
which approaches nearer to blanch-holding than ward.
The purpofes of fuch grants having been, upon the re¬
formation, declared fuperltitious, the lands mortified
were annexed to the crown : but mortifications to unh
verfities, hofpitals, &c. were not affected by that an¬
nexation ; and lands may, at this day1, be mortified
to any lawful purpofe, either by blanch or by feu
holding.
d*vi. Sect. V. Of the cafualties due to the fuperior.
^ The right of the fuperior continues unimpaired,
eriority -notw>thftanding the feudal grant, unlefs in fo far as
the dominium utile, or property, is conveyed to his
vaflal. The fuperiority carries a right to the fervices
i , and annual duties contained in the reddendo of the vaf-
fal’s charter. The duty payable by the vaflal is a de-
hitum fundi ; i. e. it is recoverable, not only by a per-
fonal aftion againft himfelf, but by a real action a-
gainft the lands,
ual 2. Befides the conftant fixed rights of fuperiority,
“ts- there are others, which, becaufe they depend upon un¬
certain events, are called cafualties.
ird-hold- 3- The cafualties proper to a ward-holding, while
that tenure fubfifted, were ward, recognition, and
marriage, which it is now unneceflary to explain, as
by the late ftatutes 20 and 25 Geo. II. for abolifhing
ward-holdings, the tenure of the lands holden ward of
the crown or prince is turned into blanch, for payment
of one penny Scots yearly, ft petatur tantum ; and the
tenure of thofe holden of fubjedfs, into feu, for pay¬
ment of fuch yearly feu-duty in money, vi&ual, or
cattle, in place of all fervices, as fliall be fixed by the
court of feffion. And accordingly that court, by aft
of federunt, Feb. 8. 1749, laid down rules for afcer-
taining the extent of thefe feu-duties,
n-hold- 4. The only cafualty, or rather forfeiture, proper
to feu-holdings, is the lofe or tinfel of the feu-right,
by the negleft of payment of the feu-duty for two full
years. Yet where there is no conventional irritancy in
the feu-right, the vaffal is allowed to purge the legal
irritancy at the bar}. that is, he may prevent the for¬
feiture, by making payment before fentence : but where Law of
the legal irritancy is forfeited by a conventional, he is Scotland-
not allowed to purge, unlefs where he can give a good
reafon for the delay of payment.
5. The cafualties common to all holdings are, non- Non-entry,
entry, relief, liferent-efcheat, difclamation, and pur-
prelture. Non-entry is that cafualty which arifes to
the fuperior out of the rents of the feudal fubjeft,
through the heir’s neglefting to renew the inveftiture
after his anceftor’s death. The fuperiar is intitled to
this cafualty, not only where the heir has not obtained
himfelf infeft, but where his retour is fet afide upon
nullities. The heir, from the death of the ancdtor,
till he be cited by the fuperior in a proccfs of gene¬
ral declarator of non-entry, lofes not only the re¬
toured duties of his lands, (fee next parag.) ; and he
forfeits thefe, though his delay fhould not argue any
contempt of the fuperior, becaufe the cafualty is con-
lidered to fall, as a condition implied in the fedual
right, and not as a penalty of tranfgreflion : but, where
the delay proceeds not from the heir, but from the fu¬
perior, nothing is forfeited.
6. For underftanding the nature of retoured duties, Retoured
it muft be known, that there was anciently a general duties,
valuation of all the lands in Scotland, defigned both
for regulating the proportion of public fublidies, and
for afeertaining the quantity of non-entry and relief-
duties payable to the fuperior; which appears, by a
contraft between K. R. Bruce and his fubjefts anno
X327, preferved in the library of the Faculty of Advo¬
cates, to have been fettled at lead as far back as the
reign of Alexander III. This valuation became in the
courfe of time, by the improvement of agriculture, and
perhaps alfo by the heightening of the nominal value
of our money, from the reign of Robert I. downwards
to that of James III. much too low a ftandard for the
fuperior’s cafualties: wherefore, in.all fervices of heirs,
the inqueft came at lad to take proof likewife of the
prefent value of the lands contained in the brief (quan¬
tum nunc valent) in order to fix thefe cafualties. The old and
fir A was called the old, and. the. other the »e<u>, extent, new ex-
Though both extents were ordained to be fpecified in tents-
all retours made to the chancery upon brieves of in-
qued ;. yet by the appellation of retoured duties in a
quedion concerning cafualties, the new extent is always
underdood. The old extent continued the rule for le-
vying public fubfidies, till a tax was impofed by new
proportions,, by feveral afts made during the ufurpa-
tion. By two afts of Cromwell’s parliament, held at
Wedminder in 1656, impofing taxations on Scotland,
the rates laid upon the feveral counties are preciiely fixed.
The fubfidy granted by the.aft of convention 1667
was levied on the feveral counties, nearly in the fame
proportions that were fixed by the ufurper in 1656 ;
and the fums to which each county was fubjefted were
fubdivided among the individual land-holders in that
county,, according to the valuations already fettled, or
that fhould be fettled by the commiffioners appointed
to carry that aft into execution. The rent fixed by
thefe valuations is commonly called the vahted Valued
according to. which the land-tax, and mod of the other rent,
public burdens, have been levied fince that time.
7. In feu-holdings, the feu-duty is retoured as the
rent, becaufe the feu-duty is prefumed to be, and truly
was at fird, the rent. The fuperior therefore of a feu-
hold-
( 62 ) LAW. Part IILt
Law of holding gets no non-entry, before citation in the ge-
Scotland. aeral declarator; for he would have been intitled to the
yearly feu-duty, though the fee had been full, i. e.
though there had been a vaffal infeft in the lands. The
fuperior of teinds gets the fifth part of the retoured duty
as non-entry, becaufe the law confiders teinds to be
worth a fifth part of the rent. In rights of annualrent
which are holden of the granter, the annualrenter be¬
comes his debtor’s vafi'al; and the annualrent contained
in the right is retoured to the blanch or other duty
contained in the right before declarator.
8. It is becaufe the retoured duty is the prefumed
rent, that the non-entry is governed by it. If there¬
fore no retour of the lands in non-entry can be pro¬
duced, nor any evidence brought of the retoured duty,
the fuperior is intitled to the real, or at leall to the
valued, rent, even before citation. In lands formerly
holden ward of the King, the heir, in place of the re¬
toured duties,, is fubjedted only to the annual payment
of one per cent, of the valued rent.
9. The heir, after he is cited by the fuperior in the
adlion of general declarator, is fnbjefted to the full
rents till bis entry, becaufe his negkdl is lefsexcufable
after citation. The decree of declarator, proceeding
on this adtion, intitles the fuperior to the poffeffion,
and gives him right to the rents downward from the
citation. As this fort of non-entry is properly penal,
our law has always reftridted it to the retoured duties,
if the heir had a probable cxcufe for not entering.
In what 10. Non-entry does not obtain in burgage-holdings,
cafes non- becaufe the incorporation of inhabitants holds the
entry u not wj,0ie incorporated fubjedts of the King; and there can
be no non-entry due in lands granted to communities,
becaufe there the vaffal never dies. This covers the right
of particulars from non-entry: for if non-entry be ex¬
cluded with regard to the whole, it cannot obtain with
regard to any part. It is alfo excluded, as to a third
of the lands, by the terce, during the widow’s life ;
•and as to the whole of them, by the courtefy during
the life of the hufband. But it is not excluded by a
precept of feifin granted to the heir, till feifin be ta¬
ken thereupon.
Relief, 11. Relief is that cafualty which intitles the fupe¬
rior to an acknowledgment or confideration from the
heir, for receiving him as vaffal. It is called relief,
becaufe, by the entry of the heir, his fee is relieved out
ot the hands of the fuperior. It is not due in feu-holdings
flowing .from fubjefts, unlefs where it is expreffed in
the charter by a fpecial claufe for doubling the feu-
duty at the entry of an heir; bnt, in feu-rights holden
of the crown, it is due, though there ftiouldbe no fuch
claufe in the charter. The fuperior can recover this
cafualty, either by a poinding of the ground, as a de-
bitum fundi, or by a perfonal adlion againft the heir.
In blanch and feu holdings, where this cafualty is ex-
prefsly ftipulated, a year’s blanch or feu duty is due
in name of relief bcfide the current year’s duty pay¬
able in name of blanch or feu farm.
12. Escheat (from efcheoir, to happen or fall) is that
e eat* forfeiture which falls through a perfon’s being denoun¬
ced rebel. It is either Angle or liferent. Single ef-
cheat, though it does not accrue to the fuperior, muff
be explained in this place, becaufe of its coincidence
with liferent.
13. After a debt is coaftituted, either by a formal
decree, or by regiftration of the ground of debt, which. Law o|'#«
to the fpecial effedl of execution, is in law accounted a Scotlaiu|jf
decree; the creditor may obtain letters of horning, Letters ^
iffuing from the lignet, commanding meffengers to horm»|.fw»
charge the debtor to pay or perform his obligation,
within a day certain. Where horning proceeds on a li
formal decree of the Seflion, the time indulged bylaw ||
to the debtor is fifteen days; if upon a decree of the 9
commiffion of teinds or admiral, it is ten ; and upon jl
the decrees of all inferior judges, fifteen days. Where ffl
it proceeds on a regiftered obligation, which fpecifies
the number of days, that number muff be the rule; and, l|:
if no precife number be mentioned, the charge muff be M
given on fifteen days, which is the term of law, unlefs j 1,
where fpecial ftatute.interpofes; as in bills, upon which
the debtor may be charged on fix days.
14. The meffenger muff execute thefe letters (and Ifl
indeed all fummonfes) againll the debtor, either per-
fonally or at his dwelling-houfe ; and, if he get not 9
accefs to the houfe, he mull ftrike fix knocks at the al
gate, and thereafter affix to it a copy of his execution.
If payment be not made within the days mentioned in
the horning, the meffenger, after proclaiming three jffl
oyeffes at the market-crofs of the head borough of
the debtor’s domicile, and reading the letters there,
blows three blalls with a horn, by which the debtor is
underltood to be proclaimed rebel to the king for con¬
tempt of his authority; after which, he mull affix a 9
copy of the execution to the market-crofs : This is ®
called the publication of the diligence, or a denunciation Denunqjj
at the horn. Where the debtor is not in Scotland, he tion. 9
mull be charged on fixty days, and denounced at the
market-crofs of Edinburgh, and pier and fhore of
Leith.
15. Denunciation, if regiftered within 15 days, ei- ConfeqM
ther in the Iheriff’s books, or in the general regifter, ces therWj
drew after it the rebel’s Angle efcheat, /. e. the for¬
feiture of his moveables to the crown. Perfons de¬
nounced rebels have not a perfona fandi in judicio ; : I
they can neither fue nor defend in any adlion. But this
incapacity being unfavourable, is perfonal to the rebel,
and cannot be pleaded againft: his affignee.
16. Perfons cited to the court of judiciary may be Denuni m
alfo denounced rebels, either for appearing there with tion ini p
too great a number of attendants ; or, if they fail to
appear, they are declared fugitives from fhe law. Single
efcheat falls, without denunciation, upon fentence of i |j
death pronounced in any criminal trial; and, by fpecial | y
ftatute, upon one’s being convidted of certain crimes,
though not capital; as perjury, bigamy, deforcement, .H
breach of arrdlment, and ufury. By the late adl abo- ill
liihing wardholdings, the cafualties both of Angle and
liferent efcheat are difcharged, when proceeding upon *
denunciation for civil debts; but they ftill continue,
when they arife from criminal caufes. All moveables
belonging to the rebel at the time of his rebellion,
(whether proceeding upon denunciation, or fentence in
a criminal trial), and all that (hall be afterwards acqui- * |
red by him until relaxation, fall under Angle efcheat.
Bonds bearing intereft, becaufe they continue heritable
quoadfifcum, fall not under it, nor fuch fruits of heri- i ; *
table fubjedls as become due after the term next enfu-
ing the rebellion, thefe being refcrved for the liferent
efcheat.
17. The king never retains the right of efcheat to j
himfelf,
fart III. L A
aw of himfelf, but makes it over to a donatory, vvhofe gift is
inland. not perfedted, till, upon an aftion of general declara-
‘ ~ tor, it be declared that the rebel’s efcheat has fallen to
the crown by his denunciation, and that the right of it
is now transferred to the purfuer by the gift in his fa¬
vour. Every creditor therefore of the rebel, whofe debt
was contracted before rebellion, and who has ufed dili¬
gence before declarator, is preferable to the donatory.
But the efcheat cannot be affefted by any debt con¬
tracted, nor by any voluntary deed of the rebel after
rebellion.
ters of 18. The rebel, if he either pays the debt charged
si ration. for) or fufpends the diligence, may procure letters of
'■ ‘ relaxation from the horn, which, if publilhed in the
fame place, and regiftered 15 days thereafter in the fame
regifter with the denunciation, have the effeCt to re-
flore him to his former ftate; but they have no retro-
^ fpeCt as to the moveables already fallen under efcheat,
without a fpecial claufe for that purpofe.
d rent 19. The rebel, if he continues unrelaxed for year
15 eat> and day after rebellion, is conftrued to be civilly dead:
and therefore, where he holds any feudal right, his fu-
periors, as being without a vaflal, are entitled, each of
them, to the rents of fuch of the lands belonging to the
rebel as hold of himfelf, during all the days of the re¬
bel’s natural life, by the cafualty of liferent es¬
cheat; except where the denunciation proceeds upon
treafon or proper rebellion, in which cafe the liferent
falls to the king.
20. It is that eftate only, to which the rebel has a
proper right of liferent in his own perfon, that falls un¬
der his liferent efchcat.
1 21. Though neither the fuperior nor his donatory
can enter into polTeffion in confequence of this cafualty,
till decree of declarator ; yet that decree, being truly
declaratory, has a retrofpeCf, and does not fo properly
confer a new right, as declare the right formerly con-
ftituted to the fuperior, by the civil death of his vaffal.
Hence, all charters or heritable bonds, though granted
prior to the rebellion, and all adjudications, though led
upon debts contra&ed before that period, are Ineffec¬
tual againft the liferent efcheat, unlefs feifin be taken
thereon within year and day after the granter’s rebel¬
lion.
22. Here, as in fingle efcheat, no debt contra&ed
after rebellion can hurt the donatory, nor any volun¬
tary right granted after that period, though in fecurity
or fatisfa&ion of prior debts.
lama- 23* Disclamation is that cafualty whereby a vaf-
; fal forfeits his whole feu to his fuperior, if he difowns
or difclaims him, without ground, as to any part of it.
pref- Purpresture draws likewife a forfeiture of the whole
h: feu after it; and is incurred by thevaffal’s encroaching
upon any part of his fuperior’ts property, or attempting
by building, inclofing, or otherwife, to make it his
own. In both thefe feudal delinquencies, the lead: co¬
lour of excufe faves the vaffal.
: latures. 24. All grants from the crown, whether charters,
gifts of cafualties, or others, proceed on fignatures
which pafs the fignet. When the king refided in Scot-
> land, all fignatures were fuperfcribed by him ; but, on
the acceffion of James VI. to the crown of England,
a cachet or feal was made, having the king’s name en¬
graved on it, in purfuance of an aft of the privy-coun¬
cil, April 4. 1603. with which all fignatures were to
W- ( 63 )
be afterwards fealed, that the lords of exchequer were .Law of
impowered to pafs; and thefe powers are transferred Scoflancl.
to the court of exchequer, which was eftabliihed in
Scotland after the union of the two kingdoms in 1707.
Grants of higher confequence, as remiflions of crimes,
gifts proceeding upon forfeiture, and charters of tiovo-
Harms, mull have the king’s fign-manual for their war¬
rant.
25. If lands holding of the crown were to be con- Seals,
veyed, the charter pafled, before the union of the
kingdoms in 1707, by the great feal of Scotland; and
now by a feal fubftitute in place thereof. Grants of
church-dignities, during epifcopacy, pafled alfo by the
great feal ; and the commifiions to all the principal of¬
ficers of the crown, as Juftice-Clerk, King’s Advocate,
Solicitor, fyc. do fo at this day. All rights which fub-
jefts may tranfmit by fimple aflignation, the king tranf-
mits by the privy-feal: as gifts of moveables, or of
cafualties that require no feifin. The quarter feal, o-
therwife called the teftimonial of the great feal, is ap¬
pended to gifts of tutory, commiflions of brieves iffuing
from the chancery, and letters of prefentation to lands
holding of a fubjeft, proceeding upon forfeiture, ba-
ftardy, or ultimus hares-
26. Seals are to royal grants, what fubfcription is Their ufe,
to rights derived from fubjefts, and give them autho¬
rity ; they ferve alfo as a check to gifts procured (fub-
reptione vel obreptione) by concealing the truth, or ex¬
prefling a falfehood; for, where this appears, the gift
may be flopped before pafling the feals, tho’ the fig-
nature Ihould have been figned by the king. All rights
pafling under the great or privy feal muft be regiftered
in the regifters of the great or privy feal refpettive, be¬
fore appending the feal.
Sect. VI. Of the right which the vaffalacquires dxvii.
by getting the feu.
Under the dominium utile which the vaflal acquires Dominium
by the feudal right, is comprehended the property of utile.
whatever is coniidered as part of the lands, whether of
houfes, woods, inclofures, &c. above ground ; or of
coal, limeftone, minerals, &c. under ground. Mills
have, by the generality of our lawyers, been deemed
a feparate tenement, and fo not carried by a charter
or difpofition, without either a fpecial ciaufe convey¬
ing mills, or the ereftion of the lands into a barony.
Yet it is certain, that, if a proprietor builds a mill on
his own lands, it will be carried by his entail, or by a
retour, without mentioning it, although the lands are
not crefted into a barony. If the lands difponed be
aftrifted, or thirled to another mill, the purchafer is
not allowed to build a new corn-mill on his property,,
even though he fliould offer fecurity that it fhall not
hurt the thirle; which is introduced for preventing
daily temptations to fraud.
2. Proprietors are prohibited to hold dove-cotes,
unlefs their yearly rent, lying within two miles there¬
of, extend to ten chalders of viftual. A purchafer of
lands, with a dove-cote, is not obliged to pull it down,
though he (hould not be qualified to build one; but, if
it becomes ruinous, he cannot rebuild it. The right
of brewing, though not expreffed in the grant, is im¬
plied in the nature of property ; as are alfo the rights
of fifliing, fowling, and hunting, in fo far as they are
not reftrained by ftatute.
. 3. There
( 64
Law of
Res publics.
L A W. Part Illj
3. There are certain rights naturally confequent on ver them from his tenants by an aftion for rent before Law of |
Scotland. property, which are deemed to be preferved by the his own court ; and from all other poffefibrs and intro-- s,cotland.|
_ .. crown as regalia; unlefs they be fpecia’ly conveyed, miners, by an action of mails and duties before the
ega '»• Q0id anc] filver mines are of this fort: the firft univer- fheriff. He can alfo remove from his lands, tenants Tack or
fally; and the other, where three half-pennies of filver who have no leafes; and he can grant tacks or leafes to leafe*
can be extra&ed from the pound of lead, by ad 1424, others. A tack is a contrad of location, whereby the
(three half-pennies at that time was equal to about ufe of land, or any ot,her immoveable fubjed, is fet to
two fhillings five pennies of our prefent Scots money.) the Itffee or tackfman for a certain yearly rent, either
Thefe were by our ancient law annexed to the crown ; in money, the fruits of the ground, or fervices. It
but they are now diffolyed from it; and every proprie- ought to be reduced into writing, as it is a right con-
tor is intitled to a grant of the mines within his own cerning lands: tacks therefore, that are given verbal-
lands, with the burden of delivering to the crown a ly, to endure fora term of years, are good againft nei-
tenth of what fiiall be Brought up. ther party for more than one year. An obligation
4. Salmon-fifhing is likewifea right underftood to be to grant a tack is as effedual againft the granter, as a
referved by the crowm, if it be not exprefsly granted: formal tack. A liferenter, having a temporary pro-
but 40 years poffefiion thereof, where the lands are ei- perty in the fruits, may grant tacks to endure for the
'ther ereded into a barony, or granted with the general term of his own liferenf.
claufe of fifliings, eftabldhes the full right of the-fal- 9. The tackfman’s right is limited to the fruits
mon-filhing in the vaffal. A charter of lands, within which fpringnp annually from the fubjed fet, either
which any of the king’s forefts lie, does not carry the naturally, or by the induftry of the tackfman ; he is
property of fuch forelt to the vafial. not therefore intitled to any of the growing timber a-
c. AH the fubjeds which were by the Roman law bove ground, and far lefs to the minerals, coal, clay,
accounted res publica, as rivers, high-ways, ports, &c. <bc. under ground, the ufe of which confumes the fub-
are, fince the introdudion of feus, held to bt inter re- ftance. Tacks are, like other contrads, perfonal rights
galia, or in patrimonio principis ; and hence encroach- in their own nature, and confequently ineffedual againlt
ment upon a highway is'faid to infer purprdture. No iingular fucceffors in the lands ; but, for the eneou-
perfon has the right of a free port without a fpecial ragement of agriculture, they were, by ad 1449, de¬
grant, which implies a power in the'grantee to levy dared effedual to the tackfman for the full time of
anchorage and (hare dues, and an obligation upon him their endurance, into whole hands foever the lands
to uphold the port in good condition. In this clafs of might come.
things, our forefathers reckoned fortalices, or fmall 1 o. To give a written tack the benefit of this ftatute,
places of ftrength, originally built for the defence of it muff mention the fpecial tack-duty payable to the
the country, either againft foreign invafions, or civil proprietor, which though fmall,if it be not elufory, fe-
commotions ; but thele now pafs with the lands in every cures the tackfman ; and it muft be followed by pof-
s charter. fdTion, which fupplies the want of a feifin. If a tack
6. The vaffal acquires right by his grant, not only does not exprefs the term of entry, the entry will com-
to the lands fpecially contained in the charter, but to mence at the next term after its date, agreeable to the
thofe that have been polfeffed 40 years as pertinent rule, ghwd pure debetur, prtefeitti die debetur. If it
thereof. But, 1. If the lands in the grant are marked does not mention the i(h, i. e. the term at which it is
out by fpecial limits, the vaffal is circumfcribed by the to determine, it is good for one year only; but, if the
tenor of his own right, which excludes every fubjed intention of parties to continue it for more than one
without thefe limits from being pertinent of the lands, year, (hould appear from any claufe in the tack, it is
2. A right poffeffed under an exprefs infeftment is pre- fuftained for two years as the minimum. Tacks grant-
ferable, cateris paribus, to one poffeffed only as perti- ed to perpetuity, or with an indefinite ifh, have not the
nent, 3. Where neither party is infeft/nr the benefit of the ftatute. Tacks of houies within borough
mutual promifeuous poffeffion by both, of a fubjed as do not fall within this ad.
pertinent,refolves into a commontyof the fubjed poffef- iu Tacks neceffarily imply a delefiiis perfonx, a
fed: but if one of the parties has exercifed all the ads choice by the fetter of a proper perfon for his tenant.
of property of which the fubjed was capable, while the Hence the conveyance of a tack, which is not granted
poffeffion of the other was confined to pafturage only, to affignees, is ineffedual without the landlord’s Con¬
or to calling feal and divot, the firft is to be deemed fent. A right of tack, though it be heritable, falls
foie proprietor, and the other to have merely a right under the jus mariti, becaufe it cannot be feparated
of fervitude. . from the labouring cattle and implements of tillage,
7. As bartmy is a mmen univerfttatis, and unites which are moveable fubjeds. A tack, therefore, grant-
the feveral parts contained in it into one individual ed to a fingle woman, without the liberty of affigning,
right, the general conveyance of a barony carries with fails by her marriage ; becaufe the marriage, which is
it all the different tenements of which it confifts, tho’ a legal conveyance thereof to the hufcand, cannot be
they (hould not be fpecially enumerated; (and this annulled. This implied exclufion of aflignees is how-
holds, even without eredion into a barony, in lands ever limited to voluntary, and does not extend to ne-
that have been united under a fpecial name.) Hence, ceffary, affignments; as an adjudication of a tack by the
likewife, the poffeffion by the vaffal of the fmalleft part tackfman’s creditor : but a tack, exprefsly excluding
of the baronv-lands nreferves tn him th#* rio-h* of o-fT;^^i   j- j* _ t>
1
Privileges
of barony.
of the barony-lands preferves to him the right of the affignees, cannot be carried even by adjudication. But
whole. .... tackfmen may fubfet, unlefs fubtenants are exprefsly
8. The vaffal is intitled, in confequence of his pro- excluded; and liferent tacks, becaufe they import a
perty, to levy the rents of his own lands, and to reeo- higher degree of right in the tackfman than tacks for
IPart III. LAW. ( 65 )
aLaw of a definite term, may be afligned, unlefs aflignees be
fi<vrlanri fpccially excluded.
lacii rdo- 1 2" ^ neither the fetter nor tackfman (hall properly
lujition/ difeover their Intention to have the tack difiblved at the
term fixed for its expiration, they are underitood, or
prefumed, to have entered into a new tack upon the
fame terms with the former, which is called tacit relo¬
cation; and continues till the landlord warns the tenant
to remove, or the tenant renounces hi? tack to the
landlord: this obtains alfo in the cafe of moveable te¬
nants, who pofTcfs from year to year without written
tacks.
13. In tacks of land, the fetter is commonly bound
to put all the houfes and office-houfes, necdfary for the
farm, in good condition at the tenant’s entry; and-the
tenant muft keep them and legve them fo at his remo¬
val. But, in tacks of houfes, the fetter muft not
only deliver to the tenant the fubjeft fet, in tenantable
repair at his entry, but uphold it in that repair during
the whole years of the tack.
14. If the inclemency of the weather, inundation,
I - or calamity of war, fhould have brought upon the crop
an extraordinary damage, (plus quam tolerabile), the
landlord had, by the Roman law, no claim for any part
of the tack-duty: if the damage was more moderate,
he might exa& the full rent It is nowhere defined,
what degree of fterility or devaftation makes a lofs not
to be borne; but the general rule of the Roman law
feems to be made ours. Tenants are obliged to pay
no public burdens to which they are not exprefsly
bound by their tack, except mill-fervices.
J :(litiieion 15‘ Tacks may be evacuated during their currency,
tacks.; (1.) In the fame manner as feu-rights, by the tackf-
man’s running in arrear of his tack-duty fot two years
together. This irritancy may be prevented by the te-
1 nant’s making payment at the bar before fentence.
(2.) Where the tenant either runs in arrear of one
year’s rent, or leaves his farm uncultivated at the ufual
feafon ; in which cafe he may be ordained to give fe-
curity for the arrears, and for the rent of the five fol¬
lowing crops, if the tack fhall fubfift fo long; other-
I wife, to remove, as if the tack were at an end. (3.)
Tacks may be evacuated at any time, by the mutual
confent of parties.
16. The landlord, when he intends to remove a te¬
nant whole tack is expiring, or who poffeffes without
1 a tack, muft, upon a precept figned by himfelf, warn
the tenant forty days preceding the term of Whitfun-
i anin day» at or immediately preceding the ifh, perfonally,
a ning. ^ to remove at that term, with
his family and effe&s. This precept muft be alfo exe¬
cuted on the ground of the lands, and thereafter read
in the parilh-church where the lands lie, after the morn¬
ing fervice, and affixed to the moll patent door thereof.
Whitfunday, though it be a moveable feaft, is, in que-
ftions of removing, fixed to the 15th of May. In
warnings from tenements within borough, it is fufficient
Ij that the tenant be warned forty days before the ilh of
the tack, whether it be Whitfunday or Martinmas; and
i'i in thefe the ceremony of chalking the door is fuftained
as warning, when proceeding upon a verbal order from
the proprietor.
17. This procefs of warning was precifely necefiary
for founding an aftion of removing againft tenants, till
aft of federunt of the court of feffion, Dec. 14. 1756,
which leaves it in the option of the proprietor, either Law of
to ufe the former method, or to bring his adlion of re- Scotland.
moving before the judge-ordinary; which, if it be cal¬
led forty days before the faid term of Whitfunday, fhall
be held as equal to a warning. Where the tenant is
bound, by an exprefs claufe of his tack, to remove at
the ifh without warning, fuch obligation is, by the faid
adl, declared to be a fufficient warrant for letters of
horning, upon which, if the landlord charge his tenant
forty days before the faid Whitfunday, the judge is
authorifed to eje6t him within fix days after the term
of removing exprefled in the tack.
18. Aftions of removing might, even before this a£t
of federunt, have been purfued without any previous
warning, (1.) Againrt vicious pofieffors, /. c. perfons A^'01*of
who had feized the poffeffion by force, or who, without removlnS*
any legal title, had intruded into it, after the laft pof-
feffor had given it up. (2.) Againft pofleflors who had
a naked tolerance. (3.) Againft tenants who had run
in arrear of rent, during the currency of their tacks.
(4.) Againft fuch as had fold their lands, and yet con¬
tinued to poffefs after the term of the purchafer’s entry.
Upon the fame ground, warning was not required, in
removings againft poffeflbrs of liferented lands, after
the death of the liferenter who died in the natural pof¬
feffion : but if he poflefled by tenants, thefe tenants
could not be difturbed in their pofleffions till the next
Whitfunday, that they might have time to look out for
other farms; but they might be compelled to remove
at that term, by an adlion of removing, without warn-
ing.
19. A landlord’s title in a removing, let it be ever
fo lame, cannot be brought under queftion by a tenant
whofe tack flows immediately from him ; but, if he is
to infill againft tenants not his own, his right muft be
perfedled by infeftment, unlefs it be fuch as requires no
infeftment; as terce, &c.
20. The defender, in a removing, muft, before offer- Violent
ing any defence which is not inftantly verified, give fe- profits,
curity to pay to the fetter the violent profits, if they
Ihould be awarded againft him. Thefe are fo called,
becaufe the law confiders the tenant’s pofleffion after
the warning as violent. They are eftimated, in tene¬
ments within borough, to double the rent; and in
lands, to the highelt profits the purfuer could have
made of them, by pofltffing them either by a tenant,
or by himfelf.
21. If the action of removing ftiall be palled from, Effeft of
or if the landlord Ihall, after uling warning, accept of .w.ar“i"Snot
rent from the tenant, for any term fubfequent to that>n 1 e m*
of the removal, he is prefumed to have changed his
mind, and tacit relocation takes place. All a&ions of
removing againft the principal or original tackfman,
and decrees thereupon, if the order be ufed, which is
fet forth fupra, (17.), are, by theadl of federunt 1756,
declared to be effedlual againft the affignees to the tack,
or fubtenants.
22. The landlord has, in fecurity of his tack-duty, Hypothec,
over and above the tenant’s perfonal obligation, a tacit
pledge or hypothec, not only in the fruits, but in the
cattle pafturing on the ground. The corn, and other
fruits, are hypothecated for the rent of that year where¬
of they are the crop; for which they remain affe&ed,
though the landlord Ihould not ufe his right for years
together.
[ i ] 23. The
Law of 23. The whole cattle on the ground, confidered as a
Scotland. qUant;ty, are hypothecated for a year’s rent, one after
another fuccefiively. The landlord may apply this hy¬
pothec for payment of the pall year’s rent, at any time
within three months from the lad conventional term of
payment, after which it ceafes for that year. As the
tenant may increafe the fubjeft of this hypothec, by
purchafing oxen, fheep, &c. fo he can impair if, by
felling part of his flock ; but if the landlord fufpe&s
the tenant’s management, he may, by fequeftration or
poinding, make his right, which was before general
upon the whole flock, fpecial upon every individual.
A fuperior has alfo a hypothec for his feu-duty, of the
fame kind with that juft explained.
24. In tacks of houfes, breweries, (hops, and other
tenements, which have no natural fruits, the furniture
and other goods brought into the fubjeft fet are hypo¬
thecated to the landlord for one year’s rent. But the
tenant may by fale,impair this hypothec, as he might
that of cattle in rural tenements; and indeed, in the
particular cafe of a (hop, the tenant rents it for no o-
ther purpofe than as a place of fale.
clxviii. Sect. VII. Of the tranfmijfion of rights, by con¬
firmation and refignation.
Tranfmif- A vassal may tranfmit his feu either to univerfal
(ion of feu- fucceflbrs, as heirs; or to Angular fucceflbrs, e. thofe
dal rights. wj1Q acqU;re by gift, purchafe, or other Angular title.
This laft fort of tranfmiffion is either voluntary, by dif-
pofition; or neceflary, by adjudication.
2. By the flrft feudal rules, no fuperior could be com¬
pelled to receive any vaffal in the lands, other than the
heir exprefled in the inveftiture ; for the fuperior alone
had the power of afcertaining to what order of heirs the
fee granted by himfelf was to defcend. But this right
of refufal in the fuperior did not take place, (1.) In the
cafe of creditors apprifers or adjudgers, whom fuperiors
were obliged to receive upon payment of a year’s rent.
(2.) In the cafe of purchafers of bankrupt eftates, who
were put on the fame footing with adjudgers. The
crown refufes no voluntary difponee, oh his paying a
compoAtion to the exchequer of a Axth part of the va-
' lued rent. Now fuperiors are direfted to enter all An¬
gular fucceflbrs (except incorporations) who (hall have
got from the vaflal a difpoAtion, containing procura¬
tory of reflgnation; they always receiving the fees or
cafualties that law entitles them to on a vaffal’s entry,
e. a year’s rent.
Safe rights. 3- Bale rights, i. e. difpoAtions to be holden of the
difponer, are tranfmifiions only of the property, the fu-
periority remaining as formerly. As this kind of right
. might, before eftabliftiing the regifters, have been kept
quite concealed from all but the granter and receiver,
a public right was preferable to it, unlefs cloathed with
poffefiion: but as this diftin&ion was no longer necef-
fary after the eftaiblifhment of the records, all infeft-
ments are declared preferable, according to the dates
of their feveral regiftrations; without refpeft to the
former diftinftion of bafe and public, or of being
cloathed and not cloathed with pofieffion.
Public 4- Public rights, i. e. difpofltions to be holden of the
rights. grantee’s fuperior, may be perfeded either by conAr-
mation or reflgnation ; and therefore, they generally
contain both precept of feifln and procuratory of reflg¬
nation. Whea the receiver is to complete his right in
W. Part III. .
the firft way, he takes feifln upon the precept: but Law of ;
fuch feifln is ineffectual without the'fuperior’s conflr- Scotland^
mation; for the difponee cannot be deemed a vaflal, till j
the fuperior receive him as fuch, or con Arm the hold¬
ing. By the ufual ftyle in the tranfmiflion of lands,
the difpofltion contains an obligation and precept of
infeftment, both a me and de me, in the option of the
difponee; upon which, if feifln is taken indeflnitely, it
is conftrued in favour of the difponee to be a bafe in¬
feftment, becaufe a public right is null without conflr-
mation : but, if the receiver (hall afterwards obtain the
fuperior’s conflrmation, it is confldered as if it had been
from the beginning a public right.
5. Where two feverkl public rights of the fame fub- PreferentH
jedt arc confirmed by the fuperior, their preference is ™ confirl
governed by the dates of the conflrmations, not of the IIlatK,n'||
infeftments conflrmed ; becaufe it is the conflrmation
which completes a public right.
6. Though a public right becomes, by the fuperior’s ofl
conflrmation, valid from its date ; yet if any mid inf- confimus
pediment intervene betwixt that period and the conflr- t;un. 9
mation, to hinder the two from being conjoined, e. g.
if the granter of a public right (hould afterwards grant
a bafe right to another, upon which feifln is taken be¬
fore the fuperior’s confirmation of the flrfl, the confir¬
mation will have efiedt only from its own date; and
confequently the bafe right iirft completed, will carry
the property the lands preferable to the public one.
7. Refignation is that form of law, by which a vaf- Refignaif
fal furrenders his feu to his fuperior; and it is either tious. |
ad perpetaam rernanentiarn, or in favor em. In reiigna-
tions ad renmnentiam, where the feu is refigned,, to the
effedl that it may remain with the fuperior, the fuperior,
who before had the fuperiority, acquires, by the refigna¬
tion, the property alfo of the lands refigned: and as his
infeftment in the lands (fill fubfifted, notwithflanding
the right by which he had given his vaflal the property ;
therefore, upon the vaflal’s refignation, the fuperior’s
right of property revives, and is confolidated with the
fuperiority, without the neceffity of a new infeftment ;
but the inftrument of refignation mud be recorded.
8. Refignations in favorem are made, not with an
intention that the property refigned (hould remain with
the fuperior, but that it (hould be again given by him,
in favour either of the refigner himfelf, or of a third
party; confequently the fee remains in the r^iigner,
till theperfon in whofe favour refignation is made gets
his right from the fuperior perfeded by feifin. And
becaufe refignations in favorem are but incomplete per-
fonal deeds, our law has made no provifion for record¬
ing them. Hence, the firft feifin on a fecond refigna¬
tion is preferable to the laft feifin upon the firft refig¬
nation ; but the fuperior, accepting a fecond refigna¬
tion, whereupon a prior feifin may be taken in preju¬
dice of the firft refignatory, is liable in damages.
9. By our former decifions, one who was vetted with
a perfonal right of lands, /. e. a right not completed
by feifin, effedually divefted himfelf by difponing it to
another; after which, no right remained in the difpo¬
ner, which could’ be carried by a fecond difpefition,
becaufe a perfonal right is no more than a jus obligatio-
nis, which may be transferred by any deed fufficiently
expreffing the will of the granter. But this dodrine,
at the fame time that it rendered the fecurity of the re¬
cords extremely uncertain, was not truly applicable to
fuch
iPart III. t
^Law of fUch rights as required feifin to complete them ; and
Scotland, therefore it now obtains, that the granter even of a per-
fonal right of lands, is not fo divefted by conveying the
right to one perfon, but that he may effeftually make
it over afterwards to another; and the preference be-
i- tween the two does not depend on the dates of the dif-
potitions, but on the priority of the feiftns following
upon them.
J clxix. Sect. VIII. Of Redeemable Rights.
it :verfians
IB
jjkdemp-
An heritable right is faid to be redeemable, when it
contains a right of reverfion, or return, in favour of the
perfon from whom the right flows. Revevfions are eb
ther legal, which arife from the law itielf, as in adju¬
dications, which law declares to be redeemable within
a certain term after their date; or conventional, which
are conflituted by the agreement of parties, as in wad-
fets, rights of annualrent, and rights'in fecurity. A
wadfet (from wad or pledge) is a right, by which
lands, or other heritable fubjects, are impignorated by
the proprietor to his creditor, in fecurity of his debt ;
and, like other, heritable rights, is perfe&ed by fei¬
fin. The debtor, who grants the wadfet, and has the
right of reverfion, is called the reverfer; and the
creditor, receiver of the wadfet, is called the wadfet-
ter.
2. Wadfets, by the prefent pradtice, are commonly
made out in the form of mutual contradts, in which one
party fells the land, and the other grants the right of
reverfion. When the right of reverfion is thus incor¬
porated in the body of the wadfet, it is effedtual with¬
out regiftration; becaufe the Angular fucceflbr in the
wadfet is, in that cafe, fufficiently certified of the re¬
verfion, though it be not regiftered, by looking into
his own right, which bears it in gremio. But where
the right of reverfion is granted in a feparate writing,
it is inneffedhial againft the Angular fucceflbr of the
wadfetttr, unlefs it be regiftered in the regifter of feifins
within 60 days after the date of the feifin upon the wad¬
fet.
3. Rights of reverfion are generally efteemed Jlri&i
juris; yet they go to heirs, though heirs ftiould not
be mentioned, unlefs there be fome claufe in the right,
difeovering the intention of parties, that the reverfion
fliould be perfonal to the reverfer himfelf. In like man¬
ner, though the right (hould not exprefs a power to
redeem from the wadfetter’s heir, as well as from him¬
felf, redemption will be competent againft the heir.
All our lawyers have affirmed, that rcverfiofis cannot
be affigned, 'unlefs they are taken to affignees; but
from the favour of legal diligence, they may be ad¬
judged.
4. Reverfions commonly leave the reverfer at liberty
to redeem the lands quandocunque, without reftridtion
in point of time; but a claufe is adjedted to fome re¬
verfions, that if the debt be not paid againft a deter¬
minate day, the right of reverfion ftiall be irritated,
and the lands Ihall become the irredeemable property of
the wadfetter. Neverthelefs, the irritancy being penal,
asin wadfets, the fum lent falls always ftiort of the value
of the lands, and the right of redemption is by indul¬
gence continued tp the reverfer, even after the term has
expired, while the irritancy is not declared. But the
reverfer, if he does not take the benefit of this indul¬
gence within 40 years after the lapfe of the term, is
A W. ( 67 )
cut out of it by prefeription. I,aw 0f
5. If the reverfer would redeem his lands, he muft Scotland.
ufe an order of redemption againft the wadfetter: the
firft ftep of which is premonition (or notice given un¬
der form of inftrument) to the wadfetter, to appear at
the time and place appointed by the reverfion, then and
there to receive payment of his debt, and thereupon to
renounce his right of wadfet. In the voluntary re¬
demption of a right of wadfet holden bafe, a renuncia¬
tion duly regiftered re-eftablifties the reverfer in the full
right of the lands. Where the wadfet was granted to
be holden of* the granter’s fupefior, the fuperior muft;
receive the reverfer, on payment of a year’s rent, if he
produce a difpofition from the wadfetter, containing
procuratory of refignation^ If, at executing the wad¬
fet, the fuperior has granted letters of regrefs, /. c. an Letters of
obligation again to enter the reverfer upon redemption
of the lands, he will be obliged to receive him, without
payment of the year’s rent. But letters of regrefs will
not have this effedt againft fingular fucceflbrs in the fu-
periority, if they are not regiftered in the regifter of re¬
verfions. All wadfets that remain perfonal rights, are
extinguiftied by Ample difeharges, though they ffiould
not be recorded.
6. If the wadfetter either does not appear at the ^e<lemP-
time and place appointed, or refufes the redemption-tJonmoneT
money, the reverfer muft confign it under form of in¬
ftrument, in the hands of the perfon thereto appointed
in the right of reverfion ; or, if no perfon be named,
in the hands of the clerk to the bills, a clerk of feffion,
or any refponfal perfon. An inftrument of configna-
tion, with the confignatory’s receipt of the money con-
figned, completes the order of redemption, flops the
farther currency of intereft againfl the reverfer, and
founds him in an aftion for declaring the order to be
formal, and the lands to be redeemed in confequence
of it.
7. After decree of declarator is obtained, by which
the lands are declared to return to the debtor, thecon-
figned money, which comes in place of the lands, be¬
comes the wadfetter’s, who therefore can charge the
cojifignatory upon letters of horning to deliver it up to
him ; but, becaufe the reverfer may, at any time before
decree, pafs from his order, as one may do from any
other ftep of diligence, the configned fums continue to
belong to the reverfer, and the wadfetter’s intereft in
the wadfet continues heritable till that period.
8. If the wadfetter chufes to have his money rather
than the lands, he muft require from the reverfer, un¬
der form of inftrument, the fums due by the wadfet,
in terms of the right. The wadfet fum,s continue he¬
ritable, notwithftanding requiiition, which may be
pafled from by the wadfetter even after the reverfer
has configned the redemption-money in confeqnence
thereof.
9. Wadfets are either proper or improper. A pro- Wadfets.’
per wadfet is that whereby it is agreed, that the ufe
of the land (hall go for the ufe of the money ; fo that
the wadfetter takes his hazard of the rents, and enjoys .
them without accounting, in fatisfaction, or in folutum
of his intereft.
10. In an improper wadfet, the reverfer, if the rent
ftiould fall ftiort of the intereft, is taken bound to make
up the deficiency; if it amounts to more, the wadfetter
is obliged to impute the excrefcence towards extin&ion
A
W.
( 68 ) L
Law of of the capital: And, as foon as the whole fums, prin-
Scotbiid c;pa] an<j intefeft, are extinQjui(hed by the wadfettef’s
poffenion, he may be compelled to renounce, or diveft.
himfelf in favour of the reverfer.
II, If the wadfetter-be intitled by his right to en¬
joy the rents without accounting, and if at the fame
time the reverfer be fubjedled to the hazard of their
deficiency, fuch contraft is juftly declared ufurious:
and alfo in all proper wadfets wherein any unreafonable
advantage has been taken of the debtor, the wadfetter
mull, during the not requi'iition of the fum lent, either
quit his pofieffion to the debtor, upon his giving fepu-
rity to pay the intereft, or fubjeft himfelf to account for
the fufplus-rents, as in improper wadfets.
Rightofan- 12. Infeftments of annualrent, the nature of which
nualrent, jjas jjeen eXp1a;ned, are alfo redeemable rights. A
right of annnalrent does not carry the property of the
lands; but it creates a real nixus or burden upon the
property, for payment of the intereft or annualrcnt
contained in the right; and confequently the bygone
interefts due upon it are debita fimdi. The annualren-
ter may therefore either infift in a real aflion for ob¬
taining letters of poinding the ground, or fue the te¬
nant in a perfonal aftion towards the payment of his
paft intereft : and in a Competition for thofe rents, the
annualrenter’s preference will not depend on his having
ufed a poinding of the ground, for his right was com-
pleated by the feifin ; and the power of poinding the
ground, arifing from that antecedent right, is merx
facultatis, and need not be exercifed, if payment can
be otherwife got. As it is only the intereft of the fum
lent which is a burden upon the lands, the annual-
renter, if he wants his principal fum, cannot recover it
either by poinding or by a perfonal a&ion againft the
debtor’s tenants; but muft demand it from the debtor
himfelf, on his perfonal obligation in the bond, either
by requifition, or by a charge upon letters of horning,
according as the right is drawn.
13. Rights of annualrent, being fervitudes upon the
property, and confequently confiftent with the right of
property in the debtor, may be extinguilhed without
, refignation.
Rights of 14. Infeftments in fecurity are another kind of re-
purity. deemable rights (now frequently ufed in place of rights
of annualrent, by which the receivers are infeft in the
lands themfelves, and not fimply in an annualrent forth
of them, for fecurity of the principal fums, intereft,
and penalty, contained in therights. If an infeftment
in fecurity be granted to a creditor, he may thereupon
enter into the immediate poffeffion of the lands or an¬
nualrent for his payment. They are extinguilhed as
rights of annualrent.
15. All rights of annualrent, rights in fecurity, and
generally whatever conftitutes a real burden on the
fee, may be the ground of an adjudication, which is
preferable to all adjudications, or other diligences,
intervening between the date of the right and of the
adjudication deduced on it; not only for the princi¬
pal fum contained in the right, but alfo for the whole
paft intereft contained in the adjudication. This pre¬
ference arifes from the nature of real debts, or debi¬
ta fundi: but in order to obtain it for the intereft of
the intereft accumulated in the adjudication, fuch ad¬
judication muft proceed on a procefs of poinding the
ground.
Part Hi; I
Sect. IX. Of Servitudes. Scoiiami. i
Servitude is a burden affecting lands, or other he- cjxx '$]
ritable fubjedls, whereby the proprietor is either re- Different ffl
drained from the full ufe of what is his own, or isobli- kinds of
ged to fuffer another to do fomething upon it. Strvi- fervinidc. j
tudes are either natural, legal, or conventional. Na¬
ture itfelf may be faid to conftitute a fervitude upon
inferior tenements, whereby they muft receive the wa¬
ter that falls from thofe that ftand on higher ground.
Legal fervices are eftablifhed by ftatute or cuftom,
from confiderations of public policy ; among which
may be numbered the reftraints laid upon the pro- il ;
prietors of tenements within the city of Edinburgh.
There is as great a variety of conventional fervitudes,
as there are ways by which the exercife of property
may be reftrained by pa&ion in favour of another.
2. Conventional fervitudes are conftituted, either by
grant, where the will of the party burdened is exprefled
in writing; or by prefcription, where his confent ispre- ' J&
fumed from his acquiefcence in the burden for 40 years.
A fervitude conftituted by writing, or grant, is not
effectual againft the granter’s fingular fucceffors, unlefs
the grantee has been in the ufe or exercife of his right:
but they are valid againft the granter and his heirs,
even without ufe. In fervitudes that may be acquired
by prefcription, 40 years exercife of the right is fuf-
ficient, without any title in writing, other than a char¬
ter and feifin of the lands to which the fervitude is
claimed to be due.
3. Servitudes conftituted by grant are not effedlual,
in a queftion with the fuperior of the tenement bur¬
dened with the fervitude, unlefs his confent be adhi¬
bited ; for a. fuperior cannot be hurt by his vaflal’s
deed: but where the fervitude is acquired by prefcrip¬
tion, the confent of the fuperior, whofe right afforded . \
him a good title to interrupt, is implied. A fervitude
by grant, though followed only by a partial pdffefiion,
muft be governed, as to its extent, by the tenor of the
grant; but a fervitude by prefcription is limited by the
meafurc or degree of the ufe had by him who prefcribes:
agreeably to the maxim, tantum prafcriptum quantum
pojfejfum. _ _ . ‘I
4. Servitudes are either predial or perfonal. Predial pre(pai fej
fervitudes are burdens impofed upon one tenement, in vitudes. Tj
favour of another tenement. That to which the fervi¬
tude is due is called the dominant, and that which owes
it is called the fervient tenement. No perfon can have
right to a predial fervitude, if he is not proprietor of
fome dominant tenement that may have benefit by it;
for that right is annexed to a tenement, and fo cannot
pafs from one perfon to another, unlefs fome tenement
goes along with it.
5. Predial fervitudes are divided into ran*/fervitudes,
or of lands; and urban fervitudes, or of houfes. The
rural fervitudes of the Romans were iter, atlus, via, Rnrai fep
aquteduftut, aqucehaufus, and jus pafcendi pecoris. Si- tudes.
milar fervitudes may be conftituted with us, of a foot-
road, horfe-road, cart-road, dams, and aquedu&s, wa¬
tering of cattle, and pafturage. The right of a high¬
way is not a fervitude conftituted in favour of a parti¬
cular tenement, but is a right common to all travellers.
The care of high-ways, bridges, and ferries, is com¬
mitted to the fheriffsjjuftices of peace, and commiifion-
ers of fupply in each fhirc.
6. Com*
Part III.
L
Scotland.
IF—
rbsn fer-
itudes.
6. Common pafturage, or tlie light of feeding one’s
cattle upon the property of another, is fometimes con-
ftituted by a general claufe of pafturage In a charter or
difpofition, without mentioning the lands burdened ;
in which cafe, the right comprehends whatever had
been formerly appropriated to the lands difponed out
of the granter’s own property, and likewiie all paftu¬
rage due to them out of other lands. When a right of
pafturage is given to feveral neighbouring proprietors,
on a moor or common belonging to the granter, in¬
definite as to the number of cattle to be paftured, the
extent of their feveral rights is to be proportioned ac¬
cording to the number that each of them can fodder in
winter upon his own dominant tenement.
7. The chief Servitudes of houfes among the Ro¬
mans were thofe of Support, viz. tigni immittendi, and
eneris firendi. The firft was the right of fixing in .our
neighbour’s wall a joift or beam from our houfe : the
fecund was that of refting the weight of one’s houie
upon his neighbour’s wall.
8. With us, where different floors or ftories of the
fame houfe belong to different perfons, as is frequent
in the city of Edinburgh, the property of the houfe
cannot be faid to be entirely divided ; the roof remains
a common roof to the whole, and the area on which
the houfe Hands Supports the whole ; fo that there is a
communication of property, in confequence of which
the proprietor of the ground-floor mint, without the
conftitution of any Servitude, uphold it for the Support
«f the upper, and the owner of the higheft ftory muft
uphold that as a cover to the lower. When the
higheft floor is divided into garrets among the feveral
proprietors, each proprietor is obliged, according to
this rule, to uphold that part of the roof which covers
his own garret.
9. No proprietor can build, fo as to throw the rain¬
water falling from his own houfe, immediately upon
his neighbour’s ground, without a Special fervitude,
which is called of JUllicide ; but, if it falls within- his
own property, though at the fmalleft diftance from the
march, the owner of the inferior tenement muft re¬
ceive it.
10. The Servitudes altius non tolhndi, et non officien-
di lu?ninibus vel profpeftui, re ft rain proprietors from rai¬
ling their houfes beyond a certain height, or from ma¬
king any building whatfoever that may hurt the light
or profpeft of the dominant tenement. Thefe Servi¬
tudes cannot be conftituted by prefcription alone : for,
though a proprietor (hould have his houfe everfo low,
or ftiould not have built at all upon his grounds for 40
years together, he is prefumed to have done fo for his
own conveniency or profit; and therefore cannot be
barred from afterwards building a houfe on his proper¬
ty, or raifing it to what height he pleafes, unlefs he be
tied down by his own confent.
snritude of 11. We have two predial Servitudes to which the
|al and di- Romans were ftrangers, viz. that of fewel or feal and
divot, and of thirlage. The firft is a right, by which
the owner of the dominant tenement may turn up peats,
turfs, Seals, or divots, from the ground of the fervient,
and carry them off either for fewel, or thatch, or the
other ufes of his own tenement,
ihirlage. 12. Thirlage is that fervitude, by which lands are
aftri&ed, or thirled, to a particular mill; and the pof-
feffors bound to grind their grain there, for payment
A W. ( 69 )
of certain multures and Sequels as the agreed price of
grinding. In this fervitude, the mill is the dominant ‘ cot 3,1
tenement, and the lands aftrifted (which are called al-
fo the thirl or fucken) the fervient. Multure is the
quantity of grain or meal payable to the proprietor of
the mill, or to the multurer his tackfman. The Se¬
quels are the Small quantities given to the Servants, un¬
der the name of knavejhip, bannock, and lock or goiupen.
The quantities paid to the mill by the lands not a-
ftri&ed, are generally proportioned to the value of the
labour, and are Called out-town or out-fucken multures i
but thofe paid by the thirl are ordinarily higher, and
are called in-town or in-fucken multures.
13. Thirlage may be conftituted by a land-holder,
when, in the difpoiition of certain lands, he aftrifts
them to his own milll ; or when, in the difpofition of a
mill, he aftrids his own lands to the mill dilponed; or
when, in letting his lands, he makes it a condition in
the tacks. The grant of a mill with the general elaufe
of multures, without Specifying the lands atiritfted,
conveys the thirlage of all the lands formerly aftridfted
to that mill, whether they were the property of the
granter, or of a third party.
14. A lefs formal conftitution Serves to aftrift ba¬
rony-lands to the mill of the barony, than is neceffary
in any other thirlage ; which perhaps proceeds from
the effefts of the union betwixt the two. Hence, if a
baron makes over the mill of a barony, cum multuris,
or cum aflriftis multuris, it infers an aftri&ion of the
barony lands to the mill conveyed, even of fuch as had
been before fold to another for a certain duty pro omni
alio onere. But if, prior to the baron’s conveyance of
his mill cum multuris, he had fold any part of the ba¬
rony-lands to another cum multuris, the firft purchafer’s
lands are not aftri&ed by the pofterior grant; for a
right of lands with the multures, implies a freedom of
thefe lands from thirlage.
15. Thirlage is either, 1. Of grindable corns ; or,
2. Of all growing corns ; or, 3. Of the invefta et il-
lata, 1. e. of all the grain- brought within the thirl,
though of another growth. Where the thirlage is of
grindable grain, it is in pra&ice ^sftritfted to the corns
which the tenants have occafion to grind, either for the
Support of their families, or for other ufes ; the furphis
may be carried out of the thirl unmanufa&ured, with¬
out being liable in multure. Where it is of the grana
crefcentia, the whole grain growing upon the thirl is
aftrifted, with the exceptions, 1. Of feed and horfe-
corn, which are deftined to ufes inconfiftent with grind- '
ing ; and, 2. Of the farm-duties due to the landlord,,
if they are delivered in grain not grinded. But, if the
rent be payable in meal, flour, or malt, the grain of
which thefe are made muft be manufa&ured in the do¬
minant mill.
16. The thirlage oiinvefta et Mata is Seldom confti-
tuted but againft the inhabitants of a borough or vil¬
lage, that they (hall grind all the unmanufa&ured grain
they import thither at the dominant mill. Multure,
therefore, cannot be exafted in a thirlage of invefta et
Mata, for flour or oat-meal brought into the fervient
tenement, unlefs the importer had bought it in grain,
and grinded it at another mill. The fame grain that
owes multure, as granum crefcens, to the mill in whofc
thirl it grew, if it (hall be afterwards brought within a
borough where the invefta et Mata are thirled, muft pay
st
( 7o ) L A W. Part III.
Law of a fecond multure to the proprietor of that dominant
Scotland. tenernent ; but, where the right of thefe two thirlages
is in the fame proprietor, he cannotexaft both. Where
lands are thirled in general terms, without exprefiing
the particular nature of the fervitude, the lighted thir-
lage is prefumed, from the favour of liberty ; but in
the aftriftion of a borough or village, where there is
no growing grain which can be the fubjeft of thirlage,
the altriction of invcfta et Mata mud be neceflarily un-
derltood.
17. Thirlage, in the general cafe,“cannot be efta-
blithed by prefcription alone, for iis qu<e funt mera fa-
eultatis non prafcribitur ; but where one has paid for
40 years together the heavy infucken multures, the
flighted title in writing will fubjedt his lands. Thir-
lage may be, contrary to the common rule, conftituted
♦ by prefeription alone, 1. Where one pays to a mill a
certain fum, or quantity of grain yearly, in name of
multure, whether he grinds at it or not, (called dry
multure.) 2. In mills of the king’s property) which
is conftituted/an? rwwz^fy without titles in writing)
and, where -he derives right from another, his titles
are more liable to be loft. This is extended in prac¬
tice to mills belonging to church-lauds, where 30
years poffeffion is deemed equivalent to a title in, wri¬
ting, from a prefumption that their rights were de-
ftroyed at the reformation. Though thirlage itfelf
cannot be conftituted by mere pofl'eflion, the proportion
of multure payable to the dominant tenement may be
fo fixed.
18. The poffeflbrs of the lands aftri&ed, are bound
to uphold the mill, repair the dam-dykes and aque-
dufts, and bring home the millftones. Thefe fervices,
though not exprefled in the conftrfution, are implied.
I^‘ Servitudes, being reftraints upon property, are
are/fn lJu~ jUris ; they are not therefore prefumed, if the
a&s upon which they are claimed can be explained con-
fi.ftently with freedom ; and, when fervitudes are con¬
ftituted, they ought to be ufed in the way leaft bur-
denfome to the fervient tenement. Hence, one who
has a fervitude of peats upon his neighbour’s mofs, is
not at liberty to extend it for the ufe of any manufac¬
ture which may require an extraordinary expence of
fewel; but mu ft confine it to the natural ufes of the do¬
minant tenement.
20. Servitudes are extinguifhed, (1.) Confufione,
when the perfon comes to be proprietor of the domi¬
nant and fervient tenements ; for res fiia nemini fervit,
and the ufe the proprietor thereafter makes of the fer¬
vient tenement is not jure fervitutis, but is an ad of
property. (2.) By the perifhing either of the domi¬
nant or fervient tenement. (3.) Servitudes are loft non.
utendo, by the dominant tenement negleding to ufe the
right for 40 years; which is confidered as a derelic¬
tion of it, though he who has the fervient tenement
ftiould have made no interruption by doing ads con¬
trary to the fervitude.
21. Perfonal fervitudes are thofe by which the pro¬
perty of a fubjed is burdened, in favour, pot of a te¬
nement, but of a perfon. The only perfonal fervi-
Liferent. ^uc*e known in our law, is ufufrud or liferent; which
is a right to ufe and enjoy a thing during life, the
fubftance of it being preferved. A liferent cannot
therefore be conftituted upon things which perilh in the
ufe; and though it may upon fubjeds which gradual¬
ly wear out by time, as houfehold furniture, Law of
yet, with us, it is generally applied to heritable fub- Scotian*.j
jeds. He whofe property is burdened, is ufually ?
called the far.
22. Liferents are divided into conventional and le- Liferents.;)
gal. Conventional liferents are either fimple, or by
refervation, A fimple liferent, or by a feparate con-
ftitution, is that which is granted by the proprietor in
favour of another: And this fort, contrary to the na¬
ture of predial fervitudes, requires feifin in order to af-
fed fingular fucceffors ; for a liferent of lands is, in
ftrid fpeech, not a fervitude, but a right refembling
property which conllitutcs the liferenter vaffal for life;
and fingular fuccdfors have no way of difeovering a life-
rent-right, which perhaps is not yet commenced, but - |}
by the records; whereas, in predial fervitudes the con-
ftant ufe of the dominant tenement makes them pub¬
lic. The proper right of liferent is intranfmiffible,
of bus ufufruftuarii inharet: When the profits of the
liferented fubjed are tranfmitted to another, the right
becomes merely perfonal: for it intitles the affignee to
the rent, cot during his own life, but his cedent’s; and
is therefore carried by fimple aftignation, without feifin.
23. A liferent by refervation, is that which a pro¬
prietor rtferves to himfelf in the fame writing by which
he conveys the fee to another. It requires no feifin ;
for the granter’s former feifin, which virtually included
the liferent, ftill fubfifts as to the liferent which is ex-
prefsly referved. In conjund infeftments taken tohuf-
band and wife, the wife’s right of conjund fee refolves,
in the general cafe, into a liferent.
24. Liferents by law, are the terce and the cour- Terce- s
tefy. The terce (tertia) is a liferent competent by
law to widows, who have not accepted of fpecial pro-
vifions, in the third of the heritable fubjeds in which
their hulbands died infeft; and takes place only where
the marriage has fubfifted for year and day, or where
a child has been born alive of it.
25. The terce is not limited to lands, but extends
to teinds, and to fervitudes and other burdens affeding
lands ; thus, the widow is intitled, in the right of her
terce, to a liferent of the third of the fums fecured, ei¬
ther by rights of annualrent, or by rights in fecurity.
In improper wadfets, the teree is a third of the fum
lent: In thofe that are proper, it is a third of the wad-
fet lands; or, in cafe of redemption, a third of the re¬
demption money. Neither rights of reverfion, fupe- j
riority, nor patronage, fall under the terce; for none of
thefe have fixed profits, and fo are not proper fubjeds
for the widow’s fubfiftence ; nor tacks, becaufe they are
not feudal rights. Burgage-tenements are alfo exclu¬
ded from it, the reafon of which is not fo obvious.
Since the hufband’s feifin is both the meafure and fecu¬
rity of the terce, fuch debts or diligences alone, as I
exclude the hufband’s feifin, can prevail over it.
26. Where a terce is due out of lands burdened with "j I
a prior terce ftill fubfiftin.g, the fecond tercer has only
right to a third of the two thirds that remain unaffeded : I
by the firft terce. But upon the death of the firft wi¬
dow, whereby the lands are difburdened of her terce, ; I
the leffer terce becomes enlarged, as if the firft had :l
never exifted. A widow, who has accepted of a fpe¬
cial provifion frqm her bufband, is thereby excluded
from the terce, unlefs fuch provifion fhall contain a ||
claufe that fhe fhall have right to both.
27. The
Part III.
L A W.
( 71 )
Law of
Scotland.
27. The widow has no title of pofleffion, and fo can¬
not receive the rents in virtue of her terce, till ihe be
ferved to it; and in order to this, Ihe mult obtain a
brief out of the chancery, dire&ed to the Sheriff, who
calls an inqueft, to take proof that (he was wife to the
deceafed, and that the deceafed died infeft in the fub-
je&s contained in the brief. The fervice or fentence
of the jury, finding thefe points proved, does, without
the neceffity of a retour to the chancery, intitle the
wife to enter into the poffeffion; but fhe can only pof-
fefs with the heir pro indivifo, and fo cannot remove
tenants, till the fheriff kens her to her terce, or divides
the lands between her and the heir. In this divifion,
after determining by lot or kavil, whether to begin by
the fun or the fhade, i. e. by the eatt or the welt, the
fheriff fets off the two firft acres for the heir, and the
third for the widow. Sometimes the divifion is execu¬
ted, by giving one entire farm to the widow, and two
of equal value to the he:r* The widow,s riSht is ri0t
properly conllituted by this fervice ; it was conilituted
before by the hufband’s feifin, and fixed by his death;
the fervice only declares it, and fo intitles her to the
third part of the rents retro to her hufband’s death,
preferable to any rights that may have affe&ed the
lands in the intermediate period between that and her
own fervice. The relid, if fhe was reputed to be law¬
ful wife to the deceafed, muff be ferved, notwithttand-
ing any objeftions by the heir againft the marriage,
which may be afterwards tried by the commiffary.
28. Courtefy is a liferent given by law, to the fur-
viving hufband, of all his wife’s heritage in which fhe
died infeft, if there was a child of the marriage born
alive. A marriage, though of the longeff continuance,
gives no right to the courtefy, if there was no iffue of
it. The child born of the marriage muff be the mo¬
ther’s heir: If die had a child of the former marriage,
who is to fucceed to her effate, the hufband has no
right to the courtefy while fuch child is alive; fo that
the courtefy is due to the hufband, rather as father to
an heir, than as hufband to an heirefs. Heritage is
here oppofed to conqueft ; and fo is to be underffood
only of the heritable rights to which the wife fucceeded
as heir to her anceflors, excluding what fhe herfelf had
acquired by fingular titles. •
29. Becaufe the hufband enjoys the life-rent of his
wife’s whole heritage, on a lucrative title, he is con-
fidered as her temporary reprefentative ; and fo is liable
in payment of all the yearly burdens chargeable on the
fubjeft, and of the current intereft of all her debts,
real and perfonal, to the value of the yearly rent he
enjoys by the courtefy. The courtefy needs no folem-
nity to its conffitution : That right, which the hufbasd
had to the rents of his wife’s effate; during the mar¬
riage, jure mariti, is continued with him after her
death, under the name of by an a& of the
law itfelf. As in the terce, the hufband’s feifin is the
ground and meafure of the wife’s right; fo in the cour¬
tefy, the wife’s feifin is the foundation of the hufband’s;
and the two rights are, in all other refpe&s, of the
fame nature ; if it is not that the courtefy extends to
burgage holdings, and to fuperiorities.
30. All liferenters muff ufe their right falva rei fub-
Jlantia : whatever therefore is part of the fee itfelf,
‘cannot be encroached on by the liferenter, e.g. ivoods
or growing timber, even for the neceffary ufes of the
liferented tenement. Eut, where a coppice ox filva
ctzdua has been divided into hags, one of which was in
ufe to be cut annually by the proprietor, the liferenter
may continue the former yearly cuttings; becaufe thefe
are confidered as the annual fruits the fubjedt was in¬
tended to yield, and fo the proper fubjedl of a life¬
rent.
Law of
Scotland.
31. Liferenters are bound to keep the fubjedl life-
rented in proper repair. They are alfo burdened with
the alimony of the heir, where he has not enough for
maintaining himfelf. The bare right of apparency
founds the action againft the liferenter. It is a burden
perfonal to the liferenter himfelf, and cannot be thrown
upon his adjudging creditors as coming in his place
by their diligences. Liferenters are alfo fubje&ed to
the payment of the yearly ceffesr ftipends, &c. falling
due during their right, and to all other burdens that
attend the fubjeft liferented.
32. Liferent is extinguifhed by the liferenter’s death.
That part of the rents which the liferenter had a pro¬
per right to, before his death, falls to his executors ;
the reft, as never having been in bonis of the deceafed,
goes to the fiar. Martinmas and Whitfunday are, by
our cuftom, the legal terms of the payment of rent:
confequently, if a liferenter of lands furvives the term
of Whitfunday, his executors are entitled to the half
of that year’s rent, becaufe it was due the term before
his death; and if he furvives the Martinmas, they have
right to the whole. If the liferenter, being in the na¬
tural pcffeffion, and having firft fowed the ground,
fhould die, even before the Whitfunday, his executors
are intitled to the whole crop, in refpeft that both feed
and induftry were his. In a liferent of money confti-
tuted by a moveable bond, the executors have a right
to the intereft, down to the very day of the liferenter’s
death, where no terms are mentioned for the payment
thereof; but in the cafe of an heritable bond, or of a
money liferent fecured on land, the interefts of life-
renter and liar (or of heir and executor, for the fame
rules ferve to fix the interefts of both) are both go¬
verned by the legal terms of land-rent, without regard
to the conventional.
Sect. X. Of Teinds* dxxi.
Tf.inds, or tithes, are that liquid proportion of Ttinds.
our rents or goods, which is due to churchmen, for
performing divine fervice, or exercifing the other fpiri-
tual fundtions proper to their feveral offices. Moft of
the canonifts affirm, that, the precife proportion of a
tenth, not only of the fruits of the ground, but of what
is acquired by perfonal induftry, is due to the Chriftian
clergy, of divine right, which they therefore call the
proper patrimony of the church ; though it is certain
that tithes, in their infancy, were given, not to The
clergy alone, but to lay-monks who were called pau~
peres, and to other indigent perfons. Charles the Great
was the firft fecular prince who acknowledged this
right in the church. It appears to have been recei¬
ved with us, as far back as David I.
2. The perfon employed by a cathedral church or
monaftery to ferve the cure in any church annexed,
was called a vicar, becaufe he held the church, not in
his own right, but in the right or vice of his employ¬
ers ; and fo was removeable at pleafure, and had no
(hare of the benefice, other than what they thought fit
to
( 72 ) LA
Law of to allow him: but, in the courfe of time, the appella-
Scotland. t;on Qf vj'car W3S limited to thofe who were made per¬
petual, and who got a Hated (hare of the benefice for
their incumbency; from whence arofe the diftindtion
of benefices into parfonages and vicarages.
3. Parfonage teinds are the teinds of corn; and they
are fo called becaufe they are due to the parfon or o-
ther titular of the benefice. Vicarage teinds are the
fmall teinds of calves, lint, hemp, eggs, &c. which
were commonly given by the titular to the vicar who
ferved the cure in his place. The firft fort was univer-
fally due, unlefs in the cafe of their infeudation to laics,
or of a pontifical exemption; but, by the cuftoms of
almoft all Chriftendom, the le(fer teinds were not de¬
manded where they had not been in ufe to be paid.
By the pra&ice of Scotland, the teinds of animals, or
of things produced from animals, as lambs, wool, calves,
are due though not accuftomed to be paid; but roots,
herbs, &c. are not tithable, unlefs ufe of payment be
proved: neither are perfonal teinds, ;. e. the tenth of
what one acquires by his own induftry, acknowledged
by our law ; yet they have been found due, when fup-
ported by 40 years poffeffion.
4. The parfon who was entitled to the teindof corns,
made his right effe&ual, either by accepting of a cer¬
tain number of teind-bolls yearly from the proprietor
in fatisfadfion of it; or, more frequently, by drawing
or feparating upon the field his own tenth part of the
corns, after they were reaped, from the flock or the
remaining nine tenths of the crop, and carrying it off
to his own granaries; which is called drawn teind.
Annexation $• After the reformation, James VI. confidered him-
of churcli felf as proprietor of all the church-lands ; partly be¬
lauds to the Caufe the purpofes for which they had been granted
t own. were declared fuperftitious; and partly, in confequence
of the refignations which he, and queen Mary his mo¬
ther, had procured from the beneficiaries: and even as
to the teinds, though our reformed clergy alfo claimed
them as the patrimony of the church, our fovereign
did not fubmit to that do&rine farther than extended
to a competent provifion for minifters. He therefore
erefted or fecularifed feveral abbacies and priories into
temporal lordfhips; the grantees of which were called
fometimes lords of ereftion, and fometimes titulars, as
having by their grants the fame title to the eredted
benefices that the monafteries had formerly.
6. As the crown’s revenue fuffered greatly by thefe
erections, the temporality of all church benefices (/. e.
church lands) was, by 1587. c. 29. annexed to the
crown. That ftatute excepts from the annexation fuch
benefices as were cftablifhed before the reformation in
laymen, whofe rights the legiflature had no intention
to weaken. Notwithftanding this ftatute, his majefty
continued to make farther ere&ions, which were de¬
clared null by 1592, c. 119. with an exception of fuch
as had been made in favour of lords of parliament
fince the general adt of annexation in 1587.
7. King Charles I. foon after his fucceffion, raifed a
redu&ion of ail thefe erections, whether granted before
©r after the a£t of annexation, upon the grounds men¬
tioned at length by Mr Forbes in his treatife of tithes,
p. 259’ -A-1 *a‘^ vvrhole matter was referred to the
king himfelf oy four feveral fubmifiions or compro-
mifts ; in which the parties on one fide were the titu¬
lars and their tackfmen, the bilhops with the inferior
w.
Part III.
clergy, and the royal boroughs, for the intereft they Law °£
had in the teinds that were gifted for the provifion of Scotland.
minifters, fchools, or hofpitals within their boroughs;
and, on the other part, the proprietors who wanted to
hare the leading of their own teinds. The fubmiffion
by the titulars contained a furrender into his majefty’s
hands of the fuperiorities of their feveral ereftions.
8. Upon each of thefe fubmiffions his majefty pro- Valuation
nounced feparate decrees-arbrital, dated Sept. 2. 1629,°^ te‘nds*
which are fubjoinedtothe a&s of parliament of hisreign.
He made it lawful to proprietors to fue the titulars for
a valuation, and if they thought fit for a fale alfo, of
their teinds, before the commiffioners named or to be
named for that purpofe. The rate of teind, when it was
poffeffed by the proprietor jointly with the flock, for
payment of a certain duty to the titular, and fo did not
admit a feparate valuation, was fixed at a fifth part of
the conftant yearly rent, which was accounted a rea-
fonable furrogatum, in place of a tenth of the increafe.
Where it was drawn by the titular, and confequently
might be valued feparately from the flock, it was to
be valued as its extent (hould be afeertained upon a
proof before the commiffioners; but in this laft valua¬
tion, the king dire&ed the fifth part to be dedufted
from the proved teind, in favour of the proprietor,
which was there called the king's cafe. The proprietor
filing for a valuation gets the leading of his own teinds
as foon as his fuit commences, providing he does not
allow proteftation to be extracted againft him for not
infifting.
9. Where the proprietor infifted alfo for a fale of his
teinds, the titular was obliged to fell them at nine years
purchafe of the valued teind-duty. If the purfuer had
a tack of his own teinds, not yet expired ; or if the
defender was only tackfmen of the teinds, and fo Could
not give the purfuer an heritable right ; an abatement
of the price was to be granted accordingly by the com¬
miffioners.
t o. There is no provifion in the decrees-arbitral, for
felling the teinds granted for the fuftentation of mini¬
fters, univerfities, fcliools, or hofpitals; becaufe thefe
were to continue, as a perpetual fund, for the mainte¬
nance of the perfons or focieties to whom they were
appropriated; and they are exprefsly declared not fub-
jeft to fale, by 1690, c. 30.—1693', c. 23. By thelaft
of thefe adls, it is alfo provided, that the teinds be¬
longing to bifhops, which had then fallen to the crown
upon the abolifhing of epifcopacy, (hould not be fub-
je<ft to fale as long as they remained with the crown
not difpofed of; nor thofe which the proprietor, who
had right both to (lock and teind, referved to himfelf
in a fale or feu of the lands. But, though none of thefe
teinds can be fold, they may be valued.
11. The king, by the decrees arbitral, declared his King’srighi|!'
own right to the fuperiorities of ere&ion which had u> the fupe |c
been refigned to him by the fubmiffion, referving to the rl0»ties of >
titulars the feu-duties thereof, until payment by him- cre loa'
felf to them of 1000 merks Scots for every chalder of
feu-vi&ual, and for each hundred merks of feu-duty;
which right of redeeming the feu-duties was afterwards
renounced by the crown. If the church-vaffal (hould
confent to hold his lands of the titular, he cannot
thereafter recur to the crown as his immediate fupe-
rior.
In explaining what the conftant rent is by
which
■
If art III. LAW. ( 73 )
«w of which the teind mud be valued, the following rules are
iiytlainJ. 0bfervej, The rent drawn by the proprietor, from the
9 "s tor fale of fubje&s, that are more properly parts of the
iBigthe land than of the fruits, e. g. quarries, minerals, moffes,
ii ation of ^cc' *S to from the rental of the lands;
” L ° 0n^ a^° t^ie rent fupernumerary houfes, over and a-
btove what is nectfiary for agriculture; and the addi¬
tional rent that may be paid by the tenant, in confi-
deration of the proprietor’s undertaking any burden
that law impofes on the tenant, e. g. upholding the
tenant’s houfes, becaufe none of thefe articles are paid
properly on account of the fruits. Orchards muft alfo
lie deduced, and mill-rent, becaufe the profits of a mill
arife from induftry; and the corns manufactured there
fuffer a valuation as rent payable by the tenant, and
therefore ought not to be valued a fecond time againft
the titular as mill-rent. The yearly expence of culture
ought not to be dedufted ; for no rent can be produ¬
ced without it: but, if an improvement of rent is made
at an uncommon expence, e.g. by draining a lake, the
proprietor is allowed a reafonable abatement on that
account.
' nds re- 13. Notwith(landing the feveral ways of mifapply-
nabie, ;ng parochial teinds in the times of popery, fome ftw
; benefices remained entire in the hands of the parfons.
The minifters planted in thefe, after the reformation,
continued to have the full right to them, as proper be¬
neficiaries; but a power was afterwards granted to the
patron, to redeem the whole teind from fuch benefici-
% aries, upon their getting a competent (Upend modified
17 to them; which teind fo redeemed, the patron is obli¬
ged to fell to the proprietor, at fix years purchafe.
14. Some teinds are more direftly fubject to an al¬
location for the minifter’s (Upend, than others. The
teinds, in the hands of the lay titular, fall firft to be
allocated, who, fince he is not capable to ferve the cure
in his own perfon, ought to provide one who can; and
if the titular, in place of drawing the teind, has fet it
in tack, the tack-duty is allocated: this fort is called
free teind. Where the tack-duty, which is the titu-
, k lar’s intereft in the teinds, falls (hort, the tack itfelf is
. ? burdened, or, in other words, the furplus teind over
and above the tack-duty: but, in this cafe, the com-
miffioners are empowered to recompenfe the tackfman,
by prorogating his tack for fuch a number of years as
they (hall judge equitable. Where this likewife proves
deficient, the allocation falls on the teinds heritably
conveyed by the titular, unlefs he has warranted his
grant againff future augmentations; in which cafe, the
teinds of the lands belonging in property to the titular
himfelf mull be allocated in the firft place.
15. Where there is fuff^iency of free teinds in a
parifli, the titular may allocate any of them he (hall
think fit for the minifter’s (Upend, fince they are all his
I own ; unlefs there has been a previous decree of loca-
J I - lity: and this holds, though the (Upend (hould have
been paid'immemorially out of the teinds of certain
II particular lands. This right v^as frequently abufed by
titulars, who, as foon as a proprietor had brought an
aflion of fale of his teinds, allocated the purfuer’s full
teind for the (Upend, whereby fuch a&ion became in-
J effectual: it was therefore provided, that after citation
in a fale of teinds it (hall not be in the titular’s power
to allocate the purfuer’s teinds folely, but only in pro-
|| portion with the other teinds in the parifti.
16. Minifters glebes are declared free from the pay- Law of
ment of teind. Lands aim decimis inclujis are alfo ex- Scotland.
empted from teind. But in order to exempt lands from Minifters,
payment of teind, it/ is neceffary that the proprietor glebes, &o.
prove his right thereto, cum decimis inclujis, as far back exempted
as the above a6l of annexation 1587. from teinds.
17. Teinds are debita fruBuum, not fundi. The ac¬
tion therefore for bygone teinds is only perfonal, a-
gainft thofe who have intermeddled, unlefs where the
titular is infeft in the lands, in fecurity of the valued
teind-duty. Where a tenant is, by his tack, bound to
pay a joint duty to the landlord for (lock and teind,
without diftinguifhing the rent of each, his defence of
a bona fide payment of the whole to the landlord has
been fuftained in a fuit at the inftance of a laic titular,
but repelled where a churchman was purfuer. In both
cafes the proprietor who receives fuch rent is liable as
intermeddler.
18. In tacks of teinds, as of lands, there is place for Inhibition
tacit relocation: to (lop the effedl of which, the titu-tek'd5-
lar muft obtain and execute an inhibition of teinds a-
gainft the tackfman ; which differs much from inhibi¬
tion of lands (explained under the next, fe£Uon), and is
intended merely to intcrpel or inhibit the tackfman
from farther intermeddling. This diligence of inhibition
may alfo be ufed at the fuit of the titular, againft any
other poffeffor of the teinds ; and if the tackfman or
poffeffor (hall intermeddle after the inhibition is execu¬
ted, he is liable in a fpuilzie.
19. Lands and teinds pafs by different titles: a dif-
pofition of lands therefore, though granted by one who
has alfo right to the teind, will not carry the teind,
unlefs it (hall appear from fpecial circumftances that a
fale of both was defigned by the parties. In lands cum
decimis inclufis, where the teinds are confolidated with
the dock, the right of both muft neceffarily go toge¬
ther in all cafes.
Sect. Xt. Of Inhibitiens. clxx?.
The conftitution and tranfmiffion of feudal rights
being explained, and the burdens with which they are
chargeable, it remains to be confidered, how thefe
rights may be affe&ed at the fuit of creditors, by legal
diligence. Diligences are certain forms of law, where- Diligences,
by a creditor endeavours to make good his payment,
either by affedling the perfon of his debtor, or by fe-
curing the fubjedts belonging to him from alienation,
or by carrying the property of thefe fubje&s to him¬
felf. They are either real or perforial. Real diligence
is that which is proper to heritable or real rights ; per¬
fonal, is that by which the perfon of the debtor may
' be fecured, or his perfonal dlate affedled. Of the firft:
fort we have two, viz. Inhibition and adjudication.
2. Inhibition is a perfonal prohibition, which paffea Inhibition,
by letters under the (ignet, prohibiting the party inhi¬
bited to contrail any debt, or do any deed, by which
any part of his lands may be aliened or carried off in
prejudice of the creditor inhibiting. It muft be execu¬
ted againft the debtor, perfonally, or at his dwelling-
houfe, as fummonfes, and thereafter publiftied and re-
giftered in the fame manner with interdiilions, (fee
No clxxxiii. 21.)
3. Inhibition may proceed, either upon a liquid ob¬
ligation, or even on an adlion commenced by a creditor
for making good a claim not yet fuftained by the judge;
[ k ] which
( 74
J-.1W of
Scotland
Limited to
heritage.
Is limply
prohibitory
) L A
which la ft is called inhibition upon a depending aftion.
, The fummons, which conftitutes the dependence, mull
be executed againft the debtor before the letters of in¬
hibition pafs the frgnet; for no fuit can be faid to de¬
pend againft one, till he be cited in it as a defender:
but the effeft of fuch inhibition is fufpended, till de¬
cree be obtained in the action againft the debtor; and
in the fame manner, inhibitions on conditional debts
have no effeft till the condition be purified. Inhibi¬
tions are not granted, without a trial of the caufe,
when they proceed on conditional debts. And though,
in other cafes, inhibitions now pafs of courfe, the lords
are in ufe to ftay, or recal them, either on the debtor’s
ftiewing caufe why the diligence Ihould not proceed,
or even ex officio where the ground of the diligence is
doubtful.
4. Though inhibitions, by their uniform ftyle, dif¬
able the debtor from felling his moveable as well as his
heritable eftate, their effeft has been long limited to
heritage, from the interruption that fuch an embargo
upon moveables muft have given to commerce; fo that
debts contra&ed after inhibition may be the founda¬
tion of diligence againft the debtor’s perfon and move-
able eftate. An inhibition fecures the inhibitor againft
the alienation, not only of lands that belonged to his
debtor when he was inhibited, but of thofe that he
Ihall afterwards acquire : but no inhibition can extend
to fuch after-purchafes as lie in a jurifdi&ion where the
inhibition was not regiftered; for it could not have ex¬
tended to thefe, though they had been made prior to
the inhibition.
5. This diligence only ftrikes againft the voluntary
debts or deeds of the inhibited perfon: it does not re-
llrain him from granting neceffary deeds, i. e. fuch as
he was obliged to grant anterior to the inhibition,
fince he might have been compelled to grant thefe be¬
fore the inhibitor had acquired any right by his dili¬
gence. By this rule, a wadfetter or annualrenter
might, after being inhibited, have effedhually renoun¬
ced his right to the reverfer on payment, becaufe law
could have compelled him to it; but to fecure inhibi¬
tors againft the effeft of fuch alienations, it is declared
by a£t of federunt of the court of fefiion, Feb. 19.
1680, that, after intimation of the inhibition to the re¬
verfer, no renunciation or grant of redemption (hall be
fuftained, except upon declarator of redemption brought
by him, to which the inhibitor muft be made a party.
6. An inhibition is a diligence fimply prohibitory,
' fo that the debt, on which it proceeds, continues per-
fonal after the diligence ; and confequently, the inhi¬
bitor, in a queftion with anterior creditors whofe debts
are not ftruck at by the inhibition, is only preferable
from the period at which his debt is made real by ad¬
judication : and where debts are contracted on here-
table fecurity, though pofterior to the inhibition, the
inhibitor’s debt, being perfonal, cannot be ranked with
them; he only draws back from the creditors ranked
the fums contained in his diligence. The heir of the
perfon inhibited is not reftrained from alienation, by
the diligence ufed againft his anceftor; for the prohi¬
bition is perfonal, affefting only the debtor againft
whom the diligence is ufed. v
7. Inhibitions do not, of themfelves, make void the
pofterior debts or deeds of the perfon inhibited; they
only afford a title to the ufer of the diligence to fet
W. Part Uhl
them afide, if he finds them hurtful to him : and even of|;v
where a debt is adtnally reduced ex capite inbilitioms, Scot]iim!jjM
fuch redu&ion, being founded fokly in the inhibitor’s
intereft, is profitable to him alone, and cannot alter the f Jll
natural preference of the other creditors.
8. Inhibitions may be reduced upon legal nullities, Purgmf<
arifing either from the ground of debt, or the form of
diligence. When payment is made by the debtor to
the inhibitor, the inhibition is faid to be purged. Any
creditor, whofe debt is ftruck at by the inhibition,
may, upon making payment to the inhibitor, compel
him to aflign the debt and diligence in his favour, that
he may make good his payment the more effeclually
againft the common debtor.
Sect. XII. Of Comprifmgs, Adjudications, and
Judicial Sales.
Heritable rights may be carried from the debt¬
or to the creditor, either by the diligence of apprifing
(now adjudication), or by a judicial fale carried on be-
ror
1 nuw aujuuK-ciuuii jy ui uy ct juuicicu iaje carncu on DC-
fore the court of fiflion. Apprifing, or compriling, Apprifij
was the fentence of a fheriff, or of a meffengerwho was f|
fpecially conftituted fheriff for that purpofe, by which
the heritable rights belonging to the debtor were fold
for payment of the debt due to the apprifer ; fo that
apprifings were, by their original conftitution, proper
fales of the debtor’s lands to any purchafer who of¬
fered. If no purchafer could be found, the fheriff was
to apprife or tax the value of the lands by an inqueft,
(whence came the name of apprifng), and to make over
to the creditor lands to the value of the debt.
2. That creditors may have accefs to affedt the eftate
of their.deceafed debtor, though the heir fhould (land
off from entering, it is made lawful (by 1540, r«io6.)
for any creditor to charge the heir of his debtor to en¬
ter to his anceftor, year and day being part after the
anceftor’s deoth, within 40 days after the charge; and
if the heir fails, the creditor may proceed to apprife
his debtor’s lands, as if the heir had been entered., Cu-
ftom has fo explained this ftatute, that the creditor
may charge the heir, immediately after the death of
his anceftor, provided letters of apprifing be not raifed
till after the expiry both of the year and of the 40
days next enfuing the year, within which the heir is
charged to enter. But this ftatute relates only to fuch
charges on which apprifing is to be led againft the an¬
ceftor’s lands; for, in thofe which .are to be barely the
foundation of a common fummons or procefi againft
the heir, aftion will be fuftained if the year be elapfed
from the anc^ftor’s death before the execution of the
fummons, though the 40 days fhould not be alfo expir
red. Though the ftatute authorifes fuch charges againft
majors only, pra&Ice has alfo extended it againft mi¬
nors, and the rule is extended to the cafe where the
heir is the debtor. One TOuft, in this matter, diftin-
guilh between a general and a fpecial charge. A ge¬
neral charge ferves only to fix the reprefentation of
the heir who is charged, fo as to make the debt his
which was formerly his anceftor’s: but a fpecial charge
makes up for the want of a fervice (N° clxxx. 25.);
and ftates the heir, fittione ju,ris, in the right of the
fubjefts to which he is charged to enter- Where,
therefore, the heir is the debtor, a general charge for
fixing the reprefentation againft him is unneceffary,
fince the only concern of the creditor is, that his debtor
make
Jirt III. L A
1 w of make up titles to the anceftor’s eftate, which is done
l>|tlan(1‘ by a fpecial charge : but where the deceafed was the
debtor* the creditor muft firfl: charge his heir to enter
in general, that it may be known whether he is to re¬
present the debtor: if he does not enter within 40 days,
the debt may be fixed againft him by a decree of con-
ftitution, on which he muft be charged to enter heir in
if fpecial, upon 40 days morej and thefe muft be elapfed
J , before the creditor can proceed to apprife.
■sijlmica- ^ Apprifings in courfe of time underwent many
ff* changes in their form and effeft, till at length, by aft
1672, c. ig. adjudications were fubftituted in their
place, which direfted to proceed againft debtors by
way of aftion before the courtflf fefiion. By that fta-
t-ute, fuch part of the debtor’s lands is to be adjudged
as is equivalent fo the principal fum and intereft of the
debt, with the compofition due to the fuperior ajid ex-
pences of infeftment, and a fifth part more in refpeft
the creditor is obliged to take land for his money.
The debtor muft deliver to the creditor a valid right of
the lands to be adjudged, or tranfumpts thereof, re¬
nounce the poffeffion in his favour, and ratify the de¬
cree of adjudication : and law confiders the rent of the
lands as precifely commenfurated to the intereft of the
|| . debt; fo that tbe adjudger lies under no obligation to
*1 account for the furplus rents. In this, which is called
a fpecial adjudication, the legal, or time within which
the debtor may redeem, is declared to be five years;
and the creditor attaining poffeffion upon it can ufe no
|! farther execution againft; the debtor, unlefs tbe lands
be evifted from him.
— 4. Where the debtor does not produce a fufficient
right to the lands, or is not willing to renounce the
pofleffion, and ratify the decree', (which is the cafe
that has moft frequently happened), the ftatute makes
it lawful for the creditor to adjudge all right belong¬
ing to the debtor in the fame manner, and under the
fame reverfion of ten years, as he could, by the former
|| laws, have apprifed it. In this laft kind, which is
called a general adjudication, the creditor muft limit his
I | claim to the principal fum, intereft, and penalty, without
demanding a fifth part more. But no general adjudi¬
cation can be infifted on, without libelling in the fum-
mons the other alternative of a fpecial adjudication:
for fpecial adjudications are introduced by the ftatute
in the place of apprifings; and it Is only where the
I debtor refufes to comply with the terms thereof, that
the creditor can lead a general adjudication.
5. Abbreviates are ordained to be made of all ad¬
judications, which muft be recorded within 60 days after
the date of the decree. In every other refpeft, general
adjudications have the fame effefts that apprifings had;
adjudgers in pofleffion are accountable for the furplus
rents ; a citation in adjudications renders the fubjeft
litigious; fuperiors are obliged to enter adjudgers;
the legal of adjudications does not expire during the
debtor’s minority, foe. Only it may be obferved, that
I though apprifings could not proceed before the term of
payment, yet where the debtor is vergens ad inopiam,
the court ex nobili officio admit adjudication for the
debt before it be payable. But this fort being found¬
ed folely in equity, fubfifts merely as a fecurity, and
cannot carry the property to the creditor by any length
of time.
6. There are two kinds of adjudication, which took
w. ( 75 )
place at the fame time with apprifings, and ftill ob- I-aw of
tain ; viz. adjudications on a decree cognitionis caufa, _ScotlaIK,‘
otherwife called contra hereditatem jacentem; and ad- Two kind,
judications in implement. Where the debtor’s appa- of adjudica-
rent heir, who is charged to enter, formally renoun- tIons•
ces the fucceffion, the creditor may obtain a decree
cognitionis caufa; in which, though the heir renoun¬
cing is cited for the fake of form, no fentence con¬
demnatory can be pronounced againft him, in refpeft
of his renunciation ; the only effeft of it is to fubjeft
the bereditas jacens to the creditor’s diligence.
7. Adjudications contra hereditatem jacentem, carry
not only the lands themfelves that belonged to the de¬
ceafed, but tbe rents thereof fallen due fince his death;
for thefe, as an acceflbry to the eftate belonging to
to the deceafed, would have defeended to the heir if
he had entered, which rule is applied to all adjudica¬
tions led on a fpecial charge. This fort of adjudica¬
tion is declared redeemable within feven years, by any
co-adjudging creditor, either of the deceafed debtor,
or of the heir renouncing. The heir himfelf, who re¬
nounces, cannot be reftored againft his renunciation,
nor confequently redeem, if he be not a minor. But
even a major may redeem indireftly, by granting a fi-
mulate bond to a confident perfon ; the adjudication
upon which, when conveyed to himfelf, is a good title
to redeem all other adjudications againft the lands be¬
longing to his anceftor.
8. Adjudications in implement are deduced againft
thofe who have granted deeds without procuratory of
refignation or precept of feifin, and refufe to diveft
themfelves ; to the end that the fubjeft conveyed may
be effeftually veiled in the grantee. Thefe adjudications
may be alfo direfted againft the heir of the granter,
upon a charge to enter. Here there is no place for a
legal reverfion ; for, as the adjudication is led for com¬
pleting the right of a fpecial fubjeft, it muft carry
that fubjeft as irredeemably as if the right had been
voluntarily completed.
9. All adjudications led within year and day of that
one which has been made firft effeftual by feifin (where
feifin is neceflary), or exaft diligence for obtaining fei¬
fin, are preferable pari pajfu. The year and day runs
from the date of the adjudication, and not of the fei¬
fin or diligence for obtaining it. After the days of
that period, they are preferable according to their
dates. All the co-adjudgers within the year are pre-
ferable/>tfr/pajfu, as if one adjudication had been led for
all their debts. This makes the feifin or diligence on
the firft adjudication a common right to the reft, who
muft therefore refund to the owner of that diligence his
whole expence laid out in carrying on and completing
it. And tho’ that firft adjudication ftiould be redeem¬
ed, the diligence upon it ftill fubfifts as to the reft.
This pari paJJ'u preference, however, does not deftroy
the legal preference of adjudications led on debita fun¬
di, (fee N° clxix. 15.); nor does it take place in ad¬
judications in implement.
10. Before treating of judicial fales of bankrupts e- Sequeftra-
ftates, the nature of fequeftration may be ftiortly ex- don.
plained, which is a diligence that generally uftiers in
aftions of fale. Sequeftration of lands is a judicial aft
of the court of feffion, whereby the management of an
eftate is put into the hands of a faftor or fteward named
by the court, who gives fecurity, and is to be account-
£ k 2 ] able
( 76 ) .. L .. 2
Law of able for the rents to all having intereft. This diligence
Scotland. js competent, either where the right of the lands is
’ doubtful, if it be applied for before either of the com¬
petitors has attained pofleffion ; or where the eftate is
heavily charged with the debts : but, as it is an unfa¬
vourable diligence, it is not admitted, unlefs that mea-
fure {hall appear neceffary for the fecurity of creditors.
Subjefts, not brought before the court by the diligence
of creditors, cannot fall under fequeftration ; for it is
the competition of creditors which alone founds the ju-
rifdi&ion of the court to take the difputed fubjeft into
their poffefiion.
ii. The court of fellion who decrees the fequaftra-
tion has the nomination of the fa&or, in which they
are dire&ed by the recommendation of the creditors.
A faftor appointed by the feffion, though the proprie¬
tor had not been infeft in the lands, has a power tore-
move tenants. Judicial fa£tors muft, within fix months
after extrading their fa&ory, make up a rental of the
the eftate, and a lift of the arrears due by tenants, to
be put into the hands of the clerk of the procefs, as a
charge again ft themfelves, and a note of fuch altera¬
tions in the rental as may afterwards happen; and muft
alfo deliver to the clerk annually a fcheme of their ac¬
counts, charge and difeharge, under heavy penalties.
They are, by the nature of their office, bound to the
fame degree of diligence that a prudent man adhibits
in his own affairs ; they are accountable for the inte¬
reft of the rents, which they either have, or by dili¬
gence might have recovered, from a year after their
foiling due. As it is much in the power of thofe fac¬
tors to take advantage of the neceffities of creditors, by
purchafing their debts at an undervalue, all fuch pur-
chafes made either by the fa&or himfelf, or to his be¬
hoof, are declared equivalent to an acquitance or ex-
tin&ion of the debt. No factor can warrantably pay
to any creditor, without an order of the court of fef-
liou ; for he is, by the tenor of his commiffion, di¬
rected to pay the rents to thofe who (hall be found to
have the beft right to them. Judicial faCtors are in-
titled to a falary, which is generally ftated at five per
sent, of their intromiffions: but it is feldom afeertained
till their office expires, or till their accounting ; that
the court may modify a greater or fmaller falary, or
none, in proportion to the fador’s integrity and dili¬
gence. Many cafes occur, where the court of feffion,
without fequeftration, name a fa&or to preferve the
rents from perifhing ; e. g. where an. heir is delibera¬
ting whether to enter, where a minor is without tu¬
tors, where a fuceeffion opens to a perfon reiiding a-
broad j in all which cafes, the faCtor is fubjeCted to
the rules laid down in ad of federunt, Feb. 13. 1730.
S.’le of iz. The word bankrupt is fometimes applied to per-
eftatts'1* ^°nS vfhGfe ^unds are not fafficieut for their debts; and
s‘ fometimes, not to the debtor, but to his eftate. The
court of feffion are empowered, at the fuit of any real
creditor, to try the value of a bankrupt’s eftate, and
fellit for the payment of his debts.
13. No procefs of fale, at the fuit of a creditor, can
proceed without a proof of the debtor’s bankruptcy, or
at leaft that his lands are fo charged with debts that
no prudent perfons will buy from him ; and therefore
the fummons of fale muft comprehend the debtor’s
whole eftate. The debtor, or his apparent heir, and
all the real creditors in poffeffion, muft be made par-
L W. Part HI.|
ties to the fuit; but it is fufficient if the other credi- Law of: v
tors be called by an ediftal citation. The fummons of
fale contains a conclufion of ranking or preference of
the bankrupt’s creditors. In this ranking, firft and fe- Ranking > i
cond terms are affigned to the whole creditors for exhi- creditJsJi
biting in court (or producing) their rights and dill- JH
gencesj; and the decree of certification proceeding jfl
thereupon, againft the writings not produced, has the
fame effe£l in favour of the creditors who have produ¬
ced their rights, as if that decree had proceeded upon
an aftion of reduftion-improbation. SeeN°clxxxiii. 3.
The ranking of thefe creditors muft be concluded by fffl
an extra&ed decree, befort the aftual fale.. The irre- ll
deemable property of the lands is adjudged by the jsri|
court to the higheft offerer at the fale. The credi¬
tors receiving payment muft grant to the purchaferab-
folute warrandice, to the extent of the fum received |{I l
by them ; and the lands purchafed are declared dif- | [
burdened of all debts or deeds of the bankrupt, or his fi I
anceftors, either on payment of the price by the pur-
chafer to the creditors according to their preference, «
or on confignation of it, in cafe of their refufal, in the
hands of the magiftrates of Edinburgh*: the only re- il
medy provided to fuch creditors as judge themfelves |1
hurt by the fale or divifion of the price, even though
they fliould be minors, is an aftion for recovering their , .1
fhare of the price againft the creditors who have re¬
ceived it.
14. The expence of thefe proceffes is deburfed by 1
the-faeftor out of the rents in his hands;.-by which the J
whole burden of fuch expence foils upon the pofterior il
creditors.
15. Apparent heirs are intitled to bring adfions of j
fale of the eftates belonging to their anceftors, whe¬
ther bankrupt or not ; the expence of which ought to ^
fall upon the purfuer, if there is any excrefcenee of the j
price, after payment of the creditors.
16. As proceffes of ranking and fale are defigned
for the common intereft of all the creditors, no dili- j] 1
gence carried on or completed during their pendency,
ought to give any preference in the competition; pen- j
dente lite, nihil innovandum.
17. It is a rule in all real diligences, that where a 7 I
creditor is preferable on feveral different fubjefts, be I I
cannot ufe his preference arbitrarily, by favouring one I
creditor more than another; but muft allocate his uni-
verfal or catholic debt proportionally againft all the j I
fubjefts or parties whom it affefts. If it is material to 11
fuch creditor to draw his whole payment out of any
one fund, he may apply his debt fo as may beft fecure 'hi
himfelf: but that inequality will be redtified as to the il
pofterior creditors, who had likewife, by their rights
and diligences, affedfed the fubjedts out of which he j|
drew his payment, by obliging him to affign in their jl
favour his right upon the feparate fubjedts which he
did not ufe in the ranking ; by which they may recur ]|
againft thefe feparate fubjedls for the {hares which the ji
debt preferred might have drawn out of them. As the I
obligation to affign is founded merely in equity, the
catholic creditor cannot be compelled to it, if his af-
figning ffiall weaken the preference of any feparate debt Jl
veiled in himfelf, affedling the fpecial fubjedl fought to
be affigned. But if a creditor upon a fpeeial fubjedl
{hall acquire from another a catholic right, or a catho¬
lic creditor {hall purchafe a debt affedling a fpecial fub- i Ifl
ilart III. LAW. ( 77 )
1 * of je&, with a view of creating^ to the fpecial debt a
inland, higher degree of .preference than was naturally due to
it, by an arbitrary application of the catholic debt, e-
quity cannot protedl him from afligning in favour of
the cixditor excluded by fuch application, efpecially if,
prior to the purchafe, the fubjett had become litigious
by the procefs of ranking j for tranfmiffions ought
not to have creditors who are no parties to them, nor
i to give the purchafer any new right which was not
formerly in himfelf or his cedent.
II. MOVEABLE RIGHTS.
The law of heritable rights being explained, Move-
able Rights fall next to be confidered; the dodtrine of
which depends chiefly on the nature of Obligations.
ii xxiii. Sect. XIII. Gf Obligations and Contrails in
general.
e igations. An obligation is a legal tie, by which one is bound
to pay or perform fomething to another. Every obli¬
gation on the perfon obliged, implies an oppofite right
in the creditor, fo that what is a burden in regard to
the one is right with refpedt to the other; and all rights
founded on obligation are called perfonal. There is
I this effential difference between a real and a perfonal
right, that a jus in re, whether of property, or of an
inferior kind as fervitude, entitles the. perfon veiled
with it to poffefs the fubjedt as his own; or if he is not
i in poffeflion, to demand it from the pofTeffors: where¬
as the creditor in a perfonal right has only jus ad rem,
or a right to compel the debtor to fulfil his obligation;
I without any right in the fubjeft itfelf, which the deb¬
tor is bound to transfer to him. One cannot oblige
himfelf, but by a prefent adt of the will. A bare refo-
lution therefore, or purpofe, to be obliged, is alterable
at pleafure.
ifion of 2. Obligations are either, (I.) Merely natural, where
gations. one perfon is bound to another by the law of nature,
but cannot be compelled by any civil adlion to the per¬
formance. Thus, though deeds granted by a minor
having curators, without their confent, are null, yet the
minor is naturally obliged to perform fuch deeds; and
parents are naturally obliged to provide their children
jl in reafonable patrimonies. Natural obligations intitle
the creditor to retain what he has got in virtue thereof,
without being fubjedted toreftore it. (2.) Obligations
are merely civil, which may be fued upon by an adlion,
but are elided by an exception in equity ; this is the
cafe of obligations granted through force or fear, &c.
(3.) Proper or full obligations, are thofe which are
fupported both by equity and the civil fandtion.
3. Obligations may be alfb divided into, (1.) Pure,
to which neither day nor condition is adjedted. Thefe
maybe exadted immediately. (2.) Obligations (ex die),
which have a day adjedled to their performance. In
thefe, dies Jldtim cedit,fed non venit; a proper debt a-
j rifes from the date of the obligation, becaufe it is cer¬
tain that the day will exiil; but the execution is fuf-
pended till the lapfe of that day. (3.) Conditional
obligations; in which there is no proper debt (dies non
eedit) till the condition be purified, becaufe it is pof-
fible the condition may never exift; and which there¬
fore are faid to create only the hope of a debt; but the
granter, even ©f thefe, has no right to refile. An obli¬
gation, to which a day is adjedled that pofiibly may -Law of
never exift, implies a condition ; dies incertus pro con- Scotland.
ditione habetur. Thus, in the cafe of a provifion to a *
child, payable when he attains to the age of fourteen,
if the child dies before that age, the provifion falls.
4. Obligations, when confidered with regard to their
caufe, were divided by the Romans, into thofe arifing
from contradl, quafi contradl, delidl, and quafi delidl:
but there are certain obligations, even full and proper
ones, which cannot be derived from any of thefe fources,
and to which Lord Stair gives the name of obediential.
Such as the obligation on parents to aliment or main¬
tain their children; which arifes fingly from the rela¬
tion of parent and child, and may be enforced by the
civil magiftrate. Under parents are comprehended the
mother, grandfather, and grandmother, in their proper
order. This obligation on parents extends to the pro¬
viding of their ifiue in all the neceffaries of life, and
giving them fuitable education. It ceafes, when the
children can earn a livelihood by their own induftry;
but the obligation on parents to maintain their indi¬
gent children, and reciprocally on children to maintain
their indigent parents, is perpetual. This obligation
is, on the father’s death, transferred to the eldeft fon,
the heir of the family; who, as reprefenting the father,
muft aliment his younger brothers and fifters: the bra-
thers are only intitled to alimony, till their age of twen¬
ty-one, after which they are prefumed able to do for
themfelves; but the obligation to maintain the fifters
continues till their marriage. In perfons of lower
rank, the obligation to aliment the fifters ceafes after
they are capable of fubfilting by any fervice or.employ¬
ment.
5. All obligations, arifing from the natural duty of.
reftitution, fall under this clafs : thus, things given up¬
on the view of a certain event, muft be reftored, if that
event does not afterwards exift: thusalfo, things given
ob tat pern caufatv, where the turpitude is in the recei¬
ver and not in the giver, muft be reftored. And on-
the fame principle, one upon whofe ground a houfe is
built or repaired by another, is obliged, without any
covenant, to reftore the expence laid'but upon it, in fo
far as it has been profitable to him.-
6. A contradl is the voluntary agreement of two or Contrails,
more perfons, whereby, fomething is to be given or per¬
formed upon one part, for a valuable confideration,
either preferit or future, on the other part. Confent,
which is implied in agreement, is excluded, (1.) By
error-in th« effentials of the contradl; for, in fuch. cafe,.
the party does not properly contradl, but errs or is de¬
ceived ; and this may be alfo applied to contradls
which take their rife from fraud or impofition. (2.)
Confent is excluded by fuch a degree of reftraint upon
any of the contradling parties, as extorts the agree¬
ment ; for where violence or threatening are ufed a-
gain a perfon, his will has really no part in the con¬
tradl.
7. Loan, or mutuum, is that contradl which obliges Loan,
a perfon, who has borrowed any fungible fubjedl from
another, to reftore to him as much of the fame kind,
and of equal goodnefs. Whatever receives its eftima-
tion in number, weight, or meafure, is a fungible; as
corn, wine, current coin, &c. The only proper fub-
jedls of this contradl are things which cannot be ufed
without either their extindlion or alienation : hence,
the •
( 78 )
L A W.
Part III!
l'aw of tlie property of tTie tiling lent is neceffarily transferred
Scot an . ky delivery to the borrower, who confeqnently muft
run all the hazards, either of its deterioration or, its
perifhing, according to the rule* res perit fuo domino.
Where the borrower negledts to reitbre at the time
and place agreed bn, the eftirriation of the thing lent
muft be made according to its price at that time and in
that place; becaufe it would have been worth fo much
to the lender, if the obligation had been duly performed.
If there is no place nor time ftipulated for, the value is
to be ftated according to the price that the commodity
gave when and where it was demanded. In the loan of
money, the value put on it by public authority, and
not its intrinfic worth, is to be confidered. This con-
traft is obligatory only on one part; for the lender is
fubjedted to no obligation : the only adtion therefore
that it produces, is pointed againft the borrower, that
he may reftore as much in quantity and quality as he
borrowed, together with the damage the lender may
have fuffered through default of due performance.
Commodate £j. Commodate is a fpecies of loan, gratuitous on the
part of the lender, where the thing lent may be ufed,
without either its periftiing or its alienation. Hence,
in this fort of loan, the property continues with the
lender: the, only right the borrower acquires in the
fubjedl is its ufe, after which he muft reftore the indi¬
vidual thing that he borrowed: confequently, if the
fubjedl perifhes, it perilhes to the lender, unlefs it has
perifhed by the borrower’s fault. What degree of fault
or negligence makes either of the contradting parties
liable to the other in damages, is comprehended under
the following rules. Where the contradl gives a mu¬
tual benefit to both parties, each contradlor is bound
to adhibit a middle fort of diligence, fuch as a man of
ordinary prudence ufes in his affairs. Where only one
of the parties has benefit by the contradi, that party
muft ufe exadt diligence; and the other who has no
advantage by it, is accountable only for dole, or for
grofs omiflions which the law con (trues to be dole.
Where one employs lefs care on the fubjedt of any con-
tradt which implies an exuberant truft, than he is known
to employ in his own affairs, it is confidered as dole.
9. By thefe rules, the borrower in the contradl of
commodate muft be exadtly careful of the thing lent,
and reftore it at the time fixed by the eontradt, or after
that ufe is made of it for which it was lent: if he puts
it to any other ufe, or negledls to reftore it at the time
covenanted, and if the thing perifhes thereafter, even
by mere accident, he is bound to pay the value. On
the other part, the lender is obliged to reftore to the
borrower fuch of the expences deburfed by him on that
fubjedt as arofe from any uncommon accident, but not
thofe that naturally attend the ufe of it. Where a
thing is lent gratuitoufly, without fpecifying any time
of redelivery, it eonftitutes the contradt of precarium,
which is revocable at the lender’s pleafure, and, being
entered into from a perfonal regard to the borrower,
ceafes by his death.
Depofits- 10. Depofitation is a contradl, by which one who
tion, foas the cuftody of a thing committed to him (the de-
pofitary) is obliged to reftore it to the depofitar. If
a reward is bargained for by the depofitary for his care,
it refolves into the contradl of location. As this con-
tradt is gratuitous, the depofitary is only anfwerable for
the confequences of grofs negledl; but after the depo-
fit is redemanded, he is accountable even for cafual Law 0
misfortunes. He is intitled to a full indemnification Scotlan;
for the Ioffes he has fuftained by the contradl, and to NauU, t
the recovery of all fums expended by him on the fub- ■pone^ ftl
jedl. larl:' :
11. An obligation arifes without formal padlion, \
barely by a traveller’s entering into an inn, (hip, or j
ftable, and there depofiting his goods, or putting up
his horfes ; whereby the innkeeper, fhipmafter, or fta-
bler, is accountable, not only for his own fadls and thofe
of his fervants, (which is an obligation implied in the
very exercife of thefe employments), but of the other
guefts or paffengers; and, indeed, in every cafe, unlefs
where the goods have been loft davmo fatali, or carried |
off by pirates or houfe-breakers. Not only the mafters
of fhips, but their employers, are liable each of them
for the (hare that he has in the (hip ; but by the pre-
fent cuftom of trading nations, the goods brought into \
a fhip muft have been delivered to the mafter or mate, *
or entered into the (hip-books, Carriers fall within j
the intendment of this law ; and pradfice has extended
it to vintners within borough. The extent of the da¬
mage fuftained by the party may be proved by his own l
oath in litem.
12. Sequeftration, whether voluntarily confented to Sequeftr
by the parties, or authorifed by the judge, is a kind of t‘0“•
depofit; but as the office of feqneftree, to whofe care
the fubjedt in difpute is committed, is not confidered
as gratuitous, he cannot throw it up at pleafure, as a i
common depofitary may do; and he is liable in the f
middle degree of diligence. Confignation of money is Confign
alfo a depofit. It may be made, either where the debt tion• j
is called in queftion by the debtor, as in fufpenfions ;
or where the creditor refufes to receive his money, as
in wadfets, &c. The rifle of the configned money lies
on the configner, where he ought to have made pay¬
ment, and not confignation; or has configned only a ;
part; or has ehofen for confignatory, a perfon neither ;
named by the parties nor of good credit. The charger,
or other creditor, runs the rifle, if he has charged for
fums not due, or has without good reafon refufed pay¬
ment, by which refufal the confignation became necef-
fary. It is the office of a confignatory, to keep the
money in fafe cuftody till it be called for if therefore
he puts it out at intereft, he muft run the hazard of the
debtor’s infolvency ; but, for the fame reafon, though
be (hould draw intereft for it, he is liable in none to the
configner.
13. Pledge, when oppofed to wadfet, is a eontraft, Pledge.!
by which a debtor puts into the hands of his creditor a
fpecial moveable fubjeft in fecurity of the debt, to be
redelivered on payment. Where a fecurity is eftabliflied 1
by law to the creditor, upon a fubjedf which continues
in the debtor’s poffeffion, it has the fpecial name of an
hypothec. Tradefmen andfhip-earpenters have an hy-Hypothi
pothec on the houfe or (hip repaired, for the materials
and other charges of reparation ; but not for the ex- I]
pence of building a new (hip. Owners of (hips have
an hypothec on the cargo for the freight; heritors on
the fruits of the ground, and landlords on the invetta , •
et Mata, for their rents. Writers alfo, and agents,
have a right of hypothec, or more properly of reten¬
tion, in their conftituent’s writings, for their claim of
pains and deburfements. A creditor cannot, for his
own payment, fell the fubjedt impignorated, without
applying i j
i ')a*'
'art HI.
uaw of applying to the judge-ordinary for a warrant to put it
| otland. Up to py^j]jc fa]e. or r0Up . an(j t0 this application the
debtor ought to be made a party.
Sect. XIV. Of Obligations by Word or Writ.
The appellation of verbal may be applied to all
|i eement. obligations to the conftitution of which writing is not
efiential, which includes both real and_confenfual con¬
tracts; but as thefe are explained under feparate titles,
obligations by quot'd, in the fenfe of this rubric, mult be
reftridted, either to promifes, or to fuch verbal agree¬
ments as have no fpecial name to dillinguilh them.
Agreement implies the intervention of two different
parties, who come under mutual obligations to one
another. Where nothing is to be given or performed
but on one part, it is properly called a protnife; which,
I as it. is gratuitous, does not require the acceptance of
him to whom the promife is made. An offer, which
muff be diftinguifhed from a promife, implies fomething
“ to be done by the other party ; and confequently is
not binding on the offerer, till it be accepted, with
its limitations or conditions, • by, him. to whom the
offer is made; after which, it becomes a proper agree¬
ment.
2. Writing mufl neceffarily, intervene in all obliga¬
tions and bargains concerning, heritable fubjedls, tho’
they fhould be only temporary ; as tacks, which, when
w. (79)
ther deeds of importance, be fubfcribed by the principal Law of
parties, if they can fubfcribe; otherwife, by two nota- Scotland,
ries, before four witneffes fpecially defigned. The fub- ”
fequent praftice extended this requifite of the defigna-
tion of the witneffes to the cafe where the parties them-
fblves fubfcribed. Cuftom has conftrued obligations for
fums exceeding L. too Scots, to be obligations of im¬
portance. In a divifible obligation, ex. gr. for a fum
of money, though exceeding L. 100, the fubfeription
of one notary is fufficient, if the creditor reftridls his
claim to L. too: But in an obligation indivifible, e. g.t
for the performance of a faff, if it be not fubfcribed
in terms of the ftatute, it is void. When notaries thus
atteft a deed, the atteftation or dpequet mufl fpecially
exprefs that the granter gave them a mandate to fign;
nor is it fufficient that this be mentioned in the body
of the writing.
5. In every deed, the name of him who writes it,
with his dwelling-place, or other mark of diftin&ion,
mufl'be inferted. The witneffes mufl both fubfcribe
as witnefles, and their names and defignations be in¬
ferted in the body of the deed: And all fubferibing
witnefles muft know the granter, and either fee him
fubfcribe, or hear him acknowledge his fubfeription ;
otherwife they are declared punifhable as acceffory to
forgery. Deeds, decrees, and other fecurities, con¬
fiding of more than one fheet, may be written by way
they are verbal, lad but for, one year. In thefe, no of book, in place of the former cudom of pading to-
verbal agreement is binding, .though it diould be refer¬
red to the oath of the party ; for, till writing is adhi¬
bited, law gives both parties a right to refile, as from
an unfhiifhed bargain ; which is called locus pxnitent'ue.
If, upon a verbal bargain of lands,: part of the price
(hall be paid by him who was to purchafe, the inter-
ventus ret, the adlual payment of money, creates a va¬
lid obligation, and gives a beginning to the contract
gether the feveral fheets, and figning the joinings on
the margin; provided each page be.figned by the
granter, and marked by its number, a>nd the teding
claufe exprefs the number of pages.
6. Indruments of feifin are valid, if fubfcribed by Solemnities
one notary, before a reafonable number of witneffes; of notorial
which is extended by pradlice to indruments of refig-
nation. Two witneffes are deemed a reafonable r-— C'
of fale : and, in general, where-ever matters are no ber to every deed that can be executed by one notary,
longer entire, the right to refile Teems to be excluded. It is not neceffary, that the witneffes to a notorial in-
An agreement, whereby a real right is paffed from, or drument, or execution, fee the notary or meffenger
redridled, called paftum liberatorium, may be perfedled fign ;. for they are called as wntneffes to the tranfa£lion
verbally; for freedom is favourable, and the purpofeof which is atteded, and not to the fubfeription of the
fuch agreement is rather to diffolve than to create an perfon atteding.
obligation. Writing is alfo effential to bargains made 7. A new requifite has been added to certain deeds
under condition that they flrall be reduced into writing ; fince the union, for the benefit of the revenue: They
mud be executed on damped paper, or parchment, pay¬
ing a certain duty to the crown. Charters, indruments
of refignation, feifins, and retours of lands holden of
for in fuch cafes, it is pars contractus, that, till writing
be adhibited, both parties {hall have liberty tp with¬
draw. In the fame manner, verbal or nuncupative   #  ,    
tedaments are rej.edled by our law; but verbal legacies a fubjeft, are charged with 2 r. 3 */. of duty: Bonds,
are fudained, where they do not exceed L. 100 Scots. tacks, contraas, and other perfona.l obligations, paid at
3- Anciently, wdien writing was little ufed, deeds fird 6 d. io which further additions have fince, at dif-
iiUgatiens. were executed by the party appending his feal to them, ferent times, been made, the duty at prefent amount-
in prefence of witneffes. For preventing frauds that ingto^. Bail-bonds, bills, tedaments, difeharges, or
might, happen by appending feals to falfe deeds, the acquittances of rent or of intered, and judicial deeds, as
fubfeription alfo of the granter was afterwards required, notorial indruments, bonds of cautionry in fufpi
and, if he could not write, that of a notary. As it r
might be of dangerous confequence to give full force
to the fubfeription of the parties by initials, which is
more eafily counterfeited; our pradtice, in order to fuf-
fions, &c. are excepted.
8. The granter’s name and defignation are effential, Blank-
not properly as folemnities, but becaufe no writing can
have effedl without them.' Bonds were, by our an-
tain fuch fubfeription, feems to require a proof, not cient pra&ice, frequently executed without^filling up
only that the granter ufed to fubfcribe in that way, the creditor’s.name; and they paffed from hand to hand,
but that de fatlo he had fubfcribed the deed in quedion; like notes payable to the bearer : But as there was no
at lead, fuch proof is required, if the indrumentary method for the creditor of a perfon poffeffed of thefe to
witnefles be dill alive. fecure them for his payment, all writings taken blank
4. As a further check, it was afterwards provided inthecreditor’snamearedeclarednull, as coverstofraud;
that all writings carrying any heritable right, and 0- with the exception of indorfations of bills of exchange.
9. Certain
( So )
w.
9. Certain privileged writings do not require the
. ordinary folemnities. 1. Holograph deeds (written by
Privileged the granter himfelf) are effe&uai without witnelTes.
deeds. The date of no holograph writing, except a bill of ex
Part HU
the perfon drawn upon either does not accept, or after Lawofft
acceptance does not pay; for he is prefumed to have re- Scotland I;
ceived value from the creditor at giving him thejdraught,
though it (hould not bear for value received'. But, if
change, (fee nextparagr.) can be proved by the grartter’s the drawer was debtor to the creditor in the bill before
1 affertion, in prejudice either of his heir or Ms the draught, the bill is prefumed to be given towards
creditors, but muft be fupported by other adminicles, payment of the debt, unlefs it exprefsly bears for value.
. Teftaments if executed where men of /kill and bufi-
nefs cannot be had, are valid though they ihould not
be quite formal: and let the fubjeit of a teftament be
ever fo valuable, one notary figning for the teftator,
before two witnefles, is in practice fufficient. Clergy¬
men were frequently notaries before the reformation ;
and, though they were afterwards prohibited to aft as
notaries, the cafe of teftaments is excepted ; fo that
thefe are fupported by the atteftation of one minifter,
with two witnefles. 3. Difcharges to tenants are fuf-
tained without witneffcs, from their prefumed rufticity,
or ignorance in bufmCfs. 4. Miflive letters in re mer-
catoria, cdmmifftons, and fitted accounts in thecourfe
of trade, and bills'of exchange, though they are not
holograph, are, from the favour of-qommerce, fuftained
without the ordinary folemnities.
, A bill of exchange is an obligation in the form
The perfon drawn upon, if he refufe to accept, while
he has the drawer’s money in his hands, is liable to him
in damages. As a bill prefumes value from the credi¬
tor, indorfation prefumes value from the indorfee ; who
therefore, if he cannot obtain payment from the ac¬
cepter, has recourfe againft the indorfcr, unlefs the bill
be indorfed in thefe words, •without recourfe.
13. Payment of a bill, by the accepter, acquits both
the drawer and him at the hands of the creditor : but
it intitles the accepter, if he was not the drawer’s
debtor, to an adion of recourfe againft him ; and, if
he was, to a ground of compenfation. Where the bill
does not bear value in the hands of the perfon drawn
upon, it is prefumed that he is not the drawer’s debtor,
and confequently he has recourfe againft the drawer,
ex mandate.
14. Bills, when indorfed, are confidered as fo many
change. Qf a mancJate, whereby the drawer or mandant delires bags of money delivered to the onerous indorfee; which
him to whom' it is diredted, to pay a certain fum, at
the day and place therein mentioned, to a third party.
Bills of exchange are drawn by a perfon in one country
therefore cany right to the contents, free of all burdens
that do not appear on the bills themfelves. Hence, a
receipt or difeharge, by the original creditor, if grant-
to his correfpondent in another; and they have that ed on a feparate paper, does not exempt the accepter
Their fo-
lemnities
and obliga-
narrie, becaufe it is the exchange, or the value of money
in one place compared with its value in another, that
generally determines the precife extent of the fum con¬
tained in the draught. The creditor in the bill is
fometimes called the pofTeflbr, or porteur. As parties to
bills are of diflerent countries, queftions concerning them
ought to be determined by the received cuftom of tra¬
ding nations, unlefs where fpecial ftatute interpofes.
For this reafon, bills of exchange, though their form,
admits not of witnefles, yet prove their own dates, in
queftions either with the heir, or creditors of the debtor;
but this doctrine is not extended to inland bills payable
to the drawer himfelf.
11. A bill is valid, without the defignation, either
of the drawer, or of the perfon to whom it is made
payable : It is enough, that the drawer’s fubfeription
appears to be truly his ; and one’s being poflefibr of a
bill marks him out to be the creditor, if he bears the
name given in the bill to the creditor: Nay, though
the perfon drawn on fhould not be defigned, his accep¬
tance prefumes that it was he whom the drawer had in
his eye. Bills drawn blank, in the creditor’s name,
fall under the ftatutory nullity ; for though indorfations
of bills are excepted from it, bills themfelves are not.
Not only the perfon drawn upon muft fign his accep¬
tance, but the drawer siuft lign his draught, before
any obligation can be formed againft the accepter: Yet
it is fufficient in pra&ice, that the drawer figns before
the bill be produced in judgment; though it (hould be
after the death both of the creditor and accepter. A
creditor in a bill may tranfmit it to another by indor¬
fation, though the bill (hould not bear to his order ; by
the fame rule that other rights are tranfmiffible by af-
fignation, though they do not bear to afighees.
Obligations 12. The drawer, by figming his draught, becomes
liable for the value to the creditor in the bill, in cafe
from fecond payment to the indorfee ; hence, alfo,
ground of compenfation competent to the accepter a-
gainft; the original creditor can be pleaded againft the
indorfee: but, if the debtor (hall prove, by the oath
of the indorfee, that he paid not the full value for the
indorfation, the indorfee is juftly confidered as but a
name ; and therefore all exceptions, receivable againft
the original creditor, will be fuftained againft; him.
15. Bills^muft be negotiated by the poffeflbr, againft NegotH-jl l
the perfon drawn upon, within a precife time, in order t‘on* |
to preferve recourfe againft the drawer. In bills pay- j
able fo many days after fight, the creditof has a dif-
cretionary power of fixing the payment fomewhat !
fooner or later, as his occafions (hall require. Bills
payable on a day certain, need not be prefented forac- |
ceptance till the day of payment, becaufe that day can
neither be prolonged nor (hortentkl by the time of ac- j
ceptance. for the fame reafon, the acceptance of bills,
payable on a precife day, need not be dated: but, where
a bill is drawn payable fo many days after fight, it ,i
muft ; becaufe there the term of payment depends on
the date of the acceptance.
16. Though bills are, in drift law, due the very day Days of;
on which they are njade payable, and may therefore be grace. ^
protefted on the day thereafter; yet there are three
days immediately following the day of payment, called ;
days of grace, within any of whish the creditor may ij
proteft the bill: but if he delay protefting till the day j
arter the laft day of grace, he lofes his recourfe. Where
a bill is protefted, either for not acceptance or not
payment, the difhonour muft be notified to the drawer j
or indorfer, within three pofts at fartheft. This ftrift-
nefs of negotiation is confined to fuch bills as may be
protefted by the pofleflbr upon the third day of grace:
where, therefore, bills are indorfed after the days of
grace are expired, the indorfee is left more at liberty,
and
iPart III.
L A W.
( 8- )
> vLiw of and does not lofe his recourfe, tho* he fliould not take
i-ljco'.land. a fornial proteft for not payment, if, within a reafonable
time, he {hall give the indorfer notice of the accepter’s
refufing to pay. Not only does the poflefTor, who ne-
glefts Itrict negotiation, lofe his recourfe againfl; the
drawer, where the perfon drawn upon becomes after¬
wards bankrupt ; but tho’ he (hould continue folvent:
for he may, in that cafe, recover payment from the
1 debtor, and fo is not to be indulged in an unneceflary
procefs agaiuft the drawer, which, he has tacitly re¬
nounced by his negligence. Recourfe is preferred a-
gainft the drawer, though the bill (hould not be duly
negotiated, if the perfon drawn upon was not his debt¬
or; for there the drawer can qualify no prejudice by
the negledf of diligence, and. he ought not to have
I . drawn on one who owed him nothing.
?jJ|fbills*t)5 17’ ^ Pr*v^e8es fuperadded to bills by ftatute are,
!au\c! ^ though, by their form, they can have no claufe of
regiftration, yet, if duly protefted, they are regiftrable
within fix months after their date in cafe of not accep¬
tance, or in fix months after the term of payment in
the cafe of not payment; which regiftration is made
the foundation of fummary diligence, either againft the
drawer or indorfer in the cafe of not acceptance, or a-
gainft the accepter in the cafe of not payment. This is
uiiandbills, extended to inland bills, /. e. bills both drawn and
made payable in Scotland. After acceptance, fum¬
mary diligence lies againft no other than the accepter;
the drawer and indorfer muft be purfued by an ordi¬
nary aflion. It is only the principal fum in the bill,
and intereft, that can be charged for fummarily: the
exchange, when it is not included in the draught, the
re-exchange incurred by fuffering the bill to be pro¬
tefted and returned, and the expence of diligence, muft
all be recovered by an ordinary action; becaufe thefe are
not liquid debts, and fo muft be previoufly conftituted.
18. Bills, when drawn payable at any confiderable
ii rtain bills Gf time after date, are denied the privileges of
j ^nvi~ bills; for bills are intended for currency, and not to
lie as a fecurity in the creditor’s hands. Bills are not
valid which appear ex facie to be donations. No
extrinfic ftipulation ought to be contained in a bill
which deviates from the proper nature of bills: hence,
a bill to which a penalty is adjedled, or with a claufe
of intereft from the date, is null. Inland precepts drawn,
not for money the medium of trade, but for fungibles,
are null, as wanting writer’s name and witnefles. It is
I not an agreed point whether promiflbry notes, without
writer and witneffes, unlefs holograph, are probative.
19. By 12th Geo. III. c. 72. the law of Scotland
has undergone very material alterations as to bills and
i te altera- prom;ff0ry notes. By that aft, they are declared to
nilsYnd0 have the fame privileges, and to prefcribe in fix years
libmifTory after the term of payment. Bank-notes and poft-bills
.Jtes. are excepted from this prefcription ; nor does it run
during the years of the creditor’s minority. Inland
, bills and promiflbry notes muft be protetted within
the days of grace, to fecure recourfe; and the difho-
L nour notified within 14 days after the proteft. Sum¬
mary diligence may pafs not only againft the acceptor,
but likewife againft the drawer, and all the indorfees
jointly and feverally; and at the inftance of any in-
dorfee, though the bill was not protefted in his name,
upon his producing a receipt or letter from the pro-
tefting indorfee. This aft is in force only for feveii
years after 15th May X772, and to the end of the then Law of
next feflion of parliament: confequently is not yet be- Scot an *
come a permanent part of the law of Scotland.
20. As for the folemnities eflential to deeds figned
in a foreign country, when they come to receive exe¬
cution in Scotland, it is a general rule, that no laws
can be of authority beyond the dominions of the law¬
giver. Hence, in ftriftnefs, no deed, though perfefted Solemnities
according to the law of the place where it is figned, deeds
can have efteft in another country where different fo- j?2n.etl 'n *
lemnities are required to a deed of that fort. But this
rigour is fo foftened ex comitate> by the common con-
ftnt of nations, that all perfonal obligations granted
according to the law of that country where they are
figned, are effeftual every where; which obtains even in
obligations to convey heritage. Conveyances them-
felves, of heritable fubjefts, muft be perfefted accord¬
ing to the law of the country where the heritage lies,
and from which it cannot be removed.
21. A writing, while the granter keeps it under his Delivery^
own power or his doer’s, has no force ; it becomes ob-
ligatory, only after it is delivered to the grantee him- deeds,
felf, or found in the hands of a third perfon. As to
which laft, the following rules are obferved. A deed
found in the hands of one who is doer both for the
grantcr and grantee, is prefumed to have been put in
in his hands as doer for the grantee. The prefamption
is alfo for delivery, if the deed appears in the hands of
one who is a ftranger to both. Where a deed is depo-
fited in the hands of a third perfon, the terms of de-
pofitation may be proved by the oath of the depofi-
tary, unlefs where they are reduced into writing. A
deed appearing in the cuftody of the grantee himfelf,
is confidered as his abfqlute right; in fo much that the
granter is not allowed to prove that it was granted in
truft, otherwife than by a written declaration figned by
the truftee, or by his oath.
22. The following deeds are effeftual without deli- what deeds
very, (1.) Writings containing a claufe difpenfing effeftual
with the delivery: thefe are of the nature of revokable without de-
deeds, where the death of the granter is equivalent to bvery.
delivery, becaufe after death there can be no revocation.
(2.) Deeds in favour of children, even natural ones;
for parents are the proper cuftodiars or keepers of
their childrens writings. From a fimilar reafon, poft-
nuptial fettlements by the hufband to the wife need no
delivery. (3.) Rights which are not to take effeft till
the granter’s death, or even where he referves an inte¬
reft to himfelf during his life ; for it is prefumed he
holds the cuftody of thefe, merely to fecure to himfelf
fuch referred intereft. (4.) Deeds that the granter lay
under an antecedent natural obligation to execute, e.g.
rights granted to a cautioner for his relief. (5.) Mu¬
tual obligations, e. g. contrafts; for every fuch deed,
the moment it is executed, is a common evident to all
the parties contraftors. Laftly, the .publication of a
writing by regiftration, is equivalent to delivery.
Sect. XV. Of Obligations and Contrails arijing cl*xv.
from confent, and of Acceffory Obligations.
Contracts confenfual, i. e. which might, by the Confenfiu!
Roman law, be perfefted by foie confent, without the contrafts.
intervention either of things or of writing, are fale,
permutation, location, fociety, and mandate. Where
the fuhjeft of any of thefe contrafts is heritable, wri-
[ 1 ] ting
( 82
Law of
Scotland.
Sale.
Location.
Society.
L A W.
Part III.
ting is neceflary.
2. Sale is a contraft, by which one becomes obliged
to give fomething to another, in confideration of a cer¬
tain price in current money to be paid for it. Things
confiding merely in hope, may be the fubjed of this
contrad, as the draught of a net. Commodities, where
their importation or ufe is abfolutely prohibited, can¬
not be the fubjeft of fale; and even in run goods, no
action lies againft the vender for not delivery, if the
buyer knew the goods were run.
3. Though this contrail may be perfected before
delivery of the fubjeil, the property remains till then
with the vender. See N° clxii. 9. Yet till delivery,
the hazard of its deterioration falls on the purchafer,
becaufe he has all the profits arifing from it after the
fale. On the other hand, the fubjeil itfelf perifhes to
the vender; (1.) If it (liould perilh through his fault,
or after his undue delay to deliver it. (2.) If a fub-
jeil is fold as a fungible, and not as an individual, or
corpus, c. g. a quantity of farm-wheat, fold without
diltinguifhing the parcel to be deliveredYrom the relt
of the farm. (3.) The periculurn lies on the vender
till delivery, if he be obliged by a fpecial article in the
contraA to deliver the fubjedl at a certain place.
4. Location is that contract, where an hire is Itipu-
lated for the ufe of things, or for the fervice of perfons.
He who lets his work or the ufe of his property to
hire, is the locator or lelfor ; and the other, the con-
du£tor or lefiee. In the location of things, the leffor
is obliged to deliver the fubjeft, fitted to the ufe it was
let for; and the lefiee mull preferve it carefully, put it
to no other ufe, and, after that is over, reftore it.
Where a workman or artificer lets his labour, and if
the work is either not performed according to contraft,
or if it be infufficient, even from mere unlkilfulnefs, he
is liable to his employer in damages; for he ought not,
as an artificer, to have undertaken a work to which he
was not equal. A fervant hired for 3 certain term„is in-
titled to his full wages, though from ficknefs or other
accident he fhould be difabled for a part of his time;
but, if he die before the term, his wages are only due
for the time he a£lually ferved. If a mafter dies, or
without good reafon turns off, before the term, a fer¬
vant who eats in his houfe, the fervant is intitled to his
full wages, and to his maintenance till that term : and,
on the other part, a fervant who without ground de-
ferts his fervice, forfeits his wages and maintenance,
and is liable to his mafter in damages.
5. Society or copartnerfhip is a contraft, whereby
the feveral partners agree concerning the communica¬
tion of lofs and gain arifing from the fubjeft of the con-
tra&. It is formed by the reciprocal choice that the
partners make of one another; and fo is not conftitu-
ted in the cafe of co-heirs, or of feveral legatees in the
fame fubjedl. A copartnerftiip may be fo conftituted,
that one of the partners (hall, either from his foie right
of property in the fubjedl, or from his fuperior (kill,
be entitled to a certain (hare of the profits, without be¬
ing fubjefted to any part of the lofs; but a fociety,
where one partner is to bear a certain proportion of
lofs, without being entitled to any (hare of the profits,
is juftly reprobated. All the partners are intitled to
(hares of profit and lofs proportioned to their feveral
docks, where it is not otherwife covenanted.
6. As partners are united, from a drteflus perfinx,
in a kind of brotherhood, no partner can, without a Law of !t, i
fpecial power contained in the contract, transfer any Scotland, | |i
part of his (hare to another. All the partners are bound
in folidum by the obligation of any one of them, if he
fubferibe by the firm or focial name of the company;
unlcfs it be a deed that fails not under the common
courfe of adminiftration. The company effeils are the
company property of the fociety fubjedled to its debts;
fo that no partner can claim a divifion thereof, even
after the fociety is diffolved, till thefe are paid: and,
confequently, no creditor of a partner can, by diligence, '
carry to himfelf the property of any part of the com¬
mon (lock, in prejudice of a company-creditor: but he
may, by arreftment, fecure his debtor’s (hare in the
company’s hands, to be made forthcoming to him at
the clofe of the copartnerfhip, in fo far as it is not ex-
haufted by the company debts.
7. Society being founded in the mutual confidence
among the fiocii, is diffolved, not only by the renuncia¬
tion, but by the death of anyone of them, if it be not
otherwife fpecially covenanted. A partner who re¬
nounces upon unfair views, or at a critical time, when
his withdrawing may be fatal to the fociety, loofes his
partners from all their engagements to him, while he
is bound to them for all the profits he (hall make by
his withdrawing, and for the lofs arifing thereby to
the company. Not only natural, but civil death, e. g.
arifing from a fentence infiiifting capital punifhment,
makes one incapable to perform the duties of a part¬
ner, and confequently diffolves the focicty. In both
cafes, of death and renunciation, the remaining part¬
ners may continue-the copartnerlhip, either exprefsly,
by entering into a new contradl; or tacitly, by carry¬
ing on their trade as formerly. Public trading com¬
panies are now every day conftituted, with rules very
different from thofe which either obtained in the Ro¬
man law, or at this day obtain in private focieties. The
proprietors or partners in thefe, though they may tranf- e
fer their (hares, cannot renounce; nor does their death
diffolve the company, but the (hare of the deceafed de-
feends to his reprefentative.
8. A joint trade is not a copartnerftiip, but a mo- ^^,nt
mentary contrail, where two or more perfons agree to
contribute a fum, to be employed in a jiarticular courfe
of trade, the produce whereof is to be divided among
the adventurers, according to their feveral (hares, after
the voyage is finiftied. If, in a joint trade, that part¬
ner who is intruded with the money for purchafing the
goods, ftiould, in place of paying them in cafti, buy
them upon credit, the furnifher who followed his faith
alone in the fale, has no recourfe againft the other ad¬
venturers ; he can only recover from them what of the
buyer’s (hare is yet in their hands. Where any one of
the adventurers in a joint trade becomes bankrupt,
the others are preferable to his creditors, upon the
common dock, as long as it continues undivided, for
their relief of all the engagements entered into by them
on account of the adventure.
9. Mandate is a contrail, by which one employs a- Mandate
nother to manage any bufinefs for him ; and by the
Roman law, it mud have been gratuitous. It may be
condituted tacitly, by one’s fuffering another to ail
in a certain branch of his affairs, for a trail of time
together, without challenge. The mandatory is at li¬
berty not to accept of the mandate ; and, as his powers
are folely founded in the mandant’s commiflron, he
muft, if he undertakes it, ftridiy adhere to the direc¬
tions given him : Nor is it a good defence, that the
method he followed was more rational ; for in that his
employer was the proper judge. Where no fpecial
rules are prefcribed, the mandatory, if he afts prudently,
is fecure, whatever the fuccefs may be ; and he can
fue for the recovery of all the expences reafonably de-
burfed by him in the execution of his office.
10. Mandates may be general, containing a power
of adminiftring the mandant’s whole affairs ; but no
mandate implies a power of difpofing gratuitoufly of
the conflituent’s property, nor even of felling his he¬
ritage for ?,n adequate price: but a general mandatory
may fell fuch of the moveables as mull: otherwife perifh.
No mandatory can, without fpecial powers, tranfaft
doubtful claims belonging to his conltituent, or refer
them to arbiters.
11. Mandates expire, (i.) By the revocation of the
employer, though only tacit, as if he ffiould name a-
nother mandatory for the fame bulinefs. (2.) By the
renunciation of the mandatory ; even after he has exe¬
cuted part of his commiffion, if his office be gratuitous.
(3.) By the death, either of the mandant ormandatory :
But if matters are not entire, the mandate continues
in force, notwithftanding fuch revocation, renunciation,
or death. Procuratories of refignation, and precepts
of feilin, are made out in the form of mandates ; but,
becaufe they are granted for the foie benefit of the man¬
datory, all of them, excepting precepts of dare conftat,
are declared to continue after the death either of the
granter or grantee. Deeds which contain a claufe or
mandate for regiftration, are for the fame reafon made
regiftrable after the death of either.
12. The favour of commerce has introduced a tacit
mandate, by which malters of (hips are empowered
to contraft in name of their exercitors or employers,
for repairs, fhip-provifions, and whatever elfe may be
neceffary for the (hip or crew; fo as to oblige not them-
felves only, but their employers. Whoever has the ac¬
tual charge of the (hip is deemed the mafter, though
he (hould have no commiffion from the exercitors, or
(hould be fubftituted by the mafter in the dire&ion of
the (hip without their knowledge. Exercitors are
liable, whether the mafter has paid his own money to
a merchant for neceffaries, or has borrowed money to
pnrehafe them. The furnifher or lender muft: prove
that the (hip needed repairs, provifions, &c. to fuch an
extent; but he is under no neceffity to prove the appli¬
cation of the money or materials to the (hip’s ufe. If
there are feveral exercitors, they are liable Jinguli in fo-
lidurn. In the fame manner the undertaker of-any
branch of trade, manufacture, or other land negocia-
tion, is bound by the contrafts of the inflitors whom
he fets over it, in fo far as relates to the fubjeft of the
prap'ojitura.
13. Contrails and obligations, in themfelves imper-
feit, receive ftrength by the contraileror his heirs do¬
ing any aft thereafter which imports an approbation of
them, and confequently fupplies the want of an origi¬
nal legal confent. This is called homologation ; and it
takes place even in deeds intrinfically null, whether
the nullity arifes from the want of ftatutory folemnities,
or from the incapacity of the granfer. It cannot be
inferred, (1.) By the aft of a perfon who was not in the
knowledge of the original deed; for one cannot ap¬
prove what he is ignorant of. (2.) Homologation has
no place where the aft or deed, which is pleaded as
fuch, can be aferibed to any other caufe; for an in¬
tention to come under an obligation is not prefumed.
14. Quafi-contrafts are formed without explicit con¬
fent, by one of the parties doing fomething that by its
nature either obliges him to the other party, or the
other party to him. Under this clafs may he reckoned
tutory, &c. the entry of an heir, negotiorum gejlio, in-
debiti folutio, communion of goods between two or more
common proprietors, and nierdum jaftut levandx navis
caufa. Negotiorum gejlio forms thofe obligations which
arife from the management of a perfon’s affairs, in his
abfence, by another, without a mandate. As Inch
manager afts without authority from the proprietor,
he ought to be liable in exaft diligence, unlefs he has
from friendffiip interpofed in affairs which admitted no
delay ; and he is accountable for his intromiffions with
intereft. On the other part, he is intitled to the re¬
covery of his neceffary deburfements on the fubjeft,
and to be relieved of the obligations in which he may
have bound himfelf in confequence of the management.
15. Indebiti folatio, or the payment to one of what
is not due to him, if made through any miftake, either
of faft, or even of law, founds him who made the
payment in an aftion againft the receiver for repay¬
ment (condiftio indebiti.) This aftion does not lie,
(1.) If the fum paid was due ex aquitate, or by a natu¬
ral obligation : for the obligation to reftore is founded
folely in equity. (2.) If he who made the payment
knew that nothing was due ; for qui confulio dat quod
non delebat, prxfumitur donare.
16. Where two or more perfons become common
proprietors of the fame fubjeft, either by legacy, gift,
or purchafe, without the view of co-partnerfhip, an ob¬
ligation is thereby created among the proprietors to
communicate the profit and lofs arifing from the fubjeft,
while it remains common : And the fubjeft may be
divided at the fuit of any having intereft. This divi-
fion, where the queftion is among the common proprie¬
tors, is according 'to the valuation of their refpedivepro¬
perties : But, where the queftion is between the pro¬
prietors and thofe having fervitudes upon the property,
the fuperfice is only divided, without prejudice to the
property. Commonties belonging to the king, or to
royal boroughs, are not divifible. Lands lying runrig,
and belonging to different proprietors, may be divided,
with the exception of borough and incorporated acres;
the execution of which is committed to the judge-or¬
dinary, or juftices of the peace.
17. The throwing of goods overboard, for lighten¬
ing a (hip in a ftorm, creates an obligation, whereby
the owners of the (hip and goods faved are obliged to
contribute for the relief of thofe whofe goods were
thrown overboard, that fo all may bear a proportional
lofs of the goods ejefted for the common fafety. In
this contribution, the (hip’s provifions fnffer no efti-
mation. A mafter who has cut his maft, or parted
with his anchor, to fave the (hip, is intitled to this re¬
lief ; but if he has loft them by the ftorm, the lofs falls
only on the (hip and freight. If the ejeftion does not
fave the (hip, the goods preferved from (hipwreck are
not liable in contribution. Ejeftion may be lawfully
made, if the mafter and a third part of the mariners
[ 1 2 ] judge
Law of
Scotland.
Quafi-con-
tradb.
Right of di~
mon pro¬
perty.
Lex Rhodin
de jaftu.
' I
{ 84 ) LA
Law of judge that meafure neceffary, though the owner of
Scotland. tj,e g00(js fhould oppofe it : and the goods ejefted
are to be valued at the price that the goods of the
fame fort which are faved fhall be afterward* fold for.
Aceeflory 18. There are certain obligations which cannot
obligations, fubfilt by themfelves, but are acccfiions to, or make a
part of, other obligations. Of this fort are fidejuflion,
and the obligation to pay intereft. Cautionry, or fide¬
juflion, is that obligation by which one becomes en¬
gaged as fecurity for another, that he (hall either pay
a fum, or perform a deed.
Cautionry. ] g. A cautioner for a fum of money may be bound,
either Amply as cautioner for the principal debtor, or
conjun&ly and feverally for and with the principal
debtor. The firft has, by our cuftoms, the bexejiciurn
erdinis, or of difcuflion ; by which the creditor is ob¬
liged to difcuCs the proper debtor, before he can in¬
fill for payment againll the cautioner. Where one is
bound as full debtor with and for the principal, orCon-
junflly and feverally with him, the two obligants are
bound equally in the fame obligation, each in folidum;
and consequently, the cautioner, though he is but an
acceflbry, may be fued for the whole, without either
difcufiing or even citing the principal debtor. Cau¬
tioners for performance of fadts by another, or for the
faithful difcharge of an office, {e. g- for faftors, tutors,
&c.) cannot by the nature of their engagement be
bound conjun£fly and feverally with the principal obli-
gant, becaufe the fadi to which the principal is bound
cannot poffibly be performed by any other. In fuch
engagements, therefore, the failure muft be previoufly
conftituted againft the proper debtor, before adlion can
be brought againft the cautioner for making up the
lofs of the party fuffering.
30. The cautioner, who binds himfelf at the defire
of the principal debtor, has an aSiii mandati or of
relief againft him, for recovering the principal and in¬
tereft paid by himfelf to the creditor, and for neceflary
damages ; which adlion lies de jure, though the credi¬
tor ffiould not affign to him on payment. As relief a-
gainft the debtor is implied in fidejuflbry obligations,
the cautioner, where fuch relief is cut off, is no longer
bound: hence, the defence of prefeription frees the cau¬
tioner, as well as the principal debtor.
21. But, (1.) Where the cautianry is interpofed to
an obligation merely natural, the relief is reltrifted
to the fums that have really turned to the debtor’s
profit. (2.) A cautioner who pays without citing
the debtor, lofes his relief, in fo far as the debtor had
a relevant defence againft the debt, in whole or in
part. Relief is not competent to the cautioner, till
he either pays the debt, or is diftreffed for it; except,
ift, Where the debtor is exprefsly bound to deliver to
the cautioner his obligation cancelled, againft a day
certain, and has failed : or, 2dly, Where the debtor
is vergens ad irwpiam; in which cafe the cautioner
may, by proper diligence, fecure the debtor’s funds
for his own relief* even before payment or diftrefs.
22. A right of relief is competent de jure to the
Cautioner who pays againft his co-cautioners, unlefs
where the cautioner appears to have renounced it. In
•onfequence of this implied relief, a creditor, if he (hall
grant a difcharge to any one of the cautioners, muft,
in demanding the debt from the others, deduct that
part as to which he has cut off their relief by that dif-
w.
Tart III.
charge. Where a cautioner in a bond figns a bond of I,aw of
corroboration, as a principal obligant w'ith the pro- Scotland,
per debtor, and with them a new cautioner, the can- •’
tioner in the new bond is intitled to a total relief a-
gainft the f.rft cautioner, at whofe defire he is pre¬
fumed to be bound.
23. Cautionry is alfo judicial, as in a fufpenfion. It Judicial: |
is fufficient to loofe the cautioner, that when he be- cautionrjfcj
came bound, the fufpender had good reafon to fufpend,
e.g. if the charger had at that period no title, or had
not then performed his part, tho’ thefe grounds of fu¬
fpenfion ffiould be afterw'ards taken off. In all mari¬
time caufes, where the parties are frequently foreign¬
ers, the defender muft give caution judicioJifti et judi-
catumfolvi: fuch cautioner gets free by the death of
the defender before fentence ; but he continues bound,
tho’ the caufe (hould be carried from the admiral to the
court of feffion. This fort of caution is only to be ex¬
acted in caufes ftri&ly maritime.
24. It happens frequently, that a creditor takes two ]
or more obligants bound to him, all as principal deb*
tors, without fidejuffion. Where they are fo bound,
for the performance of fails that are in themfelves indi-
vifible, they are liable each for the whole, or ftnguji in
folidum. But, if the obligation be for a fum of money, |
they are only liable/rc rtfto ; unlefs, (1.) Where they
are in exprefs words bound conjunilly and feverally ;
or, (2.) In the cafe of bills or promiflbry notes. One
of fev/ral obligants of this fort, who pays the whole
debt* or fulfils the obligation, is intitled to a propor¬
tional relief againft the reft ; in ftich manner, that the
lofs muft, in every cafe, fall equally upon all the fob
vent obligants.
25. Obligations for fums of money are frequently jntereft a
accompanied with an obligation for the annualrent or money. :
intereft thereof. Intereft is the profit due by the
debtor of a fum of money to the creditor, for the ufe of
it. The canon law confidered the taking of intereft as
unlawful: the law of Mofes allowed it to be exacted
from ftrangers : and all the reformed nations of Eu¬
rope have found it neceffary, after the example of the
Romans, to authorife it at certain rates fixed by fta-
tutc. Soon after the reformation, our legal intereft
was fixed at the rate of ten per cent, per annum;
from which time, it has been gradually reduced, till
at laft, by 12 Ann. Jiat. 2. c. 16. it was brought to j
five per cent, and has continued at that rate ever
fluce.
26. Intereft is due, either bylaw, or by pa&ion. j
It is due by law, either from the force of (Unite, un¬
der which may be included ails of federunt, or from I
the nature of the tranfaiffion. Bills of exchange, and
inland bills, though they (hould not be protefted, carry
intereft from their date in cafe of not acceptance ; or.
from the day of their falling due, in cafe of acceptance
and not payment. Where a bill is accepted, which
bears no term of payment, or which is payable on de¬
mand, no intereft is due till demand be made of the
fum, the legal voucher of which is a notorial proteft.
Intereft is due by a debtor after denunciation, for all
the fums contained in the diligence, even for that part
which is made up of.intereft. Sums paid by caution¬
ers on diftrefs, carry intereft, not only as to the principal
fum in the obligation, but as to the intereft paid by j 1
the cautioner. Fa&ors named by the court of feffion
are
li’art III. I. A W. ( 85 )
lo vaw of are liable for intereft, by a fpecial aQ: of federunt; fee
>fl|otland- NQclxxii. II.
_4i 27. It arifes^x lege, or from the nature of the tranf-
»! aftion, that a purchaferin a fale is liable in intereft for
the price of the lands bought from the term of his en¬
try, though the price Ihouid be arrefted in his hands,
or though the feller fhould not be able to deliver to him
a fufficient progrefs or title to the lands ; for no pur-
chafer can in equity enjoy the fruits of the lands, while
at the fame time he retains the intereft of the price:
but lawful conlignation of the price made by a pur-
chafer, upon the refufal of the perfons having right
to receive it, flops the currency of intereft. Where
one intermeddles with money belonging to another
which carries intereft, he ought to reftore it cum onini
itbventione et caufa ; and is therefore liable in the intereft
of it, as being truly an acceffory of the fubjedl itfelf.
It is alfo from the nature of the tranfa&ion, that inte¬
reft is in certain cafes allowed to merchants or others in
aame of damages.
28. Intereft is due by exprefs pa&ion, where there
is a claufe in a bond or obligation, by which money
is made to carry intereft. An obligation is not lawful,
where it is agreed on, that the yearly intereft of the
fum lent, if it ftiould not be paid pun&ually as it falls
due, fhall be accumulated into a principal fum bearing
intereft; but an obligation may be lawfully granted,
not only for the fum truly lent, but for the intereft to
the day at which the obligation is made payable, where¬
by the intermediate intereft is accumulated into a princi¬
pal fam from the term of payment. Intereft may be
alfo due by implied padlion t Thus,, where intereft upon
a debt is by a letter promifed for time part, fuch pro-
mife implies a padtion for intereft as long as the debt
remains unpaid ; thus alfo, the ufe of payment of in¬
tereft prefumes a padfion, and when intereft; is exprcfs-
ed for one term, it is prefumed to be bargained for till
payment.
tmeral 29. The fubjedf-matter of all obligations confifts ei-
r| perties ther of things,or of fadfs. Things exempted from com-
ij obliga- merce cannot be the fubjedl of obligation. See No
' clxii. 2. One cannot be obliged to the performance
of a fadl naturally impoffible ; nor of a fadl in itfelf
immoral, for that is alfo in the judgment of law im-
pofllble. Since impoffible obligations are null, no pe¬
nalty or damage can be incurred for non-performance :
but it is otherwife, if the fadt be in itfelf poffible,
though not in the debtor’s power; in which cafe the
rule obtains, locum fa fit impra-jlabilis fubit damnum et
interejfe.
50. An obligation, to which a condition is adjedled,
either naturally or morally impoffible, is in the general
cafe null; for the parties are prefumed not to have
been Ctrious. But fuch obligation is valid, and the
condition thereof held pro non fcripta, ( fi.) In tefta-
ments ; (2.) In obligations, to the performance of
which the granter lies under a natural tie, as in bonds
of provifioa to a child. Where an obligation is grant¬
ed under a condition, lawful but unfavourable, e. g.
that the creditor fhall nat marry without the confent of
certain friends, no more weight is given to the condi¬
tion than the judge thinks reafonable. A condition,
which is in fome degree in the power of the creditor
himfelf, is held as fulfilled, if he has done all he could
to fulfil ib Implement or performance cannot be de¬
manded in a mutual contraft, by that party who him- Law of
felf declines or cannot fulfil the counterpart. Scotland.
31. Donation, fo long as thefubjeft is not delivered
to the donee, may be juftly ranked among obliga- Donat;0„.
gations ; and it is that obligation which arifes from
the mere good-will and liberality of the granter. Do¬
nations imply no warrandice, but from the future
fafts of the donor. They are hardly revokable by our
law for ingratitude, though it ftiould be of the groflcft
kind : thofe betwixt man and wife are revokable by
the donor, even after the death of the donee ; but re-
muneratory grants, not being truly donations, cannot
be fo revoked. That fpecial fort of donation, which is
conftituted verbally, is called a prornife. The Roman
law intitled all donors to the btneficium com pet entice, in
virtue of which they might retain fuch part of the do¬
nation as was neceffary for their own fubfiftence. Out¬
law allows this benefit to fathers, with refpeft to the
provifions granted to their children ; and to grandfa¬
thers, which is a natural confequence of childrens obli¬
gation to aliment their indigent parents; but to no
collateral relation, not even to brothers.
32. Donations, made in contemplation of death, or
mortis caufa, are of the nature of legacies, and like
them revokable : confequently, not being effeclual in
the granter’s life, they cannot compete with any of his
creditors; not even with thofe whofe debts were con-
tra&ed after the donation. They are underftood to be
given from a perfonal regard to the donee, and there¬
fore fall by his predeceafe. No deed, after delivery, is
to be prefumed a donatio mortis caufa •, for revocation
is excluded by delivery.
3:3. Deeds are not prefumed, in dubio, to be dona¬
tions. Hence, a deed by a debtor to his creditor, if
donation be not exprefled, is prefumed to be granted
in fecurity or fatisfaftion of the debt but bonds of
provifion to children are,, from the preemption of pa¬
ternal affeftion, cohftrued to be intended as an addi¬
tional patrimony : yet a tocher, given to a daughter in
her marriage-contraift, is prefumed to be in fatisfac-
tion of all former bonds and debts; becaufir marnage-
contra<fts ufually contain the whole provifions in fa¬
vour of the bride. One who aliments a perfon that is
come of age, without an exprefs pa&ion for board, is
prefumed to have entertained him as a friend, unlefs in
the cafe of thofe who earn their living by the entertain¬
ment or board of ftrangers. But alimony given to mi¬
nors, who cannot bargain for themfelves is not ac¬
counted a donation;, except either where it is pre¬
fumed, from the near relation of the perfon alimenting,
that it was given ex pietate ; or where the minor had
a father or curators, with whom a bargain might have
been made.
Sect. X.VI, Of the Dijfolution or Extinction of Ob-
ligations.
Obligations may be diffolved by performance or - .
. , ^ r ^ J r • 7 r . \ , Extinfhoiv
implement, confent, compenlation, novation, and con-0f0{,iiga.
fufion. (1.) By fpecifical performance : thus, an ob-tions;
ligation for a fum of money is extinguilhed by pay- perform-
ment. The creditor is not obliged to accept of pay-aiice‘
ment by parts, unlefs where the fum is payable by dif¬
ferent divifions. If a debtor in two or more feparatc
bonds to the fame creditor, made an indefinite pay¬
ment, without aferibieg it, at the time, to any one of
the
( 86 ) LA
Law of the obligations, the payment is applied, ift, To inte-
Scotland. or to fums not bearing intereft. zdly, To the
fums that are lead fecnred, if the debtor thereby incurs
no rigorous penalty. But, jdly, If this application
be penal on the debtor, e. g. by fuffering the legal of
an adjudication to expire, the payment will be fo ap¬
plied to as to fave the debtor from that forfeiture.
Where one of the debts is fecured by a cautioner, the
other not, the application is to be fo made, cxteris pa¬
ribus, that both creditor and cautioner may have equal
juftice done to them.
2. Payment made by the debtor upon a midake in
fa£t,to one whom he believed, upon probable grounds,
to have the right of receiving payment; extinguilhes
the obligation. But payment made to one, to whom
the law denies the power of receiving it, has not this
effeft; as if a debtor, feized by letters of caption,
fliould make payment to the meffenger; for ignoran-
tia juris neminem excufat. In all debts, the debtor, if
he be not interpelled, may fafely pay before the term,
except in tack-duties or feu-duties ; the payment
whereof, before the terms at which they are made
payable, is conftrued to be collufive, in a queftion with
a creditor of the landlord or fuperior. Payment is in
dubio prefumed, by the voucher of the debt being in
the hands of the debtor ; chirograpkum, apud debitorem
repertuvi, prxfumitur folutum.
By confent. 3' Obligations are extinguilhable by the confent of
y ‘ the creditor, who, without full implement, or even any
implement, may renounce the right conftituted in his
own favour.. Though a difcharge or acquittance,
granted by one whom the debtor bona fide took for the
creditor, but who wgs not, extinguilhes the obligation,
if the fatisfaflion made by the debtor was real ; yet
where it is imaginary, the difcharge will not fcreen him
from paying to the true creditor the debt that he had
made no prior fatisfaftion for. In all debts which are
conftituted by writing, the extin&ion, whether it be
by fpecifical performance, or bare confent, mu ft be
proved, either by the oath of the creditor, or by a dif¬
charge in writing ; and the fame folemnities which law
requires in the obligation, are neceffary in the difcharge:
but, where payment is made, not by the debtor himfelf,
but by the creditor’s intromiflion with the rents of the
debtor’s eftate, or by delivery to him of goods in name
of the debtor, fuch delivery or intromiffion, being fatti,
may be proved by witneffes, though the debt (hould
have been not only vconftituted by writing, but made
real on the debtor’s lands by adjudication.
4. A difcharge, though it Ihould be general, of all
that the granter can demand, extends not to debts of
an uncommon kind, which are not prefumed to have
been under the granter’s eye. This doftrine applies
aifo to general aflignations. In annual payments, as
of rents, feu-duties, intereil, &c. three confecutive dif-
charges by the creditor, of the yearly or termly duties,
prefume the payment of all precedings. Two difchar-
ges by the anceftor, and the third by the heir, do not
infer this prefumption, if the heir was ignorant of the
anceftor’s difcharges. And difcharges by an admini-
ftrator, as a faftor, tutor, &c. prefume only the pay¬
ment of all preceding duties incurred during his admi-
niftration. T. his prd rmption arifes from repeating the
difcharges thrice fucceffively; and fo does not hold in
the cafe of two difcharges, though they ihould include
w.
Part III.
the duties of three or more terms.
5. Where the fame perfon is both creditor and debtor Scot|and.
of |*>
to another, the mutual obligations, if they are for equal By <. m-pci^o-
  1  fatirm.
fums, are extinguiftred by compenfation ; if for un- fat'on-
equal, ftill the leffer obligation is extinguiftied, and the
greater diminifhed, as far as the concourfe of debt and
credit goes. To found compenfation, (1.) Each of the
parties muft be debtor and creditor at the fame time.
(2.) Each of them muft be debtor and creditor in his
own right. (3.) The mutual debts muft be of the
fame quality : hence, a fum of money cannot be com-
penfated with a quantity of corns ; becaufe, till the
prices are fixed, at which the corns are to be converted
into money, the two debts are incommenfurable. Laft-
ly, compenfation cannot be admitted, where the mutual
debts arc not clearly afeertained, either by a written
obligation, the fentence of a judge, or the oath of the
party. Where this requires but a ftiort difeuffion, fen¬
tence for the purfuer is delayed for fome time, ex eequi- 1
tate, that the defender may make good his ground of
compenfation. Where ,a debt for fungibles is afeer¬
tained in money, by the fentence of a judge, the com¬
penfation can have no effedt farther back than the li¬
quidation ; becaufe, before fentence, the debts were
incommenfurable: but, where a debt for a fum of mo¬
ney is, in the courfe of a fuit, conftituted by the oath
of the debtor, the compenfation, after it is admitted by
the judge, operates, retro, in fofaras concerns the cur¬
rency of intereft, to the time that, by the parties ac¬
knowledgment, the debt became due : for, in this cafe,
the debtor’s oath is not what creates the debt, or makes
it liquid; it only declares that fuch a liquid fum was
truly due before. Compenfation cannot be offered af¬
ter decree, either by way of fufpenfion or redu&ion ;
unlefs it has been formerly pleaded, and unjuftly re¬
pelled. Decrees in abfence are excepted.
6. The right of retention, which bears a near re- Byreten-i
femblance to compenfation, is chiefly competent, where fion*
the mutual debts, not being liquid, cannot be the i
ground of compenfation; and it is fometimes admitted
ex xquitate, in liquid debts, where compenfation is ex¬
cluded by ftatute: thus, though compenfation cannot
be pleaded after decree, either againft a creditor or his
afligney; yet, if the original creditor fhould become
bankrupt, the debtor, even after decree, may retain
againft the affigney, till he gives fecurity for fatisfying
the debtor’s claim againft the cedent. .This right is fre¬
quently founded in the expence deburfed or work em¬
ployed on the fubjeft retained, and fo arifes from the
mutual obligations incumbent on the parties. But re¬
tention may be fuftained, though the debt due to him
who claims it does not arife from the nature of the obli¬
gation by which he is debtor : thus, a fa6tor on a land-
eftate may retain the fums levied by him in confequence
of his faftory, not only till he be paid of the difburfe-
rnents made on occafion of fuch eftate, but alfo till he
be difeharged from the feparate engagements he may
have entered into on his conftituent’s account.
7. Obligations are difiblved by novation, whereby By novatl
one obligation is changed into another, without chan¬
ging either the debtor or creditor. The firft obliga¬
tion being thereby extinguiftied, the cautioners in it are
loofed, and all its confequences difeharged; fo that the
debtor remains bound only by the laft. As a creditor
to whom a right is once conftituted, ought not to lofe
i ti’art III.
liilconfu-
-
it by implication, novation is not eafily prefumed, and
the new obligation is conftrued to be merely corrobora¬
tive of the old; but, where the fecond obligation ex-
prefsly bears to be in fatisfattion of the firft, thefe words
mull neceflarily be explained into novation. Where
the creditor accepts of a new debtor, in place of the
former who is difcharged, this method of extin&ion is
called delegation.
8. Obligations are extinguilhed eonfujtone, where the
debt and credit meet in the fame perfon, either by fuc-
ceffion or Angular title, e. g. when the debtor fucceeds
to the creditor, or the creditor to the debtor, or a ftran-
ger to both ; for one cannot be debtor to himfelf. If
the fucceffion, from which the confufio arifes, happens
afterwards to be divided, fo as the debtor and creditor
come again to be different perfons; the confufio does
not produce an extin&ion, but only a temporary fuf-
penfion, of the debt.
Sect. XVII. Of JJfignations.
J;gna. Heritable rights, when they are cloathed with Jn-
! is. fcftment, are transmitted by difpofition, which is a wri¬
ting containing procuratory of refignation and precept
of feifm; but thofe which either require no feifin, or on
which feifin has not actually followed, are tranfmiffible
by fimple afiignation. He who grants the afiignation,
is called the cedent; and he who receives it, the affigney
or cefiionary: if the affigney conveys his right to a
third perfon, it is called a tranflation ; and if he affigns
it back to the cedent, a retroceffion. Certain rights
are, from the ufes to which they are deftined, incapable
of tranfmiflion, as alimentary rights : others cannot be
alfigned by the perfon invcfted in them, without fpe-
eial powers given to him; as tacks, reverfions: the
tranfmiffion of a third fort, is not prefumed to be in¬
tended, without an exprefs conveyance; as of para¬
phernal goods, which are fo proper to the wife, that a
general afiignation, by her to her hufband, of all that
did or fhould belong to her at her deceafe, does not
comprehend them. A liferent-right is, by its nature,
incapable of a proper tranfmifiion; but its profits may
be afiigned, while it fubfifts.
2. Affignations muft not only be delivered to the
afiigney, but intimated by him to the debtor. Inti¬
mations are confidered as fo neceflary for completing
the conveyance, that in a competition between two al-
fignations, the laft, if firfl intimated, is preferred.
3. Though, regularly, intimation to the debtor is
made by an inftrument, taken in the hands of a notary,
iat noti ky 4be afiigney or his procurator; yet the law admits
StiMise- equipolleneies, where the notice of the affignmentgiven
valent to to the debtor is equally ftrong. Thus, a charge upon
mation. letters of horning at the afiigney’s inftance, or a fuit
brought by him againft the debtor, fupplies the want
of intimation ; thefe being judicial afts, which expofe
the conveyance to the eyes both of the judge and of
the debtor; or the debtor’s promife of payment by
writing to the affigney, becaufe that is in effeft a cor¬
roborating of the original debt. The affigney’s poflef-
fion of the right, by entering into payment of the rents
or intereft, is alfo equal to an intimation ; for it im¬
ports, not only notice to the debtor, but his a&ual com¬
pliance: but the debtor’s private knowledge of the af-
what fignment is not fuftained as intimation.
4. Certain conveyances need no intimation. (1.) In-
A W. ( 87 )
dorfations of bills of exchange ; for thefe are not to be Taw of
fettered with forms, introduced by the laws of parti- Scotland.
cular Hates. (2.) Bank-notes are fully conveyed by
the bare delivery of them; for as they are payable to
the bearer, their property muft pafs with their poflef-
fion. (3.) Adjudication, which is a judicial convey¬
ance ; and marriage, which is a legal one; carry the full
right of the fubje&s thereby conveyed, without intima¬
tion : neverthelefs, as there is nothing in thefe convey¬
ances which can of themfelves put the debtor in mala
fide, he is therefore in tuto to pay to the wife, or to the
original creditor in the debt adjudged, till the marriage
or adjudication be notified to him. Affignments of
moveable fubjefts, though they be intimated, if they
are made retenta pojfeffione, (the cedent retaining the
pofieffion), cannot hurt the cedent’s creditors; for fuch
rights are prefumed, in all queftions with creditors,
to be collulive, and granted in trull for the cedent him¬
felf.
5. An afiignation carries to the affigney the whole Effctfs of
right of the fubjedt conveyed, as it was in the cedent; afiignation.
and confequently, he may ufe diligence, either in his
cedent’s name while he is alive, or in his own.
6. After an afiignation is intimated, the debtor can¬
not prove a payment, or compenfation, by the oath of
the cedent, who has no longer any interell in the debt;
unlefs the matter has been made litigious by an adlion
commenced prior to the intimation i but the debtor
may refer to the oath of the affigney, who is in the
right of the debt, that the affignment was gratuitous,
or in truft for the cedent; either of which being pro¬
ved, the oath of the cedent will affedl the afiigney. If
the affignation be in part onerous, and in part gratui¬
tous, the cedent’s oath is good againft the affigney, only
in fo far as his right is gratuitous. All defences com¬
petent againft the original creditor in a moveable debt,
which can be proved otherwife than by his oath, con¬
tinue relevant againft even an onerous affigney ; whofe
right can be no better than that of his author, anel mull
therefore remain affedled with all the burdens which
attended it in the author’s perfon.
Sect. XVIII. Of Arrejlments and Poindings. 1 clxxviil.
The diligences, whereby a creditor may affedl his
debtor’s moveable fubje&s, are arreftment and poind- Arr€ftmc«t
ing. By arreftment is fometimes meant the fecuring
of a criminal’s perfon till trial ; but as it is underftood
in the rubric of this title, it is the order of a judge, by
which he who is debtor in a moveable obligation to the
arreller’s debtor, is prohibited to make payment or de¬
livery till the debt due to the arreller be paid or fecu-
red. The arrefter’s debtor is ufually called the com¬
mon debtor; becaufe, where there are two or more
competing creditors, he is debtor to all of them. The
perfon in whofe hands the diligence is ufed, is ftyled
the arreftee.
2. Arreftment may be laid on by the authority either
of the fupreme court, or of an inferior judge. In the
firft cafe, it proceeds either upon fpecial letters of ar¬
reftment, or on a warrant contained in letters of horn¬
ing ; and it mull be executed by a meflenger. The
warrants*granted by inferior judges.are called precepts
of arreftment, and they are executed by the officer pro¬
per to the court. Where the debtor to the common
debtor is a pupil, arreftment is properly ufed in the
hands
(88)
Law of hands of the tutor, as the pupil’s adminiftrator: this
Scotland, do&rine may perhaps extend to other general admini-
ftrators, as commiflloner, &c. But arreftment, ufed in
the hands of a fa&or or fteward, cannot found an aftion
of forthcoming without calling the conftituent. Where
the debtor to the common debtor is a corporation, ar¬
reftment muft be ufed in the hands of the dire&ors
treafurer, who reprefent the whole body. Arreftmentj
when it is ufed in the hands of the debtor himfelf, is
inept; for that diligence is intended only as a reftraint
upon third parties.
3. All debts, in which one is perfonally bound,
A W. Part IIU
tion, whereby the property of the fubjeft arrefted may Law of
be adjudged to him. It therefore does not, by our latter sc°<h~“
practice, fall by^the death of the arreftee; but continues
to fubfift, as a foundation for an aftion of forthcoming
againft his heir, while the fubjedt arrefted remains in
medio. Far lefs is arreftment loft, either by the death
of the arrefter, or of the common debtor.
6. Where arreftment proceeds on a depending ac- Loofing oj
tion, it may be loofed by the common debtor’s giving arreftmeBl
fecurity to the arrefter for his debt in the event it
fhall be found due. Arreftment founded on decrees,
igiftred obligations, which in the judgment of
though they ftiould be heritably fecured, are grounds law are decrees, cannot be loofed but upon payment
upon which the creditor may arreft the moveable eftate or confignation ; except, (1.) Where the term of pay¬
belonging to his debtor. Arreftment may proceed on
a debt, the term of payment whereof is not yet come,
in cafe the debtor be verge ns ad inopiam. If a debt be
not yet conftituted by decree or regiftration, the cre¬
ditor may raife and execute a fummons againft his
debtor for payment, on which pending aftion arreft¬
ment may be iifed, in the fame manner as inhibition,
which is aalled arreftment upon a dependence. If one’s
ment of the debt is not yet come, or the condition has
not yet exifted. (2.) Where the arreftment has pro¬
ceeded on a regiftered contraft, in which the debts or
mutual obligations are not liquid. (3.) Where the
decree is fulpended, or turned into a libel ; for, till
the fufpenfion be difeufled, or the pending aftion con¬
cluded, it cannot be known whether any debt be truly
  ^ , due. A 1 oofing takes off the nexus which had been
ground of credit be for the performance of a fadt, or laid on the fubjedt arrefted ; fo that the arreftee may
if his depending procefs be merely declaratory, with- thereafter pay fafely to his creditor, and the cautioner
out a conclufion of payment or delivery, fuch claims is fubftituted in place of the arreftment, for the arreft-
are not admitted to be fufiicient grounds for arreft- er’s fecurity : yet the arrefter may, while the fubjedl
continues with the arreftee, purfue him in a forthco-
finetrt.
ts 4. Moveable debts are the proper fubjedl of arreft-
■ment; under which are comprehended conditional debts,
;and even depending claims. For leffening the expence
of diligence to creditors, all bonds which have not been
made properly heritable by feifin are declared arreftable:
but this does not extend to adjudications, wadfets, or
other perfonal rights of lands, which are not properly
debts. Certain moveable debts are not arreftable. (1.)
Debts due by bill, which pafs from hand to hand as
bags of money. (2.) Future debts; for though inhi¬
bition extends to adquirenda as well as adquiftta, yet
arreftment is limited, by its warrant, to the debt due
at the time of ferving it againft the arreftee. Hence,
an arreftment of rents or intereft carries only thofe that
ming, notwithftanding the looling.
7. Arreftment is only an inchoated or begun dili- Forthcori I
gence ; to perfed it, there muft be an adion brought ! r
by the arrefter againft the arreftee, to make the debt” '
or fubjeft arrefted forthcoming. In this aftion, the
common debtor muft be called for his intereft, that he
may have an opportunity of excepting to the lawful-
nefs or extent of the debt on which the diligence
proceeded. Before a forthcoming can be purfued,
the debt due by the common debtor to the arrefter
muft be liquidated; for the arrefter can be no fur¬
ther intitled to the fubjeft arrefted than to the extent
of the debt due to him by the common debtor.
Where the fubjedt arrefted is a fum of money, it is.
have already either fallen due, or at leaft become current, by the decree of forthcoming, diredled to be paid to
Claims, depending on the iffue of a fuit, are not con- the purfuer towards fitisfying his debt; where goods
fidered as future debts; for the fentence, when pronoun- are arrefted, the judge ordains them to be expofed to
ced, has a retrofpedl to the period at which the claim fale, and the price to be delivered to the purfuer.
b
.
was firft founded. The like dodtrine holds in condi¬
tional debts. (3.) Alimentary debts are not arreft¬
able ; for thefe are granted on perfonal confiderations,
and fo are not communicable to creditors: but the paft
intereft due upon fuch debt may be arrefted by the per-
fon who has furnifhed the alimony. One cannot fecure
his own effedts to himfelf for his maintenance, fo as
they ftiall not be affedlable by his creditors. Salaries
annexed to offices granted by the king, and particu¬
larly thofe granted to the judges of the Seffion, and
the fees of fervants, are confidered as alimentary funds;
but the furplus fee, over and above what is neceffary
for the fervant’s perfonal ufes, may be arrefted.
lEffeftof 5- in contempt of the arreftment, the arreftee
breach of fhall make payment of the fum, or deliver the goods
arreftment. arrefted, to the common debtor, he is not only liable
criminally for breach of arreftment, but he muft pay
the debt again to the arrefter. Arreftment is not
merely prohibitory, as inhibitions are; but is a ftep
of diligence which founds the ufer in a fubfequent ac-
either cafe, decrees of forthcoming are ju¬
dicial aifignations to the arrefter of the fubiedt ar¬
refted.
8. In all competitions, regard is had to the dates, Prefereniw
not of the grounds of debt, but of the diligences pro- in arreft-fla
ceeding upon them. In the competition of arreft ments, ments. jy
the preference is governed by their dates, according to H ’
the priority even of hours, where it appears with any
certainty which is the firft. But, as arreftment is but J j
a begun diligence, therefore if a prior arrefter fhall ne-
gledt to inlift in an adiion of forthcoming for fuch a
time as may be reafonably conftrued into a defertion of
his begun diligence, he lofes his preference. But, as
derelidiion of diligence is not eafily prefumed, the di-
ftance of above two years, between the firft arreftment
and the decree of forthcoming, was found not to make
fuch a snora as to intitle the potterior arrefter to a pre¬
ference. This rule of preference, according to the
dates of the feveral arreftments, holds, by our prefent
pradtice, whether they have proceeded on a decree, or
art III. L ;
w of on a dependence; on debts not yet payable, or on
t!ari(i- debts already payable ; provided the pendency ihall
have been clofed, or the debt have beco/ne payable, be¬
fore the iffne of the competition.
9. In the competition of arreftments with afligna-
tions, an affignation by the common debtor, inti¬
mated before arreftment, is preferable to the arreft-
ment. If the affignation is granted before arreft¬
ment, but not intimated till after it, the arrefter is
preferred.
10. Poinding is that diligence affe&ing moveable
fubjedts, by which their property is carried diredtly to
the creditor. No poinding; can proceed, till a charge
be given to the debtor to pay or perform, and the days
thereof be expired, except poindings againft vaffals for
their feu-duties, and poindings againft tenants for rent,
proceeding upon the landlord’s own decree; in which
the ancient cuftom of poinding without a previous
charge continues. A debtor’s goods may be poinded
1 by one creditor, thotigh they have been arrefted before
by another ; for arreftment being but an imperfedt di¬
ligence, leaves the right of the fubjedl ftill in the deb¬
tor, and fo cannot^ hinder any creditor from ufmg a
more perfedl diligence, w’hicb has the effedt of carrying
the property diredtly to himfelf.
11. No cattle pertaining to the plough, nor inftru-
nsents of tillage, can be poinded in the time of labour¬
ing or tilling the ground, unlefs where the debtor has
no other goods. By labouring-time is underftood, that
time, in which that tenant, whofe goods are to be
poinded, is ploughing, though he fhould have been
earlier or later than his neighbours ; but fummer fal¬
lowing does not fall under this rule.
1.' 12.- In the execution of poinding, the debtor’s
:o^ goods muft be apprifed, firft on the ground of,the
lands where they are laid hold on, and a fecond time
at the market-crofs of the jurifdidlion, by the ftated
apprifers thereof; or, if there be none, by perfons named
by the meffengeror other officer employed in the dili¬
gence.' Next, the meffenger muft, after public inti¬
mation by three oyeffes, declare the value of the goods
according to the fecond apprifement, and require the
debtor to make payment of the debt, including inte-
reft and expences. If payment (hall be offered to the
creditor, or in his abfence to his lawful attorney ; or
if, in cafe of refuffil by them, confignation of the debt
ffiall be made in the hands of the judge-ordinary or his
' clerk, the goods muft be left with the debtor ; if not,
the meffenger ought to adjudge and deliver them over,
at the apprifed value, to the ufer of the diligence to¬
wards his payment: and the debtor is intitled to a
| copy of the warrant and executions, as a voucher that
the debt is difeharged in whole or in part by the goods
poinded.
13. Minifters may poind for their ftipends, upon one
apprifement on the ground of the lands ; and landlords
were always in ufe to poind fo, for their rents. Ap¬
prifement of the goods at the market-crofs of the next
royal borough, or even of the next head-borough of
ftewartry or regality, though thefe jurifdiftions be a-
bolifhed, is declared as fufficient as if they were car¬
ried to the head-borough of the {hire. Poinding,■•whe¬
ther it be confidered as a fentence, or as the execution
of a fentence, muft be proceeded in between fun-rifing
and fun-fetting ; or at leaft it muft be finifhed before
\ w. ( 89 )
the going off of day-light. The powers of the officer Law of
employed in the execution of poindings, are not clear- Scolbnd.
ly defined by cuftom, in the cafe of a third party powers of
claiming the property of the goods to be poinded, meffengers
This is certain, that he may take the oath of the clai- |n
mant, upon the verity of his claim ; and if from thence ln^’
it ffiall appear that the claimant’s title is collufive, he
ought to proceed in the diligence ; but, if there re¬
mains the leaft doubt, his fafeft courfe is to deliver the
goods to the claimant, and to exprefs in his execution
the reafons why poinding did not proceed.,
14. Any perfon who flops a poinding via fatti, on
groundlefs pretences, is liable, both criminally, in the
pains of deforcement, (fee N° clxxxvi. 15.) and civilly,
in the value of the goods which might have been poind¬
ed by the creditor.
15. By 12th Geo. III. c. 72. the creditor upon
whofe diligence a debtor is rendered bankrupt, or the
debtor himfelf, if he finds his circumftances failing,
may apply to the court of feffion for a fequeftration of
his perfonal eftate for behoof of all his creditors ; and
have it veiled either in a fadlor named by the court, or
in a fadlor or truftees named by the creditors. All ar-
reftments or poindings of the debtor’s effedts executed
within 30 days prior to the fequeftration are ineffedtual.
This adl is temporary.
Sect. XIX. Of Prefcriptions. clxxi*.
Prescription, which is a method, both of efta- preferip-
bliftiing and of extinguiffiing property, is either poll- lion,
tive or negative. Poiitive prescription is generally de¬
fined, as the Roman ufucapio. The acquifition of pro¬
perty (it fhould rather be, when applied to our law,
the fecuring it againft all further challenge) by the pof-
feffor’s continuing his poffeffion for the time which law
has declared fufficient for that purpofet negative, is the
lofs or amiffion of a right, by negledling to follow it
forth, or ufe it, during the whole time limited by law.
The do&rine of prefeription, which is, by fome wri¬
ters, condemned as contrary to juftice, has been in¬
troduced, that the claims of negligent creditors might
not fubfift for ever, that property might be at laft
fixed, and forgeries difeouraged, which the difficulty
of detecting muft have made exceeding frequent, if
no length of time had limited the legal effedl of wri¬
tings.
2. Pofitive prefeription was firft introduced into our p0flt;yC<-
law by 1617, c. 12. which ena£ls, that whoever Ihall
have poffeffed his lands, annualrents, or other heri¬
tages, peaceably, in virtue of infeftments, for 40 years
continually after their dates, {hall not thereafter be dif-
quieted in his right by any perfon pretending a better
title. Under heritages are comprehended every right
that is fundo annexiirfi, and capable of continual poffef¬
fion. Continued poffeffion, if proved as far back as the
memory of man, prefumes poffeffion upwards to the
date of the infeftment. The whole courfe of poffeffion
muft by the a& be founded on feifins ; and confequent-
ly no part thereof on the bare right of apparency: but
40 years poffeffion, without feifin, is fufficient in the
prefeription of fuch heritable rights as do not require
feifin. The poffeffion muft alfo be without any lawful
interruption, /. e. it muft neither be interrupted via
fafti, nor via furis. The prefeription of fubjedls not
expreffedin the infeftment as part and pertinent of an-
[ m ] other
( 9° )
W.
Part ip
Law of other fubjeft fpecially expreffed, has been explained,
Scotland. Jsfo clxvii. 6.
3. The aft requires, that the pofleflbr produce, as
his title of prefeription, a charter of the lands, pre¬
ceding the 40 years poffeffion, with the feifm follow¬
ing on it: and where there is no charter extant, fet-
fins, one or more, ftanding together for 40 years, and
proceeding either on retours or precepts of dare con-
Jiat. This has given rife to a reafonable dillinftion
obferved in praftice, between the prefeription of a An¬
gular fucceffor, and of an heir. Singular fucceffors
mud produce for their title of prefeription, not only
a feihn, but its warrant, as a charter, difpofition, fee.
either in their own perfon, or in that of their author:
but the produftion, by an heir, of feifins, one or more,
ftanding together for 4,0 years, and proceeding on re¬
tours or precepts of dare conjiat, is fufficient. The
heir is not obliged to produce the retours or precepts
on which his feilins proceed, nor is the Angular fuccef¬
for obliged to produce the ground of his charter; fo
that if the title of prefeription produced be a fair deed,
and a fufficient title of property, the poffeAbr is feeure
by the aft, which admits no ground of challenge, but
falfehood. A fpecial ftatute, for eftablilhing the po-
Ative prefeription in moveable rights, was not necef-
fary ; for, Ance a title in writing is not requiAte for
the acquiring of thefe, the negative prefeription, by
which all right of aftion for recovering their property
is cut’off, effeftually fecures the poffeffor.
4. The negative prefeription of obligations, by the
-Segat— , „ „ . „ - .
preferip- lapfe of 40 years, was introduced into our law long
before the poAtive, by (1469, c. 29.—1474, c. 55.)
This prefeription is now ampliAed by the forefaid aft
(1617), which has extended it to all aftions competent
upon heritable bonds, reverAons, andothers whatfoever;
unlefs where the reverAons are either incorporated in
the body of the wadfet-right, or regiftered in the regi-
“ ^ '' A * ^ s fo '
fter of reverAons: And reverAons fo incorporated, or
regiftered, are not only exempted from the negative
prefeription, but they are an effeftual bar againft any
perfon from pleading the poAtive.
A (horter 5. A ffiorter negative prefeription is introduced by
negative ftatute, in certain rights and debts. Aftions of fpuil-
z‘eJ ejeftion, and others of that nature, mu ft be pur-
fued within three years after the commiffion of the faft
on which the aftion is founded. As in fpuilzies and
. ejeftions, the purfuer wasintitled, oi/aw of violence,
to a proof by his own oath in litem, and to the violent
proftts againft the defender, the ftatute meant only to
limit thefe fpecial privileges by a three years preferip¬
tion, without cutting off the right of aftion, where the
claim is reftrifted to Ample reftitution. Under the ge¬
neral words, and others of that nature, are compre¬
hended all aftions where the purfuer is admitted to
prove his libel by his own oath in litem.
Prefcrip- 6. Servants fees, houfe-rents, mens ordinaries, (/. e.
non offer- money due for board,) and merchants accounts, fall
vants ees, un(]er the tr{enn;a] prefeription, (by 1579, c. 83.).
There is alfo a general claufe fubjoined to this ftatute,
of other the like debts, which includes alimentary debts,
wages due to workmen, and accounts due to writers,
agents, or procurators. Thefe debts may, by this aft,
be proved after the three years, either'by the writing
or oath of the debtor; fo that they preferibe only as
to the mean of proof by witneffes; but after the three
years, it behoves the creditor to refer to the debtor’s
oath, not only -the conftitution, but the fubAftence Scotl,B!
of the debt. In the prefeription of houfe-rents, fer- 1
vants fees, and alimony, each term’s rent, fee, or ali¬
mony, runs a feparate courfe of prefeription ; fo that
in an aftion for thefe, the claim will be reftrifted to
the arrears incurred within the three years immediately
before the citation: But, in accounts, prefeription does t , ||
not begin till the laft article ; for a Angle article can¬
not be called an account. Aftions,of removing mull
alfo be purfued within three years after the warning.
Reduftions of erroneous retours, preferibe, if not pur¬
fued within 20 years
7. Minifters ftipends and multures preferibe in Ave Of mir
years after they are due; and arrears of rent, Ave years fters fti
after the tenant’s removing from the lands. As the PenJsi|
prefeription of mails and duties was introduced in fa¬
vour of poor tenants, that they might not fuffer by
neglefting to preferve their difeharges, a proprietor of
lands fubjeft to a liferent, who had obtained a leafe of
all the liferented lands from the liferenter, is not in-
titled to plead it, nor a tackfman of one’s whole eftate,
who had by the leafe a power of removing tenants.
Bargains concerning moveables, or fums of money
which are proveable by witneffts preferil e, in Bve years
after the bargain. Under thefe are included fales, lo¬
cations, and all other confenfual contrafts, to the con¬
ftitution of which writing is not neceffary. But all the
above mentioned debts, may, after the Ave years, be
proved, either by the oath or the writing of the deb¬
tor ; of which above, (par. 6. ) A quinquennial pre¬
feription is eftabliftied in arreftments, whether on de¬
crees or depending aftions : The Arft prejeribe in Ave
years after uAng the arreftment, and the laft in Ave
years after fentence is pronounced on the depending
aftion.
8. No perfoa binding for or with another, either as Limits!
cautioner or co-principal, in a bond or contraft for a of calU
fum of money, continues bound after feven years from ry' |
the date of the bond, provided he has either a claufe
of relief in the bond, or a feparate bond of relief, in¬
timated to the creditor, at his receiving the bond. But
all diligence ufed within the feven years againft the
cautioner, fhall ftand good. As this is a public law',
intended to prevent the bad confequences of rafh en¬
gagements, its beneftt cannot, before the lapfe of the
feven years, be renounced by the cautioner. As it is
correftory, it is ftriftly interpreted: Thus, bonds
bearing a mutual claufe of reliefrata, fall not un¬
der it; nor bonds of corroboration, nor obligations,
where the condition is not puriAed, or the term of pay¬
ment not come within the feven years 5 becaufe no di¬
ligence can be ufed on thefe. The ftatute excludes all
cautionries for the faithful difeharge of offices; thefe
not being obligations in a bond or contraft for fums of
money. Andprafticehas denied the beneAtofitto all ju¬
dicial cautioners, as cautioners in a fufpenAon. Aftions
of count and reckoning, competent either to minors '
againft their tutors or curators, or vice verfa, preferibe
in ten years after the majority or death of the minor.
9. Holograph bonds, miffive letters, and books of prefcr
account, not attefted by witneffes, preferibe in 20 years, tion ot
unlefs the creditor ftiall thereafter prove the verity of lograp*
the fubfeription by the debtor’s oath. It is therefore wrltinl
fufficient to fave from the effeft of this prefeription,
that
I inftioi
b‘;
r
a fides
fcr^
Ivft
III. LAW. ( 91 )
f that the conftitution of the debt be proved by the pear that he has poflefled tithes, or other fubje&s, to La'*' 0^;
:i‘ party’s oath, after the 20 years; whereas in ftipends, a greater extent than he ought, his poflefiion will be coc an
merchants accounts, &c. not only the conftitution, but reitrifted accordingly. This right mult not be con-
the fubfiitence of the debt, muft be proved by writing founded with that eftablifhed in favour of churchmen,
or the debtor’s oath, after the term of prefcription. which is confined to church lands and rents, and con-
Some lawyers extend this prefcription of holograph llitutes a proper prefcription upon a poffelfion of 30
writings to all obligations for fums not exceeding years.
L. 100 Scots, which are not attelled by witnefles ; be- 13. The claufe in the aft 1617, faving minors from
caufe though thefe are in praftice fuftained, yet they prefeription, is extended to the pofitive, as well as to
ought not to have the frVne duration with deeds attef- the negative prefcription; but the exception of mino-
ted by witnefles. Though in the Ihort prefcriptions of rity is not admitted in the cafe of hofpitals for chil- •
debts, the right of aftion is for ever loft, if not exercifed dren, where there is a continual fucceffion of minors,
within the time limited; yet where aftion was brought that being a cafus infolitus. Minors are exprefsly ex¬
on any of thofe debts, before the prefcription was run, cepted in feveral of the fttort prefcriptions, as 1579,
It fublifted, like any other right, for 40 years. As c. 18. —1669, r. 9.; but where law leaves them in
this defeated the purpofe of the afts eftablilhing thefe the common cafe, they muft be fubjeft to the common
prefcriptions, all proceffes upon warnings, fpuilzes, e- rules.
jeftions, or arreitments, or for payment of the debts 14. Prefcription does not run contra non vakntem
contained in aft 1669, c. 9. are by the faid aft, joined agere, againlt one who is barred, by fome legal inca-
vith 1685, c. 14. declared to prefcribe in five years, pacity, from purfuing; for in fuch cafe, neither negli-
if not wakened within that time ; fee N° clxxxiii, 26. gence nor dereliftion can be imputed to him. This
3n 10. Certain obligations are loft by the lapfe of lefs rule is, by a favourable interpretation, extended to wives
- than 40 years, without the aid of ftatute, where the na- who ex reverentia maritali forbear to purfue aftions
- ture of the obligation, and the circumftances of parties, competent to them againft their hulbands. On the
juftify it: thus, bills which are not intended for lafting fame ground, prefcription runs only from the time that
fecurities, produce no aftion, where the creditor has the debt or right could be fued upon. Thus, inhibi-
been long filent, unlefs the fubfiftence of the debt be tion prefcribes only from the publifhing of the deed
proved by the debtor’s oath ; but the precife time is granted to the inhibiter’s prejudice ; and in the pre-
not fixed by praftiee. Thus alfo, a receipt for bills leription of removings, the years are computed only
granted by a writer to his employer, not infifted upon from the term at which the defender is warned to re¬
fer 23 years, was found not produftive of an aftion. move. Neither can prefcription run againft perfons who
The prefcriptions of the reftitution of minors, of the are already in pofl'effion, and fo can gain nothing by a
benefit of inventory, &c. are explained in their proper purfuit. Thus, where a perfon, who has two adjudica-
places. tions affefting the fame lands, is in pofleffion upon one
it. In the pofitive prefcription, as eftablifhed by the of them, prefcription cannot run againft the other du-
aft 1617, the continued poffeffion for 40 years, pro- ring fuch pofiefiion.
ceeding upon a title of property not chargeable with 15. Certain rights are incapable of prefcription: Certain
falfehood, fecures the pofleffor againft all other grounds (1.) Things that law has exempted from commerce, rights inca=
of challenge, and fo prefumes bona fides, prxfumptione (2.) Res me roe facultatis, e. g. a faculty to charge a Pabk of
juris et de jure. In the long negative prefcription, fubjeft with debts, to revoke, &c. cannot be l°ft by
fides in the debtor is not required : the creditor’s ne- prefcription ; for faculties may, by their nature, be
glefting to infill for fo long a time, is conftrued as an exercifed at any time: hence, a proprietor’s right of
abandoning of his debt, and fo is equivalent to a dif- ufing any aft of property on his own grounds, cannot
charge. Hence, though the fubfiftence of the debt be loft by the'greateft length of time. (3.) Excep-
Ihould be referred to the debtor’s own oath, after the tions competent to a perfon for eliding an aftion, can-
40 years, he is not liable. not prefcribe, unlefs the exception is founded on a right
12. Prefcription runs de momento in momentum i the produftive of an aftion, e. g. compenfation ; fuch right
whole time defined by law muft be completed, before muft be infifted on, within the years of prefcription.
a right can be either acquired or loft by it; fo that in- (4.) Obligations of yearly penfions or payments, tho’
terruption, made on the laft day of the fortieth year, no demand has been made on them for forty years, do
breaks its courfe. The pofitive prefcription runs againft not fuffer a total prefcription, but ftill fubfift as to the
the fovereign himfelf, even as to his annexed property, arrears fallen due within that period ; becaufe preferip-
but it is generally thought he cannot fuft’er by the ne- tion cannot run againft an obligation till it be payable,
gative: he is fecured againft the negligence of his of- and each year’s penfion or payment is confidered as a
ficers, in the management of procefles, by exprefs fta- feparate debt.
tute, 1600, c. 14. The negative, as well as the pofi- 16. No right can be loft non utendo by one, unlefs
live prefcription, runs againft the church, though the effeft of that prefcription be to eftablifh it in ano-
churchmen have but a temporary intereft in their be- .then Hence the rule arifes, juri fanguinis nunquam
nefices. But becaufe the rights of beneficiaries to their pneferibitur. Hence alfo, a proprietor of land cannot
ftipends are liable to accidents, through the frequent lofe his property by the negative prefcription, unlefs he
change of incumbents, 13 years pofleffion does, by a who objefts it can himfelf plead the pofitive. On the
rule of the Roman chancery which we have adopted, fame ground, a fuperior’s right of feu-duties cannot be
found a prefumptivt title in the beneficiary : but this loft non utendb; becaufe being inherent in the fuperio-
is not properly prefcription ; for if by titles recovered, rity, it is truly a right of lands that cannot fuffer the
perhaps, out of the incumbent’s own hands, it ftiall ap- negative prefcription, except in favour of one who can
[m2] plead
( 92
Law of
Scotland.
Interrup¬
tion of pre-
kriptiou.
) L . A
plead the politive ; which, the vaffal cannot do, being
deftitute of a title. This rule applies alfo to parfonage
tithes, which are an inherent burden upon all lands not
fpecially exempted ; and from which therefore the per-
fon liable cannot prefcribe an immunity, by bare non¬
payment : but fuch vicarage tithes as are only due
where they are eftablilhed by ufage, may be loft by
prefcription. In all thefe cafes, though the radical
right cannot fuffer the negative prefcription, the by¬
gone duties, not demanded within the forty years, are
loft to the proprietor, fuperior, or titular.
17. Prefcription may be interrupted by any deed,
' whereby the proprietor or creditor ufes his right or
ground of debt. In all interruptions, notice muft be
given to the pofieffor of the fubjedt, or the debtor, that
the proprietor or creditor intends to fue upon his right.
All writings whereby the debtor himfelf acknowledges
the debt, and all proceffes for payment brought or di¬
ligences ufed againft him upon his obligation, by horn¬
ing, inhibition, arreftment, he. muft be effedlual to in¬
terrupt preferip i ion.
18. Interruptions, by citation upon libelled fum-
monfes, where they are not ufed by a minor, prefcribe,
if not renewed every feven years : .but where the ap¬
pearance of parties, or any judicial aft has followed
thereupon, it is no longer a bare citation, but an aftion
which fubfifts for forty years. Citations for interup-
ting the prefcription of real rights muft be given by
meffengers; and the fummonfes, on which fuch cita¬
tions proceed, muft pafs the fignet upon a bill, and be
regiftered within fixty days after the execution, in a
particular regifter appointed for that purpofe: and
where interruption of real rights is made v'10 fafii, an
inftrument muft be take upon it, and recorded in the
faid regifter; otherwife it can have no effeft againft
lingular fucceffors.
19. Interruption has the effeft to cut off the courfe
of prefcription, fo that the perfon preferibing can avail
himfelf of no part of the former time, but muft begin
a new courfe, commencing from the date of the inter¬
ruption. Minority therefore is no proper interruption ;
for it neither breaks the courfe of prefcription, nor is
it a document or evidence taken by the minor on his
right: it is a perfonal privilege competent to him, by
which the operation of the prefeription is indeed fuf-
pended during the years of minority, which are there¬
fore difeounted from it; but it continues to run after,
majority, and the years before and after the minority
may be conjoined to complete it. The fame doftrine
applies to the privilege arifing from one’s incapacity to
aft.
20. Diligence ufed upon a debt, againft any one of
two or more co-obligants, preferves the debt itfelf, and
fo interrupts prefcription againft all of them; except in
the fpecial cafe of cautioners, who are not affefted by
any diligence ufed againft the principal debtor. In the
fame manner, a right of annualrent, conftituted upon
two feparate tenements, is preferved as to both from
the negative prefcription, by diligence ufed againft ei¬
ther of them. But whether fuch diligence has alfo the
effeft to hinder the poffeffor of the other tenement by
lingular titles from the benefit of the pofitive preferip-
tiou, may be doubted.
w.
Part III. j
Law of |
Of SUCCESSION. Scutland-j
Sect. XX. Cf SucceJJion in heritable Rights-
III.
clxxx.
Singular fucceffors are thofe who fucceed to a per- Siicceflbr*’
fon yet alive, in a fpecial fubjeft by lingular titles; but lingular
fucceflion, in its proper fenfe, is a method of tranfmit- um'
ting rights from the dead to the living. Heritable ’ ||
rights defeend by fucceffion to the heir properly fo cal- fl
led; moveable rights, to the executors, who are fome-
times faid to be heirs in moveables. Succeffion is either
by fpecial deftination, which defeends to thofe named
by the proprietor himfelf; or legal, which devolves up¬
on the perfons whom the law marks out for fucceffors,
from a prefumption, that the proprietor would have
named them had he made a deftination. The firft is
in all cafes preferred to the other, as prefumption muft
yield to truth. ™
2. In the fuccefiion of heritage, the heirs at law are Order off
otherwife called heirs general, heirs whatfoever, or heirs fucceffionl
of line ; and they fucceed by the right of blood, in thein
following order. Firft, defeendents fons are preferred
to daughters, and the eldeft fon to all the younger.
Where there are daughters only, they fucceed equally,
and are called heirs-portioners. Failing immediate de¬
feendents, grandchildren fucceed; aud in default of
them, great-grandchildren; and fo on in infinitum :
preferring, as in the former cafe, males to females, and
the eldeft male to the younger.
3. Next after defeendents, collaterals fucceed; among Collateral
whom the brothersof the deceafed have the firft
place. But as, in no cafe, the legal fucceffion of heri¬
tage is, by the law of Scotland, divided into parts, un-
lefs where at defeends to females ; the immediate
younger brother of tire deceafed excludes the reft, ac¬
cording to the rule, heritage defeends. Where the de¬
ceafed is himfelf the youngeft, the fucceflion goes to
the immediate elder brother, as being the leaft devia¬
tion from this rule. If there are no brothers german,
the filters german fucceed equally : then brothers con-
fanguinean, in the fame order as brothers german ; and
failing them, filters confanguinean equally. Next,, the
father fucceeds. After him, his brothers and filters,
according to the rules already explained ; then the
grand-father; failing him, his brothers and filters; and
fo upwards, as far back as propinquity can be proved.
Though children fucceed to their mother, a mother
x nougn cnuurcu nicceeu 10 meir mouier, a momer m
cannot to her child; nor is there any fucceffion by our ^ Fj
law through the mother of the deceafed; in fo much motherlil
that one brother uterine, i. e. by the mother only, can
not fucceed to another, even in that eftate whfch flowed
originally from their common mother.
4. In heritage there is a right of reprefentation, by SticcelTio^
which one fucceeds, not from any title in himfelf, but
in the place of, and as reprefenting fome of his deceafed
afeendents. Thus, where one leaves a younger fon, and
a grandchild by his eldeft, the grandchild, though far¬
ther removed in degree from the deceafed than his
uncle, excludes him, as coming in place of his father
the eldeft fon. Hence arifes the diftinftion between
fucceffion in capita, where the divifion is made into as i ,
many equal parts as there are capita or heirs, which is V\
the cafe of heirs-portioners; and fucceffion in Jlirpes,
where the remoter heirs draw no more among them
than the lhare belonging to their afeendent or fiirps,
\vhom
1 fart III.
h A W.
( 93 )
queft.
io few of whom they reprefent; an example of which may be
■ figured in the cafe of one who leaves behind him a
daughter alive, and two grand-daughters by a daughter
deceafed. In which cafe the two grand-daughters
would fucceed equally to that half which would have
belonged to their mother had fne been alive.
5. In the fucceffion of heirs-portioners, indivifible
rights, e. g. titles of dignity, fall to the eldeft fifter.
A fingle right of fuperiority goes alfo to the eldelt;
for it hardly admits a divifion, and the condition of the
vafial ought not to be made worfe by multiplying fu-
periors upon him. Where there are more fuch rights,
the eldeil may perhaps have her election of the beit;
but the younger filters are intitled to a recompenc^, in
fo far as the divifions are unequal ; at leaft, where the
fuperiorities yield a conftant yearly rent. The prin¬
cipal feat of the family falls ta the eldeft, with the gar¬
den and orchard belonging to it, without recompence
to the younger filters; bat all other houfes are divided
amongft them, together with the lands on which they
are built, as parts and pertinents of thefe lands.
6. Thofe heritable rights, to which the deceafed did
himfelf fucceed as heir to his father or other ancellor,
get fometimes the name of heritage in a ftrift fenfe, in
oppofition to the ftuda nova, or feus of conqueft, which
he had acquired by lingular titles, and which defeend,
not to his heir of line, but of conqueft. This diftinc-
tion obtains only, where two or more brothers or uncles,
or their iffue, are next in fucceffion; in which cafe, the
immediate younger brother, as heir of line, fucceeds to
the proper heritage, becaufe that defcends; whereas
the conqueft afcends to the immediate elder brother.
It has no place in female fucceffion, which the law di¬
vides equally among the heirs-portioners. Where the
deceafed was the younger brother, the immediate elder
brother is heir both of line and of conqueft:. An eftate
difponed by a father to his eldeft fan, is not conqueft
in the fon’s perfon, but heritage; becaufe the fon would
have fucceeded to it, though there had been no difpo-
fition. The heir of conqueft fucceeds to all rights af¬
fecting land, which require feilin to perfedt them. But
teinds go to the heir of line; becaufe they are merely
a burden on the fruits, not on the land. Tacks do not
fall under conqueft, becaufe they are complete rights
without feifin ; nor perfonal bonds taken to heirs fe-
cluding executors,
7. The heir of line is entitled to the fucceffion, not
only of fubjedts properly heritable, but to that fort of
moveables called heirjhip, which is the beft of certain
kinds. This doCtrine has been probably introduced,
that the heir might not have an houfe and eftate to fuc¬
ceed to, quite difmantled by the executor. In that fort
which goes by pairs or dozens, the beft pair or dozen
is the heirffiip. There is no heirihip in fungibles, or
things eftimated by quantity; as grain, hay, current
money, &c. To entitle an heir to this privilege, the
deceafed muft have been either, (x.) Aprelate: (2.) A
baron, /. e. who flood infeft at his death in lands, tho’
not eredled into a barony; or even in a right of an-
nualrent: Or, (3.) A burgefs ; not an honorary one,
but a trading burgefs of a royal borough, or at leaft
one entitled to enter burgefs in the right of his ancef-
tor. Neither the heir of conqueft, nor of talzie, has
right to heirfhip-moveables.
8. As to fucceffion by deftination, no proprietor can
fettle any heritable eftate, in the proper form a tefta-
ment; net even bonds fecluding executors, tho’ thefe cot an
are not heritable ex fita natura: But, where a tefta- succeffion
ment is in part drawn up in the ftyle of a deed inter by deftina-
vivos, fuch part of it may contain a fettlement of heri- tK,n.
tage, though executors fhould be named in the tefta-
mentary part. The common method of fettling the
fucceffion of heritage is by difpofition, contraift of mar¬
riage, or fimple procuratory of relignation : and, tho’
a dilpofition fettling heritage fhould have neither pre¬
cept nor procuratory, it founds an a&ion againft the
heir of line to complete his titles to the eftate; and
therefore dived himfelf in favour of the difponee. The
appellation of talzie, or entail, is chiefly ufed in the
cafe of a land eftate, which is fettled on a long feries
of heirs, fubftituted one after another. The perfon
firft called in the tailzie, is the inftitute ; the reft, the
heirs of tailzie, or the fubftitutes.
9. Tailzies, when confidered in relation to their fe-Tsilzies,
veral degrees of force, are either, (1.) Simple defti-
nations : (2.) Tailzies with prohibitory claufes. (3.)
Tailzies with prohibitory, refolutive, and irritant clau¬
fes. That is a fimple deftination, where the perfons
called to the fucceffion are fubftituted one after ano¬
ther, without any reftraint laid on the exercife of their
property. The heirs, therefore, fucceeding to fuch
eftate, are abfolute fiars, and confequently may alter
the deftination at pleafure.
10. In tailzies with claufes prohibitory, e. g. decla¬
ring that it (hall not be lawful to the heirs to contrail
debts or alien the lands in prejudice of the fucceffion,
none of the heirs can alien gratuitoufly. But the mem¬
bers of entail may contrail debts which will be effec¬
tual to the creditors, or may difpofe of the eftate for
onerous caufes. In both thefe forts, the maker him¬
felf may alter the tailzie; except, (1.) Where it has
been granted for an onerous caufe, as in mutual tail¬
zies ; or, {2.) Where the maker is exprefsly difabled,
.as well as the inftitute or the heirs.
11. Where a tailzie is guarded with irritant and re¬
folutive claufes, the eftate entailed cannot be carried off
by the debt, or deed, of any of the heirs fucceeding
thereto, in prejudice of the fubftitutes. It was long
doubted, whether fuch tailzies ought to be effe&ual,
even where the fuptrior’s confent was adhibited ; be¬
caufe they funk the property of eftates, and created a
perpetuity of liferents. They were firft explicitely au- Their re-
thorifed by 1685, c‘ 22- t^'s ftatute, the entail qhifites.
muft be regiftered in a facial regifter eftabliftied for
that purpofe; and the irritant and refolutive claufes
muft be inferted, not only in the procuratories, pre¬
cepts, and feifins, by which the tailzies are firft confti-
tufed, but in all the after-conveyances thereof; other-
wife they can have no force againft fingular fucceffors.
But a tailzie, even without thefe requifites, is effe&ual
againft the heir of the granter, or againft the inftitute
who accepts of it.
12. An heir of entail has full power over the entailed Bteh5 of
eftate, except in fo far as he is exprefsly fettered ; and
as entails are an unfavourable reftraint upon property, feftriftbns.
and a frequent fnare to trading people, they are Jlric-
tijffimi juris ; fo that no prohibition or irritancies are to
be inferred by implication. By 10 George III. c. 51.
heirs of entail are entitled (notwithftanding any re-
ftriftions in the deed of entail) to improve their eftates
( 94 )
L A W.
Fart III.
Law of by granting Icafes, building farm-houfes, draining, in-
ScotlanJ. dofjngj anci excambing, under certain limitations, and
to claim repayment of three-fourths of the expence
from the next heir of entail.—This act extends to all
tailzies, whether made prior or pofterior to the 1685.
Contraven- jg, who counteraffs the dire&ions of the
who'm^m- ta*'z‘e> ^y aliening any part of the eftate, charging it
fened. with debt, &c. is faid to contravene. It is not the
fimple contra&ing of debt that infers contravention ;
the lands entailed muft be a&ually adjudged upon the
debt contra&ed. An heir may, where he is net ex-
prefsly barred, fettle rational provifions on his wife and
children, without incurring contravention.
In what H- When the heirs of the lad perfon fpecially cal-
cafesanheir led in a tailzie come to fucceed, the irritancies have no
may fell, longer any perfon in favour of whom they can operate;
and confequently, the fee, which was before tailzied,
becomes fimple and unlimited in the perfon of fuch
heirs. The king may purchafe lands within Scotland,
notwithftanding the ftritteft entail; and where the lands
are in the hands of minors or fatuous perfons, his nr.a-
jefty may purchafe them front the curators or guardi¬
ans. And heirs of entail may fell to their vafials the
fuperiorities belonging to the entailed edate ; but in
all thefe cafes, the price is to be fettled in the fame
manner that the lands or fuperiorities fold were fettled
before the fale.
Rights 15- Rights, not only of land-edates, but of bonds,
taken in are fometimes granted to two or more perfons in con-
f°cn^unft junft fee. Where a right is fo granted to two dran-
gers, without any fpecial claufe adjefted to it, each of
them has an equal intered in the fee, and the part of
tire deceafed defeends to his own heir. If the right be
taken to the two jointly, and the longejl liver and their
heirs, the feveral fiiares of the conjumd fiars are affec-
table by their creditors during their lives; but, on the
death of any one of them, the furvivor has the fee of
the whole, in fo far as the lhare of the predeceafed re¬
mains free, after payment of his debts. Where the ,
right is taken to the two in conjunft fee, and to the
heirs of one of them, he to whofe heirs the right is ta¬
ken is the only fiar; the right of the other refolves
into a fimple liferent: yet where a father takes a right
to himfelf and his fon jointly, and to the fon’s heirs,
fuch right being gratuitous, is not underdood to drip
the father of the fee, unlefs a contrary intention fhall
plainly appear from the tenor of the right.
16. Where a right is taken to a hulband and wife,
in conjunct fee and liferent, the hufband, as the perfona
dignior, is the only fiar : the wife's right refolves into
a lifereru, unlefs it be prefumable, from fpecial circum-
dances, that the fee was intended to be in the wife.
Where a right of moveables is taken to huftand and
wife, the heirs of both fucceed equally, according to
the natural meaning of the words.
Heirs of 17. Heirs of provifion are thofe who fucceed to any
provifion. fubjeft, in virtue of a provifion in the invediture, or o-
ther deed of fettlernent. This appellation is given mod
commonly to heirs of a marriage. Thefe are more fa¬
vourably regarded than heirs by fimple dedination,
who have only the hope of fucceffion ; for heirs of a
marriage, becaufe their provifions are condituted by an
onerous contraft, cannot be difappointed of them by
any gratuitous deed of the father. Neverthelefs, as
their right is only a right of fucceffion, which is not
defigned to redrain the father from granting onerous Law of j
or rational deeds, he continues to have the full power of Scutlal‘T
felling the fubjedt, or charging it with debts, unlefs a 1
proper right of credit be given to the heir by the mar-
riage-contradf, e. g. if the father fhould oblige himfelf
to infeft the heir in the lands, or make payment of the
fum provided againd a day certain, or when the child
attains a certain age, &c.; for fuch rights, when per-
fedded by infeftment, or fecured by diligence, are ef- j|
fedfual againd all the poderior deeds of the father,
even onerous.
18. Tho’ all provifions to children, by a marriage- F.fFefls qf|
contradl conceived in the ordinary form, being merely P™v'(ion d
rights of fucceffion, are pollponed to every onerous debt cllildrei?||
of the granter, even to thofe contracted poderior to the
provifions ; yet where a father executes a bond of pro¬
vifion to a child adlually exiding, whether fuch child be
the heir of a marriage or not, a proper debt is thereby
created, which, though it be without doubt gratuitous, Jffl
is not only effectual againd the father himi'elf and his
heirs, but is not reducible at the indance even of his
prior onerous creditors, if he was folvent at the time of
granting it. A father may, notwithdanding a fird
marriage-contraCl, fettle a jointure on a fecond wife, or
provide the children of a fecond marriage; for fuch
fettlements are deemed onerous; but where they are
exorbitant, they wull be redri&ed to what is rational:
and in all fuch fettlements, where the provifions of the
fird marriage-contraCt are incroached upon, the heirs
of that marriage have reeourfe againd the father, in
cafe he Ihould afterwards acquire a feparate edate,
which may enable him to fulfil both obligations.
19. Where heritable rights are provided to the heirs pr0vifion|
of a marriage, they fall to the elded fon, for he is the to heir^. ;
heir at law in heritage. Where a fum of money is fo
provided, the word heir is applied to the fubjeft of the
provifion, and fo marks out the executor, who is the
heir in moveables. When an heritable right is pro¬
vided to the bairns (or blue) of a marriage, it is di- J| .
vided equally among the children, if no divifion be To bainui
made by the father ; for fuch ded(nation'cuts off the
exclufive right of the legal heir. No provifion granted
to bairns, gives a fpecial right of credit to any one
child, as long as the father lives : the right is granted
familix; fo that the whole mud indeed go to one ort
other of them; but the father has a power inherent in |
him, to divide it among them, in fuch proportions as he
thinks bed; yet fo as none of them may be entirely
excluded, except in extraordinary cafes.
20. A claule of return is that, by which a fum in a ckufe of
bond or other right, is, in a certain event, limited to return, aj
return to the granter himfelf, or his heirs. When a
right is granted for onerous caufes, the creditor may
defeat the claufe of return, even gratuitoufly. But,
where the fum-in the right flows from the granter, or
where there is any other reaionable caufe for the pro¬
vifion of return in his favour, the receiver cannot difap- j®
point it gratuitoufly. Yet fince he is fiar, the fum may
be either affigned by him for an onerous caufe, or af-
fefted by his creditors.
21. An heir is, in the judgment of law, eadem per- Heirs.
fona cum defuntto, and fo reprefents the deceal'ed uni-
vtrfally, not only in his rights but in his debts : in the
fird view, he is faid to be heir aftive; in the fecond,
pajjive. From this general rule are excepted, heirs fub-
dituted I
t 'art III. LAW. ( 95 )
> aw of ftituted in a fpecial bond, and even fubfUtuted in a
a! atland. difpofltion omnium bonorum, to take effeft at the
1 granter’s deaths for fuch fubftitutes are confidered as
lingular fucceffors, and their right as an univerfal le¬
gacy, which does not fubjedl the legatee ultra valo¬
rem.
n parent 22. Before an heir can have an active title to his an-
I !| ceftor’s rights, he mull be entered by fervice and retour.
He who is entitled to enter heir, is, before his actual
entry, called apparent heir. The bare right of appa¬
rency carries certain privileges with it. An apparent
heir may defend his anceftor’s titles againll any third
party who brings them under challenge. Tenants may
fafely pay him their rents ; and after they have once
I p acknowledged him by payment, he may compel them
to continue it ; and the rents not uplifted by the ap¬
parent heir belong to his executors, upon his death.
Mile- 23. As an heir is, by his entry, fubjefted univerfally
G '/• to his anceftor’s debts, apparent heirs have therefore a
year (annus deliberandi) allowed to them from the an¬
ceftor’s deceafe, to deliberate whether they will enter
or not; till the expiring of which, though they may
be charged by creditors to enter, they cannot be fued
in any procefs founded upon fuch charge. Though
declaratory aftions, and others which contain no per-
fonal conclufibn, may be purfued againft the apparent
heir, without a previous charge; a&ion does not lie
even upon thefe, within the year, if the heir cannot
make the proper defences without incurring a pafiive
title. But judicial fales, commenced againft an ancef-
I j tor, may be continued upon a citation of the heir, with-
I out waiting the year of deliberating. This annus de-
I liberandi is computed, in the cafe of a pofthumous heir,
from the birth of fuch heir. An apparent heir, who,
by immixing with the eftate of his anceftor, is as much
fubje$ed to his debts as if he had entered, can have
no longer a right to deliberate whether he will enter or
not.
i ice of 24. All fervices proceed on brieves from the chan-
eery, which are called brieves of inqueft, and have been
long known in Scotland. The judge, to whom the
brief is direfted, is required to try the matter by an in¬
queft of fifteen fworn men. The inqueft, if they find
the claim verified, muft declare the claimant heir to the
deceafed, by a verdi£t or fervice, which the judge muft
atteft, and return the brief, with the fervice proceeding
on it, to the chancery.
25. The fervice of heirs is either general or fpecial.
:ral and A general fervice veils the heir in the right of all he-
ial. ritable fubjeils, which either do not require feilin, or
which have not been perfefted by feifin in the perfon of
I the anceftor. A fpecial fervice, followed by feifin, veils
the heir in the right of the fpecial fubje&s in which the
anceftor died infeft.
ry by 26. If an heir, doubtful whether the eftate of his
ntory. anceftor be fufficient for clearing his debts, lhall, at any
I | time within the annus deliberandi, exhibit upon oath a
full inventory of all his anceftor’s heritable fubje£ls, to
the clerk of the Ihire where the lands lie; or, if there is
no heritage requiring feifin, to the clerk of the Ihire
where he died ; and if, after the fame is fubferibed by
j 1 the Iheriff or ftieriff-depute, the clerk, andhimfelf, and
regiftered in the Iheriff’s books, the extraft thereof
fhall be regiftered within forty days after expiry of the
annus deliberandi in the general regifter appointed for
that purpofe, his fubfequent entry will fubjeft him no Law of
farther than to the value of fuch inventory. If the in- ScotlanJ'
ventory be given up and regiftered within the time
preferibed, the heir may ferve on it, even after the
year.
27. Creditors are not obliged to acquiefee in the va¬
lue of the eftate given up by the heir ; but, if they be
real creditors, may bring the eftate to a public fale, in
order to difeover its true value; fince an eftate is al¬
ways worth what can be got for it. An heir by in¬
ventory, as he is, in effe£t, a truftee for the creditors,
muft account for that value to which the eftate may
have been improved fince the death of the anceftor, and
he muft communicate to all the creditors the cafes he
has got in tranfa&ing with any one of them.
28. Fra&ice has introduced an anomalous fort of Ell"7,,P0,>
entry, without the interpofition of an inqueft, by the
foie confent of the fuperior, who, if he be fatisfied that
the perfon applying to him is the next heir, grants
him a precept (called of from the firfl words
of its recital), commanding his bailie to infeft him in
the fubjedls that belonged to his anceftor. Thefe pre¬
cepts are, no doubt, effedtual againft the fuperior who
grants them, and his heirs; and they may, when fol¬
lowed by feifin, afford a title of prefeription : But as
no perfrin can be declared an heir by private authority,
they cannot bar the true heir from entering after 20
years, as a legal entry would have done. Of the fame Entry by
nature is the entry by hafp and ftaple, commonly ufed hafp and
in burgage tfoments of houfes ; by which the bailie, ftaple-
without calling an inqueft, cognofces or declares a per¬
fon heir, upon evidence brought before himfelf; and,
at the fame time infefts him in the fubjedt, by the fym-
bol of the hafp and ftaple of the door. Charges given
by creditors to apparent heirs to enter, ftand in the
place of an a&ual entry, Co as to fupport the creditor’s
diligence.
29. A general fervice cannot include a fpecial one ; A fpecial
fince it has no relation to any fpecial fubjedt, and car-
rits only that clafs of rights on which feifin has not
proceeded; but a fpecial fervice implies a general one
of the fame kind orcharadter, and confequently carries
even fuch rights as have not been perfected by feifin.
Service is not required.to eftablifh the heir’s right in
titles of honour, or offices of the higheft dignity ; for
thefe defeend jure fanguinis.
30. An heir, by immixing with his anceftor’s eftate Pafllve
without entry, fubjedts himfelf to his debts, as if he d*165'
had entered ; or, in our law-phrafe, incurs a paffive
title. The only_ paffive title by which an apparent heir
becomes liable univerfally for all his anceftor’s debts,
\& gejlio pro herede, or his behaving as none but an heir GefHopro
has right to do. Behaviour as heir is inferred, from k&redc.
the apparent heir’s intromiffion, after the death of the
anceftor, with any part of the lands or other heritable
fubjedts belonging to the deceafed, to which he him-
If might have completed an adtive title by entry.
31. This paffive title is excluded, if the heir’s in-
tromiffion be by order of law; or if it be founded on
Angular titles, and not as heir to the deceafed. But
an apparent heir’s purchafing any right to his ancef¬
tor’s eftate, otherwife than at public roup (audtion),
or his poffeffing it in virtue of rights fettled in the per¬
fon of any near relation of the anceftor, to whom he
himfelf may fucceed as heir, otherwife than upontpur-
Law of chafe by public fale, is deemed behaviour as heir.
Scotland. ^ l}ehaviour as heir is alfo excluded, where the in-
•• tromiffion is fmall, unlefs an attention to defraud the an-
ceftor’s creditors be prefumable from the circumftances
attending it. Neither is behaviour inferred againft the
apparent heir, from the payment of his anceftor’s debt,
- which is a voluntary a£t, and profitable to the credi¬
tors : nor by his taking out of brieves to ferve ; for one
may alter his purpofe, while it is not completed : nor
by his affuming the titles of honour belonging to his
anceftor, or exereifing an honorary office hereditary in
the family ; for thefe are rights annexed to the blood,
which may be ufed without proper reprefentation. But
the exercifing an heritable office of profit, which may
pafs by voluntary~conveyance, and confequently is ad¬
judgeable, may reafonably be thought to infer a paf-
five title. Laftly, as paffive titles have been introdu¬
ced, merely for the fecurity of creditors ; therefore,
where quefiions concerning behaviour arife among the
different orders of heirs, they are liable to one another
no farther than in valorem of their feveral intromiffions.
Priccept'o 33. Another paffive title in heritage, may be incur-
hxicditafis. red by the apparent heir’s accepting a gratuitous right
from the ancefior, to any part of the efiate to which
he himfelf might have fucceeded as heir ; and it is cal¬
led praceptio hereditatis, becaufe it is a taking of the
fucceffion by the heir before it opens to him by the
death of his anceftor. If the right be onerous, there
is no paffive title; if the confideration paid for it does
not amount to its full value, the credijprs of the de-
ceafed may reduce it, in fo far as it is gratuitous, but
ftiil it infers no paffive title.
34. The heir incurring this paffive title is no farther
liable, than if he had at the time of his acceptance
entered heir to the granter, and fo fubjefted himfelf
to the debts that were then chargeable againft him ;
but with the pofterior debts he has nothing to do, not
even with thofe contrafted between the date of the
right, and the infeftment taken upon it, and he is there¬
fore called fuceejfor titulo lucrativo pojl contrafticm
debitum. ,
35. Neither of thefe paffive titles takes place, unlefs
the fubjeft intermeddled with or difponed be fuch as
the intromitter or receiver would fucceed to as heir.
In this alfo, thefe two paffive titles agree, that the in-
tromiffion in both muft be after the death of the ancef¬
tor ; for there can be no ter?mni babiles of a paffive
title, while the anceftor is alive. But in the following
refpeft they differ : Gejlio pro herede, being a vicious
paffive title founded upon a quafi delid, cannot be ob-
je&ed againft the delinquent’s heir, if procefs has not
been litifcontefted while the delinquent himfelf was
alive ; whereas the fucceffor titulo lucrativo is by the
acceptance of the difpofition underftoodtohave entered
into a tacit contrad. with the granter’s creditors, by
which ffie undertakes the burden of their debts; and
all adions founded on contrad are tranfmiffible againft
heirs.
Other paf- 36. An apparent heir, who is cited by the anceftor’s
five titles, creditor in a procefs for payment, if he offers any pe¬
remptory defence againft the debt, incurs a paffive title;
for he can have no intereft to objed againft it, but in
the charader of heir. In the fame manner, the heir’s
not renouncing upon a charge to enter heir, infers it:
But the effed of both thefe is limited to the fpecial
debt purfued for, or charged upon. This paffive title,
which is inferred from the heir’s not renouncing, has no
effed till decree pafs againft him ; and even a renun¬
ciation offered after decree, if the decree be in abfence,
will intitle the heir to a fufpenfion of all diligence a-
gainft his perfon and eftate, competent upon his ancef¬
tor’s debts.
37. By the principles of the feudal law, an heir,
when he is to complete his titles by fpecial fervice, muft
neceffarily pafs over his immediate anceftor, e. g. his
father, if he was not infeft ; and ferve heir to that an¬
ceftor who was laft veil and feifed in the right, and in
whofe hareditas jacens the right muft remain, till a title
be conneded thereto from him. As this bore hard
upon creditors who might think themfelves fecure in
contrading with a perfon whom they faw for fome time
in the poffeffion of an eftate, and from thence conclude
that it was legally veiled in him ; it is therefore pro¬
vided, that every perfon, paffing over his immediate
anceftor who had been three years in poffefiion, and
ferving heir to one more remote, (hall be liable for the
debts and deeds of the perfon interjeded, to the value
of the eftate to which he is ferved. This being correc-
tory of the feudal maxims, has been ftridly interpreted,
fo as not to extend to the gratuitous deeds of the per¬
fon interjeded, nor to the cafe where the interjeded
perfon was a naked fiar, and poffeffed only civilly thro’
the liferenter.
38. Our law, from its jealoufy of the weaknefs of
mankind while under ficknefs, and of the importunity
of friends on that occafion, has declared that all deeds
affeding heritage, if they be granted by a perfon on
death-bed, (/. e. after contrading that ficknefs which
ends in death), to the damage of the heir, are inef-
fedual, except where the debts of the granter have
laid him under a neceffity to alien his lands. As this
law of deathbed is founded folely in the privilege of
the heir, deathbed-deeds, when confented to by the
heir, are not reducible. The term properly oppofed
to deathbed is liege pouftie, by which is underftood a
ftate of health ; and it gets the name, becaufe perfons
in health have the legitimapoieftas, or lawful power, of
difpofing of their property at pleafure.
39. The two extremes being proved, of the granter’s
ficknefs immediately before figning, and of his death
following it, though at the greateft diftance of time,
did, by our former law, found a prefumption that the
deed was granted on death-bed, which could not have
been elided but by a pofnive proof of the granter’s con-
valefcence ; but now the allegation of death-bed is alfo
excluded, by his having lived 60 days after figning the
deed. The legal evidence of convalence is the granter’s
having been, after the date of the deed, at kirk OR
market unfupported ; for a proof of either will fecure
the deed from challenge. The going to kirk or mar¬
ket muft be performed when the people are met toge¬
ther in the church or churchyard for any public meet¬
ing, civil or ecclefiaftical, or in the market-place at the
time of public market. No other proof of convalefcence
is receivable, becaufe at kirk and market there are al¬
ways prefent unfufpe&ed witneffes, which we can hardly
be fure of in.any other cafe.
40. The privilege of fetting afide deeds ex capite
letti, is competent to all heirs, not to heirs of line only,
but of conqueft, tailzie, or provifion ; not only to the
immediate.
Rediiflici
by the M
ex capi^
What <4
futures 4 _
cleat h-b« I
deed. “
To whr
heirs tS
redufliij
com pet)
ijpart III. L
-■Law of immediate, but to remoter heirs, as foon as the fuccef-
£ fcotlarui. f10H 0pens t0 them. But, where it is confented to
or ratified by the immediate heir, it is fecured againft
all challenge, even from the remoter. Yet the imme¬
diate heir cannot, by any antecedent writing, renounce
his right of redudtion, and thereby give itrength to
deeds that may be afterwards granted in lefto to his
hurt; for no private renunciation can authorife a per-
fon to aft contrary to a public law ; and fuch renunci¬
ation is prefumed to be extorted through the fear of
exheredation. If the heir fhould not ufe this privilege
| of reduftion, his creditor may, by adjudication, transfer
ittohimfelf; or he may, without adjudication, reduce
the deed, libelling upon his intereft as creditor to the
heir : But the granter’s creditors have no right to this
privilege, in regard that the law of death-bed was in-
IB troduced, mot in behalf of the granter himfelf, but of
I his heir.
Jiiat 41- law of death-bed ftrikes againft difpofitions
ints may of every fubjeft to which the heir would have fucceed-
Jthus fet ed, or from which he would have had any benefit, had
sixxxi.
aveable
fteffion
it not been fo difponed. Deathbed-deeds granted in
confequence of a full or proper obligation in liegepmif-
tie, are not fubjeft to reduftion ; but, where the an¬
tecedent obligation is merely natural, they are reducible.
By ftronger reafon, the deceafed cannot, by a deed
merely voluntary, alter the nature of his eftate on death¬
bed to the prejudice of his heir, fo as from heritable
to make it moveable ; but if he fhould, in liege pouflie^
exclude his apparent heir, by an irrevocable deed con¬
taining referved faculties, the heir cannot be heard to
quarrel the exercife of thefe faculties on death-bed.
42. In a competition between the creditors of the
deceafed and of the heir, our law has juftly preferred
the creditors of the deceafed, as every man’s eftate ought
to be liable, in the firft place, for his own debt. But
this preference is, by the ttatute, limited to the cafe
where the creditors of the deceafed have ufed diligence
againft their debtor’s eftate, within three years from
his death ; and therefore the heir’s creditors may, after
that period, affeft it for their own payment. All dif¬
pofitions by an heir, of the anceftor’s eftate, within a
year after his death, are null, in fo far as they are
hurtful to the creditors of the anceftor. This takes
place, though thefe creditors fliould have ufed no dili¬
gence, and even where the difpofitions are granted after
the year : It is thought they are ineffeftual againft the
creditors of the deceafed who have ufed diligence with¬
in the three years.
Sect. XXI. Of Succejfion in Moveables.
In the fucceffion of moveable rights, it is an univer-
fal rule, that the next in degree to the deceafed (or
next of kin) fucceeds to the whole ; and if there are
two or more equally near, all of them fucceed by equal
parts, without that prerogative, which takes place in
heritage, of the eldeft fon over the younger, or of males
over females. Neither does the right of reprefentation,
explainedN°clxxx. 4. obtain in the fucceffion of .move-
ables, except in the Angle cafe of a competition be¬
tween the full blood and the half blood ; for a niece
by the full blood will be preferred before a brother by
the half blood, though ffie is by one degree more re¬
mote from the deceafed than her uncle. Where the
eftate of a perfon deceafed confifts partly of heritage,
A W. ( 97 )
and partly of moveables, the heir in the heritage has Law of
no (hare of the moveables, if there are others as near Scotland,
in degree to the deceafed as himfelf: But where the
heir, in fuch cafe, finds it his intereft; to renounce iiis
exclufive claim to the heritage, and betake himfelf to
his right as one of the next of kin, he may collate or
communicate the heritage with the others, who in their
turn muft collate the moveables with him; fo that the
whole is thrown into one mafs, and divided equally a-
mong all of them. This doftrine holds, not only in
the line of defendants, but of collaterals 5 for it was
introduced, that the heir might in no cafe be worfe
than the other next of kin.
2. One may fettle his moveable eftate upon whom Succeflion
he pleafes, excluding the legal fucceflbr, by a tefta-
ment; which is a written declaration of what a perfon ftinatijn.
wills to be done with his moveable eftate after his death.
No teftamentary deed is effeftuah, till the death of the
teftator; who may therefore revoke it at pleafure, or
make a new one, by which the firft lofes its force ; and
hence teftaments are called lajl or latter ‘wills. Tefta-
ments in their ftrift acceptation, muft contain a nomi¬
nation of executors, i. e. of perfons appointed to ad-
minifter the fucceffion according the will of the decea¬
fed : Yet nothing hinders one from making a fettlement
of moveables, in favour of an univerfal legatee, though
he ffiould not have appointed executors ; and on the
other part, a teftament where executors are appointed,
is valid, though the perfon who is to have the right of
fucceffion fliould not be named. In this laft cafe, if the
executor nominated be a ftranger, /. e. one who has no
1 egal intereft in the moveable eftate, he is merely a truf-
tee, accountable to the next of kin ; but he may re¬
tain a third of the dead’s part (explained par. 6.) for
his trouble in executing the teftament; in payment of
which, legacies, if any be left to him, muft be impu¬
ted. The heir, if he be named executor, has right to
the third as a ftranger; but if one be named who has
an intereft in the legal fucceffion, he has no allowance,
unlefs fuch intereft be lefs than a third. Nuncupative
or verbal teftaments are not, by the law of Scotland,
effeftual for fupporting the nomination of an executor,
let the fubjeft of the fucceffion be ever fo fmall: But
verbal legacies, not exceeding L. too Scots, are fuf-
tained : and even where they are granted for more, they
are inneffeftual only as to the excefs.
3. A legacy is a donation by the deceafed, to be Legacy,
paid by the executor to the legatee. It may be granted
either in the teftament or in a feparate writing. Lega¬
cies are not due till the granter’s death ; and confe-
quently they can tranfmit no right to the executors of
the legatee, in the event that the granter furvives him.
4. Legacies, where they are general, i. e. of a cer¬
tain fum of money indefinitely, give the legatee no
right in any one debt or fubjeft ; he can only infift in
a perfonal aftion againft the executor, for payment out
of the teftator’s effefts. A fpecial legacy, i. e. of a
particular debt due to the deceafed, or of a particular
fubjeft belonging to him, is of the nature of an affig-
nation, by which the property of the fpecial debt or
fubjeft veils, upon the teftator’s death, in the legatee,
who can therefore direftly fue the debtor or poffeflbr :
Yet as no legacy can be claimed till the debts are paid,
the executor muft be cited in fuch procefs, that it may¬
be known, whether there are free effefts fufficient for
[ n 3 anfwering
( 98 ) LA
Law of anfwerlng the legacy. Where there Is not enough for
Scotland. payment of all the legacies, each of the general lega¬
tees muft fuffer a proportional abatement: But a fpe-
cial legatee gets his legacy entire, though there (hould
be nothing over for payment of the reft ; and, on
the contrary, he has no claim, if the debt or fubjeft
bequeathed {hould perifh, whatever the extent of the
free executry may be.
Who can '5. Minors, after puberty, can left without their cu-
teft, and rators, wives without their hufbands, and perfons in-
reftriftions1 ter<li&cd without their interdidlors: but baftards can-
' not teft, except in the cafes afterwards fet forth, N°
clxxii. 3. As a certain (hare of the goods, falling under
the communion that is confequent on marriage, belongs,
upon the hufhand’s deceafe, to his widow, jure reliff<e,
and a certain (hare to the children, called the Ugitime,
portion-natural, or bairns part of gear ; one who has a
wife or children, though he be the abfolute adminiftra-
tor of all thefe goods during his life, and confequently
may alien them by a deed inter vivos in liege poujlie,
even gratuitoufly, if no fraudulent intention to difap-
point the wife or children {hall appear, yet cannot impair
their {hares gratuitoufly on death-bed; nor canhedif-
pofe of his moveables to their prejudice by teftament,
though it {hould be made in liege poujlie; fince teftaments
do not operate till the death of the teftator, at which
period the divifion of the goods in communion have their
full effeft in favour of the widow and children.
Divifion of 6. If a perfon deceaftd leaves a widow, but no child,
ateftamenc, jjjg teftament, or, in other words, the goods in com¬
munion, divide in two: one half goes to the widow;
the other is the dead’s part, i. e. the abfolute property
of the deceafed, on which he can teft, and which falls
to his next of kin, if he dies inteftate. Where he leaves
children, one or more, but no widow, the children get
one half as their legitime : the other half is the dead’s
part; which falls alfo to the children, if the father has
not tefted upon it. If he leaves both widow and chil¬
dren, the divifion is tripartite: the wife takes one third
by herfelf; another falls, as legitime, to the children
equally among them, or even to an only child, though he
fhould fucceed to the heritage ; the remaining third is
the dead’s part. Where the wife predeceafes without
children, one half is retained by the hufband, the o-
ther falls to her next of kin : Where {he leaves children,
the divifion ought alfo to be bipartite, by the common
rules of fociety, fince no legitime is truly due on a mo¬
ther’s death : yet it is in pra&ice tripartite ; two thirds
remain with the furviving father, as if one third were
due to him froprio nomine, and another as adminiftra-
tor of the legitime for his children; the remaining
third, being the wife’s {hare, goes to her children,
whether of that or any former marriage, for they are
all equally her next of kin.
What debts _ 7. Before a teftament can be divided, the debts ow-
afteft the ing by the deceafed are to be deducted ; for all execu-
executry. try muft be free4 Ast}je hufband has the full power of
burdening the goods in communion, his debts affedft the
whole, and fo leflen the legitime and the {hare of the
reliff, as well as the dead’s part. His funeral charges,
and the mournings and alimony due to the widow, are
Confidcred as his proper debts ; but the legacies, or o-
ther gratuitous rights, granted by him on death-bed,
affecft only the dead’s part. Bonds bearing intereft,
due by the deceafed, cannot diminifh the relid’s ftiare,
W. Part III. *
becaufe fnch bonds, when due to the deceafed, do not Law of I,
increafe it. The funeral charges of the wife prede- Scotland.||
ceafing, fall wholly on her executors who have right to '' "f|
her {hare. Where the deceafed leaves no family, nei¬
ther hufband, wife, nor child, the teftament fuffers no
divifion, but all is the dead’s part.
8. The whole ifliie of the hufband, not only by that
marriage which was diffolved by his death, but by any
former marriage, has an equal intereft in the legitime;. . 1
otherwife the children of the firft marriage would be
cut out, as they could not claim the legitime during
their father’s life. But no legitime is due, (1.) Upon
the death of a mother. (2.) Neither is it due to grand¬
children, upon the death of a grandfather. Nor, (3.) ||
To children forisfamiliated, i. e. to fuch as, by having
renounced the legitime, are no longer confidered as in -
familia, and fo are excluded from any farther {hare of
the moveable eftate than they have already received.
9. As the right of legitime is ftrongly founded in Rcn,inci{|
nature, the renunciation of it is not to be inferred by lion of i
implication. Renunciation by a child of his claim of
legitime has the fame effeft as his death, in favour of
the other children intitled thereto ; and confequently
the fhare of the renouncer divides among the reft ; but ]
he does not thereby lofe his right to the dead’s part, if |
he does not alfo renounce his {hare in the father’s exe¬
cutry. Nay, his renunciation of the legitime, where
he is the only younger child, has the effeft to convert
the whole fubjeft thereof into dead’s part, which will
therefore fall to the renouncer himfelf as next of kin, a
if the heir be not willing to collate the heritage with $
him.
10. For preferving an equality among all the chil- ColUtiol
dren, who continue intitled to the legitime, we have ad- among M
opted the Roman do&rine of collatio bonorum; where- youngetjj
by the child, who has got a provifion from his father,.chiltlre,||
is obliged to collate it with the others, and impute it to¬
wards his own {hare of the legitime ; but if, from the
deed of provifion, the father {hall appear to have in¬
tended it as a prxcipuum to the child, collation is ex? ; I
eluded. A child is not bound to collate an heritable
fubjeft provided to him, becaufe the legitime is not im- \ I
paired by fucb provifion. As this collation takes place
only in queftions among children who are intitled to
the legitime, the relief is not bound to collate donation* j
given her by her hulband; in order to increafe the legi* |
time ; and on the other part, the children are not obli¬
ged to collate their provifions, in order to increafe her 1
{hare.
11. As an heir in heritage muft complete his titles \
by entry, fo an executor is not vefted in the right of the tion. : I
moveable eftate of rhe deceafed without confirmation.
Confirmation is a fentence of the commiffary or biihop’s
court, impowering an exeeutor, one or more, upon ma- l.|
king inventory of the moveables pertaining to the de- HH
ceafed, to recover, pofiefs, and adminifter them, either
in behalf of themfelves, or of others intereftesd therein. Il
Teftaments muft be confirmed in the commiffariot ||
where the deceafed had his principal dwelling-houfe at ; f
his death. If he had no fixed refidence, or died in a
foreign country, the confirmation muft be at Edinburgh,
as the commune forurii; but if he went abroad with an
intention to return, the commiflariot within which he
refided, before he left Scotland, is the only proper
court*
12. Con-
Part III.
L A W.
( 99 )
aw of 12. Confirmation proceeds upon an edift, which Is
l‘t*alK!' affixed on the door of the parlffi-church where the de-
ceafed dwelt, and ferves to Intimate to all concerned
the day of confirmation, which mult be nine days at
leaft after publilhing the edift. In a competition for
the office of executor, the cdmmiffary prefers, primo
loco, the perfon named to it by the deceafed himfelf,
whofe nomination he ratifies or confirms, without any
previous decerniture: this is called the confirmation of
a tettament-teftamentary. In default of an executor
named by the deceafed, univerfal difponees are by the
prefent pra&ice preferred; after them, the next of kin ;
then the relift ; then creditors; and, laftly, fpecial le¬
gatees. All thefe muft be decerned executors, by a
fentencexalled a decree-dative; and if afterwards they
incline to confirm, the commiffary authorifes them to
adminifter, upon their making Inventory, and giving
fecurity to make the fubjeft thereof forthcoming to all
having intereft ; which is called the confirmation of a
teftament-dative.
nfirma- 13- A creditor, whofe debtor’s teftament is already
confirmed, may fue the executor, who holds the office
for all concerned, to make payment of his debt. Where
there is no confirmation, he himfelf may apply for the
office, and confirm as executor-creditor; which intitles
him to fue for and receive the fubjeft confirmed, for
his own payment: and where one applies for a confir¬
mation as executor-creditor,, every co-creditor may ap¬
ply to be conjoined with him in the office. As this
kind of confirmation is fimplyaform of diligence, cre¬
ditors are exempted from the neceffity of confirming
more than the amount of their debts.
14. A creditor, whofe debt has not been conftituted,
or his claim not clofed by decree, during the life of his
debtor, has no title to demand direftly the office pf
executor qua creditor: but he may charge the next of
kin who ftands off, to confirm, who muft either re¬
nounce within twenty days after the charge, or be liable
for the debt; and if the next of kin renounces, the pur-
fuer may conftitute his debt, and obtain a decree cog-
nitionis caufa, againft the kcereditas jacens of the move¬
ables, upon which he may confirm as executor-creditor
to the deceafed. Where one is creditor, not to the
deceafed, but to his next of kin who ftahds off from
confirming, he may affeft the moveables of the de¬
ceafed, by obtaining himfelf decerned executor-dative
to the deccafed, as if he were creditor to him, and not
to his next of kin.
1 mfirma- 15. Where an executor has either omitted to give up
"InaAomif- any 0f the effefts belonging to the deceafed in inven-
^ tory, or has eftimated them below their juft value, there
is place for a new confirmation, ad omtjj'a, velmale ap-
pretiata, at the fuit of any having interett ; and if it
appears that he has not omitted or undervalued any
fubjeft dolofe, the commiffary will ordain the fubjefts
omitted, or the difference between the eftimations in
the principal teftament and the true values, to be added
thereto; but if dole ftiall be prefumed, the whole fub¬
jeft of the teftament ad omiffa vel male appretiata, will
be carried to him who confirms it, to the exclufion of
the executor in the principal teftament.
sfkgitime, 16. The legitime and relift’s (hare, becaufe they are
c. uanf rights arifing ex lege, operate ipfo jure, upon the father’s
death, in favour of the relift and children; and confe-
quently pafs from them, though they (hould die before
n- nfirma-
confirmation, to their next of kin : whereas the dead’s La* of
part, which falls to the children or other next of kin in Scotland.
the way of fucceffion, remains, if they (hould die before
confirming, in bonis of the firft deceafed ; and fo does
not defcend to their next of kin, but may be confirmed
by the perfon who, at the time of confirmation, is the
next of kin to the firft deceafed. Special affignations,
though neither intimated, nor made public, during the
life of the granter, carry to the affigney the full right
of the, fubjefts affigned, without confirmation. Special
legacies are really affignations, and fo fall under this
rule. The next of kin, by the bare poffeffion of the
ipfa corpora of moveables, acquires the property there¬
of without confirmation, and tranfmits it to his execu¬
tors.
17. The confirmation of any one fnbjeft by the next Partial con-
of kin, as it proves his right of blood, has been ad- fhraafion.
judged to carry the whole executry out of the tefta¬
ment of the deceafed, even what was omitted, and to
tranfmit all to his own executors. The confirmation of
a ftranger, who is executor nominated, as it is merely
a trull for the next of kin, has the effeft to eltablifti
the right of the next of kin to the fubjefts confirmed,
in the fame manner as if himfelf had confirmed them.
18. Executry, though it carries a certain degree of Executors^
reprefentation of the deceafed, is properly an office ; far 1*’
executors therefore are not fubjefted to the debts due
by the deceafed, beyond the value of the inventory ;
but, at the fame time, they are liable in diligence for
making the inventory eff’eftual to all having intereft.
An executor-creditor who confirms more than his debt
amounts to, is liable in diligence for what he confirms.
Executors are not liable in intereft, even upon fuch
bonds recovered by them as carried intereft to the de¬
ceafed, becaufe their office obliges them to retain the
fums they have made effeftual, in order to a diftribu-
tion thereof among all having intereft. This holds
though they (hould again lend out the money upon in¬
tereft, as they do it at their own rilk.
19. There are certain debts of the deceafed called rn what
privileged debts, which were always preferable to every cafes they
other. Under that name are comprehended, medicines P*y
furniffied to the deceafed on death-bed, phyficians fees fentence>
during that period, funeral charges, and the rent of his
houfe, and his fervants wages for the year or term cur¬
rent at his death. Thefe the executors are in fafety
to pay on demand. All the other creditors, who ei¬
ther obtain themfelves confirmed, or who cite the exe¬
cutor already confirmed, within fix months after their
debtor’s death, are preferred, paripajfu, with thofe who
have done more timely diligence; and therefore no exe¬
cutor can either retain for his own debt, or pay a tefta-
mentary debt, fo as to exclude any creditor, who (hall
ufe diligence within the fix months, from the benefit
of the pari pajfu preference ; neither can a decree for
payment of debt be obtained, in that period, againft an
executor, becaufe, till that term be elapfed, it cannot
be known how many creditors may be intitled to the
fund in his hands. If no diligence be ufed within the
fix months, the executor may retain for his own debt,
and pay the relidue primo venienti. Such creditors of
the deceafed as have ufed diligence within a year after
their debtor’s death, are preferable on the fubjeft of
his teftament to the creditors of his next of kin.
20. The only paffive title in moveables is vitious in-
[ n 2 ] tromiffion,
( )
Mutual re¬
lief betwixt
the heir and
executor.
L A
tromiflion; which may be defined, an unwarrantable in
termeddling with the moveable eftate of a perfon de
ceafed, without the order of law. This is not confined
as the paffive titles in heritage are, to the perfons in
terefted in the fucceffion, but ftrikes againfl all intro
mitters whatever. Where an executor confirmed, in¬
tromits with more than he has confirmed, he incurs a
paffive title; fraud being in the common cafe prefumed
from his not giving up in inventory the full fubjeft inter¬
meddled with. Vitious intromiffion is alfo prefumed,
where the repofitories of a dying perfon are not fealed
up, as foon as he becomes incapable of fenfe, by his
neareft relations; or, if he dies in a houfe not his own,
they muft be fealed by the mafter of fuch houfe, and
the keys delivered to the judge-ordinary, to be kept by
him, for the benefit of all having intereft.
2i. The paffive title of vitious intromiffion does not
take place where there is any probable title or circum-
ftance that takes off the preemption of fraud. In con-
fequence of this rule, neceffary intromiffion, or cuftodia
ccn/a, by the wife or children, who only continue the
pofieffion of thedeceafed, in order to preferve his goods
for the benefit of all concerned, infers no paffive title.
And, upon the fame principle, an introraitter, by con¬
firming himfelf executor, and thereby fubjedling him-
felf to account, before adtion be brought againft him
on the paffive titles, purges the vitiofity of his prior
intromiffion : and where the intromitter is one who is
interefted in the fucceffion, e. g. next of kin, his con¬
firmation, at any time within a year from the death of
the deceafed, will exclude the paffive title, notwith-
ftanding a prior citation. As this paffive title was in¬
tended only for the fecurity of creditors, it cannot be
fued upon by legatees; and fince it arifes ex delitto, it
cannot be pleaded againft the heir of the intromitter.
As in delidts, any one of many delinquents may be
fubje&ed to the whole puniffiment, fo any one of many
intromitters may be fued in folidum for the purfuer’s
debt, without calling the reft; but the intromitter who
pays, has an aftion of relief againft the others for their
fhare of it. If the intromitters are fued jointly, they
are liable, not pro rata of their feveral intromiffions,
but pro virili.
28. The whole of a debtors eftate is fubje&ed to the
payment of his debts; and therefore, both his heirs and
executors are liable for them, in a queftion with credi¬
tors: but as fucceffion is by law divided into the he¬
ritable and the moveable eftate, each of thefe ought, in
a queftion between the feveral fuccefibrs, to bear the
burdens which naturally affe<ft it. Adf ion of relief is '
accordingly competent to the heir who has paid a move-
able debt, againft the executor ; and vice verfa. This
relief is not cut off by the deceafed’s having difponed
cither his land-eftate or his moveables, with the bur¬
den of his whole debts ; for fuch burden is not to be
conftrued as an alteration of the legal fucceffion, but
merely a3 a farther fecurity to creditors, unlefs the con¬
trary ffiall be prefumed from the fpecial ftyle of the
difpofition.
W. Part HI.
the fuperior, upon failure of the fpecial heirs therein Law of |
contained; but now that feus are become patrimonial Scotland
rights, the fuperior is, by the general opinion, held to 1 "
be fully divefted by fuch gr^nt, and the right defcends
to the vaffal’s heirs at law. And even where a vaffal
dies without leaving any heir who can prove the re-
moteft propinquity to him, it is not the fuperior, as the
old law flood, but the king, who fucceeds as la ft heir,
both in the heritable and moveable eftate of the de¬
ceafed, in confequence of the rule, ^uod aullius ejit ce~
dit domino Regi.
2. If the lands, to which the king fucceeds, be
holden immediately of himfelf, the property is confo-
lidated with the fuperiority, as if refignation had been
made in the fovereign’s hands. If they are holden of
a fubjed, th.e king, who cannot be vaffal to his own
fubjeft, names a donatory; . who, to complete his title,
muft obtain a decree of declarator ; and thereafter he
is prefented to the fuperior, by letters of prefentation
from the king under the quarter-feal, in which the fu¬
perior is charged to enter the donatory. The whole
eftate of the deceafed is, in this cafe, fubje&ed to hfo
debts, and to the widow’s legal provifions. Neither
the king nor his donatory is liable beyond the value of
the fucceffion. A perfon who has no heir to fucceed
to him, cannot alien his heritage in lefts, to the preju¬
dice of the king, who is intitled to fet afide fuch deed,
in the charadter of ultimus heres.
elxxxn.
Where
there is nc
heir, the
king fuc-
eeeds.
IV. Of LAST HEIRS and BASTARDS.
By our ancient praaice, feudal grants taken to the
vaffal, and to a fpecial order of heirs, without fettling
the laft termination upon heirs whatfoevert returned to
3. A baftard can have no legal heirs, except thofe Kingfue-
of his own body ; fince there is no fucceffion but by c.eeds as
the father, and a baftard has no certain father. The
king therefore fucceeds to him, failing his lawful iffue, ftan]. ”
as laft heir. Though the baftard, as abfolute proprie¬
tor of his own eftate, can difpofe of his heritage in
liege poujlie, and of his moveables by any deed inter vi¬
vos ; yet he is difabled, ex defeftu natalium, from be¬
queathing by teftament, without letters oflegitimation
from the fovereign. If the baftard has lawful chil¬
dren, he may tett, without fuch letters, and name tu¬
tors and curators to his iffue. Letters of legitimation,
let their claufes be ever fo ftrong, cannot enable the
baftard to fucceed to his natural father, to the exclu-
fion of lawful heirs.
4. The legal rights of fucceffion, being founded in Baftards
marriage, can be claimed only by thofe who are born in incapable
lawful marriage; the iffue therefore of an unlawful oflegal>b’j
marriage are incapable of fucceffion. A baftard is ex-
eluded, (1.) From his father’s fucceffion; becaufe law Jifion.
knows no father who is not marked out by marriage..
(2.) From all heritable fucceffion, whether by the fa¬
ther or mother; becaufe he cannot be pronounced law¬
ful heir by the inqueft, in terms of the brief. And,
(3.) From the moveable fucceffion of his mother; for,
though the mother be known, the baftard is not her
lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all fucceffion
conferred by law. A baftard, though he cannot fuc¬
ceed jure fanguinis, may fucceed by deftination,
where he is fpecially called to the fucceffion by an en¬
tail or teftament.
5. Certain perfons, though born in lawful marriage, Aliens caf t s
are incapable of fucceffion. Aliens are, from their al- not fuccer a
legiance to a foreign prince, incapable of fucceeding in feudal
feudal rights, without naturalization. Children born
in a foreign ftate, whofe fathers were natural born fub-
jefts, and not attainted, are held to be natural born
7 {Part III. L
) ■ mw of fubje&s. Perfons educated in, or profefiing, the Popifh
bnMotland religion, if they fhall negleft, upon their attaining the
'iqE Papifts aSe fifteen, to renounce its dodtrines by a figned de-
1 claration, cannot fucceed in heritage; but muft give
place to the next Proteftant heir, who will hold the e-
ftate irredeemably, if the Popifh heir does not, within
ten years after incurring the irritancy, fign the formula
prefcribed by the ftatute 1700, c. 3.
CHAP. III.
Of Actions.
Itherto of Perfdns zx\A Rights, the two firfl; ob¬
jects of law : Ailioris are its third objedt, whereby
perfons make their rights effedtual.
xMlxxxiii. Sect. I. Nature, divifien, See. of ABions.
3 1 aftion, An adfion may be defined, A demand regularly made
;lat* andjnfifted in, before the judge competent, for the at¬
taining or recovering of a right; and it fuffers feveral
1 divitions, according' to the different natures of the
; rights purfued upon.
oiyifion of 2. Adfions are either real orperfonal. A real adtion
is that which arifes from a right in the thing itfelf, and
which therefore may be diredted againft all pofTeffors
of that thing : thus, an adtion for the recovery, even
of a moveable fubjedl, when founded on a jus in re, is
in the proper acceptation real ; but real adtions are, in
vulgar fpeech, confined to fuch as are diredted againft
heritable fubjedts. A perfonal adtion is founded only
on an obligation undertaken for the performance of
fome fadt, or the delivery of fome fubjedt; and there¬
fore can be carried on againft no other than the perfon
obliged, or his heirs.
3. Adtions, again, are either ordinary or refeiffory.
All adtions are, in the fenfe of this divilion, ordinary,
which are not refeiffory. Refciffory adtions are di¬
vided, (1.) Into adtions of proper improbation. (2.)
Adtions of redudtion improbatioh. (3.) Adlions of
fimple redudtion. Proper improbations, which are
brought for declaring writings falfe or forged, are
noticed below, N° clxxxvi. 32. Redudtion-improbation
is an adtion, whereby a perfon who may be hurt or affec¬
ted by a waiting, infifts for producing or exhibiting it
in court, in order to have it fet afide, or its effedt afeer-
tained, under the certification that the writing, if not
produced, fhall be declared falfe and forged. This cer¬
tification is a fidtion of law, introduced that the pro-
dudtion of writings may be the more effedtually forced,
and therefore it operates only in favour of the purfuer.
Uecaufe the fummons in this adlion proceeds on al¬
leged grounds of falfhood, his majefty’s advocate, who
is the public profecutor of crimes', muff concur in it.
4. As the certification in this procefs draws aftdr it
fo heavy confequenees, two terms are affigned to the
defenders for produdtion. After the fecond term is
elapfed, intimation muff be made judicially to the de¬
fender, to fatisfy the produdtion within ten days; and
till thefe are expired, no certification can be pronoun¬
ced. Certification cannot pafs againft deeds recorded
in the books of feffion, if the defender fhall, before the
fecond term, offer a condefcendence of the dates of their
regiftration, unlefs falfehood be objedted: in which
•afe, the original mutt be brought from the record to
It pduftion-
iqjproba-
ia.
A W. ( 1 o 1 )
the court. But an extradt from the inferior court is no Law of
bar to certification ; the principal writing muft be laid Sc°dan<L
before the court of feffion on a proper warrant.
5. In an adtion of fimple redudtion the certification Simple re-
is only temporary, declaring the writings called for, duftion.
null, until they be produced; fo that they recover their
full force after produdtion, even againft the purfuer
himfelf; for which reafon, that procefs is now feldom
ufed. Becaufe its certification is not fo fevere as in
redudtion-improbation, there is but one term alfigned
to the defender for producing the deeds called for.
6. The moft ufual grounds of redudtion of writings Grounds of
are, the want of the requifite folemnities; that the r«fu<hion.
granter was minor, or interdidted, or inhibited; or
that he figned the deed on death-bed, or was compel¬
led or frightened into it, or w^as circumvented ; or that
he granted it in prejudice of his lawful creditors.
7. In redudtions on the head of force, or fear, or
fraud and circumvention, the purfuer muft libel the
particular circumftances from which his allegation is to
be’ proved. Redudtion is not competent upon every
degree of force or fear; it muft be fuch as would fhake
a man of conftaney and refolution. Neither is it com¬
petent, on that fear which arifes from the juft authority
of hufbands or parents over their wives or children, nor
upon the fear arifing from the regular execution of
law'ful diligence by caption, provided the deeds granted
under that fear relate to the ground of debt contained
in the diligence; but if they have no relation to that
debt, they are reducible ex nietu.
8. Alienations granted by debtors after contradting
of lawful debts, in favour of conjundt or confident per¬
fons, without juft and neceffary caufes, and without a
juft price really paid, are null. One is deemed a prior
creditor, whofe ground of debt exifted before the right
granted by the debtor ; though the written voucher of
the debt (hould bear a date pofterior to it. Perfons
are accounted conjundf, whofe relation to the granter
is fo near, as to bar them from judging in his caufe.
Confident perfons are thofe who appear to be in the
granter’s confidence, by being employed in his affairs,
or about his perfon ; as a doer, fteward, or domeftic
fervant.
9. Rights, though gratuitous, are not reducible, if
the granter had, at the date thereof, a fufficient fund
for the payment of his creditors. Provifions to children
are, in the judgment of law, gratuitous; fo that their
effedt, in a queftion with creditors, depends on the foi-
vency of the granter : but fettlements to wives, either
in marriage-contradts, or even after marriage, are one¬
rous, in fo far as they are rational; and coniequently
are not reducible, even though the granter was infol-
vent. This rule holds alfo in rational tochers con-
tradted to hufbands: But it muft, in all cafes, be qua¬
lified with this limitation, if the infolvency of the granter
rmas not publicly known; for if it was, fraud is prefumed
in the receiver of the right, by contradfing with the
bankrupt.
10. The receiver of the deed, if he be a conjundf or
confident perfon, muft aftrudt or fupport the onerous
caufe of his right, not merely by his own oath, but by
fome circumftances or adminicles. But where a right
is granted to a ftranger, the narrative of it expreffing
an onerous caufe, is fufficient per fe to fecure it againft
redudtion.
11. AH
A
( 102 ) L
Law of ii. Ail voluntary payments or rights made by a
Scotland, bankrupt to one creditor, to difappoint the more time-
ous diligence of another, are reducible at the inftance
of that creditor who has ufed the prior diligence. A
creditor, though his diligence be but begun by cita¬
tion, may infill in a rediu&ion of all potlerior voluntary
rights granted to his prejudice ; but the creditor who
negledts to complete his begun diligence within a rea-
fonable time, is not intitled to reduce any right granted
by the debtor, after the time that the diligence is con-
fidered as abandoned.
12. A prohibited alienation, when conveyed by the
receiver to another who is not privy to the fraud, fub-
fifts in the perfon of the bona fide purchafer. In the
cafe of-moveable rights, this nullity is receivable by
exception; but it mud be declared by reduction, where
the right is heritable.
13. By ael 1696, r. 5. all alienations by a bankrupt,
within fixty days before his bankruptcy, to one creditor
in preference to another, are reducible, at the inftance
even of fuch co-creditors as had not ufed the lead ftfp
of diligence. A bankrupt is there defcribed by the
following characters; diligence ufed againft him by
horning and caption ; and infolvency, joined either
with imprifonment, retiring to the fanCluary, abfcond-
ing, or forcibly defending himfelf from diligence. It
is fufficient that a caption is railed againft the debtor,
though it be not executed, provided he has retired to
fhun it. It is provided, that all heritable bonds or
rights on which feifin may follow, fhall be reckoned, in
a queftion with the granter’s other creditors upon this
aCl, to be of the date of the feifin following thereon.
But this aft was found to relate only to fecurities for
. . former debts, and not to nova delita.
thfrr'ti'per- 14- Aftions are divided into rei perfecutoria, and
/teutons, or posnales. By the firft, the purfuer infifts barely to re-
penal. cover the fulqeft that is his, or the debt due to him :
and this includes the damage fuftained; for one is as
truly a fufferer in his patrimonial intereft by that da¬
mage, as by the lofs of the fubjeft itfelf. In penal
aftions, which always arife ex delifto, fomething is alfo
demanded by way of penalty.
Spuilzie. 15. Aftions of fpuilzie, ejeftion, and intrufion, are
penal. An aftion of fpuilzie is competent to one dif-
pofleffed of a moveable fubjeft violently, or without or¬
der of law, againft the perfon difpofleffing: not only
for being reftored to the pofleflion of the fubjeft, if
extant, or for the value, if it be deftroyed, but alfo for
the violent profits, in cafe the aftion be brought with¬
in three years from the fpoliation. Ejeftion and intru¬
fion are, in heritable fubjefts, what fpuilzie is in move¬
ables. The difference between the two firft is, that in
ejeftion, violence is ufed ; whereas the intruder enters
into the void poffefiion, without either a title from the
proprietor, or the warrant of a judge. The aftions
arifing from all the three are of the fame general na¬
ture.
Coruraven- 16. The aftion of contravention of law-borrows is
lion of law- alfo penal. It proceeds on letters of law-borrows, (from
orrows. lorgh a cautioner), which contain a warrant to charge
the party complained upon, that he may give fecurity,
not to hurt the complainer in his perfon, family, or
eftate. Thefe letters do not require the previous ci¬
tation of the party complained upon, becaufe the
caution which the law requires is only for doing
W. Part III. ;
what is every man’s duty ; but, before the letters La*’ of itc
are executed againft him, the complainer mull make ScoiUnd.
oath that he dreads bodily harm from him. The
penalty of contravention is afeertained to a fpecial fum,
according to the offender’s quality ; the half to be ap¬
plied to the filk, and the half to the complainer. Con¬
travention is not incurred by the uttering of reproach¬
ful words, where they are not accompanied^ either with
afts of violence, or at leaft a real injury; and -as the
aftion is penal, it is elided by any probable ground of
excufe.
17 Penalties are theconfequences of delift, or tranf-
greffion ; and as no heir ought to be accountable for
the delift of his anceftor, farther than the injured per- miffiMe a-j
fon has really fuffered by it, penal aftions die with the gainft the
delinquent, and are not tranfmiffible againft heirs. Yet Purfuer*,l
the aftion, if it has been commenced and litifeontefted
in the delinquent’s lifetime, may be continued againft
the heir, though the delinquent fhould die during the
dependence. Some aftions are rei perfecutoria on the
part of the purfuer, when he infifts for fimple reftitu-
tion; which yet may be penal in refpeft of the defen¬
der ; e. g. the aftion on the paffive title of vitious in-
tromiffion, by which the purfuer frequently recover*
the debt due to him by the deceafed, though it fhould
exceed the value of the goods intermeddled with by
the defenders.
18. The moft celebrated divifion of aftions in our
law is into petitory, pojfiefibry, and declaratory. Petitory Aftions i
aftions are thofe, where fomething is demanded from petitory*
the defender, in confequence of a right of property,
or of credit in the purfuer : Thus, aftions for reftitu-
tion of moveables, aftions of poinding, of forthcoming,
and indeed all perfonal aftions upon contrafts or quafi-
contrafts, are petitory. Poffefifory aftions are thofe pofleflbryi
which are founded, either upon poffeffion alone, as
fpuilzies; or upon poffeffion joined with another title,
as removings; and they are competent either for get¬
ting into poffeffion, for holding it, or for recovering
it; analogous to the interdifts, of tbe Roman law,
quorum bomntm, uti pofiidetis, and unde vi.
16. An aftion of moleftation is a poffeffory aftion, Of moleftS
competent to the proprietor of a land-cftate, againft tion,
thofe who difturb his poffeffion. It is chiefly ufed in
queftions of commonly, or of controverted marches.
Where a declarator of property is conjoined with a pro-
cefs of moleftation, the feffion alone is competent to the
aftion. Aftions on brieves of perambulation, have
the fame tendency with moleftations, viz. the fettling
of marches between conterminous lands.
20. The aftions of mails and duties is fometimes Of oiaihl
petitory, and fometimes poffeffory. In either cafe, it antl duti^
is direfted againft the tenants and natural poffeffors of
land-eftates, for payment to the purfuer of the rents
remaining due by them for pad crops, and of the full
rent for the future. It is competent, not only to a
proprietor whofe right is perfefted by feifin, but to a
fimple difponee, for a difpofition of lands includes a
right to the mails and duties; and confequently to an
adjudger, for an adjudication is a judicial difpofition.
In the petitory aftion, the purfuer, fince he founds Petitory,
upon right, not poffeffion, mull make the proprietor,
from whom the tenants derive their right, party to the
fuit; and he muft fupport his claim by titles of pro¬
perty er diligences, preferable to thofe in the perfon’
of
’art III.
L A W.
( 103 )
papflbry.
3')»*w of of his competitor. In the pofleflbry, the purfuer who
faslotland. that he, his anceftors or authors, have been feven
~~years in pofieffion, and that therefore he has the bene¬
fit of a pofieffory judgment, need produce no other
| title than a feifin, which is a title fufficient to make
the pofleffion of heritage lawful; and it is enough, if
he calls the natural poflefibrs, though he (hould ne-
TfllefFory gledt the proprietor. A poflefibry judgment founded
nc^Tmeiit. on feven yCars poffefiion, in confequence either of a
feifin or a tack, has this effeft, that though one {hould
claim under a title preferable to that of the pofTeffor,
he cannot compete with him in the pofleffion, till in a
formal procefs of redu&ion he (hall obtain the pofleflbr’s
title declared void.
Jara- 21. A declaratory aft ion is that, in which fome right
sE paftion. js crayed to be declared in favour of the purfuer, but
nothing fought to be paid or performed by the defen¬
der, fuch as declarators of marriage, of irritancy, of
expiry, of the legal reverfion, &c. Under this clafs
tnay be alfo comprehended refeiflbry aftions, which,
without any perfonal conclufion againft the defender,
( tend Amply to fet afide the rights or writings libelled,
in confequence of which a contrary right or immunity
arifes to the purfuer. Decrees upon aftions that are
properly declaratory confer no new right ; they only
declare what was the purfuer’s right before, and fo
have a retrofpeft to the period at which that right firft
commenced. Declarators, becaufe they have no per¬
fonal conclufion againft the defender, may be purfued
againft an apparent heir without a previous charge gi¬
ven him to enter to his anceftor; unlefs where fpecial
circumftances require a charge.
22. An aftion for proving the tenor, whereby a wri-
ji iving the ting, which isdeftroyed or amiffing, is endeavoured to be
revived, is in effeft declaratory. In obligations that
are extinguifhable barely by the debtor’s retiring or
cancelling them, the purfuer, before a proof of the te¬
nor is admitted, muft condefcend on fuch a cajus amif-
Jtonis, or accident by which the writing waS'deftroyed,
as fhews it was loft when in the creditor’s poflefiion ;
otherwife bonds that have been cancelled by the debtor
en’payment, might be reared upas ftill fubfifting againft
him : But in writings which require contrary deeds to
extinguifti their effeft, as affignations, difpofitions,
charters, &c. it is fufficient to libel that they were loft,
even cafu fortuito.
v Iminicles 23. Regularly, no deed can be revived by this aftion,
writing, without fome adminicle in writing, referring to that
which is libelled ; for no written obligation ought to
be raifed up barely on the teftimony of witnefies. If
thefe adminicles afford fufficient conviftion that the
deed libelled did once exift, the tenor is-admitted to
be proved by witneffes, who muft depofe, either that
they were prefent at figning the deed, or that they
afterwards faw it duly fubferibed. Where the re¬
lative writings contain all the fubftantial claufes of
that which is loft, the tenor is fometimes fuftained with¬
out witneffes. In a writing which is libelled to have
contained uncommon claufes, all thefe muft appear by
the adminicles. Aftions of proving the tenor are, on
account of their importance, appropriated to the court
of Seffion ; and, by the old form, the teftimony of the
witneffes could not be received but in prefence of all
the judges.
24. The aftion of double or multiple poinding may
be alfo reckoned declaratory. It is competent to a deb- Law of
tor, who is diftreffed, or threatened with diftrefs, by Scotlantl^
two or more perfons claiming right to the debt, and Muit;pje_
who therefore brings the feveral claimants into the poinding,
field, in order to debate and fettle their feveral prefe¬
rences, that fo he may pay fecurely to him whofe right
{hall be found preferable. This aftion is daily pur¬
fued by an arreftee, in the cafe of feveral arreftments
ufed in his hands for the fame debt; or by tenants in
the cafe of feveral adjudgers, all of whom claim right
to the fame rents. In thefe competitions, any of the
competitors may bring an aftion of multiple-poinding
in name of the tenants, or other debtors, without their
confent, or even though they {hould difclaim the pro¬
cefs ; fince the law has introduced it as the proper re¬
medy for getting fuch competitions determined : And
while the fubjeft in controverfy continues in medio, any
third perfon who conceives he has a right to it, may,
though he {hould not be cited as a defender, produce
his titles, as if he were an original party to the fuit,
and will be admitted for his intereft in the competition.
25. Certain aftions may be called acceffory, becaufe
they are merely preparatory or fubfervient to other ac¬
tions. Thus, exhibitions ad deliberandum, at the in-
ftance of an heir againft'the creditors or cuftodiers of
his anceftor’s writings, are intended only to pave the
way for future proceffes. An aftion of transference is Transfe-
alfo of this fort, whereby an aftion, during the pen- renee,
dency of which the defender happens to die, is craved
to be transferred againft his reprefentative, in the fame
condition in which it ftood.formerly. Upon the pur¬
fuer’s death his heir may infift in the caufe againft the
defender, upon producing, either a retour or a con¬
firmed teftament, according as the fubjeft is heritable
or moveable. Transferences being but incidental to
other aftions, can be pronounced by that inferior judge
alone before whom the principal caufe depended ; but,
where the reprefentativesof thedeceafedlive in another
territory, it is the fupreme court muft transfer. Obli¬
gations may now be regiftered fummarily after the cre¬
ditor’s death ; which before was not admitted, with¬
out a feparate procefs of regiftration, to which the
granter was neceffarily to be made a party.
26. A procefs of wakening is likewife acceffory. v/akeaing.
An aftion is- faid to fleep, when it lies over not infif-
ted in for a year, in which cafe its effeft is fufpended ;
but even then it may, at any time within the years of
prefeription, be revived or wakened by a fummons, in
which the purfuer recites the laft ftep of the procefs,
and concludes that it may be again carried on as if it
had not been difeontinued. An aftion that ftands upon
any of the inner-houfe rolls cannot fleep ; nor an aftioa
in which decree is pronounced, becaufe it has got its
full completion : Confequently the decree may be ex-
trafted after the year, without the neceffity of a wa¬
kening.
27. An aftion of tranfumpt falls under the fame clafs. Tran-
It is competent to thofe who have a partial intereft in fumpjt
writings that are not in their own cuftody, againft the
poffeffora thereof, for exhibiting them, that they may
be tranfumed for their behoof. Though the ordinary
title in this procefs be an obligation by the defender
to grant tranfumpts to the purfuer, it is fnfficient if
the purfuer can (how that he has an intereft in the wri¬
tings ; but in this cafe, he muft tranfumc them on his
0W8
( io4 ) L A W. Part Illj
I aw of on his own charges. A&ions of tranfumpt may be pur-
ScotlanJ, puej before any judge-ordinary. After the writings
to be tranfumed are exhibited, full duplicates are made
out, collated, and figned, by one of the clerks of court,
which are called tratifumpts, and are as ffe&ual as an
extract from the regifter.
Brieves. 28. Aft ions proceeded anciently upon brieves ifiu-
xng from the chancery, direfted to the jufticiary or
judge-ordinary, who tried the matter by a jury, upon
whofe verdift judgment was pronounced : And to this
day, we retain certain brieves, as of inquejl, terce,
idiotry, tutory, perambulation, and perhaps two or three
Summonfes others: But fummonfes were, immediately upon the
inftitution of the College of Juftice, introduced in the
place of brieves. A fummons, when applied to aftions
purfued before the feffion, is a writ in the King’s name,
iffuing from his fignet upon the purfuer’s complaint,
authorifing meflengers to cite the defender to appear
before the court and make his defences ; with certifi¬
cation if he fail to appear, that decree will be pronoun¬
ced againft him in terms of thecertificarion of the fum¬
mons.
29. The days indulged by law to a defender, be
tween his citation and appearance, to prepare for his
Judida k- defence, are called inductee legalesi If he is within the
gala. kingdom, 21 and 6 days, for the firft and fecond
diets of appearance, muft be allowed him for that pur-
pofe ; and if out of it, 60 and 15. Defenders refiding
in Orkney or Zetland muft be cited on 40 days. In
certain fummonfes which are privileged, th^ indueix
are ftiortened; Spuilzies and ejeftions proceed on 15
days; wakenings and transferences, being but inci¬
dental, on fix; fee the lift of privileged .fummonfes, in
aft of federunt June 29. 1672. A fummons muft be
executed, i. e. ferved againft the defender, fo as the
laft diet of appearance may be within a year after the
date of the fummons; and it muft be called within a
year after that diet, otherwife it falls for ever. Of-
1 fence againft the authority of the court, afts of mal-
verfation in office by any member of the college of juf¬
tice, and afts of violence and opprtffion committed
during the dependence.of a fuit by any of the parties,
may be tried without a fummons, by a fummary com¬
plaint.
Concourfe 30. Where an aftion is in part penal, e. g. a remo-
of aftions. ving, fpuilzie, &c. a purfuer who reftrifts his demand
to, and obtains a decree merely for, reftitution, cannot
thereafter bring a new procefs for the violent profits.
Yet the fame faft may be the foundation both of a cri¬
minal and civil aftion, becanfe thefe two are intended
for different purpofes; the one for fatisfying the pub¬
lic juftice, the other for indemnifying the private party:
And though the defender fliould be abfolved in the cri¬
minal trial, for want of evidence, the party injured
may bring an aftion ad civilcm effeftum, in which'he
is intitled to refer the libel to the defender’s oath.
Aecumula- 3 j. One libel or fummons may contain different con-
tion of ac clufions on the fame ground of right, refeiffory, decla-
tl0ns ratory, petitory, &c. if they be not repugnant to each
other: Nay, though differet t fums be due to one, upon
diftinft grounds of debt, or even by different debtors,
the creditor may infift againft them all in the fame fum¬
mons.
Defences. 32. Defences are pleas offered by a defender for e-
liding an aftion. They are either dilatory, which do
not enter into the caufe itfelf, and fo can only procure Law of-
an abfolviture from the Us pendens: Or peremptory, Scotlani
which entirely cut off the purfuer’s right o* aftion. The
firft, becaufe they relate to the orms of proceeding, |
muft. be offered in limine judicii, and h;1 of them at j
once. But peremptory defences may be proponed at
any time before fentence.
33. A caufe, after the parties had litigated it before Litifcortb
the judge, was faid by the Romans to be litifeontefted. tatI0h<
By litifeonteftation a judicial contraft is underftood to
be entered into by the litigants, by which the aftion
is perpetuated againft heirs, even when it arifes ex de~
litto. By our law, litifeonteftation is not formed till
an aft is extrafted, admitting the libel or defences to
proof.
Sect. II. Of Probation. dxxxir:
All allegations by parties to a fuit, muft be fup- I
ported by proper proof. Probation is either by wri- Probatiqj.
ting, by the party’s own oath, or by witneffes. In the |
cafe of allegations, which may be proved by either of
the three ways, a proof is laid to be admitted prout de prout dtlv
jure; becaufe, in fuch cafe, all the legal methods of |
probation are competent to the party : if the proof he |
brings by writing be lame, he may have recourfe either I
to witneffes or to his adverfary’s-oath ; but, if he ffiould
firft take himfelf to the proof by oath, he cannot there- I
after ufe any other probation, for the reafon affigned
par. 3. and, on the contrary, a purfuer, who has brought -I
a proof by witneffes, on an extrafted aft, is not allowed I
to recur to the oath of the defender. 'Single combat, by finglli:
as a fort of appeal to Providence, was, by our ancient ombat*
law, admitted as evidence, in matters both civil and
criminal. It was afterwards reftrifted to the cafe of ‘ |1
fuch capital crimes where no other proof could be had;
fome traces of this blind method of trial remained even
in the reign of James VI. who, by 1600, c. 12. might j
authorife duels on weighty occafions.
2. As obligations or deeds figned by the party him- by writb
lelf, or his anceftors or authors, muft be, of all evidence, 1-
the leaft liable to exception ; therefore every debt or
allegation may be proved by proper evidence in writing. J
The folemnities effential to probative deeds have been * it
already explained, N° clxxiv. 3. et feq. Books of ac¬
count kept by merchants, tradefmen, and other dealers |
in bufinefs, though not fubferibed, are probativoagainft j
him who keeps them ; and, in cafe of furniftnngs by a
{hop-keeper, fuch books, if they are regularly kept by
him, fupported by the teftimony of a fingle witnefs, I
afford a femiplenaprobatio in his favour, which becomes
full evidence by his own oath in fupplement. Notorial j;
inftruments and executions by meffengers bear full evi- I
dence, that the folemnities therein fet forth were ufed,
not to be invalidated otherwife than by a proof of falfe- j
hood ; but they do not prove any other extrinfic fafts |
therein averred, againft third parties.
3. Regularly, no perfon’s right can be proved by Probatii-
his own oath, nor taken away by that of his adverfary; oatbofjs
becaufe thefe are the bare averments of parties in their
own favour. But, where the matter in iffue is referred J
by one of the parties to the oath of the other, fuch .
oath, though made in favour of the deponent himfelf,
is decifive of the point; becaufe the reference is a vir¬
tual contraft between the litigants, by which they are
underftood to put the iffue of the caufe upon what lhall
be
J Part III. L A W. (105)
r lLaw of be depofed : and this contraft is fo ftriftly regarded,
r Jicotland. {[jp party who refers to the oath of the other can-
" 1 not afterwards, in a civil aftion, plead upon any deed
againft the party depofing, inconfiftent with his oath.
To obviate the fnares that may be laid for perjury, he,
to whofe oath of verity a point is referred, may refufe
to depofe, till his adverfary fwear that he can bring no
I other evidence in proof of his allegation.
4. A defender, though he cannot be compelled to
fwear to fafts in a libel properly criminal; yet may, in
trefpafles, where the eonclulion is limited to a fine, or
to damages. In general, an oath of party cannot ei¬
ther hurt or benefit third parties; being, as to them,
I res inter alios attn.
lilualified 5. An oath upon reference, is fometimes qualified by
P1*’ fpecial limitations reftri&ing it. The qualities which
are admitted by the judge as part of the oath, are cal¬
led intrinfic; thofe wiiich the judge rejects or feparates
from the oath, extrinfic. Where the quality makes a
part of the allegation which is relevantly referred to
oath, it is intrinfic. Thus, beeaufe a merchant, fuing
for furnifhings after the three years, muft, in order to
make a relevancy, offer to prove by the defender’s oath,
not only the delivery of the goods, but that the price
is ftill due; therefore, though the defender fhould ac¬
knowledge upon oath his having received the goods,
yet, if he adds, that he paid the price, this laft part,
being a denial that the debt fubfilts, is intrinfic, fince
it is truly the point referred to oath. Where the qua¬
lity does not import an extin&ion of the debt, but
barely a counter-claim, or mutua petitio, againft the
purfuer, it is held as extrinfic, and muft be proved ali¬
unde. Neither can a defender who in his oath admits
the conftitution of a debt, get off by adje&ing the
quality of payment, wljere the payment ought by its
nature to be vouched by written evidence,
iaths in 6. Oaths of verity are fometimes deferred by the
pplement judge to either party, ex officio; which becaufe they
are not founded on any implied contradf between the
litigants, are not finally decifive, but may be traverfed
on proper evidence aftewards produced. TheTe oaths
are commonly put by the judge for fupplying a lame
or imperfedt proof, and are therefore called oaths in
fupplement. See par. 2.
1 ath of 7. To prevent groundlefs allegations, oaths of ca-
dumny. lumny have been introduced, by which either party may
demand his adverfary’s oath, that he believes the fadt
contained in his libel or defences to be juft and true.
As this is an oath, not, of verity, but only of opinion,
the party who puts it to his adverfary does not re*
nounce other probation ; and therefore no party is
bound to give an oath of calumny, on recent fadts of
his own, for fuch oath is really an oath of verity. Thefe
oaths have not been fo frequent fince the adt of fede-
runt, Feb. 1. 1715, whereby any party, againft whom
a fadt ftiall be alleged, is obliged, without making oath,
to confefs or deny it; and, in cafe of calumnious denial,
is fubjedted to the expence that the other party has
thereby incurred.
8. In all oaths, whether of verity or calumny, the ci¬
tation carries, or at leaft implies, a certification, that if
the party does not appear at the day affigned for depo¬
fing, he {hall be held pro confeffio ; from a prefumption
of his confcioufnefs, that the fadt upon which he de¬
clines to fwear makes againft him ; but no party can
be held pro confeffio, if he be in the kingdom, without a Law of
previous perfonal citation ufed againft him. Though Scotland.
an oath which refolves into a non memini, cannot be a non me~
faid to prove any point; yet where one fo depofes up- twwioath.
on a recent fadt, to which he himfelf was privy, his
oath is confidered as a diffembling of the truth, and he
is held pro confejjo, as if he had refufed to fwear.
9. An oath in litem, is that which the judge defers in ll~
to a purfuer, for afcertaining either the quantity or the
value of goods which have been taken from him by the
defender without order of law, or the extent of his da¬
mages. An oath in litem, as it is the affirmation of a
party in his own behalf, is only allowed where there is
proof that the other party has been engaged in fome
illegal adl, or where the public policy has made it ne-
ceffary, (fee N° clxxiii. 11.) This oath, as to the quan¬
tities, is not admitted, where there is a concurring te-
ftimony of witneffes brought in proof of it. When it
is put as to the value of goods, it is only an oath of
credulity; and therefore it has always been fubjedl to
the modification of the court.
10. The law of Scotland rejedts the teftimony of Probation
witneffes, (1.) In payment of any fum above L. 100
Scots, all which muft be proved either fcripto veljura- w],’^ cafes
mento. (2.) In all gratuitous promifes, though forrejefled.
the fmalleft trifle. (3.) In all contradts, where writing
is either effential to their conftitution, (fee N° clxxiv.
2.) or where it is ufually adhibited, as in the borrow¬
ing of money. And it is a general rule, fubjett to the
reftridtions mentioned in the next par. that no debt or
right, once conftituted by writing, can be taken away
by witneffes.
11. On the other part, probation by witneffes is ad- in what ad¬
mitted to the extent of L. 100 Scots, in payments, nun- mkted.
cupative legacies, and verbal agreements which contain
mutual obligations. And it is received to the higheft
extent, (1.) In all bargains which have known engage¬
ments naturally arifing from them, concerning move-
able goods. (2.) In fadls performed in fatisfadlion,
even of a written obligation, where fuch obligation
binds the party precifely to the performance of them.
(3.) In fadts which with difficulty admit of a proof by
writing, even though the effedt of fuch proof ffiould be
the extindlion of a written obligation, efpecially if the
fadls import fraud or violence; thus, a bond is redu¬
cible ex dolo, on a proof by witneffes. Laftly, all in-
tromiffion by a creditor with the rents of his debtor’s
eftate payable in grain, may be proved by witneffes;
and even intromiffion with the filver-rent, where the
creditor has entered into the total poffeffion of the
debtor’s lands.
12. No perfon, whofe near relation to another bars What per-
him from being a judge in his caufe, can be admitted fons rejec-
as a witnefs for him; but he may, againft him, except te<|js wit-
a wife or child, who cannot,be compelled to give tefti- ne es*
mony againft the hufband or ptfrent, ob reverentiam
perfonte, et mctum perjurii. Though the witnefs, whofe
propinquity to one of the parties is objedled to, be
as nearly related to the other, the objedtion ftands
good.
13. The teftimony of infamous perfons is rejedled,
i. e. perfons who have been guilty of crimes that law
declares to infer infamy, or who have been declared in¬
famous by the fentence of a judge ; but infamia fafti
does not difqualify a witnefs. Pupils are inhabile wit-
[ o ] neffesy
( io6 ) I. . A W. Part 111,1
JL^w of neffes; being, in the judgment of law, incapable of the tionsarc either, juris et de jure ; z. juris; or, •$, bo- Law of
Scotland. ;mprefEoHs of an oath. The teftimony of women is minis or judicis. The firll fort obtains, where ftatute Scotlanl
feldom admitted, where other witneffeg can be had. or cuftom eftablifhes the truth of any point upon a pre- ' f1
And in general witnefles otherwife exceptionable may, fumption ; and it is fo ftrong, that it rejedls all proof 1
where there is a penury of witneffes arifing from the that may be brought to elide it in fpecial cafes. Thus, J
nature or circumftances of the fadi, be received caw the tedimony of a witnels, who forwardly offers him- j,
nota; that is, their teftimony, though not quite free felf without being cited, is, from a prefumption of his i|
from fufpicion, is to be conjoined with the other evi- partiality, rejected, let his charadter be ever fo fair ;
dence, and to have fuch weight given it as the judge and thus alfo, a minor, becaufe he is by law prefumed a:
fhall think it deferves. incapable of conducing his own affairs, is, upon that ||
Purgaiimi All witneffes, before they are examined in the prefumption, difabled from adfing without the confent
o wune es. caufe> are pUrged of partial counfel; that is, they muft of his curators, though he fhould be known to behave I];
declare, that they have no intereft in the fuit, nor have with the greateft prudence. Many fuch prefumptions P
given advice how to condudt it; that they have got are fixed by ftatute.
neither bribe nor promife, nor have been inltrudted how 17. Prefumptiones juris are thofe, which our law-
to depofe ; and that they bear no enmity to either of books or decifions have eftablifhed, without founding if
the parties. Thefe, becaufe they are the points put to any particular confequenee upon them, or ftatuting -
a witnefs before his making oath, are called initialia Juper prafumpto. Moft of this kind are not proper pre-
teflimonii. Where a party can bring prefent proof of fumptions inferred from poiitive fadfs, but are founded
a witnefs’s partial counfel, in any of the above particu- merely on the want of a contrary proof; thus, the legal
lars, he ought to offer it before the witnefs be fworn ; prefumptions for freedom, for life, for innocence, &c.
but, becaule fuch objedlion, if it cannot be inftantly are in effedlfo many negative propofitions, that fervitude, I
verified, will be no bar to the examination, law allows death, and guilt, are not to be prefumed, without e- J||
the party in that cafe to proteft for reprobator, before vidence brought by him who makes the allegation. All fflj
the witnefs is examined; i. e. that he may be after- of them, whether they be of this fort, or proper pre¬
wards allowed to bring evidence of his enmity, or other fumptions, as they are only conjedfures formed from
inhability. Reprobator is competent even after fen- what commonly happens, may be elided, not only by I
tence, where proteftation is duly entered ; but in that diredi evidence, but by other conjedtures, affording a
cafe, the party infilling muft confign 100 Scots, ftronger degree of probability to the contrary. Pras-
which he forfeits if he fuccumb. This adtion muft fumptiones hominis or judicis, are thofe which arife daily
have the concurrence of the king’s advocate, becaufe from the circnmftances of particular cafes; the ftrength
the conclufion of it imports perjury; and for this rea- of which is to be weighed by the judge,
fon, the witnefs muft be made a party to it. _ 18. A fifiio juris differs from a prefumption. Things
15. The interlocutory fentence or warrant, by which are prefumed, which are likely to be true ; but a fic- ,
parties are authorifed to bring their proof, is either by tion oflawaffumes for truth what is either certainly falfe,
way of adl, or of incident diligence. In an ad, the or at lead is as probably fattens true. Thus an heir
JLord Ordinary who pronounces it, is no longer judge is feigned or confidered in law as the fame perfon with
in the procefs ; but in an incident diligence, which is his anceftor. Fidions of law muft, in their effeds, be !
commonly granted upon fpecial points, that do not always limited to the fpecial purpofes of equity for
exhauft the caufe, the Lord Ordinary continues judge, which they were introduced; fee an example, j
Diligence
againft wii
neffes.
If a witnefs does not appear at the day fixed by the
warrant of citation, a fecond warrant is grantedof the
nature of a caption, containing a command to meffen-
gers to apprehend and bring him before the court.
Where the party to whom a proof is granted, brings
none within the term allowed by the warrant, an inter-
Sect. III. Of Sentences and their Executions.
Property would be moft uncertain, if debateable
points might, after receiving a definitive judgment, be
clxxji;
locutor is pronounced, circumdueing, the term, and pre- brought again in queftion, at the pleafure of either
eluding him from bringing evitfence thereafter. Where of the parties : every ftate has therefore fixed the cha-
evidence is brought, if it be upon an aft, the Lord Or- rafter of final to certain fentences or decrees, which in _
dinary on the afts, after the term for proving is elap- the Roman law are called res judicata, and which ex-
fed, declares the proof concluded; and thereupon a ftate elude all review or rehearing.
2. Decrees of the court of feffion, are either in foro DecreeL
contradiftorio, where both parties have litigated the ycr». |L<
caufe, or in abfence of the defender. Decrees of the #
feffton in foro cannot, in the general cafe, be again
brought under the review of the court, either on points
which the parties neglefted to plead before fentenoe ft
(which we call competent and omitted'), or upon points jj
pleaded and found infufficient (proponed and repelled.)
of the cafe is prepared by the Ordinary on concluded
caufes, which muft be judged by the whole Lords ;
but if the proof be taken upon an incident'diligence,
the import of it may be determined by the Lord Or¬
dinary in the caufe.
16. Where fafts do not admit a direft proof, pre¬
fumptions are received as evidence, which, in many cafes,
make as convincing a proof as the direft. Prefumptions
are confequences deduced from fafts known or proved, But decrees, though in foro, are reverfible by the
which infer the certainty, or at lead a ftrong probabi- court, where either they labour under effential nubi¬
lity, of another faft to be proved. This kind of pro- ties ; e. g. where they are ultra petita, or not con-
bation is therefore called artificial, becaufe it requires formable to their grounds and warrants, or founded
a reafoning to infer the truth of the point in queftion, on an error in calcul, fee.; or where the party againft
from the fafts that already appear in proof. Prefump- whom the decree is obtained has thereafter recovered
evidence
■ .Part III. L A W. (107)
i Law of evidence fufficient to overtufn it, of which he knew not
| fcotland- before.
0 wo confe- 3' •^■s Parties might formerly reclaim againft the
Ei tive in- fentences of the feffion, at any time before extra&ing
b. ilocators the decree, no judgment was final till extradt; but
I e®na*' now, a fentence of the inner-houfe, either not re¬
claimed againft within fix federunt days after its date,
or adhered to upon a reclaiming bill, though it cannot
receive execution till extradt, makes the judgment fi¬
nal as to the court of feffion. And, by an order of
i Sme limi-the houfe of Lords, March 24. 1725, no appeal is to
' d for ap- be received by them from fentences of the feffion, after
:ab. gve years from extracting the fentence; unlefs the per-
fon entitled to fuch appeal be minor, clothed with a
hufband, non compos mentis, imprifoned, or out of the
kingdom. Sentences pronounced by the Lord Ordi¬
nary have the fame effect, if not reclaimed againft, as
if they were pronounced in prefence ; and all petitions
againft the interlocutor of an Ordinary muft be pre¬
ferred within eight federunt days after figning fuch in¬
terlocutor.
. ecrees in 4. Decrees, in abfence of the defender, have hot
: ifence. the force of res indicates as to him ; for where the de¬
fender does not appear, he cannot be faid to have fub-
jedted himfelf by the judicial contract which is implied
in litifcotiteftation : a party therefore may be reftored
againft thefe, upon paying to the other his cofts in re¬
covering them. The fentences of inferior courts may
be reviewed by the court of feffion,—before decree, by
advocation,—and after decree, by fufpenfion or reduc¬
tion ; which two laft are alfo the methods of calling in
queftion fuch decrees of the feffion itfelf, as can again
)be brought under the review of the court,
lecrees re- 5. Reduction is the proper remedy, either where
iewed ei- the decree has already received full execution by pay-
ifuftion "or ment» or where it decrees nothing to be paid or per-
aifpenfion. f°rmed, but fimply declares a right in favour of the
purfuer. Sufpenfion is that form of law by which the
effect of a fenterfee condemnatory, that has not yet re¬
ceived execution, is ftayed or poftponed till the caufc
be again confidered. The firft Itep towards fufpenfion
is a bill preferred to the Lord Ordinary on the bills.
This bill, when the defire of it is granted, is a war¬
rant foriffuing letters of fufpenfion which pafs the fig-
net ; but, if the prefenter of the bill fhall not, within
14 days after paffing it, expedite the letters, execu¬
tion may proceed on the fentence. Sufpenfions of
decrees in foro cannot pafs, but by the whole lords
in time of feffion, and by three in vacation time; but
other decrees may be fufpended by any one of the
I judges.
Cufpenders 6. As fufpenfion has the effeft of flaying the execu-
taution*6 t*°n t^le creci,tor,s legal diligence, it cannot, in the
general cafe, pafs without caution given by the fufpen-
der to pay the debt, in the event it fliall be found due.
Where the fufpender cannot, from his low or fufpec-
ted circumftances, procure unqueftionable fecurity,the
lords admit juratory caution, i e. fuch as the fufpen¬
der fwears is the beft he can offer ; but the reafons of
fufpenfion are, in that cafe, to be confidered with par¬
ticular accuracy at paffing the bill. Decrees in favour
of the clergy, of univerfities, hofpitais, or parifh-
I - fchoolmafters, for their ftipends, rents, or falaries,
cannot be fufpended, but upon produdtion of dif-
eharges, or on confignation of the fums charged for.
A charger, who thinks himfelf fecure without a cau- of
tioner, and wants difpatch, may, where a fufpenfion cot ai> *
of his diligence is fought, apply to the court to get
the reafons of fufpenfion fummarily difeuffed on the
bill.
7. Though he, in whofe favour the decree fufpend- Snfpenfion,
ed is pronounced, be always called the charger, yet a W(!!entCOm'
decree may be fufpended before a charge be given on
it. Nay, fufpenfion is competent even where there is
no decree, for putting a flop to any illegal aft whatfo-
ever: thus, a building, or the exercile of a power
which one affumes unwarrantably, is a proper fubjeft
of fufpenfion. Letters of fufpenfion are confidered
merely as a prohibitory diligence ; fo that the fufpen¬
der, ifhc would turn provoker, muft bring an aftion
of reduftion. If upon difeuffing the letters of fufpen¬
fion, the reafons fhall be furtained, a decree is pro¬
nounced, fufpending the letters of diligence on which
the charge was given Jimpliciter ; which is called a
cree of fufpenfion, and takes off the effeft of the decree
fufpended. If the reafons of fufpenfion be repelled,
the court find the letters of diligence orderly proceed¬
ed, /. e. regularly carried on ; and they ordain them
to be put to farther execution.
8. Decrees are carried into execution, by diligence, Extraftioa
either againft the perfon or againft the eftate of the of decrees'
debtor. The firft ftep of perfonal execution is by let¬
ters of horning, which pafs, by warrant of the court
of feffion, on the decrees of magiftrates of boroughs,
ftieriffs, admirals, and commiffaries. If the debtor
does not obey the will of the letters of horning within
the days of the charge, the charger, after denouncing
him rebel, and regiftering the horning, may apply for
letters of caption, which contain a command, not only
to meffengers, but to magiftrates, to apprehend and
imprifon the debtor. All meffer.gers and magiftrates,
who refufe their affiftance in executing the caption, are
liable fubfidiarie for the debt; and fuch fubfidiary ac¬
tion is fupported by the execution of the meffenger
employed by the creditor, expreffing that they were
charged to concur, and would not. Letters of caption
contain an exprefs warrant to the meffenger, in cafe he
cannot get accefs, to break open all doors and other
lock-faft places.
9. Law fecures peers, married women, and pupils, What per-
againft perfonal execution by caption upon civil debts, fonsfecured
No caption can be executed againft a debtor within the cap"
precinfts of the king’s palace of Holyroodhoufe : but
this privilege of fanftuary afforded no fecurity to cri¬
minals, as that did which was, by the canon law, con¬
ferred on churches and religious houfes. Where the
perfonal prefence of a debtor, under caption, is necef-
fary in any of our fupreme courts, the judges are em¬
powered to grant him a proteftion, for fuch time as
may be fufficient for his coming and going, not exceed¬
ing a month.
10. After a debtor is imprifoned, he ought not to Pnfoners
be indulged the benefit of the air, not even under a bj0n.
guard ; for creditors have an intereft, that their deb- foied/
tors be kept under clofe confinement, that, by the
fqualor carceris, they may be brought to pay their
debt: and any magiftrate or jailor, who (hall fuffer the
prifoner to go abroad, without a proper atteftation, up¬
on oath, of the dangerous ftate of his health, is liable
fubfidiarie for the debt. Magiftrates are in like manner
[j o 2 3 liable.
Form of li¬
berating a
pri&ner.
.Liberation
liable, if they {ball fuffer a prifoner to efcape, through
the infufficiency of their prifon : but, if he {hall efcape
under night, by the ufe of inftruments, or by open
forces or by any other accident which cannot be im¬
puted to the magiftrates or jailor, they are not charge¬
able with the debt; provided they {hall have, imme¬
diately after his efcape, made all poffible fearch for
him. Regularly, no prifoner for debt upon letters of
caption, though he fhould have made payment, could
be releafed without letters of fufpenfion, containing a
charge to the jailor to fet him at liberty ; becaufe the
creditor’s difcharge could not take off the penalty incur¬
red by the debtor for contempt of the king’s authority :
but to fave unneceffary expence to debtors in fmall
debts, jailors are empowered to let go prifoners where
the debt does not exceed 200 merks Scv/s, upon pro-
dudtion of a difcharge, in which the creditor confents
to his releafe.
n. Our law, from a confideration of compaffion,
allows infolvent debtors to apply for a releafe from pri¬
fon, upon a ceffio bonorum, i. e. upon their making o-
ver to the creditors all their eftate real and perfonal.
This muft be infilled for by way of a&ion, to which
all the creditors of the prifoner ought to be made par-
The prifoner muft, in this a&ion, which is cog-
14. Decrees are executed againft the moveable eftate Law o
of the debtor by arreftment or poinding ; and againft Scotland Jj
his heritable eftate, by inhibition, or adjudication. If Executio; T
one be condemned, in a removing or other procefs, to a
not com-
tlelin-
quents.
■AfV of
grace.
nifable only by the court of feffion, exhibit a particu¬
lar inventory of his eftate, and make oath that he has no
other eftate than is therein contained, and that he has
made no conveyance of any part of it, fince his impri-
fonment, to the hurt of his creditors. He muft alfo
make oath, whether he has granted any difpofition of
his effe&s before his imprifonment, and condefcend on
the perfons to whom, and on the caufe of granting it ;
that the court may judge, whether, by any collulive
praftice, he has forfeited his claim to liberty.
12. A fraudulent bankrupt is not allowed this pri¬
vilege ; nor a criminal who is liable in any affythment
or indemnification to the party injured or his executors,
though the crime itfelf ftiould be extinguilhed by a
pardon. A difpofition granted on a eejjio bortorum is
merely in farther fecurity to the creditors, not in fatis-
fa&ion or in folutum of the debts. If, therefore, the
debtor {hall acquire any eftate after his releafe, fucb e-
ftate may be attached by his creditors, as if there had
been no cejfio, except in fo far as is neceffary for his
fubfiftence. Debtors, who are fet free on a cejjio bom-
rum, are obliged to wear a habit proper to dyvours or
bankrupts. The lords are prohibited to dilpenfe with
this mark of ignominy, unlefs, in the fummons and
procefs of Ceffio, it be libelled, fuftained, and proved,
that the bankruptcy proceeds from misfortune. And
bankrupts are condemned to fubmit to the habit, even
where no fufpicion of fraud lies againft them, if they
have been dealers in an illicite trade.
13. Where a prifoner for debt declares upon oath,
before the magiftrate of the jurifdidtion, that he has
not wherewith to maintain himfelf, the magiftrate may
fet him at liberty, if the creditor, in confequence of
whofe diligence he was imprifoned, does not aliment
him within ten days after intimation made for that pur-
pofe. But the magiftrate may, in fuch cafe, detain him
in prifon, if he chufes to bear the burden of the ali¬
ment rather than releafe him. The ftatute authorifing
this releafe, which is ufually called the aft of grace, is
limited to the cafe of prifoners for civil debts.
quit the poffeffion of lands, and refufes, notwithftand-
ing a charge, letters of ejedlion are granted of courfe, Uate‘
ordaining the fheriff to ejedlhim, and to enter the obtain-
er of the decree into poffeffion. Where one oppofes by
violence the execution of a decree, or of any lawful di¬
ligence, which the civil magiftrate is not able by him¬
felf and his officers to make good, the execution is en¬
forced manu militari.
15. A decree-arbitral, which is a fentence proceed- Decrees-j Pji
ing on a fubmiffion to arbiters, has fome affinity with K''”1
a judicial fentence, though in moil refpe£te the two dif¬
fer. A fubmiffion is a contradl entered into by two Submiffij ii
or more parties who have difputable rights or claims,
whereby they refer their differences to the final deter¬
mination of an arbiter or arbiters, and oblige them-
felves to acquiefce in what {hall be decided. Where the
day within which the arbiters are to decide, is left
blank in the fubmiffion, pra&ice has limited the arbi¬
ters power of deciding to a year. As this has proceed¬
ed from the ordinary words of ftyle, empowering the
arbiters to determine betwixt and the day of
next to come; therefore, where a fubmiffion
is indefinite, without fpecifying any time, like all other
contrafts or obligations, it fubfifts for 40 years. Sub-
miffions, like mandates, expire by the death of any of
the parties-fubmitters before fentence. As arbiters are
not vefted with jurifdi&ion, they cannot compel wit-
neffes to make oath before them, or havers of writings
to exhibit them; but this defedt is fupplied by the
court of feffion, who, at the fuit of the arbiters, or of
either of the parties, will grant warrant for citing wit-
neffes, or for the exhibition of writings. For the fame
reafon, the power of arbiters is barely to decide; the
execution of the decree belongs to the judge. Where
the fubmitters confent to the regiftration of the de¬
cree-arbitral, performance may be enforced by fum-
mary diligence.
16. The power of arbiters is wholly derived from Powers £
the confent of parties. Hence where their powers are arbiters§:
limited to a certain day, they cannot pronounce fen¬
tence after that day. Nor can they fubjedt parties to a
penalty higher than that which they have agreed to in
the fubmiffion. And where a fubmiffion is limited to
fpecial claims, fentence pronounced on fubjedts not fpe-
cified in the fubmiffion is null, as being ultra vires com-
prom if.
17. But, on the other part, as fubmiffions are de- Pecreet9-
figned fora moft favourable purpofe, the amicable com- bitral, iw
pofing qf differences, the powers thereby conferred on fa!,re<*lli:
arbiters receive an ample interpretation. Decrees-ar- C1 e*
bitral are not reducible upon any ground, except cor¬
ruption, bribery, or falfehood.
Sect. IV. Of Crimes-. clxxJt;.
The word crime, in its moft general fenfe, includes Crim
every breach, either of the law of God, or of our coun¬
try ; in a more reftridled meaning, it fignifies fuch
tranfgreffions of law as are punifhable by courts of ju-
ftice. Crimes were, by the Roman law, divided into
public and private. Public crimes were thofe that were pU{,uCj
exprefsly declared fuch by fome law or coniritution,
and
’art III. L A W. ( 109 )
law of and which, on account of their more atrocious nature
I and hurtful confequences, might be profecuted^by any
' jvatc member of the community. Private crimes could be
purfued only by the party injured, and were generally
j punifhed by a pecuniary fine to be applied to his ufe.
By the law of Scotland, no private party, except the
| ] perfon injured, or his next of his kin, can accufe crimi¬
nally : but the king’s advocate, who in this queftion
{ I reprefents the community, has a right to profecute all
crimes in vindifiam pullicatn, though the party injured
fhould refufe to concur. Smaller offences, as petty
riots, injuries, &c. which do not demand the public
vengeance, pafs generally by the appellation of delifts,
and are punilhed either by fine or imprifonment.
ateflen- 2. The effence of a crime is, that there be an inten-
t0 tion in the a&or to commit it; for an adlion in which
the will of the agent has no part, is not a proper ob-
je& either of rewards or .punifhments: hence arifes the
I rule, crimen dolo contrabiiur. Simple negligence-does
not therefore conftitute a proper crime. Yet where it
J is extremely‘grofs, it may be punilhed arbitrarily. Far
lefs can we reckon in the number of crimes, thofe com¬
mitted by an idiot or furious perfon: but leffer degrees
of fatuity, which only darken reafon, will not afford a
total defence, though they may fave from the poena or-
dinaria. A&ions committed in drunkennefs are not to
be confidered as involuntary, feeing the drunkennefs
itfelf, which was the firfl caufe of the adtion, is both
voluntary and criminal.
3. On the fame principle, fuch as are in a ftate of
infancy, or in the confines of it, are incapable of a cri¬
minal adfion, dole not being incident to that age; but
the precife age at which a perfon becomes capable of
j dole, being fixed neither by nature nor by ftatute, is
by our pradfice to be gathered by the judge, as he belt
can, from the underftanding and manners of the per¬
fon accufed. Where the guilt of a crime arifes chiefly
from ftatute, the adtor, if he is under puberty, can
hardly be found guilty; but, where nature itfelf points
out its deformity, he may, if he is proximus pubertati,
- be more eallly prefumed capable of committing it: yet,
even in that cafe, he will not be punilhed poena ordi-
■ I _ naria.
Jceflb- 4- One may be guilty of a crime, not only by per-
f> or art petrating it himfeff, but being acceflbry to a crime
ipart. committed by another; which laft is by civilians ftyled
ope et confilio, and, in our law-phrafe, art and part. A
perfon may be guilty, art and part, either by giving
advice or counfel to commit the crime; or, 2. By gi¬
ving warrant or mandate to commit it; or, 3. By ac-
,| tually allifting the criminal in the execution. It is ge¬
nerally agreed by dodlors, that, in the more atrocious
crimes, the advifer i§ equally punilhable with the cri¬
minal.; and that, in the (lighter, the circumftances ari-
fing from the advifer’s le(Ter age, the jocular or carelefs
manner of giving advice, &c. may be received as pleas
for foftening the punilhment. One who gives mandate
to commit a crime, as he is the firft fpring of adtion,
feems more guilty than the perfon employed as the in-
ftrument in executing it; yet the adtor cannot excufe
I himfelf under the pretence of orders which he ought
not to have obeyed.
5. Affiftance may be given to the committer of a
| crime, not only in the adtual execution, but previous
to it, by furnilhing him, intentionally, with poifon,
arms, or the other means of perpetrating it. That fort Law of
of afiiftance which is not given till after the criminal Scotla,Ml-
adt, and which is commonly called abetting, tho’ it be ~
of itfelf criminal, does not infer art and part of the
principal crime ; as if one (hould favour the efcape of
a criminal knowing him to be fuch, or cpnceal him from
juftice.
6. Thofe crimes that are, in their confequences, P'U'ifli-
moft hurtful to fociety, are punifhed capitally, or by
death ; .others efcape with a kfier puniftiment, fome-
times fixed by ftatute, and fometimes arbitrary, /. e.
left to the difcretion of the judge, who may exercife
his jurifdidfion, either by fine, imprifonment, or a cor¬
poral punilhinent. Where the puniftiment is left, by
law, to the difcretioi) of the judge, he can in no cafe
extend it to death. The Angle efcheat of the criminal
falls on convidlion, in all capital trials, though the fen-
tence fliould not exprefs it.
7. Certain crimes are committed more immediately Blafph*my.
againft God himfelf; others, againft the ftate; and a
third kind, againft particular perfons. The chief
crime in the firft clafs, cognifable by temporal courts,
is blafphemy, under which may be included atheifni.
This crime confifts in the denying or vilifying the Deity,
by fpeech or writing. All who curfe God or any of the
perfons of the blefled Trinity, are to fuffer death, even
for a fingle adf ; and thofe who deny him, if they per-
fift in their denial. The denial of a Providence, or of
the authority of the holy Scriptures, is puniftiable ca¬
pitally for the third offence.
8. No profecutkm can now be carried on for witch¬
craft or conjuration. But all who undertake, from
their (kill in any occult fcience, to tell fortunes, or dif-
'coverJlolengoods, are to fuffer imprifonment fora year,
(land in the pillory four times in that year, and find
furety for their future good behaviour.
9. Some crimes againft the ftate are levelled dire&ly Treafon.
againft the fupreme power, and ftrike at the conftitu-
tion itfelf: others difcover fuch a contempt of law, as
tends to baffle authority, or (lacken the reins of go¬
vernment. Treafon, crimen majefatis, is that crime
which is aimed againft the majefty of the ftate ; and
can be committed only by thofe who are fubjeds of
that (late either by birth or refidence. Soon after the
union of the two kingdoms in 1707, the laws of trea¬
fon, then in force in England, were made ours by
7 Ann. c. 21. both with regard to the fads conftitu-
ting that crime, to the forms of trial, the corruption of
blood, and all the penalties and forfeitures confequent
on it.
10. It is high treafon, by the law of England, to
imagine the death of the King, Queen-confort, or of
the heir apparent of the crown ; to levy war againft
the King, or adhere to his enemies; to counterfeit the
king’s coin, or his great or privy feal; to kill the chan¬
cellor, treafurer, or any of the 12 judges of Eng¬
land, while they are doing their offices ; which laft ar¬
ticle is by the forenamed ad 7 Ann. applied to Scot¬
land, in the cafe of (laying any judge of the feffion or
of judiciary fitting in judgment. Thofe who walh,
clip, or lighten the proper money of the realm ; who
advifedly affirm by writing or printing, that the Pre¬
tender has any right to the crown, that the king and
parliament cannot limit the fucceffion toil, or who hold
correfpondence with the Pretender, or any perfon em¬
ployed
( 110)
L A W.
Part II
Law of
Scotland.
Pains of
treafon.
Mifprifion
of treafon.
Sedition.
Corruption
in judges.
ployed by him, are alfo guilty of treafon.
x i. The forms of proceeding in the trial of treafon,
whether againft peers or commoners, are fet forth in a
fmall treatife, publifhed by order of the houfe of
lords in 1709, fubjoined to a colleftion of ftatutes con¬
cerning treafon. By the conviction upon this trial, the
whole eftate of the traitor forfeits to the crown. His
blood is alfo corrupted, fo that, on the death of an an-
ceftor, he cannot inherit; and the eftate which he
cannot take, falls to the immediate fuperior as efcheat,
oh defcftutn heredity without diftinguifhing whether the
lands hold of the crown, or of a fubjed:. No attain¬
der for treafon ftiall, after the death of the Pretender
and all his fons, hurt the right of any perfon, other
than'that of the offender, during his natural life ; the
rights of creditors and other third parties in'the cafe of
forfeiture on treafon, muft be determined by the law of
England.
12. Mifprifton of treafon, from meprendre, is theo-
verlooking or concealing of treafon. It is inferred by
one’s bare knowledge of the crime, and not difcover-
ing it-to a magiftrate or other perfon intitled by his
office to take examinations; though he Ihould not in
the leaft degree affent to it. The forefaid aft 7 An.
makes the Engliffi law of mifprifion ours. Its puniffi-
ment is, by the law of England, perpetual imprifonment,
together with the forfeiture of the offender’s moveables,
and of the profits of his heritable eftate, during his
life; that is, in the ftyle of our law, his fingle and life-
rent efcheat.
13. The crime of fedition confifts in the raifing com¬
motions or difturbances in the ftate. It is either verbal
or real. Verbal fedition, or leafing making, is infer¬
red from the uttering of words tending to create dif-
cord between the king and his people. It is punifhed
either by imprifonment, fine, or banifhmerit, at the dif-
cretion of the judge. Real fedition is generally com¬
mitted by canvocating together any confiderable num¬
ber of people, without lawful authority, under the pre¬
tence of redreffing fome public grievance, to the di-
fturbing of the public peace. Thofe who are convifted
of this crime are punilhed by the confifcation of their
goods; and their lives are at the king’s will. If any
perfons, to the number of 12, {hall affemble, and being
required by a magiftrate or conftable to difperfe, {hall
neverthelefs continue together for an hour after fuch
eofhmand, the perfons difobeying {hall fuffer death and
confifcation of moveables.
14. Judges, who, wilfully or through corruption,
ufe their authority as a cover to injuftice or oppreffion,
are punifiied with the lofs of honour, fame, and dig¬
nity. Under this head may be claffed theftbote (from
bote, compenfation), which is the taking a confideration
in money or goods from a thief to exempt him from
puniffiment, or connive at his efcape from juftice. A
ffieriff or other judge, guilty of this crime, forfeits his
life and goods. And even a private perfon, who takes
theftbote, fuffers as the principal thief. The buying
of difputed claims, concerning which there is a pend¬
ing procefs, by any judge or member either of the fef-
fion, or of an inferior court, is puniffied by the lofs of
the delinquent’s office, and all the privileges thereto
belonging.
15. Deforcement is the oppofition given, or refift-
anee made, to meffengers or other officers, while they
are employed in executing the law. The court of fef- Law|,j
fion is competent to this crime. It is punilhable with Scot!ajM
the confifcation of moveables, the one half to the king,
and the other to the creditor at whofe fuit the dili¬
gence was ufed. Armed perfons, to the number of l|
three or more, affifting in the illegal running, landing,
or exporting off prohibited or uncuftomed goods, or iM
any who {hall refill, wound, or maim any officer of the Irj
revenue in the execution of his office, are punilhable ffl
with death and the confifcation of moveables.
16. Breach of arrejhnent, (fee N° Ixxviii. 5.) is a BreacMpi
crime of the fame nature with deforcement, as it im- arreftfljhfl
ports a contempt of the law and of our judges. It fub- |j |
jefts to an arbitrary corporal puniffiment, and the ef- ij|
cheat of moveables ; with a preference to the creditor wl
for his debt, and for fuch farther fum as ffiall be mo¬
dified to him by the judge. Under this head of crimes '<91
againft good government and police, may be reckon- ®|
td forejialling of markets; that is, the buying ofFore(fj:o
goods intended for a public market, before they are ling» iSl
carried there ; which for the third criminal aft, infers
the efcheat of moveables; as alfo flaying falmon in ij J
forbidden time, deftroying plough-graith in time of I
tillage, flaying or houghing horfes or cows in time of
harveft, and deftroying or fpoiling growing timber;
as to the puniffiment of which, fee ftatutes 1503, c. 72.
—1587, c. 82. and 1689, c. 16—1. Geo. I. St. 2. §
c. 48.
17. Crimes againft particular perfons may be di- MurfM
refted either againft life, limb, liberty, chaftity, goods,
or reputation. Murder is the wilful taking away of a
perfon’s life, without a neceffary caufe. Our law
makes no diftinftion betwixt premeditated and fudden I
homicide ; both are puniffied capitally. Cafual homi¬
cide, where the after is in fome degree blameable; and
homicide in felf-defence, where the juft bounds of de¬
fence have been exceeded; are puniffied arbitrarily:
but the {laughter of night-thieves, houfe-breakers, af-
fiftants in mafterful depredations, or rebels denounced
for capital crimes, may be committed with impunity.
The crime of demembration, or the cutting off of a
member, is joined with that of murder; but in prac¬
tice, its puniffiment has been reftrifted to the efcheat ||
of moveables, and an affythment or indemnification to
the party. Mutilation, or the difablirig of a member, |j
is puniffied at the diferetion of the judge.
18. Self-murder is as highly criminal as the killing gelf-A ' 5
our neighbour ; and for this reafon, our law has, con- der. Ikji
trary to the rule, crimina morte extinguuntur, allowed
a proof of the crime, after the offender’s death, that
his fingle efcheat might fall to the king or his dona¬
tory. To this end, an aftion muft be brought, not |
before the jufticiary, but the feffion, becaufe it is only Is
intended ad civilem effettum, for proving and declaring
the felf-murder; and the next of kin to the deceafed
muft be made a party to it.
19. The punifhment of parricide, or of the murder Parri
of a parent, is not confined, by our law, to the criminal
himfelf. All his pofterity in the right line are decla¬
red incapable of inheriting; and the fucceffion devolves
on the next collateral heir. Even the curfing or beat¬
ing of a parent infers death, if the perfon guilty be a-
bove 16 years; and an arbitrary puniffiment, if he be
under it. A preemptive or ftatutory murder is con-
ftituted by 1690, c. 21. by Which any woman who
ffiall
art III.
LAW.
(
!W Of
itland.
elling.
I :tery.
Vongous
fhall conceal her pregnancy, during its whole courfe,
and (hall not call for, or make ufe of help in the birth,
is to be reputed the murderer, if the child be dead, or
amiffing. This aft was intended to difcourage the un¬
natural praftice of women making away with their
children begotten in fornication, to avoid church-cen-
fures.
20. Duelling, is the crime of fighting in Angle com¬
bat, on previous challenges given and received. Fight¬
ing in a duel, without licence from the king, is punilh-
able by death; and whatever perfon, principal or fe-
cond, (hall give a challenge to fight a duel, or (hall ac¬
cept a challenge, or otherwife engage therein, is pu-
nifhed by banifhment and efcheat of moveables, though
no aftual fighting (hould enfue.
21. Haiftfitcken, (from haim, home, and focken, to
feek or purfue,) is the affaulting or beating of a per¬
fon in his own houfe. The puniihment of this crime is
no where defined, except in the books of the Majefty,
which make'it the fame as that of a rape; and it is,
like rape, capital by our praftice. The affault muft
be made in the proper houfe of the perfon afiaulted,
where he lies and rifes daily and nightly, fo that nei¬
ther a public houfe, nor even a private, where one is
only tranfiently, falls within the law.
22. Any party to a law-fuit, who (hall (lay, wound,
or otherwife invade his adverfary, at any period of time
between executing the fummons and the complete exe¬
cution of the decree, or (hall be accefibry to fuch inva-
fion, (hall lofe his caufe. The fentence pronounced on
this trial, againft him who has committed the battery,
is not fubjeft to reduftion, either on the head of mi¬
nority, or on any other ground whatever: and if the
perfon profecuted for this crime (hall be denounced for
not appearing, his liferent, as well as Angle efcheat,
falls upon the denunciation.
23. The crime of ’wrongous imprifonment is inferred,
by granting warrants of commitment in order to trial,
proceeding on informations not fubfcribed, or without
expreffing the caufe of commitment; by receiving or
detaining prifoners on fuch warrants ; by refufing to a
prifoner a copy of the warrant of commitment; by de¬
taining him in clofe confinement, above eight days af¬
ter his commitment; by not releafing him on bail,
where the crime is bailable ; and by tranfporting per-
fons out of the kingdom, without either their own con-
fent, or a lawful fentence. The perfons guilty of a
wrongous imprifonment, are punifhed by a pecuniary
mulft, from L. 6000 down to L. 400 Scots, accord¬
ing to the rank of the perfon detained ; and the judge,
or other perfon guilty, is over and above fubjefted to
pay to the perfon detained a certain fum per diem, pro¬
portioned to his rank, and is declared incapable of pu¬
blic truft. All thefe penalties may be infifted for by a
fummary aftion before the feffion, and are fubjeft to
no modification.
24. Adultery, is the crime by which the marriage-
bed is polluted. This crime could, neither by the Ro¬
man nor Jewifh law, be committed, but where the
guilty woman was the wife of another : by ours, it is
adultery, if either the man or woman be married.
We diftinguifh between Ample adultery, and that
which is notorious otmanifeft. Open and manifeft a-
dulterers, who continue incorrigible, notwithftanding
the cenfures of the church, are punilhed capitally.
This crime is diftinguiihed by one or other of the follow¬
ing charafters ; where there is ifiue procreated between
the adulterers; or where they keep bed and company
together notorioufly; or where they give fcandal to the
church, and are, upon their obftinate refufing to liften
to their admonitions, excommunicated. The punifir-
ment of fimple adultery, not being defined by (fatute,
is left to the diferetion of the judge; but cuftom has
made the falling of the fingle efcheat one of its penal¬
ties.
25. Bigamy, is a perfon’s entering into the engage¬
ments of a fecond marriage, in violation of a former
marriage-vow dill fubfifting. Bigamy, pn the part
of the man, has been tolerated in many dates, before
the edablidiment of Chridianity, even by the Jews
themfelves; but it is prohibited by the precepts of the
gofpel, and it is punKhed by our law, whether on the
part of the man or of the.woman, with the pains of
perjury.
26. Incejl, is committed by perfons who dand with¬
in the degrees of kindred forbidden in Lev. xviii. and
is puniflied capitally. The fame degrees are prohi¬
bited in affinity, as in confanguinity, Lev. xviii. 13.
et feq. As this crime is repugnant to nature, all chil¬
dren, whether lawful or natural, dand on an equal
footing : civilis ratio civiliajura corrumpere potejl, non
vero naturalia. It is difficult indeed to bring a legal
proof of a relation merely natural, on the fide of the
father; but the mother may be certainly known with¬
out marriage.
26. There is no explicit datute making rape, or the
ravidiing of women, capital; but it is plainly fuppofed
in aft 1612. c. 4. by which the raviiher is exempted
from the pains of death, only in the cafe of the wo¬
man’s fubfequent confent, or her declaration that die
went off with him of her own free-will; and even then,
he is to fuffer an arbitrary punidiment, either by im¬
prifonment, confifcation of goods, or a pecuniary fine.
28. Theft is defined, A fraudulent intermeddling with
the property of another, with a view of making gain.
Our ancient law proportioned the punidiment of the
theft to the value of the goods dolen ; heightening it
gradually, from a flight corporal punidiment to a ca¬
pital, if the value amounted to thirty-two pennies Scots,
which in the reign of David I. was the price of two
(heep. In feveral latter afts, it is taken for granted,
that this crime is capital. But where the thing dolcn
is of fmall value, we confider it, not as theft, but as pic¬
kery, which is punidied either corporally or by banidi-
ment. The breaking of orchards, and the dealing of
green wood, is punilhed by a fine, which rifes as the
crime is repeated.
29. Theft may be aggravated into a capital crime,
though the value of the thing fiolen be trifling ; as
theft twice repeated, or committed in the night, or by
landed men ; or of things fet apart for facred ufes.
The receivers and concealers of dolen goods, knowing
them to be fuch, fuffer as thieves. Thofe who barely
harbour the perfon of the criminal within 48 hours ei¬
ther before or after committing the crime, are punilhed
as partakers of the theft. Such as fell goods belong¬
ing to thieves or lawlefs perfons who dare not them¬
felves come to market, are puniflied with banifliment
and the efcheat of moveables.
30. Theft attended with violence is called robbery ;
and
... )
Law of
Scotland.
Bigamy.
Inceft.
Rape.
Theft.
Refc t of
theft.
( II-
Law of
Scotland.
Robbery,
&c.
Falfehood
Forgery. •
Perjury.
)
L A W.
Part IB :
and in our old ftatutes, rief or Jlcuthrief; under which
, clafs may be included forning, or the taking of meat and
drink by force, without payings for it. Stoutrhief came
atlaft to be committed fo audacioufly, by bands of men
aifociated together, that it was thought neceffary to veil
all our freeholders with a power of holding courts up¬
on forners and rievers, and condemning them to death.
Nay, all were capitally punilhed, who, to fecure their
lands from depredation, payed to the rievers a yearly
contribution, which got the name of black-mail. An
act alfo paffed, commanding to banifhment a band of
forners, who were originally from Egypt, gypjies,
and adjudging to death all that fhould be reputed Egyp~
tiansi if found thereafter within the kingdom. Rob¬
bery committed on the feas, is called piracy, and is
puniihed capitally by the high admiral. Several of the
fafits which conftitute this crime are fet forth in a Bri-
tifh ftatute,'8 Geo. I. c. 24.
31. Falfehood, in a large fenfe, is the fraudulent i-
mitation or fuppreffion of truth, to the damage of an¬
other. The lives and goods of perfons convifted of
ufing falfg weights or meafures were, by our old law, in
the king’s mercy ; and their heirs could not inherit
but upon a remiffion. The lateft ftatute againft this
crime, punifties it by confifcation of moveables. That
particular fpecies of falfehood, which confifts in the
falfifying of writings, pafles by the name of forgery.
Our practice has now of a long time, agreeably to
the Roman law, made this crime capital; unlefs the
forgery be of executions, or other writings of fmaller
moment; in which cafe, it is punifhed arbitrarily.
32. The writing muft not only be fabricated, but
put to ufe or founded on, in order to infer this crime.
And though it be ftri&ly criminal, yet the trial of it
is proper to the court of feffion ; but where improba-
tion is moved againft a deed by way of exception, the
inferior judge, before the a&ion lies, is competent to
it ad civilem effettum. When it is pleaded as an ex¬
ception, our pradtice, to difeourage affedled delays, ob¬
liges the defender, who moves it, to confign L. 40
Scots; which he forfeits, if his plea fhall appear ca¬
lumnious.
33. Where a perfon, found guilty of forgery by the
court of feffion, is by them remitted to the jufticiary,
an indi&ment is there exhibited againft him, and a
jury fworn, before whom the decree of feffion is produ¬
ced, in place of all other evidence of the crime, in re-
fpeft of which the jury find the pannel guilty ; fo that
that decree being pronounced by a competent court, is
held as full proof, or, in the ftyle of the bar, as probatio
probata.
34. Perjury, which is the judicial affirmation of a
falfeliood on oath, really conftitutes the crimen falfi;
for he who is guilty of it does, in the moft folemn
manner, fubftitute falfehood in the place of truth. To
conftitute this crime, the violation of truth muft be
deliberately intended by the fwearer; and therefore
reafonable allowances ought to be given to forgetful-
nefs or mifapprehenfion, according to his age, health,
and other circumftances. The breach of a promiflbry
oath does not infer this crime; for he who promifes on
oath, may fincerely intend performance when he fwears,
and fo cannot be faid to call on God to atteft a falfe¬
hood. Though an oath, however falfe, if made upon
reference in a civil queftion, concludes the caufe, the
perfon perjured is liable to a criminal trial; for the ef- LawJj
feft of the reference can go no further than the private Sc°dffi|
right of the parties.
35. Notwithftanding the mifehievous confequences
of perjury to fociety, it is not punifhed capitally, but
by confifcation of moveables, imprifonment for a year,
and infamy. The court of feffion is competent to per- if |
jury in'eidenter, when in any examination upon oath,
taken in a caufe depending before them, a perfon ap- || j
pears to have fworn falfely ; but in the common cafe, r i
that trial is proper to the jufticiary. Subornation of .{|| I
perjury confifts in tampering with perfons who are to
fwear in judgment, by directing them how they are If |
to depofe ; and it is puniftied with the pains of per- ^ fjj J
jury.
36. The crime of Jlellionate, from Jlellio, includes StcLlio&aii
every fraud which is not diftinguiftied by a fpecial
name; but is chiefly applied to conveyances of the 1 3
fame numerical right, granted by the proprietor to
different difponees. The punifhment of ftellionate muft
neceffarily be arbitrary, to adapt it to the various na¬
tures and different aggravations of the fraudulent a&s.
The perfons guilty of that kind of it, which confifts in
granting double conveyances, are by our law declared in¬
famous, and their lives and goods at the king’s mercy.
The cognifance of fraudulent bankruptcy is appropria¬
ted to the court of feffion, who may inflidf any punifh¬
ment on the offender, that appears proportioned to his
guilt, death excepted.
37. The crime of ufury, before the reformation, ufurji:
confifted in the taking of any intereft for the ufe of *
money ; and now in taking an higher rate of intereft
than is authorifed by law. It is divided into ufura
jnanifefla, or direft 5 and velata, or covered. One
may be guilty of the firft kind, either where he cove¬
nants with the debtor for more than the lawful intereft
on the loan-money ; or where one receives the intereft
of a fum before it it due, fince thereby he takes a eon-
fideration for the ufe of money before the debtor has
really got the ufe of it. Where a debt is clogged
with an uncertain condition, by which the creditor runs
the hazard of lofing his fum, he may covenant for an
higher intereft than the legal, without the crime of u-
fury ; for there, the intereft is not given merely in con-
fideration of the ufe of the money, but of the danger
undertaken by the creditor.
38. Covered ufury, is that which is committed un¬
der the maik, not of a loan, but of fome other contradt;
e. g. a fale, or an improper wadfet. And in general,
all obligations entered into with an intention of get¬
ting more than the legal intereft for the ufe of money,
however they may be difguifed, are ufurious. As a
farther guard againft this crime, the taking more than
the legal intereft for the forbearance of payment of
money, merchandife, or other commodities, by way of
loan, exchange, or other contrivance whatever, or the
taking a bribe for the loan of money, or for delaying
its payment when lent, is declared ufury. Where ufury
is proved, the ufurious obligation is not only ‘declared
void, but the creditor, if he has received any unlawful
profits, forfeits the treble value of the fums or goods
lent. Ufury, when it is to be purfued criminally, muft
be tried by the jufticiary ; but where the libel con¬
cludes only for voiding the debt or reftitution, the fef¬
fion is the proper court.
39. Injury,
1
) Part III. L A W. ( n3
b .aw of Injury, in its proper acceptation, is t!ie re-
E ;otlan(1' proaching or affronting our neighbour. Injuries are
jrv cither verbal or real. A verbal injury, when dire&ed
| ' againft a private perfon, confiits in the uttering contu-
11 melious w'ords, which tend to expofe our neighbour’s
charadter by making him little or ridiculous. It does
not feem that the twitting one with natural defedls,
without any farcaftical refleftions, though it be inhu¬
man, falls under this defcription, as thefe imply no real
reproach in the juft opinion of mankind. Where the
injurious exprefiions have a tendency to blacken one’s
s I moral character, or fix fome particular guilt upon him,
and are deliberately repeated in different companies, or
ij handed about in whifpers to confidents, it then grows
up to the crime of flander: and where a perfon’s mo¬
ral carafter is thus attacked, the animus injuriatidi is
commonly inferred from the injurious words themfelves,
uniefs fpecial circumftances be offered to take off the
prefumption; ex. gr. that the words were uttered in
judgement in one’s own defence, or by way of informa¬
tion to a magiftrate, and had fome foundation in fa£t.
Though the cognizance of flander is proper to the com-
miffaries, who, as the judices Chrijiianitatis, are the
only judges of fcandal; yet for fbme time paft, bare
verbal injuries have been tried by other criminal judges,
and even by the Sefiion. It is punifhed either by a
I fine, proportioned to the condition of the perfons inju¬
ring and injured, and the circumftances of time and
place ; or if the injury import fcandal, by publicly ac¬
knowledging the offence ; and frequently the two are
I conjoined. The calling one a bankrupt is not, in ftriA
fpeech, a verbal injury, as it does not affeft the perfon’s
moral chara&er; yet as it may hurt his credit in the
way of bufinefs, it founds him in an aftion of damages,
which muft be brought before the judge-ordinary.
A real injury is infli&ed by any faft by which a per¬
fon’s honour or dignity is afFeded; as ftriking one
with a cane, or even aiming a blow without ftriking;
j fpitting in one’s face; affuming a coat of arms, or
any other mark of diftindlion proper to another, &c.
The compofing and publifhing defamatory libels may
| be reckoned of this kind. Real injuries are tried by
the judge-ordinary, and punifhed either by fine or
imprifonment, according to the demerit of the of¬
fenders.
40. After having fhortly explained the feveral
crimes punifhable hy our law, this treatife may be
j concluded with a few obfervations on criminal jurif-
j ' diftion, the forms of trial, and the methods by which
crimes may be extinguifhed. Criminal jurifdiftion is
jV?’.1”1.' founded, 1. Ratione domicilii, if the defender dwells
jiMiftion. with;n the territory of the judge. Vagabonds, who
have no certain domicile, may be tried wherever they
are apprehended.. 2. Ratione delicti, if the crime
was committed within the territory. Treafon is tri¬
able, by the Englifh law, in any county that the
king fliould appoint; and, by a temporary aft now
expired, treafon committed in certain Scots counties,
I was made triable by the court of Judiciary, wherever
I it fhould fit.
hat per- ^1‘ No criminal trial can proceed, uniefs the perfon
ins are not accufed *s capable of making his defence. Abfents
able. therefore cannot be tried; nor fatuous nor furious
I perfons, durante furore, even for crimes committed
while they were in their fenfes. For a like reafon,
Vol. VI.
minors who had no curators, could not, by the Roman Law of
law, be tried criminally; but our praftice confiders ScQtland.
every perfon who is capable of dole, to be alfo fuffi-
ciently qualified for making his defence in a criminal
trial.
42. No perfon can be imprifoned in order to ftandComm‘!>
trial for any crime, without a warrant in writing ex-rnent-
prefling the caufe, and proceeding upon a fubfcribed
information, uniefs in the cafe of indignities done to
judges, riots, and the other offences fpecially mentioned
in 1701, c. 6. Every prifoner committed in order to
trial, if the crime of which he is accufed be not capi¬
tal, is entitled to be releafed upon bail, the extent of
which is to be modified by the judge, not exceeding
12,000 merks Scots for a nobleman, 6000 for a landed
gentleman, 2000 for every other gentleman orburgefs,
and 600 for any other inferior perfon. That perfons
who, either from the nature of the crime with which
they are charged, or from their low circumftances,
cannot procure bail, may not lie for ever in prifon un¬
tried, it is lawful for every fuch prifoner, to apply to
the criminal judge, that his trial may be brought on.
The judge muft, within 24 hours after fuch applica¬
tion, iflue letters direfted to meflengers, for intimating
to the profecutor to fix a diet for the prifoner’s trial,
within 60 days after the intimation, under the pain of
wrongous imprifonment; And if the profecutor does
not infill within that time, or if the trial is not finilhed
in forty days more when carried on before the Juftici-
ary, or in thirty when before any other judge ; the
prifoner is, upon a fecond application, fetting forth
that the legal time is elapfed, entitled to his freedom,
under the fame penalty.
43. Upon one’s committing any of the grofler Precogni-
crimes, it is ufual for a juftice of the peace, Iheriff, ortlon*
other judge, to take a precognition of the fafts, i. e.
to examine thofe who were prefent at the criminal aft,
upon the fpecial circumftances attending it, in order
to know whether there is ground for a trial, and to
ferve as a direftion to the profecutor, how to fet forth
the fafts in the libel; but the perfons examined may
infill to have their declarations cancelled, before they
give teftimony at the trial. Juftices of the peace,
Iheriffs, and magiftrates of boroughs, are alfo autho*
rifed to receive informations, concerning crimes to be
tried in the circuit-courts; which informations are to
be tranfmitted to the juftice-clerk 40 days before the
fitting of the refpeftive courts. To difcourage
groundlefs criminal trials, all profecutors, where the
defender was abfolved, were condemned by ftatute, in
colls, as they Ihould be modified by the judge, and
befides were fubjefted to a fmall fine, to be divided
between the fife and the defender: And where the
king’s advocate was the only purfuer, his informer
was made liable. This fufficiently warrants the pre¬
fent praftice of condemning vexatious profecutors in
a pecuniary mulft, though far exceeding the ftatutory
fum.
44. The forms of trial upon criminal acchfations, oj?
differ much from thofe obferved in civil aftions, if we trial,
except the cafe of fuch crimes as the court of Seflicn is
competent to, and of leffer offences tried before infe¬
rior courts. The trial of crimes proceeds, either upon
indiftment, which is fometimes ufed when the perfon
to be tried is in prifon ; or by criminal letters iffuing
[ p J 23 N from
I
L A W. Part III
Law of from the fignet of the Jafticiary. In either cafe, the
Scotland defender mutt be ferved with a full copy of the indict-
ment or’letters, and with a lift of the witneflcs to be
brought againft him, and of the perfons who are to
pafs on the inqueft, and 15 free days muft intervene
between his being fo ferved, and the day of appearance.
When the trial proceeds upon criminal letters, the pri-
?ate profecutor muft give fecurity, at railing the let¬
ters, that he will report them duly executed to the
Jufticiary, in terms of 1535, c. 35.; and the defender,
if he be not already in prifon, is, by the letters, re¬
quired to give caution, within a certain number of
days after his citation, for his appearance upon the
day fixed for his trial: And if he gives none within
the days of the charge, he may be denounced rebel,
which infers the forfeiture of his moveables.
45. That part of the indi&ment, or of the criminal
letters, which contains the ground of the charge a-
gainft the defender, and the nature or degree of the
punifhment he ought to fuffer, is called the libel. All
libels muft be fpecial, fetting forth the particular fads
inferring the guilt, and the particular place where
thefe fads were done. The time of committing the
crime may be libelled in more general terms, with an
alternative as to the month, or day of the month :
but as it is not pradicable, in mod cafes, to libel upon
the precife circumftances of acceffion that may appear
in proof, libels againft acceffories are fufficient, if they
mentioned, in general, that the perfons profecuted are
guilty art and part.
46. 'The defender, in a criminal trial, may raife
letters of exculpation, for citing witnefies in proof of
his defences againft the libel, or of his objedions a-
gainft any of the jury or witnefles ; which muft be ex¬
ecuted to the fame day of appearance with that of the
indidment or criminal letters.
Diets of 47' ^'^ie ^‘ets appearance> in the court of Jufti-
appearanre. clary, are peremptory : the criminal letters muft be
called on the very day to which the defender is cited;
and hence, if no accufer appears, their effed is loft,
injlantia perit, and new letters muft be raifed. If the
libel, or any of the executions, fliall to the profecutor
appear informal, or if he be diffident of the proof,
from the abfeonding of a neceffary witnefs, the court
will, upon a motion made by him, defert the diet pro
loco et tempore ; after which new letters become alfo ne-
ceflary. A defender, who does not appear on the
very day to which he is cited, is declared fugitive; in
confequence of which, his Angle efeheat falls. The
defender, after his appearance in court, is called the
pannel,
48. The two things to be chiefly regarded in a cri¬
minal libel, are, 1. The relevancy of the fads, i. e. their
Sufficiency to infer the conclufion ; 2. Their truth.
The confideration of the firft belongs to the judge of
the court; that of the other, to the jury or affixe. If
the fads libelled be found irrelevant, the pannel is
difmiffed from the bar ; if relevant, the court remits
the proof thereof to be determined by the jury; which
muft confift of 15 men picked out by the court from a
greater, number not exceeding 45, who have been all
fummoned, and given in lift to the defender at ferving
him with a copy of the libel.
Probatfon 49. Crimes cannot, like debts, be referred to the
©f crimes, defender’s oath ; for no perfon is compellable to fwear
againft himfelf, where his life, limb,.liberty, or eftate Law.cjL
is concerned, nor even in crimes which infer infamy ; Scodan4
becaufe one’s good name is, in right eftimation, as Tllf
valuable as his life. There is one exception however to
this rule in trying the crime of ufury, which may be I
proved by the ufurer’s own oath, notwithftanding the
rule, nemo tenetur jurare in fuam turpitudinem. Crimes
therefore are in the general cafe proveable only by the 3
defender’s free confeffion, or by writing, or by wit-
neffes. No extrajudicial confeffion, unlefs it is ad- I
hered to by the pannel in judgment, can be admitted I
as evidence.
50. All obje&ions relevant againft a witnefs in civil Sofu cnVJh
cafes are alfo relevant in criminal. No witnefs is ad-”a‘ I
mitted, who may gain or lofe by the event of the
trial. Socii criminis, or affociates in the fame crime, |
are not admitted againft one another, except either in
crimes againft the ftate, as treafon ; in occult crimes, T
where other witnefles cannot be had, as forgery; or ;j
in thefts or depredations committed in the Highlands.
The teftimony of the private party injured may be 1
received againft the pannel, where the king’s advocate
is the only profecutor, if, from the nature of the crime, 1
there muft needs be a penury of witneffes, as in rape, I
robbery, See.
51. After all the witnefles have been examined in v5.r^f1,1
court, the jury are ihut up in a room by themfelves,3 1 e’ f- 1
where they muft continue, excluded from all correfpon-
dence, till their verdift or judgment be fubferibed by
the foreman (or chancellor), and clerk ; and according I
to this verdift the court pronounces fentence, either
abfolving or condemning. It is not neceflary, by the
law of Scotland, that a jury ihould be unanimous in f
finding a perfon guilty ; the narroweft majority is as I
fufficient againft the pannel, as for him. Juries can¬
not be punifhed on account of an erroneous verdiift, I
either for or againft the pannel.
52. Though the proper bufinefs of a jury be to in- p<?wer# 'r5
quire into the truth of the fafts found relevant by the3 jury*lr '
court, for which reafon they are fometimes called the
inquejl; yet, in many cafes, they judge alfo in mat¬
ters of law or relevancy. Thus, though an objedion
againft a witnefs fhould be repelled by the court, the
jury are under no neceffity to give more credit to his l
teftimony than they think juft : And in all trials of I
art and part, where fpecial fads art not libelled, the |
jury, if they return a general verdid, are indeed
judges not only of the truth, but of the relevancy of li
the fads that are fworn to by the witnefles. A ge- |
neral verdid, is that which finds in general terms, that
the pannel is guilty or not guilty, or that the libel or f
defences are proved or not proved. In a fpecial ver- I
did, the jury finds certain fads proved, the import of
which is to be afterwards confidered by the court.
53. Criminal judges muft now fufpend for fome Senterp
time the execution of fuch fentences as affed life or I
limb, that fo condemned criminals, whofe cafes deferve
favour, may have accefs to apply to the king for mercy.
No fentence of any court of judicature, fouth of the I
river Forth, importing either death or demembration,
can be executed in lefs than 30 days;. and, if north
of it, in lefs than 40 days, after the date of the fen-
tence. But corporal punifliments, lefs than death or
difmembring, e. £. whipping, pillory, dre. may be in-
flided eight days after fentence on this fide Forth, . ^
and S
J
A
l Part III. L
l< -.aw of and twelve days after fentence beyond it.
ir ;otland. Crimes are extinguifhed, i. By the death of
*i tinflion ^ cr'm'na^» becaufe a dead perfon can make
to crimes.11 no defence, fo that his trial is truly a judging upon the
hearing of one fide ; and becaufe, though his gniit
fhould be ever fo notorious, he is after death carried
beyond the reach of human penalties: Such trials
therefore can have no effetl, but to puniih the inno-
Icent heir, contrary to that moft equitable rule, cu//>a
tenet fuos auttorej. 2. Crimes may be extinguiihed by
a remiffion from the fovereign. But a remiffion, tho’
it fecures the delinquent from the public refentment,
the exercife of which belongs to the Crown, cannot
cut off the party injured from his claim of damages,
i over which the crown has no prerogative. Whoever
therefore founds on a remiffion, is liable in damages
to the private profecutor, in the fame manner as if he
had been tried and found guilty. Even general a&s
of indemnity pafled in parliament, though they fecure
againft fuch penalties as law inflifts upon the criminal
merely per tnodum ptense, yet do not againft the pay¬
ment of any pecuniary fine that is given by ftatute
to the party injured, nor againft the demand of any
claim competent to him in name of damages.
55. Lefier injuries, which cannot be properly faid
1 to affect the public peace, may be extinguiffied, either
I by the private party’s exprefsly forgiving him, or by
his being reconciled to the offender, after receiving
the injury. Hence arifes the rule, diffimulatione tollitur
injuria. But where the offence is of a higher nature,
the party injured, though he may pafs from the pro-
fecution, in fo far as his private intereft is concerned,
j cannot preclude the king’s advocate, or procurator.
LAW
'Ll™-Language. In England all law-proceedings
were formerly written, as indeed all public proceedings
were, in Norman or law French, and even the argu¬
ments of the counfel and decifions of the court were in
the fame barbarous dialeft. An evident and ffiameful
badge, it muft be owned, of tyranny and foreign fer-
vitude; being introduced under the aufpices of Wil¬
liam the Norman, and his fons: whereby the obferva-
tion of the Roman fatyrift was once more verified,
that Gallia cauftdicot docuit facunda Britannos. This
continued till the reign of Edward III.; who, having
employed his arms fuccefsfully in fubduing the crown
\ac\ji. of France, thought it unbefeeming the dignity of the
ynmenU viftors to ufe any longer the language of a yanquifhed
country. By a ftatute therefore, paffed in the 36th
year of his reign, it was enafted, that for the future
all pleas ftiould be pleaded, (hewn, defended, anfwered,
debated, and judged, in the Engliffi tongue ; but be
entered and enrolled in Latin : In like manner as Don
Alonfo X. king of Caftile (the great-grandfather of
our Edward III.) obliged his fubje&s to ufe the Ca-
ftiliantongue in all legal proceedings; and as, in 1286,
the German language was eftabliffied in the courts of
; the empire. And perhaps, if our legiflature had then
diredled that the writs themfelves, which are mandates
from the king to his fubjefts to perform certain adls
or to appear at certain places, (hould have been framed
in the Engliffi language, according to the rule of our
ancient law, it had not been very improper. But the
record or enrollment of thofe writs and the proceed-
W. ( ”5 ) 4137
fifeal, from infilling ad vlndiftam publicam. Law of
56. Crimes are alfo extinguished by prefeription, !jcotlari(l.
which operates by the mere lapfe of time, without prefcrip.
any a& either of the foverign or of the private fuffarer. tion.
Crimes preferibe in 20 years ; but in particular crimes,
the prefeription is limited by ftatute to a (horter time.
No ptrfon can be profecuttd upon the a6l againft
wrongous imprifonment, after three years. High,
treafon, committed within his Majefty’s dominions,
fuffers likewife a triennial prefeription, if indi&ment
be not found againft the traitor within that time. All
a&ions brought upon any penal ftutnte made or to be
made, where the penalty is appropriated to the crown,
expire in two years after committing the offence ; and
where the penalty goes to the Crown or other profe¬
cutor, the profecutor muft fuc within one year, and
the Crown within two years after the year ended.
Certain crimes are, without the aid of any ftatute,
extinguiffied by a ffiorter prefeription than 20 years.
By our old law, in the cafes of rape, robbery, and
hamefucken, the party injured was not heard, after
a filence of 24 hours ; from a prefumption, that per-
fons could not be fo grofsly injured, without imme¬
diately complaining : And it is probable, that a pro-
fecution for thefe crimes, if delayed for any confider-
able time, would be caft even at this day, or at lead
the puniffiment reftrifted. Leffer injuries fufferalfoa
ffiort prefeription ; Xwprefuming forgivenefs, from the
nature of the offence, and the filence of the party.
The particular fpace of time fufficient to eftabliffi this
prefumption muft be determined by the judge, accord¬
ing to circumftances.
LAW
ings thereon, which was calculated for the benefit of
pofterity, was more ferviceable (becaufe more durable)
in a dead and immutable language than in any flux or
living one. The praftifers however, being ufed to the
Norman language, and therefore imagining they could
exprefs their thoughts more aptly and more concifely.
in that than in any other, (till continued to take their
notes in law French; and of courfe, when thofe notes
came to be publiflied, under the denomination of re-
/or//, they were printed in that barbarous dialed; which,
joined to the additional terrors of a Gothic black let¬
ter, has occafioned many a ftudent to throwaway his
Plowden and Littleton, without venturing to attack a
page of them. And yet in reality, upon a nearer ac¬
quaintance, they would have found nothing very for¬
midable in the language; which differs in its gram¬
mar and orthography as much from the modern French,
as the di&ion of Chaucer and Gower does from that of
Addifon and Pope. Befides, as the Engliffi and Nor¬
man languages were concurrently ufed by our anceft-
ors for feveral centuries together, the two idioms have
naturally affimilated, and mutually borrowed from each
other: for which reafon the grammatical conftrudion
of each is fo very much the fame, that I apprehend an
Engliffimaa (with a week’s preparation) would under-
derftand the laws of Normandy, colle&ed in their grand
coujlumier, as well if not better than a Frenchman bred
within the walls of Paris.
The Latin, which fucceeded the French for the en¬
try and enrollment of pleas, and which continued in
23 N 2 ufe
LAW [ 4138 ] LAW
•aw- ufe for four centuries, anfwers fo nearly to the Englifh
guaSf> (oftentimes word for word) that it is not at all furpri-
ling it Ihould generally be imagined to be totally fa¬
bricated at home, with little more art or trouble than
by adding Roman terminations to Englilh words.
Whereas in reality it is a very univerfal dialed, fpread
throughout all Europe at the irruption of the northern
nations; and particularly accommodated and moulded
to anfwer all the purpofes of the lawyers with a pecu¬
liar exa&nefs and precifion. This is principally owing
to the fimplicity, or (if the reader pleafes) the poverty
and baldnefs of its texture, calculated to exprefs the
ideas of mankind juft as they arife in the human mind,
without any rhetorical flourifhes, or perplexed orna¬
ments of ftyle: for it may be obferved, that thofe laws
and ordinances, of public as well as private communi¬
ties, are generally the moft eafily underftood, where
ftrength and perfpicuity, not harmony or elegance of
expreffion, have been principally confulted in compi¬
ling them. Thefe northern nations, or rather their le-
giflators, tho’ they refolved to make ufe of the Latin
tongue in promulging their laws, as being more du¬
rable and more generally known to their conquered fub-
je<fts than their own Teutonic diale&s, yet (either thro’
choice or neceflity) have frequently intermixed therein
fome words of a Gothic original; which is, more or
lefs, the cafe in every country of Europe, and there¬
fore not to be imputed as any peculiar blemifh in our
Englilh legal latinity. The truth is, what is general¬
ly denominated lanu-Latin is in reality a mere techni¬
cal language, calculated for eternal duration, and eafy
to be apprehended both in prefent and future times1;
and on thofe accounts bell fuited to preferve thofe me¬
morials which are intended for perpetual rules of ac¬
tion. The rude pyramids of Egypt have endured from
the earlieft ages, while the more modern and more ele¬
gant ftru&ures of Attica, Rome, and Palmyra, have
funk beneath the ftroke of time.
As to the objeftion of locking up the law in a ftrange
and unknown tongue, this is of little weight with re¬
gard to records; which few have occafton to read, but
fuch as do, or ought to, underftand the rudiments of
Latin. And befides, it may be obferved of the law-
Latin, as the very ingenious Sir John Davis obferves
of the law-French, “ that it is fo very eafy to be
learned, that the meaneft wit that ever came to the
ftndy of the law doth come to underftand it almoft per¬
fectly in ten days without a reader.”
It is true indeed, that the many terms of art, with
which the law abounds, are fufficiently harlh when
Latinized (yet not more fothan thofe of other fciences),
and may, as Mr Selden obferves, give offence “ to
fome grammarians of fqueamilh ftomachs, who would
rather choofe to live in ignorance of things the moft
ufeful and important, than to have their delicate ears
wounded by the ufe of a word, unknown to Cicero,
Salluft, or the other writers of the Auguftan age.”
Yet this is no more than muft unavoidably happen when
things of modtern ufe, of which the Romans had no
idea, and confequently no phrafes to exprefs them;
come to be delivered in the Latin tongue. It would
puzzle the moft claffical fcholar to find an appellation,
in his pure Latinity, for a conftable, a record, or a
deed of feoffment: it is therefore to be imputed as
much to neceffity, as ignorance, that they were ftyled
in our forenfic dialed, ccnflabularius, recordunt, and Law* I
fcoffamentnm. Thus again, another uncouth word of Langua; ^
our ancient laws (for I defend not the ridiculous bar-
barifms fometimes introduced by the ignorance of mo¬
dern praftifers) the fubftantive murdrum., or the verb
murdrare, however harfii and unclaifical it may feem, 4
was neceffarily framed to exprefs a particular offence;
fince no other word in being, Deciders, interficerc, ne- j
care, or the like, was fufficient to exprefs the intention
of the criminal, or quo animo the ad was perpetrated;
and therefore by no means came up to the notion of u
murder at prefent entertained by our law; viz. a kill¬
ing rwith malice aforethought.
A fimilar neceflity to this produced a fimilar effeft jj J
at Byzantium, when the Roman laws were turned into
Greek for the ufe of the oriental empire: for, without
any regard to Attic elegance, the lawyers of the im¬
perial courts made no fcruple to tranflate fidei commif
fariot,Q‘2t"-°w.i<r3U2wt cuhiculum, fcbCWxHov; filium-fa- i |{
milias, ■aaiix-fa/nuctf; repudium, i compromijfum,
xo^f^icrc-ov; reverentiaetobfequium,
and the like. They ftudied more the exad and pre-
cife import of the words, than the neatnefs and delicacy ; :
of their cadence. And it may be fuggefted, that the terms i
of thelawarenotmorenumerous,moreuncputh,ormore
difficult to be explained by a teacher, than thofe of lo- 1
gic, phyfics, and the whole circle of Ariftotle’s philo-
fophy ; nay, even of the politer arts of archite&ure i *
and its kindred ftudies, or the fcience of rhetoric it-
felf. Sir Thomas More’s famous legal queftion con- ill
tains in it nothing more difficult, than the definition i i 1
which in his time the philofophers currently gave of - ' j
their materia pritna, the groundwork of all natural
knowledge; that it is neque quid, neque quantum, neque ’ r |
quale, neque aliquid eorum quibus ens determinatur; or
its fubfequent explanation by Adrian Heereboord,
who affures us, that materiaprima non eji corpus* nequt
per for mam corporekatis, neque per fmplicem ejfentiam:
ejl tamen ens, et quidem fubjlantia, licet jncpmpleta ;
hahetque aflum ex fe entitativum, et fimul eft potentia
fubjeftiva. The law therefore, with regard to its tech¬
nical phrafes, ftands upon the fame footing with other
ftudies, and requefts only the fame indulgence..
This technical Latin, continued in ufe from the time 1 1
of its firft introdu&ion, till the fubverfton of our an- ; j | :|
cient conftitution under Cromwell; when, among many j j
other innovations in the law, fome for the better and
fome for the worfe, the language of our records was al- i ^ J
tered and turned into Englifh. But, at the reftoratioa ;, !
of king Charles, this novelty was no longer counte¬
nanced;. the pra&ifers finding it very difficult to ex?- ;r|
prefs themfelves fo concifely or fignificantly in any o- 1
ther language but the Latin. And thus it continued
without any fenfible inconvenience till about the year /
1730, when it was again thought proper that the pro¬
ceedings at law (hould be done into Englilh, and it
was accordingly fo ordered by ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 26* i
This was done, in order that the common people
might have knowledge and underftanding of what
was alleged or done for and againft them in the
procefs and pleadings, the judgment and entries in
caufe. Which purpofe it is doubtful how well it j;
has anfwered ; but there is reafon to fufpeft, that
the people are now, after many years experience,
altogether as ignorant in matters of law as be¬
fore.
LAW [ 4139 1 LAW
'-L«w, fore. On the other hand, thefe inconveniences
have already arifen from the alteration; that now
many clerks and attorneys are hardly able to read,
much lefs to underftand, a record even of fo modern a
date as the reign of George I. And it has much en¬
hanced the expence of all legal proceedings: for fince
the pra&ifers are confined (for the fake of the (lamp-
duties, which are thereby confiderabiy increafed) to
write only a dated number of words in a (beet; and as
the Englifh language, through the multitude of its
particles, is much more verbofe than the Latin ; it fol-.
lows that the number of (heets mud be very much aug¬
mented by the change. The tranflation alfo of tech¬
nical phrafes, and the names of writs and other pro-
cefs, were found to be fo very ridiculous (a writ of
nifi priust quare impedit, fieri facias, habeas corpus,
1 and the red, not being capable of an Englilh drefs
with any degree of ferioufnefs) that in two years time
a new aft was obliged to be made, 6 Geo. II. c. 14.
which allows all technical words to continue in the
ufual language, and has thereby defeated every bene¬
ficial purpofe of the former datute.
Trial by Wager of Law, (vadiaiio legis;) a fpecies of
trial, in the Englidi law, fo called, as another fpecies is
ftyled “ wager of battel,” vadiatio duelH, (fee Battel):
becaufe, as in the wager of battel, the defendant gave
' a pledge, gage, or vadium, or try the caufe by bat¬
tel ; fo here he was put in fureties or vadios, that at
fuch a day he will make his law, that is, take the be¬
nefit which the law has allowed him, (fee the article
Trial.) For our ancedors confidered, that there
were many cafes where an innocent man, of good cre¬
dit, might be overborne by a multitude of falfe wit-
nefles; and therefore edabliihed this fpecies of trial,
by the oath of the defendant himfelf: for if he will ab-
foiutely fwear himfelf not chargeable,, and appears to
bea perfon of reputation, he fliall go free, and forever
| acquitted of the debt, or other caufe of aftion.
t1 The manner of waging and making law is this.
ment. t^iat ^as wagech or given fe.curity, to make his
law, brings with him into court eleven of his neigh¬
bours: a cudom, which we find particularly defcribed
fo early as in the league between Alfred and Guthrun
the Dane ; for by the old Saxon con dilution every
man’s credit in courts of law depended upon the opi¬
nion which his neighbours had of his veracity. The
defendant then, danding at the end of the bar, is ad-
raoniihed by the judges of the nature and danger of a
falfe oath. And if he dill perfids, he is to repeat
this or the like oath : “ Hear this, ye judices, that I
do not owe unto Richard Jones the fum of ten pounds,
nor any penny thereof, in manner and form as the faid
Richard hath declared againd me. So help-me God.”
And thereupon his eleven neighbours or compurga¬
tors (hall avow upon their oaths, that they believe in
their confciences that he faith the truth ; fo that him¬
felf mud be fworn defidditate, and the eleven de cre-
dulitate.
In the old Swedidv or Gothic conditution,. wager
of law was not only permitted, as it is in criminal
ij! fes, unlefs the faft be extremely clear againd the pri-
Ilemhbok ^oner» was a^° abfolutely required, in many, ci-
|i. c. 9. ' vil cafes : which an author of their own veryjudly
charges as being the fource of frequent perjury. This,
he tells us, was. owing to the Eopiih ecclefiadics, who
introduced this method'of purgation from their 6anon
law ; and, having fown a plentiful crop of oaths in all
judicial proceedings, reaped afterwards an ample har-
ved of perjuries: for perjuries were punilhed in part
by pecuniary fines, payable to the coffers of the
church. But with us in England wager of law is ne¬
ver required; and then only admitted, where an aftion
is brought upon fuch matters as may be fuppofed to
be privately tranfafted between the parties, and where¬
in the defendant may be prefumed to have made fatis-
faftion without being able to prove it. Therefore it
is only in aftions of debt upon fimple contraft, or for
amercement, in aftions of detinue, and of account,
where the debt may have been paid, the goods redo-
red, or the account balanced, without any evidence of
either. And by fuch wager of law (when admitted)
the plaintiff is perpetually barred ; for the law, in the
fimplicity of the ancient times, prefumed that no one
would forfwear himfelf for any worldly thing. Wager
of law, however, lieth in a real aftion, where the te¬
nant alleges he was not legally fummoned to appear,
as well as in mere perfonal contrafts.
The wager of law was never permitted but where
the defendant bore a fair and unreproachable charac¬
ter ; and it was alfo confined to fuch cafes where a
debt might be fuppofed to be difeharged, or fatisfac-
tion made in private, without any witneffes to atted
it : and many other prudential redriftions accompa¬
nied this indulgence. But at length it tvas confidered,
that (even under all its redriftions) it threw too great
a temptation in the tvay of indigent or profligate men :
and therefore by degrees new remedies were devifed,
and new forms of aftion were introduced, wherein no
defendant is at liberty to wage his law. So that now
no plaintiff need at all apprehend any danger from the
hardinefs of his debtor’s confcience, unlefs he volunta¬
rily choofes to rely on his adverfary’s veracity, by bring¬
ing an obfolete, inftead of a modern, aftion. There¬
fore, one (hall hardly hear at prefent of an aftion of
debt brought upon a fimple contraft : that being fup-
plied by an aftion of trefpaf on the cafe for the breach
of a promife axaffumpfit; wherein, though the fpecific.
debt cannot be recovered, yet damages may, equiva¬
lent to the fpecific debt. And, this being an aftion
of trefpafs, no law can be waged therein.. So, in-
ftead of an aftion of detinue, to recover the very thing
detained, an aftion of trefpafs on the cafe in trover and
converfon. is ufually brought;, wherein, though the
horfe or other fpecific chattel cannot be had, yet the
defendant (hall pay damages for the converfion, equal
to the value of the chatteland for this trefpafs alfo
no wager of law is allowed. In the room of aftions
of account a bill in equity is ufually filed: wherein,
though the defendant anfwers upon his oath, yet fuch
oath is not conclufive to the plaintiff; but he may
prove every article by other evidence, in contradiftion
to what, the defendant has fworn. So that wager of
law is quite out of ufe, being avoided by the mode of
bringing the aftion; but ftil! it is net out of force. And
therefore, when a new ftatute inflifts a penalty, and
gives an aftion of debt for recovering it, it is ufual to
add, “ in which no wager of law (hall be allowed:”
otherwife an hardy delinquent might efcape any penal¬
ty of the law, by (wearing he had never incurred, oc
elfe had difeharged it.
Cujlom? -
1
LAW [ 4140 ] LAW
Ctirtom- Cujlom-Houfeljhws. The expedient of exafling du-
iTws t'es on 800l^s ,mPorted» or exported, has been adopted
jaw*. by every commercial nation in Europe. The attention
of the Eritifli legiflature has not been confinffd to the
objedt of railing a revenue alone, but they have attempt¬
ed, by duties, exemptions, drawbacks, bounties, and
other regulations, to dired the national trade into thofe
channels that contribute mod to the public benefit.
And, in order to obtain every requifite information, all
goods, exported or imported, whether liable to duty
or not, are required to be entered at the refpe&ive
cultom-houfes; and, from thefe entries, accounts are
regularly made up of the whole Britilh trade, diftin-
guifhing the articles, their quantity and value, and the
countries which fupply or receive them.
The objeds of the Britilh legiflature may be redu¬
ced to the following heads:
Firft, To encourage the employment of Britilh (hip¬
ping and feamen, for the purpofe of fupplying our
navy when public exigencies require.
Secondly, To increafethe quantity of money in the
nation, by prohibiting the exportation of Britilli coin,
by encouraging exportation, and difeouraging impor¬
tation, and by promoting agriculture, fifheries, and
manufadures. For thefe purpofes, it is penal to en¬
tice certain maliufadurers abroad, or export the tools
ufed in their manufadures ; the exportation of raw
materials is, ih mod inftances,* prohibited; and their
importation permitted free from duty, and fometimes
rewarded with a bounty. The exportation of fome
goods, manufadured to a certain length only, (for
example white cloth), is loaded with a duty, but per¬
mitted duty-free when the manufadure is carried to its
full extent. The importation of rival manufadures is
loaded with heavy duties, or abfolutely prohibited.
Thefe reftridions are mod fevere towards nations with
which the balance of trade is fuppofed againd us, or
which are confidered as our mod formidable rivals in
power or commerce.
Thirdly, To fecure us plenty of neceffaries for fub-
fiftence*and manufadure, by difeouraging the expor¬
tation of fome articles that confume by length of time,
and regulating the corn-trade according to the exigen¬
cies of the feafons.
Fourthly, To fecure the trade of the colonies to
the mother-country, and preferve a mutual inter-
courfe, by encouraging the produce of their ftaple-
commodities, and redraining their progrefs in thefe
manufadures which they receive from us in exchange.
To accomplifti thefe ends, a very complex fydem
of laws has been enaded ; the outlines of which we
(hall lay before the reader. How far the means have
contributed to the ends propofed, and how far thefe
ends themfelves are always wife ; or, whether a trade
encumbered by fewer redridions, would not prove
more beneficial, as well as more extenfive, may per¬
haps be called in quedion : but the difeufiion of this
belongs not to our plan.
1. Regulations concerning Importation.] The
foundation of our commercial regulations is the famous
ad of navigation, which was fird enaded during the
time of the commonwealth, and adopted by the fird
parliament after the reftoration. The fubdance of this
ad, and fubfequent amendments, relating to goods im¬
ported, is as follows.
Goods from Afia, Africa, and America, may not Cuitomfc
be imported, except in Britifh (hips duly navigated, or b°uf«f'
(hips belonging to the Britifli plantations; and they   awSl|G“
can only be imported from the place of their produc- . 4
tion or manufadure, or the port where they are ufual-
ly fird (hipped for tranfportation : MenhaA v
Except goods from the Streights and Levant, which dife. I
maybe brought from the ufual places of lading in i (
Britifh (hips ; goods brought from Perfia, by perfons
free of the Ruffia Company, in barter for Britifli goods
fent to Rufiia,- and from thence by land-carriage to
Perfia, and Perfian raw filk, any how purchafed, im¬
ported from Ruffia in Britifh (hips; goods of the Spa- 4 |
ni(h or Portuguefe plantations, imported from Spain \
or Portugal in Britiffi (hips; gum-fenega, from Eu¬
rope, in Britifh (hips ; bullion, cochineal, and indi¬
go ; fpice, by licenfe ; coarfe printed calicoes, cow¬
ries, and arrangoes, for the African market, by licence; J; |
and goods taken as prize.
The redridion on European goods is not univerfal,
but extends to feveral of the bulkied articles. Ruffian
goods, mads, timber, boards, fait, pitch, rofin, tar,
hemp, flax, raifins, figs, prunes, olives, oil, corn,
fugar, potaflies, wine, and vinegar, may not be im- |j j
ported, except in (hips belonging to Great Britain or ||1
Ireland, legally manned ; nor Turky goods and cur¬
rants, except in (hips Britifh built; or in (hips be- I |
longing to the country where thefe goods are produ¬
ced, or manufadured, or (irfl (hipped for exporta¬
tion ; and, if imported in foreign (hips, they pay a- j. I
lien’s duty. ij, I
In order to entitle a (hip to the privileges of a Bri- J
ti(h (hip, it mud belong entirely to Britifh fubjeds; i|fl
and the mader, and three fourths of the mariners, mult . f |
be Britifli fubjeds, except in cafe of death, or una- |
voidable accidents. Corn may be exported, and en- 11
titled to bounty, if the mader and two thirds of the f 1
mariners be Britirti fubjeds. In time of war, the pro- ill
portion of Britifli mariners required is generally con- j j
fined to one fourth ; and the fame proportion only is
required in the Greenland fiftiery. Wool may not be
exported to Ireland, except in (hips wholly manned
by Britifh. Ships foreign built, though belonging to ^ 1
Britifh, are fubjed to the fame duties as (hips belong- ; |B
ing to foreigners. Ships employed in the Newfound- ;:! 1
landland fifhery mud carry one frefti man, (i. e. who i |
has not been at fea before), in five.
In order to prevent a (hip from being deprived f
of the privileges belonging to Britifli (hips, no fo¬
reigner may purchafe a (hare without confent of '■
three-fourths of the owners. Ships foreign built mud .' i
be regidered, and oath made concerning the proper- j ?
ty, before they be admitted to the privilege of Bri- l
tifli (hips.
Commanders of (hips of war mud not allow any
merchant-goods to be taken on board, unlefs by or¬
der of the admiralty, or goods taken out of (hips in
didrefs, under pain of being cafhiered. In thefe
cafes, they mud report the goods on board, and fub-
mit to the fame regulations that merchant-fliips are
fubjeft to.
No merchant-goods may be imported or exported in
any packet-boat, unlefs with the confent of the chief
officers of the cudoms.
Prohibited goods. The importation of cattle, beef, 1
mutton, j I j
•iHoni-
ioofe
L A W [ 4141 ] LAW
mutton, and port, except from Ireland, is declared a
public nuifance. Thefe articles are ordered to be feized
at all hands, the cattle to be fiain, and diftributed
among the poor, referving the hides and tallow to the
feizer ; and the parilh is liable in penalties, if the feizer
be neglefttd.
The following goods are prohibited, and the impor¬
ters and venders are liable in penalties, from L. 200 to
L. 50: and the goods, in fome cafes, are appointed
to be burned; in others, to be fold for exportation.
Gold and filver thread, lace, fringe, or other work,
or work of copper, brafs, or any inferior metal; gold
or filver wire, lace, brocade, embroidery. Needle¬
work of thread or filk, except Eaft India fringes of
thread and filk; bone-lace of thread or filk, except of
Flanders; cut-work, band-firings. Buttons of all
forts, wire for cards. Wrought filks except Italian,
crapes and tiffanies, velvets, filk- ribbons, girdles, laces,
ordtockings, or ribbons, &c. mixed with filk, gloves,
and mits of leather or filk, and thrown filk except I-
talian. Woollen-cloths. Malt, by the annual malt-
bill. Cambrics and French lawns are prohibited to be
ufed in Britain, and may be imported for re-exporta¬
tion into London only, upon licenfe obtained from the
commifiioners of the cuftoms, and fecurity granted for
re-exportation, in bales containing at leatt loo pieces,
covered with cloth, and muft be lodged in ware-houfes,
under the joint keys of the proprietor and cuftom-houfe
officers. Wrought filks, Bengals, and fluffs mixed with
filk or herba of Eafi: Indian, Perfian, or Chinefe ma-
nufafture, and calicoes painted, printed, flained, or
dyed there, may be entered under like reftridions, on
payment of the half fubfidy only.
The following articles, chiefly of hardware, cutlery,
and leathern-ware, may not be imported for fale, and
therefore can only be entered for re-exportation, or
private ufe. Andirons, tennis-balls, counterfeit-ba-
fons, facring-bells, * bits, bodkins, brufhes, bufkins,
hanging-candlefticks, playing-cards, wool-cards,
* cauls, * chaps, cafkets, chaffing-difhes, chefs-men,
combs, corfes, * daggers, dagger-blades, dice, drip¬
ping-pans, ewers, forcers, furs tawed, * girdles, go-
loches or corks, gridirons, hammers, * harnefs or
girdles for horfes, hats, hilts, * knives, ladles, any
thing wrought of tawed leather, * locks, pack-needles,
painted wares, except paper and pidures, pattens,
* pins, pinfons, points, purfes, rings of copper or
latten gilt for curtains, * faddles, * fcabbards, and
fheaths, fciffars, fcummers, fheers for taylors, fhoes,
* ftirrups, tin-ware, tires of gold or filver, fire-tongs,
moll kinds of iron-wire, wares made thereof, wool¬
len-caps. The articles marked with an * may, in no
cafe, be imported for fale; the others only from
Ireland, or taken upon the feas, or wrecked. A
longer lift of like articles may not be imported by
ftrangers.
Ammunition, arms, gun-powder, and utenfils of
war, may not be imported without the king’s li¬
cence.
The following goods may not be imported from
Germany on the Netherlands: olive-oil, pitch, .tar,
potafhes, rofin, fait, fpicery, (except by licenfe),
tobacco and wines, (except Rhenifti wines, or Hun¬
gary wines from Hamburgh), alfo deal-boards and
lir-timber, except of the growth of Germany, import¬
ed by Britifli fubjeds, in fiiips built in and belonging Cuflom-
to Britain. „ houfe
Books, of which the copy-right is in private fub* a-w's'~
jeds, may not be imported under the penalty of 1 d.
per flieet, befides forfeiture ; and books firft compo-
fed and printed in Britain, and reprinted abroad, may
not be imported, unlefs they have not been printed at
home for 20 years. Popifli books may not be import¬
ed, under penalty of 40s. each book; and Pcpilh
croffes, and other fuperftitious things, under penal¬
ty of a premunire.
The importation of various other goods is reftrided
by particular regulations refpeding the time and place
of importation, the packages, the burden of the fhip,
and other oircumftances.
Spirits, tea, coffee, and cocoa-berries when ma-
nufadured into chocolate, are fubjed to excife or in¬
land duties. The places where thefe goods are kept
and fold muft be entered with and infpeded by the
officers of excife. They may not be removed without
a permit; fpirits, if above a gallon; tea, coffee, or
chocolate, if above 6 lb/ Thefe permits are in force for
a limited time only, and muft be returned if not
ufed. Dealers muft keep accounts of their Tales
open to the infpedion of the officers. The flock on
hand is fubjed to their examination ; and, if it does
not correfpond with the credit or quantity where¬
with they are chargeable, the dealers are liable in
penalties.
Spirits may not be imported in cafks under 60 gal¬
lons, except from the Britiih colonies for private ufe ;
coffee, in quantities lefs than 112 lb. ; and it may not
be re-exported otherwife than in the original packa¬
ges, or in quantities lefs than 4C. except to Ireland,
Cocoa pafle and chocolate may not be imported. Cho-
cholate muft be manufadured in entered ware-houfes,
and put up in (lamped papers, on payment of the in¬
land duty. Cocoa-berries may not be fold in lefs
quantities than 281b. at a time. Coffee from the plan¬
tations, accompanied with a certificate of the place of
its growth, obtained on the oath of a planter, pays a
fmailer duty, and the parcels are marked with a parti¬
cular ftamp.
Rum, tea, coffee, and cocoa-berries, may be lod¬
ged in ware-houfes under joint keys, on payment qf
the cuftoms only; and delivered, when fold forhome-
confumption, on payment of the inland-duties, or for
exportation, on bond being granted to fend them
abroad ; and, if tea, to Ireland, or the colonies only.
When rum is thus lodged, fecurity muft be given to,
pay the inland-duty when fold, or within 12 months
if not fold. Accounts of the quantities of ware-houfed
goods are made up every 6 months, and the (lock on
hand examined.
Pepper may only be imported into London. It may
be lodged in warehoufes, under joint keys, upon pay¬
ment of the half fubfidy ; the other duties to be paid
when delivered for fale; and bond to be granted
when delivered for exportation.
Spiceries, viz. cinnamon, cloves, mace, and nut¬
meg, may only be imported in Britifli fhips on licenfe
firft obtained ; the bale of cinnamon to weigh 70 lb,
the cade of cloves, mace, or nutmeg, 300 lb. or up¬
wards, unlefs from the Eaft Indies.
Candles, foap, and ftarch, may not be imported, ex-
cept'
LAW [ 4142 ] LAW
Cuftom- cept in packages of 224 lib. or upwards, openly ftow- Filh of the following kinds are prohibited to be
houft ecj jn tjie Qf tjje imported in foreign fhips, or bought of foreigners out
aws* Hats and bonnets of baft ftraw, chip-cane, or horfe- of foreign fhips. Herring, cod, pilchard, falmon,
hair, in bales under 75 dozen, or materials for making ling, grill, mackarel, whitings, haddocks, fprats,
fiich hats, in packages under 224lib. cole-fifh, gull-fi(h, congers, flat-fi(h, and all frefh fifh
Oak-bark may not be imported when the price is except eels, ftock-fifli, anchovies, fturgeon, botargo,
Under L. 10 per load, or L. 2.10 s. rinded bark. cavear, lobfters, andturbets.
Salt may not be imported otherwife than in bulk. The herring-fiftiery is allowed free to all his ma-
Foreign fait, which is fubjeft to a high excife, may be jefty’s fubje&s. For encouragement, fee Salt and
lodged in cellars, under joint keys, on payment of the Fishery.
cuftoms • nly ; and may be delivered from thefe cel- Corn. The objeft of the laws refpefting the corn-
krs, upon bond, without payment of excife, if intend- trade is to encourage agriculture, by not only permit
ed for curing fifli of any kind, for exportation, or her- ting the free exportation, but rewarding it with
rings for home confumption. Thefe bonds are dif- bounty when the prices are low, and checking theim
charged, upon oath that the fait was applied to that portation by a heavy duty ; and, to prevent fcarcity
purpofe, and proof that fnitable quantities of fifli thus by prohibiting the exportation when the prices ar
cured were exported, or of herrings entered for home- high, and permitting importation at an eafy duty. Va
confumption, or that the fait periflied at fea. Account rious temporary laws have been ena&ed for thefe pur-
is taken of the quantity on hand at the end of the fifli- pofes, and fometimes other expedients employed in
ingfeafon; and, if there be any deficiency, the owners times of fcarcity, fuch as prohibiting the diftillery
are liable in the penalty of 10s. per buftiel. Britifh from corn, and manufa&ure of ftearch. The prices
fait may be taken in duty-free by (hips bound on a fifli- which duties on importation, and bounties on exporta-
ing voyage to Ireland, or the north feas, under which tion, were fixed by a (landing law, in 1773, are as
the coafts of Scotland are comprehended, bonded and follows :
di(charged as above.
48 s. duty only 6 d.on import, under 44 s. bounty 5 s. on export.
Wheat under
Rye
Peafe and beans
Oats
Barley
32 s.
33 s.
16 s.
24 s.
3d. 28 s. 3 s.
3 d. no bounty.
2 d. 14 s. 24 s. 6 d.
2 d. 22 s. 2 s. 6 d.
houfes, on the importer’s bond, for 15 months.
And, when wheat is imported at the low duties,
wheat-flour may be imported on payment of 2 d./er drawback is allowed on re-exportation, except from
No
Cwt. When the prices are higher than thofe which
entitle to bounty, exportation is prohibited, except
for fliip-provifions, and 2500 quarters to Gibraltar,
3500 to Minorca, and 500 to St Helena, all from
London ; 5000 to Jerfey, &c. from Southampton j
2500 to the Ifle of Man, from Whitehaven and Liver¬
pool ; 200 quarters flour, 15 tons bread and beans,
in any quantity, to Africa ; 200 quarters wheat, and
other corn, in any quantity, to Hudfon’s Bay ; 2000
quarters wheat, and other corn, in any quantity, to
the Weft Indies, from London; and corn of all kinds
to Ireland, when there is an embargo on the expor¬
tation from that country. Corn from Ireland may
always be re-tranfported to Ireland.
Corn imported, when fubjeft to the high duties,
may be lodged in ware-houfes till re-exported, or till
the prices rife to the limit of importation on the low
duties.
The prices of corn are afeertained in England by
the quarter-fdlions ; in Scotland by the (heriffs, once
in three months, viz. ift February, May, Auguft,
and November, on the teftimony of witnefles ; and
the rate then fixed regulates the corn-trade for the
enfuing three months : But the liberty to export, and
bounty on exportation, by 14 Geo. III. is regulated
by the prices at the neareft market-town, and laft
market-day.
When barley is imported on payment of 2 d. duty,
Indian maze may be imported on payment of 1 d.
1 obacco may not be imported, except in cafks con¬
taining at lead 450 lb.; and the duties on tobacco
from the Britifh colonies may be fecured for 1 8 months
except the old fubfidy, or it may be lodged in ware-
the port where it was imported, and in the original
packages: nor when manufadtured in packages lefs
than 300 lb. except cut or rolled. Tobacco from the
Britilh colonies muft be attended with a manifeft from
the cuftom-honfe there, containing the quantities and
marks, which muft be delivered to the cuftom-houfe
on the (hip’s arrival. Damaged tobacco, for which
the proprietor refufes to pay duty, may be cut oflT,
and burned, (but not tobacco ftems) ; and, if the da¬
mage be occafioned by ftrefs of weather at fea, or ac¬
cident after the (hip’s arrival, the proprietor is allowed
i d. per lb, not exceeding 30 s. per hd. If, after cut¬
ting off what is damaged, the remainder be under
450 lb. it may be re-packed at the fight of the officer.
No tobacco, except of the Britifti colonies, that has
been manufaftiired here, and paid the duties, may be
confumed on board (hips of war. Tobacco, removed
by water, or by land, above 241b. or fnuff, above
10 lb. muft be attended with a certificate, and the
packages muft be marked with the kind of goods in
large letters. Importers muft deliver to the chief
officers of the cuftoms an account of the quantities fold
or delivered out to be mannfa&ured, and muft deliver
annually an account of all the tobacco that has been
18 months in their poffeffion. Tobacco feized is to
be burned, and the officers allowed 2d. per lb. To¬
bacco ftems may not be imported, and, if exported,
are entitled to no draw-back. Tobacco may not be
planted in Britain, except in phylic-gardens, in fmall
quantities.
Linen, chequered, dripped, printed, painted, ftained,
or dyed, and fail-cloth, muft be marked with a (lamp
on payment of the duty. Linen printed, or fail-cloth
manu-
LAW [ 4143 1 LAW
manufaftured at home, is marked with a different damp,
ioufe Thefe ftamps are cut off on re exportation. Every
aws~ new (hip muff be provided with a complete fet of fails
manufactured in Great Britain. If fails be purchafed
abroad during a voyage, the Ihip mafter muff report
them, and pay duty on his arrival.
Wine may not be imported in calks containing lefs
than 25 gallons, except from Tufcany in open flalks,
and from the Levant, in fialks or bottles ; and no
French, Spanifh, or Portuguefe wine may be im¬
ported in calks lefs than hoglheads. Wine imported
into London, and Levant wine into Brillol and South¬
ampton, pay higher duties ; and, when carried to
thefe places, mull pay the extra-duties, and be attended
with a certificate. Damaged wine may be delivered
to the cuftom-houfe officers, who are to mix it with
fait or vinegar j and it mull be fold to be diftilled
into brandy, or made into vinegar ; the price, not ex¬
ceeding L. 4 for French or German wine, or L. 8 for
any other, is given to the proprietor, the overplus paid
into the cuftoms.
To,guard more effeftually again ft clandeftine trade,
the importation of fome articles is only permitted in
fhips of a certain burden, whofe operations are not
eafily concealed. Spirits mull be imported in Ihips of
too tons, or upwards, except rum, and fpirits of Bri-
tilh plantations, which are only reftri&ed to 70 tons;
tea, tobacco, and fnuff, 50 tons ; fait, 40 tons. To¬
bacco and rum may not be exported in fhips under 70
tons.
Duties. All goods imported are liable to duties,
except fuch as are exprefsly exempted. The revenue
of cuftoms f is of great antiquity in Britain, but was
new modelled at the reftoration of Charles II. Afub-
fidy of tonnage on wines, and of poundage, or 1 s. per
pound value of other goods, was granted during the
king’s life, and, after feveral prolongations, rendered
perpetual. A book of rates was compofed for afcer-
taining thefe values ; and articles not rated pay duty
according to the value, as affirmed upon oath, by the
importer, except Eaft India goods, which pay accord¬
ing to the value as fold at candle. If the goods be
I valued too low by the importer, the cuftom-houfe
' officer may feize them, upon paying to the proprietor
the value he fwore to, and 10 percent, for profit;
fuch goods to be fold, and the overplus paid into the
cuftoms. Another book of rates was publifhed, under
fanftion of parliament, nth George I. containing ar¬
ticles omitted in the former ones ; and various addi¬
tional duties have been impofed ; fome on all goods,
fome on particular kinds ; fome according to the rates,
fome unconne&ed with the rates ; fome with an al¬
lowance of certain abatements, fome without any al¬
lowance ; the greater part to be paid down in ready
money, and a few for which fecurity may be granted ;
often with variations, according to the (hip’s place,
and circumftances of importation. The number of
branches now amounts to upwards of 50 ; and fome-
times more than 10 are chargeable on the fame articles.
By this means, the revenue of the cuftoms has become
a fubjedl of much intricacy, efpecially to the officers,
1 who muft dillinguifh the different branches which are
appropriated by law to different purpofes.
Goods muft be landed in lawful ports, between the
hours of 6 and 6 in fummer, and in day-light in win-
is . You VI.
ter, and.in prefence of an officer. Shipmafters muft Cuftons-
proceed diredlly to the place of unloading, and make Laws'
report at the cuftom-houfe, upon oath, of the burden  !_
and lading of their (hip. The proprietors may enter
their goods within 20 days, by delivering to the col-
le&or five bills of entry, which contain a note of the
kinds of goods, quantities, and packages, and pay¬
ing the duties, or granting fecurity, in cafes where it
is admitted. A warrant is then delivered to the land-
waiter, to permit them to be landed ; and they are
examined, before removal, to try their correfpondence,
in quantity and quality, with the entry. If the mer¬
chant has entered too little, he is allowed to make a
fecond or poft-entry for the difference. If he has
entered too much, he may obtain a return of the over¬
plus, upon fhowing fatisfaftory reafon for the over
entry. If he be not acquainted with the quality of
the goods, which is fometimes the cafe in confign-
ments, he may obtain a warrant, called a 6i/i offtght.,
for landing and infpedling them before entry, on de-
pofiting as much money as the duties will probably
amount to. If the goods be damaged, the principal of¬
ficers may appoint two fkillful neutral perfons, to af-
certain the extent of the damage ; and a proportional
abatement is allowed in the duties. Goods not en¬
tered within 20 days may be carried to the cuftom-
houfe, for fecurity of the cuftoms ; and fmall parcels
of fine goods fooner : fuch goods to be fold by auc¬
tion, if not relieved in 6 months; and the overplus,
after paying duty and charges, given to the proprietor.
A /hip may break bulk at any lawful port; and
duty is only paid for the goods unloaded there ; but,
when it proceeds to another port, report muft be made
of the goods entered before. When all the goods are
entered and unloaded, if the entries correfpond with
the fliipmafter’s report, he is entitled to certain allow¬
ances called portage., the Ihip is cleared, and the offi¬
cers difmiffed.
Goods taken out of a ftranded Ihip are liable to the
fame duties, and entitled to the fame draw-back, as
goods regularly entered. Goods taken in, or put out
at fea, within four leagues of the coaft, except for a
lawful reafon declared at the firft port of delivery, are
forfeited, with penalties. Ships under 50 tons bur¬
den, hovering within two miles of the coaft, may be
compelled to give bond to proceed to foreign parts,
otherwife the goods may be landed, and duties paid ;
or, if prohibited, forfeited. Goods taken and con¬
demned as lawful prizes pay duty as other goods,
and fometimes have been permitted, by temporary a£ls,
to be ware-houfed, or, though rated, to pay duty<rrf
valorem. Prize military (lores pay no duty. Thefe
bonds are relieved in the fame manner as bonds for
goods entitled to bounty or drawback.—Of which af¬
terwards.
Penalties. The payment of duties, and obfervance of
other laws, are inforced, by many penalties, againft the
owners of the goods, the /hipmafter, the officers, and
all acceffories. Goods attempted to be landed clan-
deftinely, or taken ont at fea within four leagues of
the coaft; or found on board a /hip after clearance, or
not reported, and found on board concealed, though
before clearance ; and tea and fpirits found on board
hovering veffels, are forfeited. Sometimes the ad¬
ditional penalty of double or treble the value, fome-
23 O times
iftom-
houfe
LAW [ 4144 ] LAW
times a fixed fum, is incurred ; porters, and others,
affilling at running goods, are liable to fine and im-
prifonment; boats and carts employed are forfeited.
Cuftomable and prohibited goods, found in a boat, on
the water, or bringing from the water-fide, or found,
by credible information, in any houfe, may be fent to
the king’s warehoufe till claimed, and proof made that
they have paid duty, or been bought in lawful trade;
the onus prohandi to lie on the claimer. Perfons lurk¬
ing near the fea to afiift at running uncuftomed goods,
may be committed to the houfe of correftion.
Shipmafters concurring in prohibited trade, or ne-
gledf ing any of the forms prefcribed by law, are liable
to fines; and, in fome cafes, the Ihip is forfeited.
Among the offences which fubjedt to that penalty, are
the following: Importing goods againft the aft of na¬
vigation, deals, or other prohibited goods, from Ger¬
many and the Netherlands l foreign fifh; cattle, Britifh
and Irilh fait, irregularly Ihipped, fpirits in fhips under
40 tons, fpiceries, without delivering the licenfe to the
cuftom-houfe, or hops clandeftinely; exporting coals
clandeftinely; exporting wool or tallow 5 permitting
goods to be taken in or out at fea within four leagues of
the coaft; tranfgrefiing the privileges of the Eaft-India
or South-Sea Companies; neglefting the forms and re¬
gulations prefcribed for trading to Ireland, and the co¬
lonies, of which afterwards; hovering {hips, under50
tons burthen. In fome cafes, the {hips are appointed to
be burned, unlefs they can be ufeful in his majefty’s fer-
vice. When the prohibition depends on the place of
growth, the otius probandi lies on the defendant. Of¬
fences are cognizable by the court of exchequer, and
often by the juftices of peace, or commifiioners of cuf-
toms or appeals, by particular ftatutes.
Offences attended with violence are more feverely
punifhed. Perfons employed in fmuggling, wearing
difguifes, carrying arms, or refilling officers, are liable
to tranfportation by feveral ftatutes; and by 9 Geo. II.
any perfons, three or more, carrying on illicite trade,
or refcuing feized goods or prifoners, or any perfons
fo employed having their faces blacked or wearing a
vizard mafic or other difguife, and every perfon
maiming, {hooting, or dangeroufly wounding any offi¬
cer in the execution of his duty, are to fuffer death as
felons. On the other hand, rewards are given to thofe
who fuffer in fupport of the revenue.
Counterfeiting {lamps, or cuftom-houfe writings, is
declared felony.
The duties payable by aliens are generally higher
than by Britilh, and they are excluded altogether from
fome branches of trade. See Alien.
Goods duty-free. The following goods may be im¬
ported duty-free:—Diamonds, pearls, and precious
ftones; flax, lintfeed, linen rags, beaver-wool, wool
for clothiers, and linen yarn unbleached. The fol¬
lowing drugs for dyers, if regularly entered: Agaric,
annotto, antimonium crudum, aquafortis, arfenic,
bay-berries, Brazil wood, Braziletto wood, cochi¬
neal, cream-of tartar, fuftic, galls, gum-arabic, in-
digo, ifinglafs, litmus, logwood, madder, Nicorago
wood, orchil, orchelia, or Spanifh-weed, pomegranate
pills,, red wood, faffiore, fal ammoniac, fal gem, Japan
wood, red Saunders, fumach, ftick-lake, turnfole, va-
ionia, verdigreafe.
The following goods from America: Wood and tim¬
ber, cotton, wool, rice, fago, vermicelli, fhort filk, pig CuftoniM
and bar iron, afties. houfejM
The following from Ireland: cattle, horfes, butter, *‘awsjH
cheefe, beef, pork, mutton, hemp, raw calve-ficins,
thread, cotton, woollen or bay yarn, and woollen fluffs
by licence.
Oil, whale-blubber, whale-fins, and flcins, taken by
{hips employed in the Britifti whale-fiftiery.
Bounties on importation. From America. L.
Mafls, yards, and boltfprits, per ton of 40
feet - - - 1
Tar, per ton of 8 barrels - - 2
 made from trees ftripped a year be¬
fore, according to certain direftions,
and certified - - 4
Pitch and turpentine per ton, contained in
8 barrels - - - 1
Hemp and flax per ton, till 1785 - 4
Raw filk, into certain ports, L. 100 value,
till 1784 - - - 20
till 1791 - - 15
Indigo, whofe value is £ of the beft French,
per lib. —
Staves, pipe ftavesofeertain fizes,per 1200,
till 1780 - - - 2
hhd. ftaves per 1800, till 1780 2
barrel ftaves per 2400, ditto 2
heads per 3600, ditto 2
s. d.
4 —
6
Trees from Scotland, fit for mafts, yards,
and boltfprits, per ton - I 00 00
Goods from the plantations, entitled to bounty,
muft be attended with a certificate concerning the
place of their growth, and muft be examined by the
proper officers when loaded, whether they be good,
merchantable, and otherwife fuitable to the deferip-
tions which entitle to bounty, and a certificate of their
quality muft be granted.
2. Regulations concerning exportation.]
Goods of moft kinds may be exported duty free, when
regularly entered ; and thofe that have paid duty on
importation are generally entitled to draw-back of
part, fometimes of the whole, when re-exported with¬
in three years, upon certificate that the duties were
paid on importation, and oath, of their identity. In
fome cafes, a bounty is given on manufaftured goods,
when the materials from which they were manufac¬
tured have paid duty on importation ; and manufac¬
tures fubjeft to excife have generally the whole or part
of the excife-duty returned. Some bounties are alfo
granted, in favour of certain branches of trade, al¬
though they have not contributed, in any ftiape, to the
revenue.
No goods, except fifti, may be loaded for exporta¬
tion, till the mailer has entered his {hip outwards.
The exporter muft make out four bills of entry, and
deliver them to the colleftors, and pay down the du¬
ties, if any be due. Upon this he receives a cocquet,
certifying the entry and payment, and then may {hip
the goods, in prefence of the fearcher, who certifies the
quantity on the back of the cocquet. When all the
goods are {hipped, the ftiipmafter goes to the cuftom-
houfe, and makes report, upon oath, concerning the
burthen, property, and crew, of his {hip, and the
LAW [ 4145 ]
goods on board, which are inferted in the report, from
the indorfements on the cocquets. He then receives
_his cocquets, and is cleared outward. If more goods
be afterwards taken in, they may be added to the re¬
port. If the (hip proceeds to any other port, to take
in more goods, (he muft take out a new clearance at
each port, and muft fpecify the goods taken in at the
former ones.
Goods liable to duty, (hipped before entry, or goods
prohibited to be exported, are forfeited. If it be
proven that goods have been clandeftinely exported,
the proprietors forfeit double value.
Goods intitled to bounty or drawback, or prohi¬
bited to be confumed, may be examined before or after
{hipping, and, if found lefs in quantity, or different in
quality, from what they were entered for, they are
forfeited, with penalties. Bonds are taken, in cafe of
bounties, anti in fome cafes of drawbacks, that the
goods (hall not be re-landed in Great-Britain, the
dangers of the feas excepted. Thefe bonds are re-
L A
W
Wool may not be Cuftom-
gulations and fevere penalties. ,   _ _
carried by land, except in the day-time, having the
word WOOL marked on each package; it may not
be (hipped coaftwife, except on licenfe previoufly
obtained; and it muft be entered at the cuftom houfe
before it be brought within five miles of the fea-lhore,
and bond muft be granted to re-land it in Britain,
which can only be difcharged by certificate from the
port of delivery. The penalties for exporting wool
are, forfeiture of (hip and cargo, with treble value,
and three years xmprifonment. If wool exported be
not difcovered, the inhabitants of the place are liable
for trebly value. In Kent and Suffex, the (hearers of
wool, within 10 miles of the fea, muft give notice to
the officer of the number of fleeces, and part where
lodged, within three days, and it cannot be removed
without a permit. Purchafers of wool, within ij
miles of the fea, muft give fecurity to fell it in the in¬
land country, or manufafture it themfelves; and wool
carried within 15 miles of the fea, without being en-
lieved'by certificate from the magiftrates of the place tered, is forfeited, with high penalties. Armed veffels
where they are unloaded, or of a BritHh conful, or two
creditable Britifli merchants, or by proof that they
were loft at fea. In cafe of exportation to Ireland,
they are relieved by certificate from the cuftom-houfe,
at the port of delivery there.
Debentures are made out at the cuftom-honfe for
the drawbacks and bounties. Thefe contain a decla¬
ration of the exporter concerning the quantities and
kinds of goods, and circumftances that entitle them to
bounty, taken on oath, before the principal officers;
a certificate by the officers on duty, that the goods
were (hipped in conformity, and the (hip legally navi¬
gated; an intimation that an oath or bond has been
taken, not to re-land them; and a note of the amount
of the bounty or drawback. The collector of the
cuftoms may pay the bounty himfelf, if he has money
in his hands pertaining to the fund from which it is
appointed to be paid. If otherwife, he certifies the
fame to the commiffioners of the cuftoms, who order
payment in courfe. Goods fent to Ireland receive no
drawback, till certificates be returned of their being
landed there.
Goods prohibited to be exported. White afhes,
horns, unwrought hides of black cattle, (except calf-
flcins drefled with the hair,) tallow, clocks, watches,
cafes, and dial-plates, unlefs fit for ufe, with the
maker’s name; coin without the king’s licenfe, (ex¬
cept foreign coin, upon licenfe); bullion, unlefs certi¬
ficate be produced that it is not molten from Britiih
coin or plate. Thefe metals: brafs, copper, latten,
bell-metal, pan-metal, gun-metal, and (liruff-metal,
(except lead and tin, or copper and mundic, made of
Britifh ore, and foreign copper in bars. Gun-powder,
when the price exceeds 5 1. per barrel. Engines for
knitting dockings ; tools and utenfilsfor cotton, linen,
woollen, and filk manufa&ures. Wool, (heep, wool-
fells, mortlings, (hortlings, woollen-yarn, wool-flocks;
flight manufadtures of wool that may be reduced to
wool again ; fuller’s earth, fulling clay, and tobacco-
pipe clay.
The woollen manufadhire is confidered as the moft
important, and is highly favoured by our laws. The
exportation of the materials is therefore declared a
common nuifance, and prohibited under very ftridl re¬
appointed to cruize at proper ftations, to fearch
all (hips fufpefted of exporting wool. Moft of thefe
regulations extend to wool, fells, &c. Exporting
(beep is puniftied with the lofs of the left-hand for the
firft offence, and with death for the fecond. The fol¬
lowing articles are excepted from the prohibition:
Lamb-(kins ready dreffed, limited quantities from
Southampton to Jerfey, &c.; wool-fells and wedders
for (hips ufe; foreign wool may be re-exported, but
in Britifh (hips only. White woollen cloths pay duty
on exportation ; but dyed cloths, and other woollen
manufa&ures, are exported duty-free.
Bounties on Goods exported. Refined fugar L. s. d.
manufa&ured in Great-Britain from
brown fugar of the colonies, per C. — 9 —
Corn. See p. 4142.
Sail-cloth, Britifli-made, per yard - — — 2
Linen, Britifh, or Irifh, 24 inches broad,
or upwards, under 5 d. per yard - — — —*
  from yd. to 6 d. -   1
  from 6 d. to 1 s. -   2
Checquered linen, 25 inches broad, not
exceeding is. 6d. nor under yd. —. —- —4
Diaper, not exceeding is. 6d. - — — 1?
But printed linen has no bounty.
Silk fluffs of Britiffi manufafture, and filk
ribbons, per lb.   — 3 —
Ditto, mixed with gold and filver - — 4 ~
Ditto, of filk and Gogtam yarn - — — 8
Ditto, mixed with cotton - - — 1 —
Ditto, mixed with worded - — — 6
But mixed fluffs muft have at lead j-of
the warp filk, and the value tnuft be
double the bounty.
Silk ftockings, gloves, fringes, laces, and
fewing filk
Gold thread, lace, or fringe, per lb.
Silver ditto      —
Cordage, not of American hemp, exported
to foreign places in Europe, perC. —
Gun-powder, per barrel, qt. 1 C.
Spirits from barley, malt, or other corn,
when barley is under 24s. perqr, (be-
fides drawback of excife) per ton
23 O 2
— 1 3
6 —
S “
4l
— 4 6
Flefh
Cnftora-
houfe
Laws.
[ 4146 ] LAW
3. Regulations coastwise.] The coafting trade 1
5 — may only be carried on by Britilh (hips legally naviga-
7 — ted; and (hips foreign built, though belonging to Bri-_
tifh fubjefts, are liable to a duty of 53. per ton.
5 — Goods carried coaftwife mull be attended with a
7 — coaft cocquet or fufferance; and goods imported from
3 — foreign places, and afterwards Ihipped coaftwife, mull
4 6 be accompanied with a certificate, containing a de-
2 8 fcription of their quantity, quality, and value, which
l 9 mull be delivered to the cuftom-houfe at the port of
X — difcharge, that the officers may examine if they cor-
1 — refpond. Such goods, not attended with a certificate,
The following bounties are alfo granted on Ihips «r not taken in at the place where certified, are for-
employed at the fifheries:
LAW
Flefh and filh, viz.
Beef and pork, per barrel „ . —
.Pilchards or fcads, per calk of 50 gallons —
Cod, ling, and flake, 14 inches and up-
   wet, the barrel of 32 gallons —
  dried, called haberdines, per C. —
Salmon, per barrel of 42 gallons - —
White herrings, per barrel of 32 gallons —
Full red-herrings, per ditto . . —
Clean Ihotten red-herrings, per ditto —
Dried red fprats, the laft: - —
Herring-Fijhery; Decked velfels, from 20 to 80
tons, taking on board 12 bulhels of fait for each laft,
and 6 men for every 20 tons, repairing to Yarmouth,
Whitehaven, Leith, Invernefs, BrafTey-found, Camp¬
beltown, Oban, or Kirkwall, from 22 June to 24
October, granted 177 f, for feven years, and to the
end of the then next feffion of parliament; 30 s.
per ton.
Newfoundland Cod-fifhery. Veffels of 5010ns, or
upwards, manned with 15 men, catching 10,000 filh,
landing at Newfoundland, and making another trip,
and returning to the fame port with another cargo;
granted 1775, for 11 years,
Firft 25 veflels, each - L. 46   -
Next 100 veflels, each - - 20 
is granted for landing them. Foreign goods, taken at
fea, or at any other port than that from which certi¬
fied, are forfeited. Bond mull be granted by the fhip-
mafter to deliver the goods at fome Britilh port, and
return certificate within fix months.
4. East Indies.] Goods from India mull be land¬
ed in Britain, without breaking bulk; and, when a Ihip
fails for India, bond mull be granted for that purpofe,
and the goods mud be publicly fold by inch of candle.
Private traders, without the licence, are liable to heavy
penalties. Goods relhipped from homeward bound
Indiamen before their arrival, or put on board out¬
ward bound ones after their departure, are forfeited
with treble value.
Britilh fubje&s are prohibited, under high penalties,
from taking any concern in foreign Eaft India compa-
Whalc-Fifbery. In Greenland feas, Davis's Straits, nies.
and parts adjacent, a bounty granted 1771, of 40 s. The company may export ammunition for their own
per ton to 1776, 30 s. to 1780, and 20s. to 1787, on defence, duty free, not exceeding L. 300 in duty per
fhips of 200 tons, carrying 28 men, befides the mafter annum.
and furgeon, fix months provifions, four boats, 20 They may import, on licence, for the African trade,
harpoon-irons, and 40 lines of 120 fathoms ; and, for coarfe printed calicoes, cowries, and ayrangoes; and, il
every 50 tons more, one boat, fix men, and 10 lines, they do not fupply the market, the treafury may grant
and taking one. apprentice for every 50 tons. Thefe licenfe to others.
Ihips mull continue at the filhing till 10th Auguft, 5. Ireland.] The commercial laws of Britain, with
unlefs their loading be compleated fooner, and mull regard to Ireland, impofe certain reftri&ions, but, on
belong entirely to the place where fitted out. No the other hand, ellablilh many privileges which are not
bounty is allowed for more than 400 tons on one extended to foreign nations.
Ihip. A petition was prefented by parliament to king Wil-
A bounty was granted in 1775, to continue ir years, liam, requeuing him to difeourage the woollen manu-
for encouraging the whale-filhery on the coall of New- fa&ure of Ireland, as interfering with the Britilh, and
foundland and Labrador, the river St Lawrence, and encourage the linen manufafhire there. On the
bay of Chaieur. The five (hips that take the greateft principle of that petition, many of the following regu-
quantity of blubber, being equipped as for the Green- lations have been enadled.
r.n.—  .r.i j .l c n • r Ships built in, or belonging to Ireland, have the
fame freedom of trade, by the a£l of navigation, as
thofe of Britain. Irilh beef, pork, cattle, butter, cot-
land filhery, are entitled to the following fums:
Firft greateft; quantity   L. 500
Second ■ - 400
Third -     300
Fourth       200
Fifth ——     100
ton-yarn manufa£lured there, hemp, flax, and manu-
fadlures thereof, may be imported into Britain duty
free ; and various articles, formerly enumerated, may
be imported, which are prohibited from other places.
A like bounty was granted in 1776, to continue for The bounties on the whale-filhery extend to that coun-
ihe fame term of years, in favour of the whale -filhery try. The fame draw-backs are generally allowed for
on the American coaft, fouth of latitude 440. The goods exported there as to foreign countries ; and it
Ihips employed in thefe filheries to be Britilh-built, is permitted to export 30 tons of gum-fenaga annually
manned by % Britilh fubjeils, belonging to fubjedls duty free.
refiding in Britain or Ireland, and mull take one ap- All Irilh goods, except woollen and cotton manu-
prentice for every 50 tons. fa&ures, glafs, hops, gun-powder, and rt>als, and all
When naval llores are imported on bounty, or iron Britilh goods from Ireland, except woollen manufac-
from America, duty-free, pre-emption mull be offered tures and glafs, may be exported from Ireland or A-
to the commiffioners of the navy. merica, but this permiffion does not extend to any goods
which
LAW [ 4147 ] LAW
-/rhflom- which pay duty in Britain, till an equal duty "be laid
on by the Irilh parliament: nor to bar-iron, and iron-
wareSf t;n fubjefted to duties; bar-iron L.2, 10s. and
flit-iron L. 3, 3 s. per ton ; nor to goods which have
any bounty on exportation from Ireland.
Provifions, lines, and nets, for Newfoundland fifhery,
apd cloathing and accoutrements for the forces in Irifh
pay in America, may be exported from Ireland.
On the other hand, wrought filks, muflins, and ca¬
licoes, of Perfia, or the Eaft Indies, and the enumera¬
ted goods and fugars of the Britilh plantations, fpi-
rits and molafles of foreign plantations, and hops and
glafs, may only be imported from Britain. Hops re¬
ceive no drawback on exportation there. Glafs of Bri-
tidi manufacture only is permitted to be imported, and
it may not be re-exported.
Wool, and woollen manufactures, might not be ex¬
ported from Ireland, except to Britain ; and woollen
manufactures might only be exported from certain ports
in Ireland, to certain ports in the weft coaft of Eng¬
land, on licence previoufly obtained.
Thefe reftriCtions, however, were confidered by the
Irilh as very oppreffive ; and accordingly, after many
complaints, an aCt was palled in their favour, which
received the royal aflent on the 23d of December 1779.
This aCt repealed part of that of 10 and 11 Wil. III.
“ to prevent the exportation of wool out of the king-
oms of Ireland and England into foreign parts, and
for the encouragement of the woollen manufacture in
the kingdom of England,”) and fo much of any other
aCt or aCts of parliament made in Great Britain, which
prohibit, or in any manner reftrain, the exportation of
cloth, bays, kerfeys, fays, friezes, druggets, cloth-
ferges, /balloons, or any other drapery-Huffs or wool¬
len manufactures whatfoever, made up or mixed with
wool or wool-flocks, from the kingdom of Ireland into
foreign parts ; alfo fo much of an aCt 29 Geo. II.
(“ for granting to his majefty fcveral rates and duties,
and for obviating fome doubts about making out or¬
ders at the exchequer for the moneys advanced upon
the credit of the fak-duties granted and continued to
his majefty by anaCtof the laft fefiion of parliament”)
as relate to the exportation of glafs, glafs-bottles, or
glafs of any kind or denomination whatever, from or
out of the kingdom of Ireland.
' 6. Colonies.] The eftablilhment of colonies may
prove beneficial, in various refpeCis, to the mother-
country. They fupply us with commodities which can¬
not be produced at home; they afford employment and
fubfiftence to our fupernumerary hands; they open new
markets for our manufactures; and increafe the num¬
ber of our (hipping and feamen. When their territo¬
ries are extenfive and fertile, they muft increafe in po¬
pulation and riches ; and, if the connection can be pre-
ferved, will promote the (Irength of the nation, by con¬
tributing to its forces and revenue, for the common
benefit. See Colony.
When a colony is firft eftabliflied, agriculture is the
natural employment of the fettlers. Their lands are
generally uncleared, and thinly inhabited; and their
induftry is exerted to its beft advantage in the produc¬
tion of commodities that yield a price in Europe, and
are exchanged for manufactures already brought to
perfection there. Such will be the ftate of things at
firft;, though no reftnCticns be interpofed. The BrU
tifh legiflature has attempted to prolong this kind of Cuftom-
intercourfe beyond its natural period. Defirous to pof-
fefs the whole advantages of their trade, and jealous of aw?*
the favourite woollen manufacture, we have impofed
many reftriCtions on their commerce, and fome on their
manufactures; but, in return, befides the benefit of
protection, we have encouraged the ftaple articles of
their produce, by various bounties and privileges.
The duties and commercial reftriCtions impofed on
the colonies, have furniflied an oftenfible caufe for the
revolt of America. As thefe laws are dill obferved in
the colonies fubjeCt to Britain, and require to be da¬
ted, in order to direCt our judgment how far the grie¬
vances complained of by the revolted colonies were
well founded, we have drawn out the following abftraCl:
No goods may be imported into, or exported from
the plantations in Afia, Africa, or America, except in
(hips built in Britain, Ireland, or the plantations, or
prize-fliips, manned by Britilh fubjeCts, duly regifter-
ed, and legally navigated.
The following goods, enumerated in the aft of na¬
vigation, and fubfequent aCts, may not be exported
from the plantations, except to fome other plantation,
or to Europe: tobacco, cottonwool, indigo, ginger,
fufticand other dyeing woods, molaffes, hemp, copper
ore, beaver-lkins and other furs, pitch, tar, turpen¬
tine, mafts, yards, and boltfprits, coffee, pymento, cocoa
nuts, whale-fins, raw-filk, pot and pearl afhes. Rice
and fugars are enumerated in the lift, but are now un¬
der different regulations.
Rice may be (hipped in Carolina, Georgia, and Flo¬
rida, direftly for places fouth of Cape Finifterre, up¬
on licence taken out in Britain, bond being granted
that none of the other enumerated goods will be taken
in, and that the (hip will proceed dire&ly with the
rice, according to the licence, and return to Europe
before it goes again to the plantations. The quanti¬
ties of rice are indorfed on the licence, and the half-
fubfidy paid in Britain by the perfon who grants the
bond, on a return of the quantity tranfmitted from
America. The mailer, on his return, muft produce a
certificate from the Britifti conful, or two creditable
merchants, that the rice was delivered, and no other-
enumerated goods on board.
Sugar may be fent to foreign cduntries, without
being landed in Britain, the major part of whofe own¬
ers refide in Britain, and the reft in the colony, upon
liccnfe taken out in Britain, and bond granted that
no enumerated goods (hall be laden. If the fugar be
deflined for places north of Cape Finefterre, the (hip
muft touch at Britain, and make entry of its cargo;
but need not be unloaded, unlefs fraud be fufpefted.
If its deftination be fouth of Cape Finifterre, it may
proceed dire&ly; but the (hip muft return to Europe
within 8 months after unloading, and before making
another voyage to the plantations; and the mafter mult
produce a certificate of the landing of the fugar, and
make entry of the quantity, but without payment of
any duty.
Iron may not be imported to Europe, except fo
Ireland ; and none of the non-ennmerated may be im¬
ported to any country fouth of Cape Finifterre, except
the bay of Bifcay.
When a (hip fails from Britain to the colonies, bond
mult be granted, to the extent of L. 1000 if under
100
LAW
[ 4148 ]
LAW
Cnftom- 100 tons burden, and L. 2000 if above it; that,
h°ufe ca{-e ta{je jn any 0f the enumerated commodities, it
_ wili proceed direftly to Britain, or fome other planta¬
tion ; and, in cafe it takes in non-enumerated com¬
modities, it will proceed to places where thefe goods
may be lawfully exported, and return certificate of their
delivery within 18 months. When fln’ps arrive at the
colonies from other places, a like bond mull be grant¬
ed to the governor.
No European goods may be imported into the co¬
lonies from any other place than Britain, except wine
from Madeira and the Azores, belonging to the Bri-
tifh, fait for the fifheries, and goods that are permit¬
ted from Ireland.
Vefiels hovering on the coafts of the plantations,
without coquets, and foreign vefiels, are forfeited.
The following is a table of the Britifh duties pay¬
able in the colonies:
difpenfed with. Dominica [lately taken by the French], Merni* I
and Jamaica, being conveniently fituated for trading to Law,
tVtp PYpnrh WVfl InHieR and flip Snanifh main, frpp
L. s. d.
 9
— 10 —
Foreign white fugar imported, per Cwt.
Foreign fugar and pannelles, per Cvvt.
Foreign indigo, per lb.
Foreign rum, or fpirits, per gallon
Madeira wine, per ton
Spanilhand Portugal wine, per ton
Molaffes, Britilh or foreign, per gall.
Colfee, from colony to colony, per Cwt — 7 —
Pymento Bo. per lb. 4-
Tobacco do. per lb.   —4
Indigo do. per lb. 2
Logwood do. per Cwt. 5 — —
Other dying wood, from colony to colo¬
ny, per Cwt. — JO —
Ginger do. per Cwt. •— 1 —
Cocoa nuts do. per lb. 2
Foreign indigo, and cotton wool, may be imported
to the Weft Indies duty free.
Duties on glafs, tea, paper, and painter’s co¬
lours, were impofed in 1767, and all repealed, except
3 d. per lb. on tea, which gave occafion for thofe di-
tturbances that have produced the prefent unhappy re¬
paration.
The whole of the old fubfidy is generally re¬
tained on goods exported to America. One half
thereof is generally drawn back on goods exported to
other places.
The colonies are prohibited to ere& flit mills, to
export wool or woollen manufactures, or tranfport
them by fea from one colony to another, and to tranf¬
port hats, by fea or land-carriage, from one colony
to another.
In return for thefe duties and reftriCtions, the co
the French Weft Indies and the Spanilh main, free
ports have been opened for that purpofe, and the re-
ftriCtions of the aft of navigation, in fome meafure, re¬
laxed.
Cattle, and all goods of foreign plantations, might
be imported into the free ports of Dominica, in fo¬
reign (hips not having more than one deck, except to¬
bacco, coffee, cocoa, and manufaftures.
The following goods from the Britifh plantations
might not be imported into Dominica ; copper-ore,
cotton, wool, ginger, fuftic, dyeing-wood, hemp, in¬
digo, molafies, beaver fkins, fugar, coffee, cocoa,
hides, fkins, pot and pearl afhes, raw filk, and whale-
fins.
Negroes imported in Britifh fhips, and all other
Britifh or plantation goods, legally imported, may be
exported in foreign one-decked veffels, except tar, tur¬
pentine, and tobacco ; but cotton, wool, and other e-
numerated goods, muft be imported to Britain, accord¬
ing to the aft of navigation.
No veflels with Weft Indian produce, except live
cattle, may proceed from Dominica to the other Weft;
Indian iflands ; and no European, nor Eaft India,
goods, may be exported from thence to the Britifh
plantations; nor any American produce liable to du¬
ty, without certificate that it is the produce of that
ifland. Dominica timber might be exported, fubjeft
to the regulations of the aft of navigation.
Sugars might be imported from Dominica for re-ex¬
portation, and ware-houfed, on payment of 3d. per
cwt. duty ; and other goods, on payment of half old
fubfidy, not drawn back , to be re-exported in fhips of
70 tons.
American goods from Dominica, except certified
to be the produce of that ifland, paid French duties.
Foreign plantation goods may be imported in¬
to the free ports in Jamaica, except fugar, coffee,
pymento, molafies, ginger, tobacco, and manufac¬
tures.
Mercantile Laws. The laws relating to commercial
and maritime affairs approach nearer to uniformity
through the different countries of Europe, than thofe
on other fubjefts. Some of the fundamental regula¬
tions have been taken from the Roman law ; others
have been fuggefted by experience, during the pro-
grefs of commerce; and the whole have been gradual¬
ly reduced to a fyftem, and adopted into the laws of
trading nations, but with fome local varieties and ex¬
ceptions.
The Britifh legiflature has enafted many ftatutes re-
lonies are favoured with various mercantile privileges, fpedling commerce; yet, the greater part of our mer-
Many of their commodities are admitted into Bri¬
tain duty free; and almoft all of them on eafier du¬
ties than from foreign countries. Bounties are grant¬
ed on their naval (tores, indigo, and filk. Large fums
have been granted for their eftablifhment, and conti¬
nue to be granted in favour of thofe whofe circum-
ftances require it. And the planting of tobacco is fe-
verely prohibited in Britain, that theirs may be with¬
out a rival.
The general policy of Britain, in confining the ad¬
vantages granted to the colonies, to the encourage¬
ment of their produce only, has, in one inilance, been
cantile law is to be collefted from the decifions of our
courts ofjuftice, founded on the cuftom of merchants.
A proof of fuch cuftom, where no direft ftatute inter¬
feres, determines the controverfy, and becomes a pre¬
cedent for regulating like cafes afterwards. The exift-
ence of a cuftom not formerly recognized, is, in Eng¬
land, determined by a jury.
The moil common mercantile contrafts are thofe be¬
tween buyer and feller ; between faflor and employer;
between partners; between the owners, mafters, ma¬
riners, and freighters of (hips; between infurers and
the owners of the fubjeft infured; and between the
parties
LAW [ 4149 ] LAW
lv»i;im« parties concerned in tranfafting bills of exchange. See
fas. Factorage, Sale, PartnershiPj Insurance, Bill,
See. and the next article.
Maritime Laws. The moft ancient fyftem of ma¬
ritime laws is that of Rhodes, which was in force du¬
ring the time of the Grecian empire, and afterwards
incorporated into the Roman law. Although, in
fome parts, not applicable to the prefent ftate of trade,
and, in others, now hardly intelligible, it contains the
ground-work of the moft equitable and beneficial rules
obferved in modern commerce. Alike fyftem wasfet
forth by Richard I. of England, called the Statutes
of Oleron ; and another, by the town of Wifby, in the
!! ifland of Gothland. From thefe fyftems, improved
and enlarged in the courfe of time, our general ma¬
ritime law is derived. The jurifdi&ion of matters
I purely maritime belongs, in England, to the court of
admiralty, which proceeds on the civil law; but
their proceedings are fubje& to the controul, and
their decifions to the review, of the fuperior courts.
We (hall here confider, the obligations which
1 fubfift between the matters or owners of ftiips, the
freighters, the mariners, and the furnilhers of pro-
vifions or repairs.
I. Majiers and Freighters. A charter-party is a
contradl between the matter and freighters, in which
the fhip and voyage is deferibed, and the time and
conditions of performing it are afeertained.
The freight is moft frequently determined for the
whole voyage, without refpeA to time. Sometimes it
depends on the time.
In the former cafe, it is either fixed at a certain fum,
for the whole cargo ; or fo much per ton, barrel-bulk,
or other weight or meafure; or fo much per cent, on
the value of the cargo. This laft is common on goods
fent to America ; and the invoices are produced to af-
certain the value.
The burden of the fhip is generally mentioned in the
contraft, in this manner, one hundred tons, or there¬
by; and the number mentioned ought not to differ a-
bove 5 tons, at moft, from the exaft meafure. If a
certain fum be agreed on for the freight of the fhip, it
muft all be paid, although the fhip, when meafured,
fhould prove lefs, unlefs the burden be ’warranted. If
the fhip be freighted for tr an for ting cattle, or Haves,
at fo much a head, and fome of them die on the paf-
' fage» freight is only due for fuch as are delivered
I alive; but, if for lading them, it is due for all that
I were put on board.
When a whole fhip is freighted, if the matter fuffers
any other goods befides thofe of the freighter to be
put on board, he is liable for damages.
It is common to mention the number of days that
the fhip fhall continue at each port to load or unload.
The expreflion ufed is, ’work ’weather days ; to fignify,
that Sundays, holidays, and days when the weather
flops the work, are not reckoned. If the fhip be de¬
tained longer, a daily allowance is often agreed on, in
name of demurrage.
If a fhip be freighted by the month, the time that
the freight commences may be mentioned in the con-
traft, otherwife it is computed from the time it begins
I . to load.
If the voyage be compleated in terms of the agree¬
ment, without any misfortune, the matter has a right Maritime
to demand payment of the freight, before he delivers La**-
the goods. But if the fafe delivery be prevented by ‘
any fault or accident, the parties are liable, according
to the following rules;
If the merchant does not load the fhip within the
time agreed on, the matter may engage with another,
and recover damages.
If the merchant loads the {hip, and recalls it after
it has fet fail, he muft pay the whole freight; but, if.
he unloads it before it fets fail, he is liable for dama¬
ges only.
If a merchant loads goods which it is not lawful to
export, and the fhip be prevented from proceeding
on that account, he muft pay the freight notwith-
ftanding.
If the fhipmafter be not ready to proceed on the
voyage at the time agreed on, the merchant may load
the whole, or part of the cargo, on board another
fhip, and recover damages; but chance, or notorious
accident, by the marine law, releafes the matter from
damages.
If an embargo be laid on the fhip before it fails, the
charter-party is diffolved, and the merchant pays the
expence of loading and unloading; but, if the embargo
be only for a fhort limited time, the voyage fhall be
performed when it expires, and neither party is liable
for damages.
If the fhip be difabled, by any accident, from com-
pleating the voyage, without any fault in the matter,
he may load the goods on board another fhip, to the
port of deftination, with confent of the owner ; and,,
if that confent be refufed, he is entitled to freight on
the goods landed at the port he is forced into,or he may
repair his fhip, if it can be done within a fhort time,
(within 3 days at moft, according to the laws of the
Hanfe towns), and proceed. If he do not carry the
goods to the port of deftination, he is entitled to
freight, pro rata, in proportion to the part of the voy¬
age performed; and the proportion is determined by-
comparing the number of days he failed before the ac¬
cident, with the number in which he might probably
have compleated the voyage. [Locke, et alii, againft
Lyde, Mich, term, C. B. 33. Geo. II.]
If the fhipmafter fails to any other port than that
agreed on, without neceffity, he is liable for damages ;
if thro’ neceffity, he muft fail to the port agreed on,,
at his own expences.
If a fhip be taken by the enemy, and re-taken or
ranfomed, the charter-party continues in force.
If the mailer transfers the goods from his own fhip
to another, without neceflity, and they perifh, he is
liable for the value; but if his own fhip be in immi¬
nent danger, the goods may be, put on board another
fhip, at the rifk of the owner.
If a fhip be freighted out and home, and a fum a-
greed on for the whole voyage, nothing is due till it
return ; and the whole is loft, if the fhip be loft on the
return.
If a certain fum be fpecified for the homeward voy¬
age, it is due, although the faftor abroad fhould have
no goods to fend home.
In the cafe of a fhip freighted to Madeira, Caroli¬
na, and home, a particular freight fixed for the home¬
ward
LAW [ 4K0 ] LAW
Maritime ward voyage, and an option referved for the faftor at
Carolina to decline it, unlefs the (hip arrived before
i ft of March ; the fhipmafter, forefeeing he could not
arrive there within that time, and might be difap-
pointed of a freight, did not go there at all. .He
was found liable in damages, as the obligation was
abfolute on his part, and conditional only on the
other.
If the goods be damaged without fault of the (hip
or matter, the owner is not obliged to receive them
and pay freight, but he mutt either receive the whole,
or abandon the whole ; he cannot choofe thofe that are
in bell order, and rejeA the others. If the goods be
damaged through the infufficicncy of the (hip, the
mailer is liable for the fame ; but, if it be owing to
ftrefs of weather, he is not accountable. It is cuftom-
ary for (hipmafters, when they fufpe& damage, to take
a proteji againjl ’wind and weather at their arrival.
But, as this is the declaration of a party, it does
not bear credit, unlefs fupported by collateral circum-
ftances.
If part of the goods be thrown over-board, or ta¬
ken by the enemy, the part delivered pays freight.
The (hipmafter is accountable for all the goods re¬
ceived on board, by himfdf or mariners, unlefs they
peri(h by the aft of God, or of the king’s ene¬
mies. Though they (hould be feized by an armed
rabble, he is liable: on this principle, that, other-
wife, he might defraud the public, by combining
with thieves, and the fecurity of commerce would be
deftroyed.
Shipmafters are not liable for leakage on liquors ;
nor accountable for the contents of packages, unlefs
packed and delivered in their prefence.
Upon a principle of equity, that the labourer is
worthy of his hire, differences arifing with regard to
freight, when the cafe is doubtful, ought rather to be
determined in favour of the fhipmafter.
2. Ship and Owners with Creditors. When debts
are contrafted for provifions or repairs to a (hip, or
arife from a failure in any of the abovementioned
obligations, the (hip and tackle, and the owners, are
liable for the debt, as well as the matter. The
(hip and tackle may be condemned by the court of
admiralty ; and the owners may be fued at common
law.
By the mercantile law, the owners arc liable in all
cafes, without limitation ; but, by ftatute, they are not
liable for embezzlement beyond their value of (hip,
tackle, and freight.
A (hipmafter may pledge his (hip for neceffary re¬
pairs during a voyage : and this hypothecation is im¬
plied, by the maritime law, when fuch debts are
contrafted. This regulation is neceffary, and is there¬
fore adopted by all commercial nations; for, other-
wife, the mafter might not find credit for neceffary re¬
pairs, and the (hip might bd loft. If repairs be made
at different places, the laft are preferable.
The relief a^ainft the (hip is competent to the
court of admiralty in England, only when repairs
are ftirniftied during the courfe of a voyage ; for the
neceffuy of the cafe extends no further. If a (hip be
repaired at home, (e. g. upon the river Thames), the
creditor is only entitled to relief at common law.
The creditor may fue either the matters or owners ;
but, if he undertook the work on the fpecial promife Maritulg
of the one, the other is not liable.
If the mafter buys provifions on credit, the owners
are liable for the debt, tho’ they have given him money
to pay them.
If a (hip be mortgaged, and afterwards loft at fea, |[|
the owners muft pay the debt; for the mortgage is on¬
ly an additional fecurity,tho’ there be no exprefs words |j|
to that purpofe in the covenant.
If a (hip be taken by the enemy, and ranfomed, the f j|
owners are liable to pay the ranfom, tho’ the ranfomer
die in the hands of the captors.
3. Owners and Mariners. If a (hip be loft before ||J
it comes to a port of delivery, the feamen lofe all their
wages; and, if loft afterwards, they lofe their wages |j
from the laft port of delivery. If they run away, they
lofe all. In a voyage to the Newfundland fifliery, and |||
from thence with the cargo to Europe, the port of de- L I
ftination in Europe is reckoned the firft port of deli¬
very. In a voyage to the Eaft Indies, and home, the i 1
(hip being loft on the return, the feamen were found
entitled to their wages for the voyage outward, and
half the time of loading and unloading.
The mafter may retain the feamens wages to reim-
burfe himfelf for damage fuftained by their default. 11
Shipmafters going to foreign places muft make an 11
agreement with the mariners, (except apprentices,) in
writing; and they are liable in penalties if they defift
or refufe to proceed. Their wages muft be paid with¬
in a month after their arrival, or when difmiffed. |;l
4. Owners of the Jhip with each other. By the com¬
mon law of England, a few of the owners have a right | I
to (lop a voyage which the major part propofe. By
the laws of the admiralty, they cannot flop the voyage,
but may compel the owners to give their ftipulation I I
for the fafe return of the (hip, and fue thereon, if it
be loft.
5. Owners of Jhip and cargo with each other. There I 1
is a mutual obligation which fubfifts between all the
owners of a (hip and cargo. In time of danger, it
is often neceffary to incur a certain lofs of part for ] 11
the greater fecurity of the reft ; to cut a cable; to
lighten the fhip, by throwing part of the goods over- i
board ; to run it a(hore; or the like: and, as it is un-
reafonable that the owners of the thing expofed for jr |
the common fafety (hould bear the whole lofs, it is iF |
defrayed by an equal contribution among the proprie- if 1
tors of the (hip, cargo, and freight. This is the fa¬
mous Z«c Rhodia de jaftu, and is now called a general 1
average.
The cuftom of valuing goods which contribute to a
general average, is not uniform in all places. They |'
are generally valued at the price they yield at the port I
of deftination, charges dedufted; and goods thrown
over-board are valued at the price they would have i
yielded there. Sailors wages, deaths and money be¬
longing to paffengers, and goods belonging to the king,
pay no general average; but proprietors of gold and
filver, in cafe of goods being thrown over-board, con¬
tribute to the full extent of their intereft.
The following particulars are charged as general a-
verage: Damage fuftained in an engagement with the !
enemy ; attendance on the wounded, and rewards gi- j ;
ven for fervice in time of danger, or gratuities to the
widows or children of the flain; ranfom; goods given !, I
to <
LAW [ 4:
9|| ritime to the enemy in the nature of ranfom; charges of bring-
1WS' ing the (hip to a place of fafety when in danger from
ff the enemy, or waiting for convoy; charges of quaren-
tine ; goods thrown over-board; mafts or rigging cut;
holes cut in the (hip to clear it of water; pilotage,
when a lake is fprung; damage, when volutarily run
a-ground, and expence of bringing it afloat ; goods
loii by being put in a lighter; the long-boat loll in
M lightening the (hip in time of danger; hire of cables
and anchors; charges of laying in ballad, victualling,
and guarding the (hip when detained; charges at law,
1 in reclaiming the (hip and cargo; intereft and com-
miflidn on all thefe deburfements.
Though goods put on board a lighter, and lofl, are
charged as a general average; yet, if the lighter be
faved, and the (hip with the red of the goods be lod,
; the goods in the lighter belong to their refpeStive pro¬
prietors, without being liable to any contribution.
If part of the goods be plundered by a pirate, the
proprietor or (hipmader is not entitled to any contri¬
bution.
The eflential circumdances that conditute a general
average are thefe: The lofs mud be the effeCl of a vo¬
luntary aftion; and the obje& of that aClion the com¬
mon fafety of the whole. Quarentine, which isallow-
|i ed, feems not to fall within this defcription. .
I 6. Owners and Re-captors. When a (hip is taken
and carried infra prafidia hojiium, and remains there
for 24 hours, it has been held, by the maritime law,
| that the property was completely veded in the enemy;
and, if afterwards re-taken, the property did not re¬
turn to the former owners, but remained with the re¬
captors. But it is otherwife determined by the Bri-
ti(h datute.
If it be re-taken by the king’s (hips, it (hall be re-
dored to the former owners, on paying one eighth part
of the value for falvage. If re-taken by a private (hip
within 24 hours, it (hall pay an eighth part; if within
48 hours, a fifth part; if within 96 hours, a third part;
and if above 96 hours, a half.
Thofe who refeue a (hip or goods from any hazard,
are entitled to a reafonable allowance, in name of fal-
i vage; and may retain what they have faved till the
falvage be paid.
7. Quarentine. See Quarentine.
8 Wrecks. See Wreck.
9. Imprefs. See Impressing.
10. Infurance. See Insurance.
Game-'Lxv/s. See the article Game.
Sir William Blackdone, treating of the alterations in
our laws, and mentioning franchifes granted of chafe
and free warren, as well to preferve the breed of ani¬
mals, as to indulge the fubjeft; adds, “ From a (imi-
Uar principle to which, though the fored-laws are now
mitigated, and by degrees grown entirely obfolete ;
yet from this root has fprung a bajiard fip, known by
the name of the game-law, now arrived to and wan-
j ‘ toning in its highed vigour: both founded upon the
fame unreafonable notion of permanent property in
wild creatures; and both produ&ive of the fame ty-
j! ranny to the commons: but with this difference, that
the fored-laws edablilhed only one mighty hunter
< throughout the land ; the game-laws have raifed a little
Nimrod in every manor. And in one refpeCt the an¬
cient law was much lefs unreafonable than the modern;
Vol. VI.
51 ] LA W
for the king’s grantee of a chafe or free-warren, might Game-
kill game in every part of his franchife; but now. Laws-
though a freeholder of lefs than L. too a-year for¬
bidden to kill partridge upon his own ejlate, yet nobody
elfe (not even the lord of the manor, unlefs he hath
a grant of free warren) can do it without committing a
trefpafs and fubjefling himfelf to an aflion.”
Under the article Game, the dedroying fuch beads
and fowls as are ranked under that denomination, was
obferved (upon the old principles of the foreft-law)
to be a trefpafs and offence in all perfons alike, whi»
have not authority from the crown to kill game (which
is royal property) by the grant of either a free war¬
ren, or at lead a manor of their own. But the laws
called the game-laws have alfo inflifted additional pu-
nifliments (chiefly pecuniary) on perfons guilty of this
general offence, unlefs they be people of fuch rank or
fortune as is therein particularly fpecified. All perfons
therefore, of what property or didin&ion foever, that
kill game out of their own territories, or even upon
their own edates, without the king’s licence expreffed
by the grant of a franchife, are guilty of the fird ori¬
ginal offence of encroaching on the royal prerogative.
And thofe indigent perfons who do fo, without ha¬
ving fuch rank or fortune as is generally called a qua¬
lification, are guilty, not only of the original offence,
but of the aggravations alfo created by the datutes
for preferving the game : which aggravations are fo
feverely punilhed, and thofe punifhments fo implaca-
bly inflifted, that the offence againd the king is fel-
dom thought of, provided the miferable delinquent can
make his peace with the lord of the manor. The only
rational footing upon which this offence, thus aggra¬
vated, can be confidered as a crime, is, that in low
and indigent perfons it promotes idlenefs, and takes
them away from their proper employments and call¬
ings: which is an offence againd the public police and
oeconomy of the commonwealth.
The datutes for preferving the game are many and
various, and not a little obfeure and intricate; it be¬
ing remarked, that in one datute only, 5 Ann. c. 14.
there is falfe grammar in no fewer than fix places, be-
fides other midakes : the occafion of which, or what
denomination of perfons were probably the penners of
thefe datutes, it is unneceffary here to inquire. It
may be in general fufficient to obferve, that the qua¬
lifications for killing game, as they are ufually called,
or more properly the exemptions from the penalties
infli&ed by the datute-law, are, 1. The having a
freehold edate of 100I. per annum; there being fifty
times the property required to enable a man to kill a
partridge, as to vote for a knight of the (hire: 2. A
leafehold for 99 years of 150!. per annum: 3. Being
the fon and heir apparent of an efquire (a very looie
and vague defcription) or perfon of fuperior degree:
4. Being the owner, or keeper, of a fored, park,
chafe, or warren. For unqualified perfons tranfgref-
fing thefe laws, by killing game, keeping engines for
that purpofe, or even having game in their culiody, or
for perfons (however qualified) that kill game, or have
it in poffeffion, at unfeafonable times of the year, or
unfeafonable hours of the day or night, on Sundays
or on Chriftmas day, there are various penalties aflign-
ed, corporal and pecuniary, by different datutes (af¬
ter-mentioned), on any of which, but only on one at
23 P a
LAW [ 4152 I LAW
Game- a time, tht juftices may convift in a fummary way, or
Laws. mo[i 0f them) profecutions may be carried on at
the affixes. And, laftly, by ftatute 28 Geo. II. c. 12.
no perfon, however qualified to kill, may make mer¬
chandize of this valuable privilege, by felling or ex-
poiing to fale any game, on pain of like forfeiture as
if he had no qualification.
The flatutes above referred to are as follow. No
perfon fliall take pheafants or partridges with engines
in another man’s ground, without licence, on pain of
10I. fiat. 11 Hen. 7. c. 13. If any perfon fliall take
or kill any pheafants or partridges, with any net in the
night-time, they fliall forfeit 20s. for every pheafant,
and 10s. for every partridge taken; and hunting with
fpaniels in Handing corn, incurs a forfeiture of 40 s.
23 Eliz. c. 10. Thofe who kill any pheafant, par¬
tridge, duck, heron, hare, or other game, are liable
to a forfeiture of 20s. for every fowl and hare; and
felling, or buying to fell again, any hare, pheafant, &c.
the forfeiture is 10s. for each hare, &c. 1 Jac. 1. c. 17.
Alfo pheafants or partridges are not to be taken be¬
tween the firft of July and the laft of Auguft, on pain
of imprifonment for a month, unlefs the offenders pay
20s. for every pheafant, &c. killed: and conftables,
having a juftice of peace’s warrant, may fearch for
game and nets, in the poffeffion of perfons not quali¬
fied by law to kill game or to keep fuch nets,
7 Jac. 1. c. 11. Conftables, by a warrant of a juftice
of peace, are to fearch houfes of fufpe&ed perfons for
game: and if any game be found upon them, and they
do not give a good account how they came by the
fame, they fliall forfeit for every hare, pheafant, or
partridge, not under 5 s. nor exceeding 20s. And in¬
ferior tradefmen hunting, &c. are fubjeft to the pe¬
nalties of the aft, and may likewife be fued for tref-
pafs. If officers of the army or foldiers kill game with¬
out leave, they forfeit 5I. an officer, and 10s. a fol-
dier; 4&5 W. andM. c. 23. Higglers, chapmen, car¬
riers, inn-keepers, victuallers, &c. having in their cu-
ftody hare, pheafant, partride, heath-game, &c. (ex¬
cept fent by fome perfon qualified to kill game) fliall
forfeit for every hare and fowl 5 1. to be levied by di-
ftrefs and fale of their goods, being proved by one wit-
nefs, before a juftice ; and for want of diftrefs fliali be
committed to the houfe of eorreftion for three months:
one moiety of the forfeiture to the informer, and the
other to the poor. And felling game, or offering the
fame to fale, incurs the like penalty; wherein hare
and other game found in a fliop, &c. is adjudged an
expofing to fale : killing hares in the night is liable
to the fame penalties: and if any perfons fliall drive
wild-fowls with nets, between the firft day of July
and the firft of September, they fliall forfeit 5 s. for
every fowl;. 5 Ann. c. 14. 9 Ann. c. 25. If any
unqualified perfon fliall keep a gun, he ihall forfeit
101.; and perfons being qualified may take guns from
thofe that are not, and break them; 22 & 22 Car. II.
c. 25. and 33 H. VIII. c. 6. One juftice of peace, up¬
on examination and proof of the offence, may commit
the offender till he hath paid the forfeiture of 101.
And perfons, not qualified by law, keeping dogs, nets,
or other engines to kill game, being convifted thereof
before a juftice of peace, fliall forfeit 51. or be fent to
the houfe of correftion for three months; and the
dogs, game, &c. ffiall be taken from them, by the
ftatute 5 Ann. If a perfon hunt upon the ground of
another, fuch other perfon cannot juftify killing of his_
dogs, as appears by 2 Roll. Abr. 567. But it was-
otherwife adjudged Mich. 33 Car. II. in C. B.
2 Cro. 44. and fee 3. Lev. xxviii. In aftions of debt,
qui tam. See. by a common informer on the ftatutc
5 Ann. for 15 1. wherein the plaintiff declared on two
feveral counts, one for 10I. for killing two partridges,
the other for 51. for keeping an engine to deftroy the
game, not being qualified, &c. the plaintiff had a ver-
dift for 51. only: this aftion was brought by virtue of
the ftat. 8 Geo. I. See flat. 9 Geo. I. c. 22. Sec
likewife 24 Geo. II. c. 34. for the better prefervation
of the game in Scotland. By the ftat. 26 Geo. II.
c. 2. all fuits and aftions brought by virtue of ftat.
8 Geo. I. c.  for the recovery of any pecuniary
penalty, or fum of money, for offences committed a-
gainft any law for the better prefervation of the game,
ftiall be brought before the end of the fecond term af¬
ter the offence committed.
By 28 Geo. II. c. 12. perfons felling, or expofing
to fale, any game, are liable to the penalties inflifted
by 5 Ann. c. 14. on higglers, Sec. offering game to
fale: and game found in the houfe or poffeffion of a
poulterer, falefman, fifhmonger, cook, or paftry-cook,
is deemed expofing thereof to fale.
By 2 Geo. III. c. 19. after the the 1 ft June 1762,
no perfon may take, kill, buy or fell, or have in hi*
cuftody, any partridge, between 12th February and
1 ft September, or pheafant between iff February and
iff Oftober, or heath-fowl between iff; January and
20th Auguft, or groufe between ift December and
25th July, in any year; pheafants taken in their pro¬
per feafon, and kept in mews, or breeding places, ex¬
cepted : and perfons offending in any of the cafes afore-
faid, forfeit 5I. per bird, to the profecutor, to be re¬
covered, with full cofts, in any of the courts at Wefl-
minfter. By this aft, likewife, the whole of the pecu¬
niary penalties under the 8 Geo. I. c. 19. may be fued
for, and recovered to the foie ufe of the profecutor,
with double cofts; and no part thereof to go to the
poor of the pariftu
By 5 George III. c. 14. perfons convifted of en¬
tering warrens in the night-time, and taking or kill¬
ing coneys there, or aiding or affifting therein, may
be punifhed by tranfportation, or by whipping, fine,
or imprifonment. Perfons convifted on this aft,
not liable to be convifted under any former aft.
This aft does not extend to the deftroying co¬
neys in the day-time, on the fea and river-banks
in the county of Lincoln, &c. No fatisfaftion to be
made for damages occafioned by entry, unlefs they ex¬
ceed 1 s. It may not be improper to mention an aft
lately made and not yet repealed, viz. 10 Geo. III.
c. 19. for prefervation of the game, which (hews the
importance of the objeft. It is thereby enafted, That
if any perfon kill any hare, &c. between fun-fetting
and fun-rifing, or ufe any gun, &c. for deftroying
game, ftiall for the firft. offence be imprifoned for any
time not exceeding fix nor lefs than three months: if
guity of a fecond offence, after conviftion of a firft,
to be imprifoned for any time not exceeding twelve
months nor lefs than fix; and fhall alfo, within three
days after the time of his commitment either for the
firft or for any other offence, be once publicly whipped.
Military
LAW
LAW [41
Military Law. See Military and Marine.
LAWBURROWS, in Scots law. See Law,
Part III. N° clxxxiii. 16.
LAWENBURG, Dutchy, a territory of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Lower Saxony, bounded by the
duchy of Holftein on the north and weft, by the
duchy of Mecklenburg on the eaft, and by the duchy
of Lunenburgh, from which it is feparated by the ri¬
ver Elbe, on the Weft; being about 85 miles long,
and 20 broad. The chief towns are Lawenburg, Mul¬
len, Wittenburg, and Ratzeburg. It belongs to the
eleftor of Hanover.
Lawenburg, a city of Germany in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and capital of a duchy of the fame
name. It is a fotall but populous town, fituated on
the Elbe, under the brow of a very high hill, from
whence there is a delightful profpeft over the ad¬
jacent country. It has a caille on an eminence,
and is convenient for trade. E. Long. 10. 51. N.
Lat. 53. 36.
Lawenburg, a town of Germany in Farther Po¬
merania, and the chief place of a territory of the
fame name, belonging to the elector of Brandenburg.
LAWES (Henry), a celebrated mufician, and the
Purcell of his time. He was a fervant to Charles I.
in his public and private mufic, and fet fome of the
works of almoft every poet of eminence in that reign.
The comus of Milton, and feveral of the lyrics of Wal¬
ler, were fet by him ; and both thefe poets have done
him honour in their verfes. He compofed a confider-
able number of pfalm-tunes in the Cantica Sacra, for
three voices and an organ; and many more of his com-
pofitions are to be feen in a work called Seleft airs and
dialogues ; alfo in the Treafury of mufic, and the Mu-
fcal companion. He died in 1662.
Lawes (William), was brother to the former, and
a moft capital mufician. He made above 30 feveral
forts of mufic for voices and inftruments ; nor was
there anyinftrument then in ufe, but he compofed to
it as aptly as if he had ftudied that alone. In the mu¬
fic fchool at Oxford are two large manofcript volumes
of his works in fcore for various inftruments. He was
a comraiflary under general Gerard in the civil war,
and, to the great regret of the king, was killed at the
fiege of Chefter in 1645.
LAWLESS court, a court faid to be held an¬
nually on King’s Hill at Rochford in Eftex, on the
Wednefday morning after Michaelmas-day at cock-
crowing, where they whifper, and have no candle,
nor any pen and ink, but only a coal. Perfons who owe
fuit, or fervice, and do not appear, forfeit double their
rent every hour they are miffing.
This fervile attendance, Camden informs us, was
impofed on the tenants for confpiring at the like un-
feafonable hourtoraife a commotion. The court be¬
longs to the honour of Raleigh, and to the earl of
Warwick; and is called lanvlefs, from its being held
at an unlawful hour.
LAWINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia ; formerly imperial, but now fubjtcl to the
duke of Neuburg. Here the duke of Bavaria, in
1704, fortified his camp to defend his country againft
the Britifh forces and their allies commanded by the
duke of Marlborough, who forced their intrench-
ments. It is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. 10.
29. N. Lat. 38. 32. Lawbur-
LAWN, a fpacious plain in a park, or adjoining rcn's
to a noble feat. As to the dimenfions of a lawn: In Lawfoni*.
a large park, it ftiould be as extenfive as the ground 
will permit; and, if poflible, it fttould never be lefs
than 50 acres : but in gardens of a moderate extent, a
lawn of 10 acres is fufficient; and in thofe of the
largeft fize, 15 acres. The belt fituation for a lawn,
is in the front of the houfe : and here, if the houfe
front the eaft, it will be extremely convenient; but
the moft delirable afpeft for a lawn, is that of the
fouth-eaft. As to the figure of the lawn, fome re¬
commend an exaft fquare, others an oblong fquare,
fome an oval, and others a circular figure : but nei¬
ther of thefe are to be regarded. It ought to be fo
contrived, as to fuit the ground; and as there Ihould
be trees planted for fliade on the boundaries of the
lawn, fothe fides may be broken by irregular planta¬
tions of trees, which, if there are not fome good pro-
fpefts beyond the lawn, ftiould bound it on every fide,
and be brought round pretty near to each end of the
houfe. If in thefe plantations round the lawn, the
trees are placed irregularly, fome breaking much for¬
warder on the lawn than others, and not crowded too
clofe together, they will make a better appearance
than any regular plantations can poffibly do; and if
there are variety of trees, properly difpofed, they will
have a good effedt ; but only thofe which make a fine
appearance, and grow large, ftraight, and handfome,
fhould be admitted here. The moft proper trees for
this purpofe, are the elm, oak, chefnut, and beech ;
and if there are fome clumps of ever-green trees inter¬
mixed with the others, they will add to the beauty of
the whole, efpecially in the wintcr-feafon ; the bell
forts for this purpofe, are lord Weymouth’s pine', and
the filvcr and fpruce firs.
Lawn, in manufa&ures, a fine fort of linen, remark¬
able for being ufed in the fleeves of bilhops.
LAWRENCE (St), the largeft river in north A-
merica, proceeding from the lake Ontario, from which
it runs a courfe of 700 miles to the Atlantic ocean. It
is navigable as far as Quebec, which is above 400
miles; but beyond Montreal it is fo full of fhoals and
rocks, that it will not admit large veffels without dan¬
ger, unlefs the channel be very well known.
LAWSONIA, Egyptian privet; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the otiandria clafs
of plants. There are two fpecies, the inermis and fpi-
nofa, both natives of India. Some authors take the
firft to be the plant termed by the Arabians henna, or
alhenna ; the pulverifed leaves of which are much ufed
by theeaftern nations for dying their nails yellow: but
others, Dr Haffelquiftin particular, attribute that ef-
feft to the leaves of the other fpecies of Egyptian pri¬
vet which bears prickly branches. It is probable, that
neither fet of writers are miftaken, and that the ftirub
in queftion is a variety only of the thorny lavvfoniaa
rendered mild by culture.
Alhenna grows naturally and is cultivated through¬
out India, as alfo in Egypt, Paleftine, and Perfia. In
thofe countries, fays Haffelquift, it flowers from May
to Auguft. The leaves being pulverized, are made
with water into a pafte, which the inhabitants of thofe
countries bind on the nails of their hands and feet,
keeping it on all night. The deep yellow colour that
23 P 2 ' ia
Lawyer
Lazuli.
L A Z [ 4154 ]
LEA
Js thus obtained is confiderably permanent, not requi¬
ring to be renewed for feveral weeks. It would
_ feem, that this cuttom is very ancient in Egypt; the
nails of feme mummies being found dyed in this
manner. The dried flowers of henna afford a fragrant
fmetl, which, it is affirmed, women with child cannot
bear.
LAWYER, fignifies a connfellor, or one that is
learned or fkilled in the law. See Counsellor, Bar¬
rister, and Serjeant.
LAY, in French poetry, denotes a fhort poem,
fomething like our ballads.
\Jk'i-Brothers> among the Romanifts, thofe pious
but illiterate perfons, who devote themfelves in fome
convent to the fervice of the religious. They wear a
different habit from that of the religious; but never
enter into the choir, nor are prefent at the chapters; nor
do they make any other vow except of conftancy and
obedience. In the nunneries there are alfo lay-fifters.
1LA.\-Mant one who follows a fecular employment,
and has not entered into holy orders.
LAYERS, in gardening, are tender (hoots or twigs
of trees, laid or buried in the ground, till, having
ftruck root, they are feparated from the parent-tree,
and become diftindf plants.—The propagating trees by
layers is done in the following manner : The branches
of the trees are to be (lit a little way, and laid under
the mould for about half a foot; the ground (hould
be firft made very light, and after they are laid they
Ihouid be gently watered. If they will not remain
eafily in the pofition they are put in, they muft be
pegged down with wooden hooks : the beft feafon for
doing this is, for ever-greens, toward the end ofAu-
guft, and, for other trees, in the beginning of Febru¬
ary. If they are found to have taken root, they are
to be cut off from the main plant the fucceeding win¬
ter, and planted out. If the branch is too high from
the ground, a tub of earth is to be raifed to a proper
height for it. Some pare off the rhind, and others
twift the branch before they lay it, but this is not ne-
ceflary. The end of the layer (hould be about a foot
out of the ground; and the branch may be either tied
tight round with a wire, or cut upwards from a joint,
or cut round for an inch or two at the place, and it is
a good method to pierce feveral holes thro’ it with an
awl above the part tied with the wire.
LAYING the land, in navigation, the (late of
motion which increafes the diftance from the coaft,
Fo as to make it appear lower and fmaller, a cir-
cumftance which evidently arifes from the intervening
convexity of the furface of the, fea. It is ufed in con-
tradiftinftion to raijlng the land, which is produ¬
ced by the oppofite motion of approach towards
it. See Land.
LAZAR-house, or Lazaretto, a public build¬
ing, in the nature of an hofpital, to receive the poor,
and thofe afflifted with contagious diftempers. In
fome places, lazarettos are appointed for the per¬
formance of quarentine; in which cafe, thofe are obli¬
ged to be confined in them who are fufpe&ed to have
come from places infefted with the plague.
LAZULI, or Lapis Lazuli, is a blue (lone, ge¬
nerally intermixed with white veins and gold-coloured
fpots. Wallerius confiders this (lone as a fpecies of
jafper; and Cronftedt, more juftly, as a fpecies of that
order of earths which have been lately called zeolites. Lazuli
Mr Margraaf, and alfo Mr Cronftedt, have made ex- Lea(1
periments on this (tone, carefully cleanfed from all
white, pyritous, or heterogeneous matters. From thefe ]
experiments we learn, 1. That this ftone is folublein
acids without effervefcence ; and when it has been pre-
vioufly calcined, it forms gelatinous mafles with acids.
2. That by calcination it is not deprived of its blue
colour, till at lead that operation has been long conti¬
nued. 3. By a violent fire it is fufible, and forms a
frothy glafs, fometimes whitifh, and fometimes of a
dufky yellow-colour, but always clouded with blue
fpots. 4. Fufed with nitre, and thrown red-hot into
water, it tinged the water with a blue colour, which
difappeared in fome hours. By this operation the j
(lone loft its blue colour. 5. Some of this ftone,
powdered and mixed with glafs frit, produced a tranf-
parent citron-coloured glafs. With borax, it produ¬
ced a glafs of a chryfolite-coiour. 6. It gave no (igns \
of its containing copper, notwithftanding it has been
confidered as an ore of copper by moft authors. 7. It
(howed marks of iron, by forming a blue precipitate, :
like Pruffian blue, when a phlogifticated alkali was
added to a folution of this ftone in acids. 8. Mar- j
graaf fays, that by adding vitriolic acid to folutions of
this ftone in nitrous and marine acids, a white preci¬
pitate was formed, which he fuppofes was calcareous
earth. Neverthelefs, Mr Cronftedt affirms, that this
ftone does not effervefee with acids. Perhaps the cal- j
careous earth was not eflential, but only accidental.
9. Cronftedt fays, that a precipitate is formed by ad- !
ding a fixed alkali to a folution of this ftone in vitriolic
acid, which, being fcorified with borax, yields a re-
gulus of filver. He fays, that by fcorification with
lead, two ounces of filver have bfeen obtained from a
hundred pounds of the ftone. Mr Margraaf does not
mention that he found any filver, or that he fearched
for any. Perhaps it is only accidental. The fine blue
fubftance called ultramarine is prepared from lapis la¬
zuli in the following manner, according to Walle¬
rius. The ftone, firft finely levigated and mixed with
linfeed oil, is to be added to a pafte, made by mixing
together equal parts of yellow wax, colophony, and
pitch, that is, half a pound of each, with half an ounce
of linfeed oil, two ounces of turpentine, and two ounces
of maftic. To three or four parts of this pafte one
part of the levigated ftone, mixed with linfeed-oil, is
to be added ; and after the mixture has been digefted
together during three or four weeks, it is to be thrown
into hot-water, and ftirred till the blue colour feparates
and diffufes in the water, which is then to be poured
off. The blue matter is allowed to fettle; and, when
dry, is the ultramarine required.
The lapis lazuli is found in many parts of the
world ; but that of Alia and Africa is much fupe-
rior both in beauty and real value to the Bohe¬
mian and German kind, which is too often fold in
its place.
LEAD. See Chemistry, n° 151, 204, 248, |
280, 397. and Metallurgy.
Black Lead, a mineral dug in Britain, and, as Dr
Woodward obferves in the preface to his Method of
Fofiils, more plentiful and of a better kind there than in
any other part of the world. According to Dr Plott’s ;
account in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, n° 240, it
is
I- E A
is found only in Kefwych in Cumberland; and is
there called •wadt or kellonu, by which la ft name an
earth like theblackchalkisdiftinguiihed in otherplaces.
The colour of black-lead, rather a deep, fhining,
bluilh-grey, than a black, may be feen, diluted a
little, in the black melting-pots when broken or the
furface fcraped off, and entire in the genuine fort of
black pencils. It differs not a little in goodnefs, fome
forts marking paper freely, and others very difficultly
or fcarce at all. It is fmooth, and as it were unftu-
ous to the touch ; and hence is ufed fometimes inftead
®f oil or foap for giving (lipperinefs to the rubbing
parts of machines. Acids neither diffolve it nor alter
its colour or unduofity.
Black-lead has not been found to contain any of the
metal from which it receives its name, and its compo-
fition appears to be of a very Angular kind. From its
known refiftance to vehement degrees of fire, whether
urged by itfelf in clofe veffels, or made with clay into
melting pots, and placed among the burning fuel, it
fhould feem that it could not partake largely of any
volatile fubftance, and it has been generally fuppofed
to confift chiefly of a talcky earth. But Mr Quift re¬
lates, in a curious paper of experiments on black-lead
publiffied in the Swedilh tranfa&ions for 1754, that
having cxpofed many different fpecimens of this mi¬
neral to a ftrong heat, on a fcorifying di/h under a
muffle, they all yielded fulphureous fumes and flowers
in abundance; and that there remained behind, from
one fort, only a fifth part of its weight, and from
another no more than a 20th part, of a yellow or
brown calx, which, being treated with inflammable
fluxes, yielded feven tenths of its weight of a metallic
mafs, which feemed to be a mixture of iron and tin.
Agreeably to thefe experiments, in Cronftedt’s Mi¬
neralogy black-lead is claffed among the fulphu¬
reous minerals, and called fulphur fatiated •with iron
and tin.
Dr Lewis kept 168 grains of the fineft black lead
ufed by our pencil-makers in a moderately ftrong red
heat on a fcorifying difh for three hours, with the com¬
mon precaution of covering the veffel for a time, left
the matter fltould crackle, and fome particles be thrown
off from it in fubftance. He found it reduced to about
120 grains, and all the pieces changed on the outfide
to a rufty fparkling brown calx ; of which a confider-
able part was attracted by a magnetic bar, the inter¬
nal parts continuing of the fame colour as at firft.
Being then broken into fmalier pieces, and expofed to
a like heat for two hours, it fuffered the fame change
as before, and was reduced to about 60 grains. Being
further broken, and calcined with a moderate red
heat for 10 hours, it wras diminiflied to 30 grains;
and, by a repetition of the operation, to J 2 grains,
or t-1^ of its original weight.
The remarkable diffipation in thefe experiments, of
a fubftance which in clofe veffels refifts intenfe fires,
may be fomewhat illuftrated by the known property
of charcoal, which when excluded from the a£tion of
the air, whether by being inclofed in a veffel, or
mixed with clay into a mafs, remains unconfumed and
unaltered in the fire. Maffes of black-lead feem to
calcine and fuffer a diffipation only on the furface ;
the internal part remaining long unchanged, unlefs
LEA
the mafs be broken, or the calx rubbed off, fo that Lead,
freih furfaces may be expofed to the air. The com- ^caf*
mon black-lead melting-pots made of clay, and the
coarfer kinds of black-lead powdered, like thofe made
of clay and charcoal powder, lofe their external black-
nefs with part of their weight, and thus have their
ftaining quality deftroyed by ftrong fire.
Black-IsKAV Pencils. Black-lead, in fine powder,
ftirred into melted fulphur, unites with it fo uniformly
and in fuch quantity, that though the compound re¬
mains fluid enough to be poured into moulds, it looks
nearly like the coarfer forts of black-lead themfelves.
Probably the way which prince Rupert is faid to have
had, mentioned in the third volume of Dr Birch’s hi-
ftory of the Royal Society, of making black-lead run
like a metal in a mould, fo as to ferve for black-lead
again, confifted in mixing it with fulphur or fulphu¬
reous bodies.
On this principle the Germarf black-lead pencils are
faid to be made ; and many of thofe which are hawked
about by certain perfons among us, are prepared in
the fame manner: their melting or foftening, when
held in a candle, or applied to a red-hot iron, and
yielding a bluiffi flame with a ftrong fmell of burning
brimftone, betrays their compofition ; for black-lead
itfelf yields no fmell or fume, and fuffers no apparent
alteration in that heat. Pencils made with fuch addi¬
tions are of a very bad kind : they are hard, brittle,
and do not call or make a mark freely either on paper
or wood, rather cutting or fcratching them, than
leaving a coloured ftroke.
The true Englifh pencils, (which Vogel in his
Mineral Syftem, and fome other foreign writers, ima¬
gine to be prepared alfo by melting the black-lead
with fome additional fubftances, and calling it into a
mould) are formed of black-lead alone, fawed into
flips, which are fitted into a groove made in a piece
of wood, and another flip of wood glued over them :
the fofteft wood, as cedar, is made choice of, that
the pencil may be the eafier cut and a part at one
end, too Ihort to be conveniently ufed after the reft has
been worn and cut away, is left unfilled with the black-
lead, that there may be no wafte of fo valuable a com¬
modity. Thefe pencils are greatly preferable to the
others, though feldom fo perfedt as could be wilhed,
being accompanied with fome degree of the fame in¬
conveniences, and being very unequal in their quality,
on account of different forts off the mineral being
fraudulently joined together in one pencil, the fore¬
part being commonly pretty good, and the reft of an
inferior kind. Some, to avoid thefe imperfe&ions,
take the finer pieces of black-lead itfelf, which they
faw into flips, and fix for ufe in port-crayons. This
is doubtlefs the fureft way of obtaining black-lead,
crayons whofe goodnefs can be depended upon.
Milted Li An. See Chemistry, n° 400..
Poifon of Lead. See Poison.
LEAF, a part of a plant extended into length and
breadth in fuch a manner as to have one fide diftin-
guifhable from the other. This is Miller’s definition.
Linnaeus denominates leaves “ the organs of motion,
or mufcles of the plant.”—The leaves are not merely
ornamental to plants ; they ferve very ufeful purpofes,
and make part of the organs of vegetation.
I 4>55 ]
Leaf.
LEA
[ 4156 ] LEA
The greater number of plants, particularly trees,
"are furniihed with leaves: in mufhrooms, and (hrubby
horfe-tail, they are totally wanting. Ludwig defines
leaves to be fibrous and cellular proceffes of the plant,
which are of various figures, but generally extended
into a plain membranaceous or fkinny fubftance.
They are of a deeper green than the foot-(talks on
which they ftand, and are formed by the expanfion of
the veffels of the (talk, among which, in feveral leaves,
the proper veffels are diftinguifhed by the particular
tafte, colour, and fmell, of the liquors contained with¬
in them.
By theexpanfion of the vefiels of the (talk, are pro¬
duced feveral ramifications or branches, which, crofs-
ing each other mutually, form a kind of net ; the
mefhes or interftices of which are filled up with a ten¬
der cellular fubftance, called the pulp, pith, ox paren¬
chyma. This pulpy fubftance is frequently confumed
by certain fmall infe&s, whilft the membranous net
remaining untouched, exhibits the genuine Ikeleton of
the leaf.
The net in queftion is covered externally with an
epidermis or fcarf-fkin, which appears to be a conti¬
nuation of the fcarf-(kin of the (talk, and perhaps
of that of the ftem. M. Defauffure, a judicious na-
turalift, has attempted to prove, that this fcarf-fkin,
like that of the petals, is a true bark, compofed itfelf
of an epidermis and cortical net; thefe parts feem to
be the organs of perfpiration, which ferve to diffipate
the fuperfluous juices.
The cortical net is furnifhed, principally on the
furface of the leaf, with a great number of fuckers or
abforbent veffels, deftined to imbibe the humidity of
the air. The upper furface, turned towards heaven,
ferves as a defence to the lower, which looks down¬
ward ; and this difpofition is fo eflential to the vege¬
table ceconomy, that, if a branch is overturned in fuch
a manner as to deftroy the natural direction of the
leaves, they will, of themfelves, in a very fhort time,
refume their former pofition ; and that as often as the
branch is thus overturned.
Leaves, then, are ufeful and necefiary organs ; trees
perifh when totally diverted of them. In general,
plants ftript of any of their leaves, cannot (hoot vigo-
roufly : witnefs thofe which have undergone the de¬
predations of infe&s ; witnefs, likewife, the very com¬
mon praQife of dripping off fome of the leaves from
plants, when we would fufpend their growth, or di-
minifh the number of their (hoots. This method is
fometimes obferved with corn and the efculent graffes j
and, in cold years, is praftifed on fruit-trees and vines,
to render the fruit riper and better coloured: but in
this cafe it is proper to wait till the fruits have acquired
their full bulk, as the leaves contribute greatly to
their growth, but hinder, when too numerous, that
exquifite rectifying of the juices, which is fo neceffary
to render them delicious and palatable.
When vegetation ceafes, the organs of perfpiration
and infpiration become fuperfluous. Plants, there¬
fore, are not always adorned with leaves: they pro¬
duce new ones every year; and every year the greater
part are totally diverted of them, and remain naked
during the winter. See Plant.
Leaf, in clocks and watches, an appellation given
to the notches of their pinions.
GW-Leaf, ufually fignifies fine gold beaten into Gold-
plates of an exceeding thinnefs, which are well known
in the arts of gilding, &c. The preparation of gold-
leaf, according to Dr Lewis, is as follows.
“ The gold is melted in a black-lead crucible, with
fome borax, in a wind-furnace, called by the workmen
a ‘wind-hole: as foon as it appears in perfed fufion, it
is poured out into an iron ingot mould, fix or eight
inches long, and three quarters of an inch wide, pre-
vioufly greafed, and heated, fo as to make the tallow
run and fmoke, but not to take flame. The bar of
gold is made red-hot, to burn off the un&uous matter,
and forged on an anvil into a long plate, which is fur¬
ther extended, by being parted repeatedly between
polifhed fteel rollers, till it becomes a ribbon as thin
as paper. Formerly the whole of this extenfion was
procured by means of the hammer, and fome of the
French workmen are (till faid to follow the fame
praftice: but the ufe of the flatting-mill both abridges
the operation, and renders the plate of more uniform
thicknefs. The ribbon is divided by compaffes, and
cut with (beers into equal pieces, which confequently
are of equal weights : thefe are forged on an anvil till
they are an inch fquare; and afterwards well nealed,
to correCl the rigidity which the metal has con¬
tracted in the hammering and flatting. Two ounces
of gold, or 960 grains, the quantity which the work¬
men ufually melt at a time, make jyoof thefe fquares,
whence each of them weighs fix grains and two-fifths;
and as 902 grains of gold make a cubic inch, the
thicknefs of the fqnare plates is about the 766th part
of an inch.
“ In order to the further extenfion of thefe pieces
into fine leaves, it is neceffary to interpofe forae fmooth
body between them and the hammer, for foftening its
blow, and defending them from the rudenefs of its
immediate aCtion : as alfo to place between every two
of the pieces fome proper intermedium, which, while
it prevents their uniting together, or injuring one
another, may fuffer them freely to extend. Both
thefe ends are anfwered by certain animal mem¬
branes.
“ The gold-beaters ufe three kinds of membranes;
for the outfide cover, common parchment made of
(heep-lkin ; for interlaying with the gold, firft the
fmootheft and clofeft vellum, made of calf-lkin; and
afterwards the much finer (kins of ox-gut, ftript off
from the large ftraight gut (lit open, curioufly pre¬
pared on purpofe for this ufe, and hence called gold¬
beaters /kin. The preparation of thefe laft is a diftinCt
bufinefs, praCtifed by only two or three perfons in the
kingdom, fome of the particulars of which I have not
fatisfaftorily learned. The general procefs is faid to
confift, in applying one upon another, by the fmooth
fides, in a moirt ftate, in which they readily cohere
and unite infeparably; ftretching them on a frame,
and carefully feraping off the fat and rough matter, fo
as to leave only the fine exterior membrane of the gut;
beating them between double leaves of paper, to force
out what umStuofity may remain in them; moiftening
them once or twice with an infufion of warm fpices;
and laftly, drying and prefiing them. It is faid, that
fome calcined gyp (urn, or plafter-of-Paris, is rubbed
with a hare’s foot both on the vellum and the ox-gut
(kins, which fills up fuch minute holes as may happen
LEA [ 4*57 ] LEA
-'«»?• in them, atul prevents the gold-leaf from flicking, as
it would do to the fimple animal-membrane. It is
oLfervable, that, notwithftanding the vaft extent to
which the gold is beaten between thefe fkins, and the
great tenuity of the fkins themfelves, yet they fuftain
continual repetitions of the procefs for feveral months,
without extending or growing thinner. Our work¬
men find, that, after 70 or 80 repetitions, the fkins,
though they contradl no flaw, will no longer permit
the gold to extend between them; but that they may
be again rendered fit for ufe by impregnating them
with the virtue which they have loft, and that even
holes in them may be repaired by the dextrous appli¬
cation of frefh pieces of fkin: a microfcopical exami¬
nation of fome fkins that had been long ufed plainly
fhewed thefe repairs. The method of refloring their
virtue is faid in the Encyclopedie to be, by interlaying
them with leaves of paper moiftened with vinegar white-
wine, beating them for a whole day, and afterwards
rubbing them over as at firft with plafter-of-Paris.
The gold is faid to extend between them more eafily,
after they have been ufed a little, than when they
are new.
“ The beating of the gold is performed on a fmooth
block of black marble, weighing from 200 to 600
pounds, the heavier the better ; about nine inches
fquare on the upper furface, and fometimes I^fs, fitted
into the middle of a wooden frame, about two feet
fquare, fo as that the furface of the marble and the
frame form one continuous plane. Three of the fides
are furnilhed with a high ledge; and the front, which
is open, has a leather flap faftened to it, which the
gold-beater takes before him as an apron, for prefer-
ving the fragments of gold that fall off. Three ham¬
mers are employed, all of them with two round and
fomewhat convex faces, though commonly the work¬
man ufes only one of the faces: the firll, called the
■ cutch-hammer, is about four inches in diameter, and
weighs 15 or 16 pounds, and fometimes 20, though
few workmen can manage thofe of this laft fize: the
fecond, called the Jhodering-hammer, weighs about 12
pounds, and is about the fame diameter: the third,
called the goldhammcr, or finijhing hammer, weighs 10
or 11 pounds, and is nearly of the fame width. The
French ufe four hammers, differing both in fize and
fhape from thofe of our workmen: they have only one
face, being in figure truncated cones. The firft has
very little convexity, is near five inches in diameter,
and weighs 14or 15 pounds: the fecond is more con¬
vex than the firft, about an inch narrower, and fcarcely
half its weight: the third, ftill more convex, is only
about two inches wide, and four or five pounds in
weight: the fourth or finiihing hammer is near as
heavy as the firft, but narrower by an inch, and the
mod convex of all. As thefe hammers differ fo re¬
markably from ours, I thought proper to infert them,
leaving the workmen to judge what advantage one fet
may have above the other.
“ A hundred and fifty of the pieces of gold are
interlaid with leaves of vellum, three or four inches
fquare, one vellum leaf being placed between every
two of the pieces, and about 20 more of the vellum
leaves on the outfides; over thefe is drawn a parch¬
ment cafe, open at both ends, and over this another in
a.contrary dire&ion, fo that the affemblage of gold
and vellum leaves is kept tight and clofe on aii fides. Goid^Leif.
The whole is beaten with the heavieft hammer,
and every now and then turned upfide down, till
the gold is ftretched to the extent of the vellum; the
cafe being from time to time opened for difcovering
how the extenfion goes on, and the packet, at times,
bent and rolled as it were between the hands, for pro¬
curing fufficient freedom to the gold, or, as the work¬
men fay, to make the gold work. The pieces, taken
out from between the vellum leaves, are cut in fqur
with a fteel knife ; and the 600 divifions, hence re-
fulting, are interlaid, in the fame manner, with pieces
of the ox-gut (kins five inches fquare. The beating
being repeated with a lighter hammer till the golden
plates have again acquired the extent of the fldns,
they are a fecond time divided in four: the inftrument
ufed for this divifion is a piece of cane cut to an edge,
the leaves being nowfo light, that the moifture of the
air or breath condenfing on a metalline knife would
occafion them to flick to it. Thefe laft divifions be¬
ing fo numerous, that the fkins neceffary for interpo-
fing between them would make the packet too thick
to be beaten at once, they are parted into three
parcels, which are beaten feparately, with the fmalleft
hammer, till they are ftretched for the third time to
the fize of the {kins : they are now found to be re¬
duced to the greateft thinnefs they will admit of; and
indeed many of them, before this period, break or
fail. The French workmen, according to the minute
detail ef this procefs given in the Encyclopedie, repeat
the divifion and the beating once more; but as the
fquares of gold, taken for the firft operation, have
four times the area of thofe ufed among us, the num¬
ber of leaves from an equal area is the fame in both
methods, viz. 16 from a fquare inch. In the beating,
however fimple the procefs appears to be, a good deal
of addrefs is requifite, for applying the hammers fo as
to extend the metal uniformly from the middle to the
fides: one improper blow is apt not only to break the
gold leaves, but to cut the fkins.
4‘ After the laft beating, the leaves are taken up by
the end of a cane inftrument, and, being blown flat on
a leather-cufhion, are cut to a fize, one by one> with a
fquare frame of cane made of a proper flrarpnefs, or
or with a frame of wood edged with cane : they are
then fitted into books of 25 leaves each, the paper of
which is well fmoothed, and rubbed with red-bole to
prevent their flicking to it. The French, for fizing
the leaves, ufe only the cane-knife; cutting them firft
ftraight on one fide, fitting them into the book .by the
ftraight fide, and then, paring off the fuperfluous
parts of the gold about the edges of the book. The
fize of the French gold leaves is from fomewhat
lefs than three inches to three and three quarters
fquare ; that of ours,, from three inches to three and
three-eighths.
“ The procefs of gold-beating is confiderably in¬
fluenced by the weather. In wet weather, the fkins
grow fomewhat damp, and in this ftate make the ex¬
tenfion of the gold more tedious: the French are faid
to dry and prefs them at every time of ufing ; with
care not to over-dry them, which would render them
unfit for further fervice. Our workmen complain
more of froft, which appears to affe£t the metal¬
line leaves themfelves: in froft, a gold-leaf cannot
LEA [41
Gold-Leaf, cafily be blown flat, but breaks, wrinkles, or runs to-
Leaguc. gether.
“ Gold-leafoughttobepreparedfromthefineftgold;
as the admixture of other metals, though in too fmall
a proportion to fenfibly affe& the colour of the leaf,
would difpofe it to lofe of its beauty in the air. And
indeed there is little temptation to the workman to ufe
any other ; the greater hardnefs of alloyed gold occa-
fioning as much to be loft in point of time and labour,
and in the greater number of leaves that break, as can
be gained by any quantity of alloy that would not be
at once difcoverable by the eye. All metals render
gold harder and more difficult of extenfion : even filver,
which in this refpeft feems to alter its quality lefs than
any other metal, produces with gold a mixture fen¬
fibly harder than either of them feparately, and this
hardnefs is in no art more felt than in the gold-beater’s.
The French* are faid to prepare what is called the^reew
gold-leaf, from a compofition of one part of copper and
two of lilver with eighty of gold. But this is probably
a miitake: for fuch an admixture gives no greennefs to
gold ; and I have been informed by our workmen,
that this kind of leaf is made from the fame fine gold
as the higheft gold-coloured fort, the greenifti hue
being only a fuperficial teint induced upon the gold
infomepartof theprocefs : this greenifti leaf is little
otherwife ufed than for the gilding of certain books.
“ But though the gold-beater cannot advantageoufly
diminifti the quantity of gold in the leaf by the ad¬
mixture of any other fubftance with the gold, yet
means have been contrived, for fome particular pur-
pofes, of faving the precious metal, by producing a
Itind of leaf called party-gold, whofe bails is filver,
and which has only a fuperficial coat of gold upon one
fide: a thick leaf of filver and a thinner one of gold,
laid flat on one another, heated, and prefled together,
unite and cohere; and being then beaten into fine
leaves, as in the foregoing procefs, the gold, though
its quantity is only about one fourth of that of the
filver, continues every where to cover it, the exten¬
fion of the former keeping pace with that of the
latter.
LEAGUE, a meafure of length, containing more
or fewer geometrical paces, according to the different
ufages and cuftoms of countries. A league at fea,
where it is chiefly ufed by us, being a land-meafure
moftly peculiar to the French and Germans, contains
3000 geometrical paces, or three Englifti miles. The
French league fometimes contains the fame meafure,
and in fome parts of France it confifts of 3500 paces :
the mean or common league confifts of 2400 paces,
and the little league of 2000. The Spanifti leagues
are larger than the French, 17 Spanifti leagues ma¬
king a degree, or 20 French leagues, or 694- Eng¬
lifti ftatute-miles. The Dutch and German leagues
contain each four geographical miles. The Perfian
leagues are pretty near of the fame extent with the
Spanifti; that is, they are equal to four Italian miles :
which is pretty near to what Herodotus calls the
length of the Perfian parafang, which contained 30
ftadia, eight whereof, according to Strabo, make a
mile. The word comes from leuca, or leuga, an an¬
cient Gaulifti word for an itinerary meafure, and re¬
tained in that fenfe by the Romans. Some derive the
word leuca from Awxoy, “ whiteas the Gauls, in imi-
5S ] LEA
tation of the Romans, marked the fpaces and.diftan-
ces of their roads with white ftones.
League alfo denotes an alliance or confederacy be-
tween princes and ftates for their mutual aid, either in
attacking fome common enemy, or in defending them- . f ■■
felves. The word comes from liga, which in the cor- |*i
rupt Latin was ufed for a confederacy : Qua juts cum jjgfl
alio Ugatur.
Leagues of the Grifons, are a part of Switzer- l$|
land, confiding of three fubdivifions, viz. the up¬
per league, the league of the houfe of Gad, and the
league of the ten jurifdi&ions. See the article Swit¬
zerland.
The League, by way of eminence, denotes that fa- | 1
mous one on foot in France, from the year 1576 to 11
1593. Its intent was to prevent the fucceffion of jBfl
Henry IV. who was of the reformed religion, to Jv|
the crown ; and it ended with his abjuration of that |;1
faith.
The leaguers, or confederates, were of three kinds. I fl
The zealous leaguers aimed at the utter deftruftion, not
only of the Huguenots, but alfo of the miniftry. The |]|
Spanifh leaguers had principally in view the transfer- ||fl
ring the crown of France to the king of Spain, or the I |
infanta his daughter. TXte. moderate leaguers on- |11
ly at the extirpation of Calvinifru, without any altera¬
tion of tjie government.
LEAK, at fea, is a hole in the fliip, thro’ which
the water comes in. A ftiip is faid to fpring a leak, J 1
when ftie begins to leak or to let in the water. The 1
manner of flopping a leak is to put into it a plug wrap- 1
ped in oakum and well tarred, or in a tarpawling § |
clout, which keeps out the water, or nailing a piece
of fheet lead on the place.—Seamen fometimes flop a
leak by thrufting a piece of fait beef into it. The fea-
water, fays Mr Boyle, being freftier than the brine :r|
imbibed by the beef, penetrates into its body, and I I
caufes it to fwell fo as to bear ftrongly againft the ed¬
ges of the broken plank, and thereby flops the influx
of the water.—A ready way to find a leak in a ftiip is j L 1
to apply the narrower end of a fpeaking trumpet to
the ear, and the other to the fide of the ftiip where the j 1
leak is fuppofed to be; then the noife of the water if-
fuing in at the leak will be heard diftin&ly, whereby it j 1
may be difeovered.
LEAKAGE, the ftate of a veffel that leaks, or lets i
water or other liquid ooze in or out.
Leakage, in commerce, is an allowance of 12 per ;
cent, in the cuftoms, allowed to importers of wines for ! j
the wafte or damage it is fuppofed to have received in
the paffage : an allowance of two barrels in 22 is al- ,!
fo made to the brewers of ale and beer, by the excife- j!
office.
LEAKE (Richard), mafter-gurmer of England,
was born at Harwich in 1629, and was bred to the
fea. At the reftoration, he was made mafter-gunner
of the Princefs, a frigate of 50 guns ; and in the firft I
Dutch war diftinguifhed himfelf by his fkill and bra¬
very in two extraordinary aftions ; one againft 15 fail j
of Dutch men of war; and another in 1667 againft: twro
Danes in the Baltic, in which the commanding offi- ■ :
cers of the Princefs being killed or defperately wound- ; 1
ed, the command, according to the rules of war at
that time, fell to the gunner. In 1669, he was promo- .1 ;
ted to be gunner of the Royal Prince, a firft-ratc man
LEA [ 4159 ] LEA
,intake, of war. He was engaged, with his two fons Henry
-T: and John, in the battle againft Van Tromp, inibyj;
when the Royal Prince had all her mafts Ihot away,
near 400 of her men killed and difabled, and molt of
I her upper tier of guns difmounted. As (he lay thus
like a wreck, a great Dutch man of war came down
upon her with two fire-(hips, either to burn or carry
her off; and Captain Rooke, afterwards Sir George,
thinking it impofiible to defend her, ordered the men
to fave their lives, and the colours to be (truck. Mr
Leake hearing this, ordered the lieutenant off the quar-
J ter-deck, and took the command upon himfelf, fay¬
ing, “ The Royal Prince (hall never be given up to
the enemy while I am alive to defend her.” The un¬
daunted fpirit of the brave gunner infpired the fmall re-
fidue of the (hip’s company with refolution : they re-
I turned with alacrity to the fight, and, under the direc¬
tion of this valiant gunner and his two fons, funk both
the fire-(hips, and obliged the man of war to (beer off;
and having thus faved the Royal Prince, he brought
her into Chatham. But Mr Leake’s joy in obtaining
this vi&ory was damped by the lofs of Henry, his el-
I deft fon, who was killed near him. Soon after, Mr
Leake was preferred to the command of a yacht, and
alfo made gunner of Whitehall. In 1677, he obtain¬
ed a grant for life of the office of matter-gunner of
I England, and ftore-keeper of the ordnance at Wool¬
wich. By thefe polls he had full fcope for his genius.
He accordingly, among other things, invented the
; cuthee-piece; and contrived to fire a mortar by the
blaft of a piece, which has been ufed ever fince. He
was alfo the principal contriver of what the French
I call infernals, ufed at the bombardment at St Male’s
in 1693. Mr Leake had a furprifing genius for all in¬
ventions of this kind ; and had frequent trials of (kill
with French and Dutch gunners and engineers in Wool-
<j wich warren, at which king Charles II. and the
duke of York were often prefent, and he never fail¬
ed to excell all his competitors: nor was he lefs (kill¬
ed in the art of making compofitions for fireworks ; of
which he likewife made frequent trials, with equal fuc-
cefs.
Leake (Sir John), an Englifh admiral, diftinguifh-
Ied by his bravery and fuccefs, was born in 1656, and
was taught mathematics and gunnery by Mr Richard
Leake, his father, who was mafter-gunner of Eng¬
land. Entering early into the navy, he diftinguilhed
himfelf under his father in 1673, in the memorable
engagement between Sir Edward Spragg and Van
Tromp, when but 16 years of age ; and being after¬
wards made captain, he fignalized himfelf, among
other occafions, by executing the defperate attempt of
(convoying fome vi&uallers into Londonderry, which
obliged the enemy to raife the fiege ; and at the fa¬
mous battle of La Hogue. In 1702, being made
commodore of a fquadron, he deftroyed the French
trade and fettlements at Newfoundland, and reftored
the Englifti to the poffeffion of the whole ifland. On
his return he was created rear-admiral; foon after, he
was made vice-admiral of the blue, and was afterwards
knighted. He was engaged with admiral Rook in
taking Gibraltar: foon after which, he particularly di-
ftinguilhed himfelf in the general engagement off Ma¬
laga ; when, commanding the leading fquadron of the
van, confifting only of fix (hips, he drove that of the
Vol. VI.
enemy confifting of 13, out of the line of battle, fo dif- Leake,
abled that they never returned to the fight. In 1705, Learit!u
he relieved Gibraltar, which the French had befieged by
fea, and the Spaniards by land, fo feafonably, that the
enemy was to have attacked the town that very night in
feveral places, and would undoubtedly have made them-
felves mafters of it. Five hundred Spaniards had, by the
help of rope-ladders, climbed up the rocks by a way
that was thought inacceffible. At the fame time they
had got a great number of boats to land 3000 men at
the New Mole, who, by making a vigorous aflault on
the fide next the fea, were to draw the garrifon to op-
pofe that attack, while the £00 concealed men rufhed
into the town. Thefe being the next day drawn by
hunger out of their ambufeade, were difeovered ; on
which Sir John affifting the garrifon with failors and
marines, they were attacked with fuch vigour, that,
though they had taken an oath not to furrtnder to the
Englifti, 190 common foldiers and 30 officers took
quarter; 200 were killed on the fpot; and the reft,
who endeavoured to make their efcape, fell headlong
down the rock. He was foon after made vice-admiral
of the white, and then twice relieved that fortrefs.
The laft time, he attacked five (hips of the French
fleet coming out of the bay, of whom two were ta¬
ken, and two run aftiore and were deftroyed : baron
Pointi died foon after, of the wounds he received in
the battle; and in a few days the enemy railed the
fiege.
In the year 1705, Sir John was engaged in the re-
du&ion of Barcelona ; and the next year relieved that
city, when it was reduced to the laft extremity, and
obliged king Philip to raife the fiege. Soon after he
took the city of Carthagena ; from whence proceed¬
ing to Alicant and Joyce, both thefe fubmitted to
him ; and he concluded the exploits of that year with
the redu&ion of the city and ifland of Majorca. Up¬
on his return home, prince George of Denmark made
him a prefent of a ring valued at 4001. and he had the
honour of receiving 1000I. from the queen as a reward
for his fervices. Upon the unhappy death of Sir
Cloudefly Shovel, in 1707, he was made admiral of
the white, and commander in chief of her majefty’s
fleet ; and the next year, furprifing a convoy of the
enemy’s corn, he fent it to Barcelona, and thus faved
both that city and the confederate army from the dan¬
ger of famine : foon after, convoying the new queen
of Spain to king Charles her confort, her majefty
made him a prefent of a diamond ring of 500 pounds
value. He then proceeded to the ifland of Sardinia,
which he reduced to the obedience of king Charles: and
foon after affifted the lord Stanhope in the conqueft of
Minorca.
Then returning home, he was appointed one of the
council to the lord high admiral ; and in 1709, was
made rear-admiral of Great Britain. He was feveral
times chofen member of Parliament for Rochefter; and
in 1712, conduced the Englifh forces to take poffef-
fion of Dunkirk. But upon the acceflion of king
George I. he was fuperfeded, and allowed a pen (ion
of 6001. a-year. After this, he lived privately till
his death, which happened at his houfe in Greenwich
in 1720.
LEANDER, in poetic hiftory, a young man of
Abydos in Afia. He ufed to fwim over the Helle-
23 fpont
:
LEA [ 4160 ] LEA
L?ao fpont by night to viiit Hero his miftrefs, who fet gainee the ufe of the term for a year; and then the Leafh Iw
j A forth a light to guide him : but in a tempeduous win- itatute immediately annexes the pojfefwn. He there- f! J|
'ear' ter-night, he was drowned; upon which Hero feeing fore, being thus in pofiefiion, is capable of receiving a
him dead on the (hore, call herfelf headlong from the releafe of the freehold and reverfton, which mull be
tower, and died alfo. made to a' tenant in poffeffion : and accordingly, the |I
LEAO, in natural hiftory, a mineral fubftance ap- next day, a releafe is granted to him. This is held
preaching to the nature of the lapis lazuli, found in to fupply the place of livery of feifin ; and fo a con- |i
the Eaft Indies, and of great ufe in the Chinefe por- veyance by leafe and releafe is faid to amount to a fe- J|
celain manufactures, being the finett blue they are pof- offment.
felled of. This Hone is found in the ftrata of pit-coaly LEASH, among fportfmen, denotes three creatures
or in thofe of a yellowilh or reddilh earth in the neigh- of any kind ; but chiefly gre-hounds, foxes, bucks,
bourhood of the veins of coal. There are often found and hares.
pieces of it lying on the furface of the ground, and The termalfo fignifies a line to hold in a hunt- ||
thefe are a fure indication that more will be found on ing dog ; and a fmall long thong of leather, by which |
dipping. It is generally found in oblong pieces of the a falconer holds his hawk.
ilze of a finger, not round, but flat. Some of this is LEASING-making, in Scots law, the uttering
very fine, and fome coarfe and of a bad colour. The of words tending to excite difeord between the king
latter is very common ; but the fine fort is fcarce, and and his people; alfo called veria//edition.
greatly valued. It is not eafy to dillinguilh them at LEATHER, the Ikin of feveral forts of beaftff (Ji
fight, but they are found by experiment; and the try- dreffed and prepared for the ufe of various manufac- Jj
ing one piece is generally fufficient for judging of the turers, whofe bufinefs it is to make them up.
whole mine, for all that is found in the fame place is Dyeing of Leather, Skins, &c. Blue is given by
ufually of the fame fort. fteeping the fubjed a day in urine and indigo, then 11
The manner of preparing it for ufe is this : They firft boiling it with alum: or it may be given by tem- J 1
wafh it very clean, to feparate it from the earth or any pering the indigo with red-wine, and walking the | ]
other foulnefs it may have : they then lay it at the fleins therewith. Red is given by walking the Ikins,
bottom of their baking furnaces; and when it has been and laying them two hours in galls, then wringing
thus calcined for three or four hours, it is taken out, them out, dipping them in a liquor made with ligu-
and powdered very fine in large mortars of porcelain ftrum, alum, and verdigreafe in water; and laftly, in a
with Hone peftles faced with iron. When the powder dye made of brazil wood, boiled with ley. Purple \$ |
is perfeftly fine, they pour in boiling water, and grind given by wetting the Heins with a folution of roche *1 ]
that with the reft, and when it is thoroughly incorpo- alum in warm water; and, when dry again, rubbing 1 ]
rated, they add more, and finally pour it off after them with the hand with a decoftion of log-wood in
fome time fettling. The remainder at the bottom of colder. Green is given by fmearing the Ikin with fap- I f
the mortar, which is the coarfer part, they grind a- green and alum-water boiled. Dark-green is alfo gi-
gain with more water; and fo on, till they have made ven with fteel-filings and fal armoniac rteeped in urine I
the whole fine, excepting a little dirt or grit. When till foft, then fmeared over the Hein ; w'hich is to be J '
this is done, all the liquors are mixed together, and dried in the fttade. Sky-colour is given with indigo 1 :
well ftirred. They are fuffered to ftand two or three fteeped in boiling water, and the next morning warmed
minutes after this, and then poured off with the powder and fmeared over the fkin. Tcllow, by fmeering the fkin
remaining in them : this is fuffered to fubfidegradual- over with aloes and linfeed-oil diffolved and drained;
ly, and is the fine blue ufed in their bell works, our or by infufing it in weld. Orange-colour is given by J 1
common fmalt ferving for the blue of all the common fmearing with fuftic berries boiled in alum-water; or,
china ware. for a deep orange, with turmeric.
LEAP, in mufic, is when the fong does not pro- Procejfes for Dyeing Leather Red Yellow as j |
ceed by conjoint degrees, as when between each note prafiifd in Turkey, <witk~directions for Preparing and I
there .is an interval of a third, a fourth, fifth, &c. Tanning the Skins; as communicated by Mr Philippo, a
Leap Year. See Year, and Astronomy, n° 292. native of Armenia, who received from the Society for J I
LEAPING, or Vaulting. See Vaulting. the Encouragement of Arts, &c. one hundred pounds, 1
LEAR, the name of a Britifti king faid in old chro- and alfo the gold medal of the Society, as a reward for
nicies to have fucceeded his father Bladud, about difeovering this fecret.
A. M. 3160. The ftory of this king and his three 1. Firfl Preparation of the Skins, both for Red and 1
daughters, is well known from Shakefpeare’s excellent Fellow Leather, by dre/ing them in Lime. Let the ikins,
tragedy founded on it. dried with the hair on, be firft laid to foak in clean j
LEASE and Release, a fpecies of conveyance u- water for three days; let them then be broken over I
fed in the Engliih law, firft invented by ferjeant Moore, the flefh-fide, put into freih water for two days longer,
foon after the ftatute of ufes, and now the moft com- and afterwards hung up to drain half an hour. Let !
mon of any, and therefore not to be fhaken ; though them now be broken on the flefh-fide, limed in cold j
very great lawyers, (as particularly Mr Noy), have lime on the fame fide, and doubled together with the j
formerly doubted its validity. It is thus contrived. A grain-fide outward. In this (late they muft be hung
jeafe, or rather^ bargain and fale, upon fome pecu- up within-doors over a frame for five or fix days, till
niary confideration, for one year, is made by the tenant the hair be loofe ; which muft then be taken off, and il
of the freehold to the leffee or bargainee. Now this, the fkins returned into the lime-pit, for about three
without any enrollment, makes the bargainor ftand we»ks. Take them out, and let them be well worked i|«-
feized to the ufe of the bargainee, and vefts in the bar- flefh and grain, every fixth or feventh day during that
time:. ]{ I
LEA [ 4161 ] LEA
iather. time: after which, let them be vvafhed ten times in then to be doubled with the flefh-fide outwards, length- Lea
 clear w'ater, changing the water at each wafhing. wife from neck to tail, and a little more dry fait mud ~
They are next to be prepared in drench, as below men- be thinly ftrewed over the flefh-fide, and rubbed in;
tioned. for the two laft operations, about a pound and a half
2. Second Preparation of the Skins for loth the Red of fait will be fufficient for each fliin. They mud then
and VcHow Dyes by drenching. After fqueezing the be put, thus folded on each other, between two clean
r ' ■ ' • • r’ boards, placed floping, breadthwife; and a heavy
water out of the fkins, put them into a mixture of bran
and water, warm as new milk, in the following pro¬
portions ; viz. about three pounds of bran for five
fkins, and water fufficient to make the mixture mode¬
rately fluid, which will be about a gallon to each pound
of bran. In this drench let the fkins lie three days;
at the end of which time they mud be well worked,
and afterwards returned into the drench two days lon¬
ger. They mud then be taken out and rubbed be¬
tween the hands; the water fqueezed from them, and
the bran feraped off clear from both fides of the fkins.
After this they mull be again waflied ten times in clear
water, and the water fqueezed out of them.
Thus far the preparatory prooefs of all the fkins,
whether intended to be dyed red or yellow, is the fame;
but afterwards thofe which are to be dyed red, muff
be treated as follows.
3. Preparation in Honey and Bran of the Skins that
are to be dyed Red. Mix one pound of honey with
three pints of luke-warm water, and ftirr them toge¬
ther till the honey is diffolved. Then add two double
handfuls of bran ; and taking four fkins (for which the
above quantity of the mixture will be fufficient) work
them well in it one after another. Afterwards fold up
each fkin feparately into a round form, with the flefh-
fide inwards; and lay them in an earthen pan, or other
sight laid on the upper board, in order gradually to
prefs out what moillure they will thus part with. In
this ftate of preffure, they muff be continued two days
or longer, till it is convenient to dye them, for which
they will then be duely prepared.
5. Preparation of the Red Dye, in a proper propor¬
tion for four fkins. Put eight gallons of water into a
copper, with feven ounces of fhenan (a) tied up in a
linen bag. Light a fire under a copper ; and when the
water has boiled about a quarter of an hour, take out
the bag of fhenan, and put into the boiling fluid or
lixivium, iff, two drams of alum; 2dly, two drams
pomegranate bark; 3dly, three quarters of an ounce
of turmeric; qthly, three ounces of cochineal; 5thly, two
ounces of loaf-fugar. Let the whole mixture boil about
fix minutes, then cover the fire, and take out a quart
of liquor, putting it into a flat earthen pan; and when
it is as cold as new milk, take one fkin, folded length-
wife, the grain-fide outwards, and dip it in the liquor,
rubbing it gently with the hands. Then taking out
the fliin, hang it up to drain, and throw away the fu-
perfluous dye. Proceed in the fame manner with the
remaining three fkins; repeating the operation of each
fkin feparately, eight times, fqueezing the fliins by
drawing them through the hands before each frefh dip-
proper veffel; if in the fummer, by the fide of each ping. Lay them now on one fide of a large pan, fet
other; but in the winter, on the top of each other.
Place the veffel in a floping pofition, lb that fuch part
of the fluid as may fpontaneoufly drain from the fliins,
may pafs from them. An acid fermentation will then
rife in the liquor, and the fliins will fwell confiderably.
In this ftate they muft continue for feven or eight
floping, to.drain off as much of the moifture as will
run from them without preffure, for about two hours,
or till they are cold; then tan them as below direc¬
ted.
6. fanning the Red Skins. Powder four ounces of
the beft white galls in a marble martar, fifting it thro’
days; but the moifture that drains from them muft a fine fieve. Mix the powder with about three quarts
be poured off, once or twice a-day, as occafion may re¬
quire. After this a further preparation in fait is ne-
ceffary; and which muft- be performed in the follow¬
ing manner.
4. Preparation in Salt, of the Skins to be dyed Red.
After the fkins have been fermented in the honey and
bran, as abovementioned, let them be taken out of that
mixture on the eighth or ninth day, and well rubbed
with dry common fea-falt, in the proportion of about
half a pound to each fkin; the fait muft be well rub¬
bed and worked with them. This will make them con-
traft again, and part with a further confiderable quan¬
tity of jnoifture; which muft; be fqueezed out by draw¬
ing each fkin feparately through the hands. They
mull next be feraped clean on both fides from the bran,
fuperfluous fait, and moifture that may adhere to them.
After which, dry fait muft be ftrewed over the grain-
fide, and well rubbed in with the hand. They are
of water, and work the fkins well in this mixture for
half an hour or more, folding up the fkins four-fold.
Let them lie in this tan for 24 hours; when they muft
be worked again as before; then taken out, feraped
clean on both fides from the firft galls, and put into a
like quantity of frefh galls and water. In this frefti
mixture they muft be again well worked for three
quarters of an hour; then folded up as before, and left
in the frefh tan for three days. On the fourth day
they muft be taken out, wafhed clean from the galls
in feven or eight frefh quantities of water, and then
hung up to dry.
7. Manner of Dr effing the Skins after they are tanned.
When the fkins have been treated as above, and are
very near dry, they fhould be feraped with the proper
inftrument or feraper on the flefh-fide, to reduce them
to a proper degree of thicknefs. They are then to be
laid on a fmooth board, and glazed by rubbing them
23 Q_2 with
(a) Shenan is a drug much ufed by dyers in the Eaft; and may eafily be procured at any of the ports of Syria and
Africa, in the Levant. It is the Eaftern jointed-kali, called by botanifts falicornia; and grows in great plenty in
thofe and other parts of the Eaft. There is a lefler fpecies of the falicornia on our coaft, which, from its great affi¬
nity with the fhenan, might be prefumed to have the fame qualities. On fome trials, however, it has not appeared
to anfwer the intention of the ihenan; but it will be prudent to purfue the examination of this further, as fome un¬
known circumftances in the colleft'ug or nfing the Englifli falicornia might occafion the mifearriage. But be this as it
may, the Eaftern Ihenan may, at all events, be eafily procured in any quantity, at a very trifling expence, by any of
the captains of Turkey thips, at Aleppo, Smyrna, lye.
LEA [ 4162 ] L E B
Leather, with a fmooth glafs. After which they mud be oiled, ning water, and well wafhed therein fix times or more. Leatheri i>
. rubbing them with olive-oil, by means of a linen After this-they muft be put under preffure for about H wj
rag, in the proportion of one ounce and a half of oil an hour, till the water be well fqueezed oot; afterwards Lclir‘lta'.
for four ikins: they are then to be grained on a grain- the ikins muft. be hung up to dry in a warm room,
ing board, lengthwife, breadthwife, and cornerwife. This being done, the (kins are to be drefltd and I |
or from corner to corner. grained as before dire&ed for thofe dyed red; except
8. Preparation ’with Gails, for the Skins to be dyed the oiling, which muft be omitted.
Tello'w. After the four Ikins are taken out of the Blacking Leather. In the tanning of leather it " i |
drench of bran, and clean waftied as before diredled in is fo much impregnated with the aftringent parts of I ;
the fecond article, they muft be very well worked, half oak-bark, or with that matter which ftrikes a black
an hour or more, in a mixture of a pound and a half of with green vitriol, that rubbing it over three or four
the beft white galls, finely powdered, with two quarts times with a folution of the vitriol, or with a folution
of clean water. The fkins are then to be feparately of iron made in vegetable acids, is fufficient for ftain-
doubled lengthwife; rolled up with the flefii-fide out- ing it black. Of this we may be convinced by drop- 1 1
wards, laid in the mixture, and clofe preffed down on ping a little of the folution on unblacked fide of com- | I
each other, in which ftate they muft continue two whole mon Ihoe-leather. This operation is performed by the
days. On the third day let them be again worked in currier; who, after the colouring, gives a glofs to the ! |
the tan; and afterwards feraped clean from the galls, leather with a folution of gum-arabic and fize made | I
with an ivory or brafs inftrument (for no iron muft in vinegar. Where the previous aftringent impregna- | |
touch them.) They muft then be put into a frefh tan, tion is infufficient to give due colour, and for thofe II
made of two pounds of galls finely powdered, with a- forts of leather which have not been tanned, fome galls ’ j
bout three quarts of water, and well worked therein or other aftringents are added to the folution of iron; 11
15 times. After this they muft be doubled, rolled up and in many cafes, particularly for the finer forts of |i |
as before, and laid in the fecond tan for three days, leather, and for renewing the blacknefs, ivory or lamp- jii |
On the third day a quarter of a pound of white fea- black are ufed. A mixture of either of thefe with lin- ;i |
fait muft be worked into each fkin ; and the fkinsdou- feed oil makes the common oil-blacking. For a fhining
bled up as before, and returned into the tan, till the blacking, fmall beer or water are taken inftead of oil, i’j
day following, when they are to be taken out, and well in the quantity of about a pint to an ounce of the
wafhed fix times in cold water, and four times in wa- ivory-black, with the addition of half an ounce of .ii,j
ter lukewarm. The water muft be then well fqueezed brown fugar and as much gum-arabic. The white of |! |
out, by laying the Ikins under preffure, for about half an egg, fubftituted for the gum, makes the black more I |
an hour, between two boards, with a weight of about Ihining, but is fuppofed to hurt the leather, and make |r 1
300 or 300 pounds laid upon the uppermoft board, it apt to crack. It muft be obvious, however, that all
when they will be ready for the dye. thefe compofitions admit of a great many variations. |;J
9. Preparation of the Yellonu Dye, in the proper pro- Gilding of Leather. Take glair of the whites of
portion for four /kins. Mix-fix ounces of caffiari ge- eggs, or gum water, and with a brufh rub over the | |
hira (b), or dgehira, or the berries of the eaftern leather with either of them; then lay on the gold or I ;
rhamnus, with the fame quantity of alum; and pound filver, and, letting them dry, burnilh them. See the I -
them together till they be fine, in a marble or brafs articles Gilding and Burnishing.
mortar, with a brafs peftle. Then dividing the mate- To drefs or cover Leather ’with Silver or Gold. Take 1 ;
rials, thus powdered, into three equal parts of four brown-red; grind or move it on a ftone with a muller,
ounces each, put one of thofe three parts into about a adding water and chalk ; and when the latter is dif- |
pint and a half of water, in a china or earthen veffel; folved, rub or lightly daub the leather over with it,
and ftir the mixture together. Let the fluid ftand to till it looks a little whitifti; and then lay on the leaf- f
cool, till it will not feald the hand. Then fpreading filver or gold before the leather is quite dry, laying I
one of the fktns flat on a table, in a warm room, with the leaves a little over each other, that there may not I
the grain fide uppermoft, pour a fourth part of the be the leaft part uncovered; and when they have well
tinging liquor, prepared as above diredted, over the clofed with the leather, and are fufficiently dried on and
upper or grain-fide, fpreading it equally over the fltin hardened, rub them over with an ivory poliiher, or the |
with the hand, and rubbing it well in. Afterwards do foretooth of a horfe.
the like with the other three (kins, for which the mix- LEAVEN, a piece of four dough, ufed to ferment |
ture firft made will be fufficient. and render light a much larger quantity of dough or I
This operation muft be repeated twice more on each pafte. See Bread, Barm, and Baking.
fkin feparately, with the remaining eight ounces of the LEAVES o/Tlants. See Leaf.
powder of the berries, and alum, with the abovemen- Colours extrafted from Leaves. See Colour-
tioned due proportions of hot water, put to them as Making, n° 36.
before diredied. LEBEDA, an ancient fea-port town of Africa, in
The fkins, when dyed, are to be hung up on a the kingdom of Tripoli, with a pretty good harbour, * ^ I
wooden frame, without being folded, with the grain- and an old caftle; feated on the Mediterranean Sea,
fide outwards, about three quarters of an hour to drain; in E. Long. 14. 50. N. Lat. 32.10.
when they muft be carried to a river or dream of run- LEBRIXA, an ancient, ftrong, and pleafant
town
(b) The caffiari gehira is the berries of an Faftern rhamnus, or buckthorn-tree; and may be had at Aleppo, and
. £r-ParfSj '-he Levant, at a fmall price. The common Avignon or yellow berries maybe fubftituted, but not jl
with fo good an effect; the caffiari gehira being a flronger and brighter yellow dye, both for this ufe, and alfo that of
colouring paper-hangings, err.
LED [ 4163 ] LEE
eh us town of Spain, in Andalufia ; feated in a territory
(I abounding in corn, wine, and a great number of olive-
trees, of whofe fruit they make the belt oil in Spain.
W. Long. 5. 32. N. Lat. 36. 52.
LEBUS, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony, and in the marquifate of Brandenburg,
with a bilhop’s fee, fecularized in favour of the houfe
of Brandenburg. It is feated on the river Oder, in
E. Long. 14. 55. N. Lat. 52. 28.
LECCE, a rich, populous, and moll beautiful town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples and in the Terra
d’Otranto, of which it is the chief place, and the fee
of a bilhop. E. Long. 18. 20. N- Lat. 40. 38.
LECCO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
feated on the eaftern fide of the lake Como. E. Long.
9. 40. N. Lat. 45. 45.
LECHLADE, a town of GlouceHer-{hire in Eng-
' land, feated at the confluence of the river Lech with the
Thames. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 51. 42.
LECHNICH, a town of Germany in the circle of
the Lower Rhine, and in the ele&orate of Cologne.
E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 50. 40.
LECTICA, among the Romans, a litter or vehicle
in which people were carried. The fella differed from
the leflica, as being higher, and becaufe people always
fat in it; on which account the fella, from the time it
was firlt brought into ufe, was elteemedthe more ho¬
nourable carriage of the two. The leftica was alfo
ufed as a bier for carrying out the dead, who were
drefled in habits fuitable to their quality and fex.
LECTISTERNIUM, a religious fealt or banquet
of the ancient Romans. In times of public danger or
calamity, or of thanfgiving for fome happy event, the
republic ordered folemn feafts to be made for the gods;
and this folemnity was called leftiflernium, becaufe on
this occaiion they fpread tables, and placed beds a-
round them, on which their heavenly guefts were to lie
and eat.
LECTORES, among the Romans, fervants in great
mens houfes, who were employed in reading while
their mafters were at fupper. They were called by the
Greeks AxAGNOSTfE.
LECTOURE, an ancient and ftrong town of
France, in Gafcony, with a caftle and a bifhop’s fee;
feated on a mountain at the foot of which runs the ri¬
ver Gers. E. Long. o. 42. N. Lat. 43. 56.
LECTURERS, in England, are an order of preach¬
ers in parifh-churches, diftinft from the re£tor or vi¬
car. They are chofen by the veftry, or chief inhabi¬
tants of the parilh, and are ufually the afternoon
preachers.
The law requires, that they have the approbation
and admiflion of the ordinary ; and that, at the time of
their admiffion, they fubferibe to the 39 articles of re¬
ligion, &c. required by the flatute 14 Car. II. and
they are to be licenfed by the bifhop, like other minir
Iters.
Where there are lectures founded by the donations
of pious perfons, the ledurers are appointed by the
founders, without any interpofition or confent of rec¬
tors of churches, &c. though with the Lave and ap¬
probation of the bifhop; fuch as that of lady Moyer,
at St Paul’s.
LEDBURY, a town of Herefordfhire in England.
It is a well-built town feated on a rich clay foil, and
inhabited moftly by clothiers, wl.o carry on a pretty Ledefma
large trade. W. Long. 2. 27. N. Lat. 52. 6. 1^
LEDESMA, an ancient and ftrong town of Spain. e*
in the kingdom of Leon, feated on the river Tome, in
W. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 47. 2.
LEDGER, the,principal book wherein merchants
enter their accounts. See J?oox-keeping.
LEDUM, marsh cistus, or Wild Rofemary; a
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies, viz.
the paluftre with very narrow leaves. This grows
naturally upon bogs and mofles in many parts of Ybrk-
fhire, Cheftiire, and Lancafhire ; riling with a Ilender
fhrubby flalk about two feet high, dividing into many
flender branches, garnifhed with narrow leaves, not
much unlike thofe of heath. The flowers are pro¬
duced in fmall clutters at the end of the branches, and
are fhaped like thofe of the ftrawberry-tree, but fpread
open wider at top. Thefe are of a reddifh colour,
and in the natural places of their growth arefucceeded
by feed-veflels filled with fmall feeds which ripen in
autumn.—This plant is with great difficulty kept in
a garden; for as it naturally grows upon bogs, unlefs
the plants have a fimilar foil; they will not thrive.
They muft be procured from the places of their growth,
and taken up with good roots, otherwife they will
not live.
LEE, an epithet ufed by feamen to diftinguifh that
part of the hemifphere to which the wind is directed,
from the other part whence it arifes; which latter i&
accordingly called to 'windward. This exprelfion is
chiefly ufed when the wind croffes the line of a fhip’s
courfe, fo that all on a fide of her is called to wind¬
ward, and all on the oppofite fide to leeward. Hence,.
Under the Lee, implies farther to the leeward, or
farther from that part of the horizon whence the wind
blows: as,
Under the Lee of the Shore; /. e. at a fhort diftance
from the fhore which lies to windward. This phrafe
is commonly underftood to exprefs the fituation of a
veflel anchored, or failing under the weather-fhore,
where there is always fmoother water, and lefs danger
of heavy feas, than at a great diftance from it.
Utt-Larches, the fudden and violent rolls which a
fhip often takes to the leeward in a high fea, parti¬
cularly when a large wave ftrikes heron the weather-
fid e.
Uv.’z Side, all that part of a fliip or boat which lies
between the mail and the fide fartheft from the direc¬
tion of the wind; or otherwife, the half of a fhip,
which is preffed down towards the water by the effort
of the fails, as feparated from the other half by a line
drawn through the middle of her length. That part
of the fhip, which lies to windward of this line, is
accordingly called the weather fide.
Thus admit a fhip to be failing fouthward, with the
wind at eaft, then is her ftarboard, or right fide, the
lee fide ; and the larboard, or left, the weatherfide.
Leeward-a veffel that falls much to leeward
of her courfe, when failing clofe-hauled, and confe-
quently lofes much ground.
To Leeward, towards that part of the horizon
which lies under the lee, or whither the wind bloweth..
Thus, “ We faw a fleet under the lee," and, “ We
faw a fleet to leeward," are fynonymous expreffions.
Leet-
Lee
LeLs
LEE [ 4164 ] LEE
hi*,-Way. See Navigation, Se&. ix.
Lee (Nathaniel), a very eminent dramatic poet of
the lalt century, was the fon of a clergyman, who
gave him a liberal education.-—He received his firft
rudiments of learning at Weftrninfter fchool; from
whence he went to Trinity-college, Cambridge.—
Coming to London, however, his inclination prompt¬
ed him to appear on the theatre; but he was not
more fuccefsful in reprefenting the thoughts of other
men, than many a genius befides, who have been
equally unfortunate in treading the ftage, although
they knew fo well how to write for it. He produced
11 tragedies, all of which contain a very great por¬
tion of true poetic enthufiafm.-—None, if any, ever felt
the paffion of love more truly ; nor could any one
defcribe it with more tendernefs. Addifon commends
his genius highly ; obferving, that none of our Eng-
lilh poets had a happier turn for tragedy, although
his natural fire and unbridled impetuofity hurried him
beyond all bounds of probability, and fometimes were
quite out of nature. The truth is,-this poet’s imagi¬
nation ran away with his reafon ; fo that at length he
became quite crazy ; and grew fo bad, that his friends
were obliged to confine him in bedlam, where he made
that famous witty reply to a coxcomb fcribbler, who
had the cruelty to jeer him with his misfortune, by
obferving that it was an eafy thing to write like a
madman :—“ No, (faid Lee), it is not an eafy thing
to write like a madman ; but it is very eafy to write
like a fool.”
Lee had the good fortune to recover the ufe of his
reafon fo Far as to be difcharged from his melancholy
confinement ; but he did not long furvive his enlarge¬
ment, dying at the early age of 34. Cibber, in his
Lives of the Poets, fays he perifhed unfortunately in
a night-ramble, in London ftreets.—His Theodofius
and Alexander the Great are ftock-plays, and to this
day are often afted with great applaufe. The late
Mr Barry was particularly fortunate in the chara&er
of the Macedonian Hero.
LEECH, in zoology. See Hirudo.
Leeches in a fhip, the borders or edges of a fail
which are either Hoping or perpendicular.
The leeches of all fails whofe tops and bottoms are
parallel to the deck, or at right angles to the maft,
are denominated from the fhip’s fide, and the fail to
which they belong ; as the Jiarboard\eech of the main-
fail, the /fir-leech of the fore-top-fail, &c. But the
fails which are fixed obliquely on the mafts have their
leeches named from their fituation with refpeft to the
fhip’s length; as theyW-leech of the mizen, the ajter-
leech of the jib or fore-ftay fail, &c.
Leech-Liw/, certain ropes faftened to the middle
of the leeches of the main-fail and fore-fail, and com¬
municating with blocks under the oppofite fides of the
top, whence they pafs downwards to the deck, fer-
ving to trufs up thofe fails to the yard as occafion re¬
quires. See Brails.
Leech a name given to that part of the bolt-
rope to which the border or fkirt of a fail is fewed.
In all fails whofe’ oppofite leeches are of the fame
length, it is terminated above the earing, and below
the clue. See Bolt-/?0/\*, Clue, and Earing.
LEEDS, a town of the Weft Riding of Yorkftu're
in England, in W. Long. 1. 17. N. Lat. 53. 48. It
Hands on the north fide of the river Aire, ever which
it has a ftately ftone bridge, hath been long famous
for the woollen manufa&ure, and is one of the largeft^J
and moft flourifhing towns in the county. On a
market-day one may fee a long ftreet full of Handings,
and thefe filled with cloth for fale. Of this cloth large
quantities are ftn’pped off at Hull, for Holland, Ham¬
burgh, and the North ; whence they are difperfed
through the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, &c. John
Harrifon, Efq; a native of this town, was a great be-
nefaflor to it, by building and endowing a church,
hofpital, and free-fchool. The corporation conlifts of
a mayor, 12 aldermen, and 24 affiftants. On the
market-days, when the market-bell rings, which is at
feven in the morning in winter, and fix in fummer, the
clothiers bring out their cloth from the inns ; and
when the bell ceafes, the chapmen come into the mar¬
ket, match their patterns, and in an hour’s time, per¬
haps, bargain for 20,oodl. worth. The bell rings
again at half an hour paft eight, upon which the clo¬
thiers give place to the linen-drapers, hardware-men,
fhoemakers, fruiterers, &c. There have been 500
loads of apples belonging to the laftof thefe here upon
a market-day. At the fame time there is an equal
plenty and variety of fifh and butchers-meat expofed
to fale. Great quantities alfo of white cloth are fold
in a magnificent hall, where notice is given by a bell
when the fale begins. Not only woollen goods, but
coals and other commodities, are conveyed from hence
by the Aire to Wakefield, York, and Hull. In a
houfe here, called Red-hall, there is an apartment in
which king Charles I. lodged, and which, on that
account, Hill bears the name of the king's chamber.
There was a caftle here anciently; and now there is a
ftately town-hall, and parochial church called St
Peter’s. On the roof of it, the delivering of the law
by Mofes is finely painted in frefco. Here are alfo
two charity-fchools, a work houfe, feveral alma-houfes,
and meeting-houfes, one of which laft, belonging to
the Preibyterians, is a very handfome building. This
town gives the title of duke to the family of Ofborn,
and has feveral medicinal fprings about it.
LEEK, in botany. See Allium.
Leek, a town of Staffordftiire in England. It is
feated in barren moor-lands, but its market is very
good. W. Long. 2. N. Lat. 53. 6.
LEERWICK, the capital town of Shetland, fitu-
ated in the ifland called the Mainland, in W. Long.
1. 30. N. Lat. 61. 20. It contains about 300 fa¬
milies.
LEES, the groffeft and moft ponderous parts of li¬
quors, which, being feparated by fermentation, fall to
the bottom. The word comes from the French lie;
and that either from limus “ mud,” or from Lyeus
one of the furnames of Bacchus; or, according to du
Cange, from lia, a corrupt Latin word, fignifying the
fame.—The vinegar-makers make a great trade of
the lees of wine dried and made into cakes, after
having fqueezed out the remains of the liquor in
preffes.
LEFT, a little court held within a manor, and
called the king’s court, on account that its authority
to punilh offences originally belonged to the crown,
from whence it is derived to inferior perfons.
LEEWARD, at fea. See To Leeward, above.
Lee-
Plate CIX
LxtaVKDEMAtN
bottom
ry;
-A/^\
# f
2 Thumb
3
4
A
♦
t
/cffJe/lrufef
c
♦ ♦
# ♦
jsfihM
LEG [ 4165 ] LEG
ard L£EwARD-i/£*/«fr, in the Weft-ladies, a name given
to the Caribbees.
(g LEG, in anatomy, the whole lower extremity
from the acetabula of the ofla innominata, com¬
monly divided into three parts, viz. the thigh, the
leg properly fo called, and the foot. See Anatqmy,
n° 59.
LEGACY, in Hoots law, a donation by one perfon
to another, to be paid by the giver’s executor after his
death. See Law, N° clxxxi. 3.
LEGATEE, in Scots law, the perfon to whom a
legacy is provided.
LEGATE, a cardinal or biftiop, whom the pope
fends as his ambaffador to fovereign princes. See Am¬
bassador.
There are three kinds of legates, viz. legates a
latere., legates de latere, and legates by office, or legate
nati: of thefe the mod confiderable are the legates a
latere, the next are the legates de latere. See the ar¬
ticle Latere.
Legates by office are thofe who have not any parti¬
cular legation given them; but who, by virtue of their
dignity and rank in the church, become legates : fuch
are the archbifhop of Rheims and Arles: but the au¬
thority of thefe legates is much inferior to that of the
legates a latere.
The power of a legate is fometimes given without
the title. Some of the nuncios are invefted with it.
It was one of the ecclefiaftical privileges of England
from the Norman conqueft, that no foreign legate
, fhould be obtruded upon the Englifh, unlefs the king
fhould deli re it upon fome extraordinary emergency,
as when a cafe was too difficult for the Englifh pre¬
lates to determine.
The term legate comes from legatus, which Varro
derives from legere, “ to choofe;” and others from /<?-
gare, delegare, “ to fend, delegate.”
LEGATUS, in Roman antiquity, a military officer
who commanded as deputy of the chief general. The
defign of the legate at their firft inftitution, was not fo Legend,
much to command as to advife. They were chofen “
by the confuls, the authority of the fenate concurring
with their nomination. There were two kinds of
legate, viz. a legatus in the army, under the imperator
or general, who commanded in chief under him, and
managed all affairs by his permifiion ; and a legatus in
the provinces under the proconful or governor, in whofe
abfence the legatus had the honour to ufe the fafces,
and was intrufted with the fame charge as the office
he reprefented. As to the number of the legati we
have no certainty, but may fuppofe that this depended
upon the pleafure of the general, &c. Under the
emperors, there were two forts of legati; confulares and
praetor it: the firft of whom commanded whole armies,,
as the emperor’s lieutenant-generals} and the others,
only particular legions.
LEGEND, any idle or ridiculous ftory told by
the Romanifts concerning their faints, and othei
perfons, in order to fupport the credit of their reli¬
gion-
The legend was originally a book ufed in the old
Romifh churches, containing the leffons to be read at
divine fervice; hence the lives of the faints and mar¬
tyrs came to be called legends, becaufe chapters were
read out of them at mattins, and at the refectories of
religious houfes. Among thefe the golden legend,
which is a collection of the lives of the faints, was re¬
ceived in the church with great applaufe, which it
maintained for 200 years; though it is fo full of ridi¬
culous and romantic ftories, that the Romanifts them-
ftlves are now aftiamed of it.
Legend is alfo ufed to fignify the words or letters
engraven about the margins, &c. of coins. Thus the
legend of a French crown is, Sit nomen Domini bene-
difium ; that of a moidore, In hoc ftgno vinces; on
thofe of the laft emperors of Conftantinople, we find
Jefus Chrijius Baftleus Baftleon, IHS XPS NIKA,
Jefus Chrijhis vincit.
LEGERDEMAI N,
Or Sleicht of Hand;.
A DENOMINATION given to certain deceptive
performances, which either depend altogether
on dexterity and addrefs, or derive but a fmalf degree
of aid from philofophical principles. Of thefe we ihall-
prefent our readers with a feleCfion of the beft that
have been either explained in books, or publicly ex¬
hibited.
Sect. I. Performances ■with the Cards.
Previous to the performances with cards, it will be
1 neceffary to explain the method of making the pafs ;
that is, bringing a certain number of cards from the
bottom of the pack to the top ; as many of thefe per¬
formances depend on that manoeuvre.
Faking 1. Hold the pack of cards in your right hand, fo that
the palm of your hand may be under the cards : place
the thumb of that hand on one fide of the pack, the
firft, fecond, and third fingers on the other fide, and
your little finger between thofe cards that are to be
brought to the top and the reft'of the pack. Then
place your left hand over the cards, in fuch a manner
that the thumb may be at C, (fig. 20, 21.) the fore-I’lateC: \
finger at A, and the other fingers at B.
The hands and the two parts of the cards being thus
difpofed, you draw off the lower cards confined by
the little finger and the other parts of the right hand,
and place them, with an imperceptible motion, on the
top of the pack.
It is quite neceffary, before you attempt any of the
experiments that depend on making the pafs, that you
can perform it fo dexteroully that the eye cannot di-
ftinguifh the motion of your hand; othevwife, inftead
of deceiving others, you will expofe yourfelf. It is al¬
fo proper that the cards make no noife, as that will oc-
cafion fufpicion. This dexterity is not to be attained
without fome praftice.
There is a method of preparing a pack of cards, by
inferting one or more that are a fraall matter longer of
wider
4166
The card o
divination.
The four
confedera¬
ted cards.
L E G E R D
wider than the reft ; which preparation will be necef-
fary in feveral of the following experiments,
f 2. Have a pack in which there is a long card; open
the pack at that part where the long card is, and prefent
the pack to a perfon in fuch a manner that he will na¬
turally draw that card. He is then to put it into any
part of the pack, and fhuffle the cards. You take the
pack, and offer the fame card in like manner to a fe-
cond or third perfon; obferving, however, that they
do not fland near enough to fee the card each other
draws. You then draw feveral cards yourfelf, among
which is the long card, and alii each of the parties if
his card be among thofe cards, and he will naturally
fay Yes, as they have all drawn the fame card. You
then Ihuffle all the cards together, and cutting them at
the long card, you hold it before the firft perfon, fo
that the others may not fee it, and tell him that is his
card. You then put it again in the pack, and Ihuf-
fling them a fecond time, you cut again at the fame
card, and hold it in like manner to the fecond perfon,
and fo of the reft (a).
If the firft perfon (hould not draw the long card,
each of the parties mull draw different cards ; when,
cutting the pack at the long card, you put tbofe they
have drawn over it, and feeming to thuffle the cards
indifcriminately, you cut them again at the long card,
and fttow one of them his card. You then fhuffle and
cut again, in the fame manner, and fhow another per¬
fon his card, and fo on : remembering, that the card
drawn by the laft perfon is the firft next the long card;
and fo of the others.
This experiment may be performed without the long
card, in the following manner. Let a perfon draw
any card whatever, and replace it in the pack: you
then make the pafs, and bring that card to the top of
the pack, and fhuffle them without lofing fight of that
card. You then offer that card to a fecond perfon,
•that he may draw it, and put it in the middle of the
pack. You make the pafs and fhuffle the cards a fe¬
cond time in the fame manner, and offer the card to a
third perfon, and fo again to a fourth or fifth, as is
more fully explained further on.
3. You let a perfon draw any four cards from the
pack, and tell him to think on one of them. When he
returns you the four cards, you dexteroufiy place two of
them under the pack and two on the top. Under
thofe at the bottom you place four cards of any fort;
and then, taking eight or ten from the bottom-cards,
you fpread them on the table, and afk the perfon if the
card he fixed on be among them. If he fay No, you
are fure it is one of the two cards on the top. You
then pafs thofe two cards to the bottom, and drawing
off the loweft of them, you alk him if that is not his
card. If he again fay No, you take that card up, and
bid him draw his card from the bottom of the pack.
If the perfon fay his card is among thofe you firft
drew from the bottom, you muft dexteroufly take up
the four cards that you put under them, and, placing
thofe on the top, let the other two be the bottom-cards
of the pack, which you are to draw in the manner be¬
fore defcribed.
E M A I N. Sefl. I
4. After a card has been drawn, you place it under 4
the long card, and by fhuffling them dexteroufly you Divi'^
bring it to top of the pack. Then lay, or throw, thej&i
pack on the ground, obferving where the top-card d
lies. A handkerchief is then bound over your eyes, in
fuch a manner however that you can fee the ground, ;i
which may be eafily done. A fword is then put into jj
your hand, with which you touch feveral of the cards,
feemingly in great doubt, but never lofing fight of the
top-card, in which at laft you fix the point of the ‘ ;|
fword, and prefent it to him who drew it. Two or 11
three cards may be difcovered in the fame manner, [.
that is, by placing them under the long card, and then 1|
bringing them to the top of the pack.
5. You muft have in the pack two cards of the fameTh 1
fort, fuppofe the king of fpades. One of thefe is to be ^f>b|K
placed next the bottom-card, which may be the feven cards.
of hearts, or any other card. The other is to be pla- 1 If
ced at top. You then ffluffle the cards, without dif- :J|]
placing thofe three cards, and fliow a perfon that the ||
bottom-card is the feven of hearts. Then drawing that
card privately afide with your finger, which you have
wetted for that purpofe, you take the king of fpades f j
from the bottom, which the perfon fuppofes to be the § I
feven of hearts, and lay it on the table, telling him to
cover it with his hand. You then (huffle the cards
again, without difplacing the firft and laft card, and ii! ]
palling the other king of fpades at the'top to the bot¬
tom, you fhow it to another perfon. You then draw
that privately away; and taking the bottom-card,
which will then be the feven of hearts, you lay that on I ]
the table, and tell the fecond perfon, who believes it i; ]
to be the king of fpades, to cover it with his hand.
You then command the feven of hearts, which is i I
fuppofed to be under the hand of the firft perfon, to
change into the king of fpades; and the king of fpades, f I
which is fuppofed to be under the hand of the fecond 1
perfon, to change into the feven of hearts ; and when i J
the two parties take their hands off, and turn up the
cards, they will fee, to their no fmall aftonifhment, af- :j 1
ter having fo carefully obferved the bottom-cards, that ^ 1
your commands are punftually obeyed. i||l
6. Take a card, the fame as your long card, andThe;; I'l
rolling it up very clofe, put it in an egg, by making coniFj
a hole as fmall as poffible, and which you are to fill h'n^
up carefully with white wax. You then offer the long [[onJ 0|
card to be drawn ; and when it is replaced in the pack
you ihuffle the cards feveral times, giving the egg to : * I
the pesfon who drew the card, and, while he is break- | I
ing it, you privately withdraw the long card, that it
may appear, upon examining the cards, to have gone .j' I
from the pack into the egg. This experiment may be | |
rendered more furprifing by having feveral eggs, in
each of which is placed a card of the fame fort, and i ]
then giving the perfon the liberty to choofe which egg f
he thinks fit.
This deception may be ftill further diverfified, by I ]
having, as moft public performers have, a confederate, 1
who is previoufly to know the egg in which the card < |
is placed ; for you may then break the other eggs,
and fliow that the only one that contains a card is ' 1
that i
(a) .« here is frequently exhibiled another experiment, fimilar to this, which is by making a perfon draw the i
long card; then giving him the pack, you tell him to place his card where he pleafes and thuffle them, and you will i
then name his card or cut the pack where it is. You may alfo tell him to put the pack in his pocket, and you will
draw the card; which you may.eafily do by the touch.
e&. I. L E G E R
that in which you direfted it to be.
7 7. Divide a piquet pack of cards into two parts
ame by a long card. Let the firft part contain a quint to a
al king in clubs and fpades, the four eights, the ten of
perfonsdiamonds and ten of hearts} and let the other part
drawn contain the two quart majors in hearts and diamonds,
the four fevens, and the four nines (b).
Then fliufHe the cards, but obferve not to difplace
any of thofe cards of the laft part which are under the
long card. You then cut at that card, and leave the
pack in two parts. Next, prefent the firft of thofe
parts to a^perfon, and tell him to draw two or three
cards, and place the remainder on the table. You
prefent the fecond parcel in like manner to another.
Then having dextroufly placed the cards drawn by
the firft perfon in the fecond parcel, and thofe drawn
by the fecond perfon in the firft parcel, you Ihuffle the
cards, obferving to difplace none but the upper cards.
Then fpreading the cards on the table, you name thofe
tfiat each perfon drew ; which you will very eafily
do, by obferving the cards that are changed in each
parcel.
8 8. On the ace of fpades fix, with foap, a heart, and
two on the ace of hearts, a fpade, in fuch a manner that
'ertibk tjjey. wi]i eafily flip 0ff.
Show thefe two aces to the company; then taking
the ace of fpades, you defire a perfon to put his foot
upon it, and as you place it on the ground, draw
away the fpade. In like manner you place the feem-
ing ace of hearts under the foot of another perfon.
You then command the two cards to change their
places; and that they obey your command, the two
perfons, on taking up their cards, will have ocular
demohftration. A deception fimilar to this is fome*
times pra&ifed with one card, fuppofe the ace of
fpades, over which a heart is placed flightly. After
ftiowing a perfon the card, you let him hold one end
of it, and you hold the other, and while you amufe
him with difcourfe, you Aide off the heart. Then
laying the card on the table, you bid him cover it
with his hand. You then knock under the table, and
command the heart to turn into the ace of fpades.
By deceptions like thefe, people of little experience
and much conceit are frequently deprived of their mo¬
ney, and rendered ridiculous.
p 9. You muft be prepared with two cards, like
fifteen thofe reprefented by fig. 22. and with a common
fanfi ace and a five 0f diamonds.
The five of diamonds and the two prepared cards
. are to be difpofed as in fig. 23. and holding them in
your hand, you fay, “ A certain Frenchman left
15,000 livres, which are reprefented by thefe three
cards, to his three fons. The two youngeft agreed
to leave their 5000, each of them, in the hands of the
elder, that he might improve it.” While you are
telling this ftory, you lay the 5 on the table, and put
the ace in its place, and at the fame time artfully
change the pofition of the other two cards, that the
three cards may appear as in fig. 24. You then re¬
fume your difcourfe, “ Tiie eldeft brother, inftead of
improving the money, loft it all by gaming, except
3000 livres, as you here fee.” You then lay the ace
on the table, and, taking up the 5, continue your ftory:
“ The eldeft, forry for having loft the money, went to
Von. VI.
D E M A I N. 1467
the Eaft-Indies with thefe 3000, and brought back
15,000.” You then Ihow the cards in the fame pofi¬
tion as at firft, in fig. 22.
To render this deception agreeable, it muft be per¬
formed with dexterity, and fhould not be repeated,
but the cards immediately put in the pocket; and
you fliould have five common cards in your pocket,
ready to fhow, if any one fliould defire to fee
them.
o. Take a parcel of cards, fuppofe 40, among which
the 15th, and the other the 26th from the top. Seemcartjs by
to fliuffle the cards, and then cutting them at the firft their weight
long card, poife thofe you have cut off in your hand,
and fay, “ there fliould be here 15 cards.” Cut them
again at the fecond long card, and fay, “ there are
here only 11 cards.” Then poifing the remainder, you
fay, “ here are 14 cards.”
11. Several different cards being Jhe<wn to diffe- 11
rent perfons, that each of them may fix on one of thofe To namc
cards; to name that on which each perfin has fixed.—
There muft be as many different cards fliown to wfi;ch dif.
each perfon as there are perfons to choofe: there-ferent per-
fore, fuppofe there are three perfons, then to each f°ns have
of them you muft (how three cards ; and telling'fixe<i•
the firft perfon to retain one in his memory,
you lay thofe three cards down, and fliow three
others to the fecond perfon, and fo to the third.
You then take up the firft perfon’s cards, and lay
them down one by one, feparately, with their
faces upward. You next place the fecond perfon’s
card over the firft, and in like manner the third per¬
fon’s card over the fecond’s; fo that in each parcel
there will be one card belonging to each perfon. You
then afli each of them in which parcel his card is; and
when you know that, you immediately know which
card it is; for the firft perfon’s card will always be
the firft, the fecond perfon’s the fecond, and the third
perfon’s the third, in that parcel where they each fay
his card is.
This experiment may be performed with a Angle
perfon, by letting him fix on three, four, or more
cards. In this cafe you muft /how him as many par¬
cels as he is to choofe cards, and every parcel mull
confift of that number, out of which he muft fix on
one; and you then proceed as before, he telling you
the parcel that contains each of his cards.
12. Make a ring large enough to go on the fecond n
or third finger (fig.‘ 15-), in which let there be fet aT*16 n,a£ic
large tranfparent ftone, to the bottom of which muft11"2'
be fixed a fmall piece of black filk, that may be
either drawn afide or expanded by turning the ftone
round. Under the filk is to be the figure of a fmall
card.
Then make a perfon draw the fame fort of card as
that at the bottom of the ring, and tell him to burn it
in the candle. Having firft Ihown him the ring, you
take part of the burnt card, and reducing it to pow¬
der, you rub the ftone with it, and at the fame time
turn it artfully about, fo that the fmall card at bottom
may come in view.
13. Provide a mirror, either round, as A (fig. JS.), _ 13
or oval, the frame of which muft be at lead as wide as The card in
a card. The glafs in the middle muft be made tothe rairror*
23 R
move
(b) The cards may be divided in any other manner that is eafy to be remembered.
4i 68
14
The mar¬
vellous
vafe.
LEGERDEMAIN.
Sea.
. I.
move in tbs two grooves CD and EF, and fo much
of the quickfilver mud be fcraped off, as is equal to
the fize of a common card. You will obferve that
the glafs muff likewife be wider than the diftance be¬
tween the frame, by at leaft the width of a card.
Then pafte over the part where the quickfdver is
rubbed off, a piece of pafteboard, on which is a card
that muff exadly fit the fpace, which muff at firft be
placed behind the frame.
This mirror muff be placed againft a partition,
through which is to go two firings, by which an af-
fiftant in the adjoining room can eailly move the glafs
in the grooves, and confecjuently make the card ap¬
pear or difappear at pleafure (cj.
Matters being thus prepared, you contrive to
make a perfon draw the fame fort of card with
that fixed to the mirror, and place it in the middle of
the pack : you then make the pafs, and bring it to
the bottom ; you then dire& the perfon to look for
his card in the mirror, when the confederate behind
the partition is to draw it flowly forward, and it will
appear as if placed between the glafs and the quick¬
filver. While the glafs is drawing forward, you Aide
off the card from the bottom of the pack, and convey
it away.
The card fixed to the mirror may eafily be changed
each time the experiment is performed. This experi¬
ment may alfo be made with a print that has a glafs
before it and a frame of fufficient width, by making
a flit in the frame through which the card is to
pafs; but the effeft will not be fo linking as in the'
mirror.
14. Place a vafe of wood or pafteboard AB (fig. 19.)
on a bracket L, fixed to the partition M. Let the
infide of this vafe be divided into five parts, c, d, e,f, g;
and let the divifions c and d be wide enough to ad¬
mit a pack of cards, and thofe of f g, one card
only.
Fix a thread of filk at the point H, the other end
cf which palling down the divifion d, and over the
pulley I, runs along the bracket L, and goes out be¬
hind the partition M.
Take three cards from a piquet pack, and place
one of them in each of the divifions e, f, g, making
the filk thread or line go under each of them. In
the divifion c, put the pack of cards from which you
have taken the three cards that are in the other divi¬
fions.
Then take another pack of cards, at the top of
which are to be three cards of the fame fort with thofe
in the three fmall divifions; and, making the pafs, bring
them to the middle of the pack, and let them be drawn
by three different perfons. Then give them all the
cards to fhuffle; after which place the pack in the di¬
vifion d, and tell the parties they lhall fee the three
cards they drew come, at their command, feparately
out of the vafe.
An afliftant behind the partition then drawing the
line with a gentle and equal motion, the three cards
will gradually rife out of the vafe. Then take the
cards out of the divifion c, and fhow that thofe three
cards are gone from the pack.
The vafe mull be placed fo high that the infide
cannot be feen by the company. You may perform
this experiment alfo without an afliftant, by fixing a
weight to the end of the filk line, which is to be placed
on a fupport, and let down at pleafure by means of a
fpring in the partition.
15. Let a fmall perfpe&ive glafs be made, that'is wide
enough, at the end where the objeft-glafs is placed, to
hold a table fimilar to the following.
1.131 10..132 19.133
2.231 11..232 20.233
3.331 12..332 21,333
4.121 13..122 22.123
5.221 14..222 23.223
6.321 15..322 24.323
7.111 16..112 25.113
8.211 17..212 26.213
9.311 18..312 27.313
Take a pack of cards that confifts of 27 only, and
giving them to a perfon, defire him to fix on any one,
then fiiuffle them and give the pack to you. Place
the 27 cards in three heaps, by laying down one al¬
ternately on each heap; but before you lay each card
down, (how it to the perfon, without feeing it your-
felf; and when the three heaps are finifiied, aflc him
at what number, from 1 to 27, he will have his card
appear, and in which heap it then is ? Then look at
the heap through the glafs, and if the firft of the three
numbers which (lands againft that number it is to ap¬
pear at be 1, put that heap at top; if the number be 2,
put it in the middle; and if it be 3, put it at bottom.
Then divide the cards into three heaps, in the fame
manner, a fecond and third time, and his card will
then be at the number he chofe.
For example: Suppofe he defire that his card-fhall
be the 20th from the top, and the firft time of making
the heaps he fay it is in the third heap: you then
look at the table in the perfpe&ive, holding it at the
fame time over that heap, and you fee that the firlt
figure is 2 ; you therefore put that figure in the middle
of the pack. The fecond and third times you in like
manner put the heap in which he fays it is, at the
bottom, the number each time being 3. Then look¬
ing at the pack with your glafs, as if to difcover which
the card was, you lay the cards down one by one, and
the 20th card will be that be fixed on.
You may fhow the perfon his card in the fame man¬
ner, without aflcing him at what number it (hall appear,
by fixing on any number yourfelf.
The foregoing experiments with the cards will be
found fufficient to explain moft others of a fimilar na¬
ture that have or may be made; the number of which
is very great. To perform thofe we have defcribed
requires
nating p,.
fpe£H\ '
glafs.
(c) This experiment may be performed without an afMant, if a table be placed againft the partition, and the
firing from the glafs be-made to pafs through a leg of it, and communicate with a (mall trigger, which you may
cafily pufh down with your foot; and at the fame time wiping the glafs with your handkerchief, as if to make the
card appear the more confpicuous. It may alfo be diverfified, by having the figure of a head, fuppofe that of feme
abfent friend, in the place of the card.
.lea. II. LEGERDEMAIN. 4169
requires no great praftice ; the two principal points the paper dipped in the vivifying liquor between the two
, ' are, the making the pafs in a dexterous manner, and a bottoms, you tell a perfon you will fliow him what an
“certain addrefs by which you influence a perfon to
draw the card you prefent. Thofe that are performed
abfent friend of his is doing at the prefent hour. You
then give him the paper adapted to the employment
by the long card are in general the molt eafy, but you intend, and tell him to write his friend’s name at
they are confined to a pack of cards that is ready
prepared ; whereas, thofe which depend on making
the pafs, may be performed with any pack that is
offered.
Sect. II. Experiments with Sympathetic Inks.
[See Sympathetic Ink J.]
Experiments with Class I.
the bottom, that you may not change the paper.
Then placing that paper next the pafleboard bottom,
and putting the piece of wood over it, you (hut the
box. After amufing him with difcourfe for three or
four minutes, you take out the paper, when he will
fee his friend in the employment you have afligned
him.
18. Let a workman make a hand of wood, as in fig. it
>6. fixed at the end next the elbow to the piece E, T11.6*'
6. Make a book of 70 or 80 leaves ; and in the cover the ends of which go through the fcrews CD and EF.
.Ib book at the end of it let there be a cafe, which opens next
the binding, that it may not be perceived.
At the top of each right-hand page write any
queftion you pleafe; and at the beginning of the book
let there be a table of all thofe queftions, with the
number of the page where each is contained. Then
write with common ink, on feparate papers, each
about half the fize of the pages in the book, the fame
The fore and middle fingers, and the thumb, are to
be moveable at their joints. There muff go a wire
through the arm, that is fixed at one end to the Tore-
finger, and at the other to the piece E, round which
ft is to move : under the two joints of the two fingers
are alfo placed two fmall fprings, which are to raifc
it up.
To the fore-finger and thumb fix two fmall rings.
queftions that are in the book, and under each of them through which a pen may be put, fo as not to impede
...tfR fRo toE „e a. t}ieir motion. Under the arm, at the point I, place
a fmall brafs roller, which ferves to fuftain the arm.
The pedeftal on which this hand is placed muff be
at leaff. a foot long, if the hand be of the natural fize,
and about eight inches wide. This pedeffal muff be
hollow, and at the part ST there muff be an opening
about three inches long and two inches wide; the
whole pedeftal may be covered with a thin ftuff, by
which the hole will be concealed. There is to be a
write, with the ink made of the impregnation of fa-
turn, or the diflblution of bifmuth, the anfwer.
Soak a double paper in the vivifying liquor made of
quick-lime and orpiment, or the phlogifton of the
liver of fulphur, and place it, juft before you make
the experiment, in the cafe that is in the cover of the
book.
Then deliver fome of the papers on which the que¬
ftions are wrote to the company; and, after they have
chofen fuch as they would have anfwered, they put valve, or fort of trap-door, on the infide of the pe-
them in thofe leaves where the fame queftions are con¬
tained, and, (hutting the book for a few minutes, the
deftal, which is to faften againft the opening.
Over the hand and pedeftal place a glafs frame, as
fulphureous fpirit with which the paper in the cover in the figure : cover the hand with fine leather of fleffi
of the book is imbibed, will penetrate the leaves, and colour, and decorate the arm with a ruffle and cuff.
make the anfwers vifible, which will be of a brown
colour, and more or lefs deep in proportion to the
time the book has been clofed (d),
which will entirely conceal the machinery.
Then take a number of cards, and write on them
different queftions; and on the fame number of papers
17. Make a box about four inches long, and three write, with the impregnation of lead, the anfwers,
 3 ;«.„ rL„11  T It. /I «. /-'I • .1 _ i _ . _ . _ 1 1 , 1 • 1 r
wide, as ABCD, and quite (hallow. Let it (hut with
! juspor-hinges and faften with a hook ; and let it have two
fig 17 bottoms, the lowed of wood, that draws out by a
groove, and the uppermoft of pafteboard. Between
thefe two bottoms is to be placed a paper dipped ii
Give the cards to any one, and let him choofe a que¬
ftion ; and you place the paper with the anfwer under
the pen in the hand, letting him firft fee there is no
writing on it (e). Now the pedeftal being placed
againft a partition, the end F is to go through it.
the vivifying liquor mentioned in the laft experiment. Therefore an affiftant, upon a fignal given, turns a
Let there be alfo a board of the fame fize with the handle fixed to F; and, as piece E turns round, the
infide of the box, which being placed in it may prefs wires that move the fingers and thumb are alternately
a paper againft the pafteboard bottom,
lengthened and (hortened, by which their joints are
Then take feveral pieces of paper, of the fame fize kept in continual motion ; and the ferew at the fame
with the infide of the box, and draw on them the
figures of men and women, in different attitudes and
employments, as walking, riding, reading, writing,
&c. Thefe figures muft be drawn with a new pen, or
pencil, dipped in the impregnation of faturn,
time turning gently from F towards G, gives the
whole arm a motion which very much refembles that
of nature (f)..
The hand and pen ferve here merely to affift the
_ illufion : but if a bit of fponge, dipped in the vivify-
Being thus provided, and having privately placed ng liquor, be placed at the end of the pen, as it goes
23 R 2 over
± In that article, line 8. for invijible read vifible.
(d) . If a weight be placed upon the book, the effed will be the fooner produced. Or you may put the book in a
box that will prei's it clofe down.
(e) The paper dipped in the vivifying liquor is to be previoufly placed againft the opening in the table, and fup-
ported by the trap-door.
(f) This might be performed without an afliftant, by means of a trigger placed in the leg of the table, and commu¬
nicating with the handles, which the operator might thruft down with his foot. Where expence is not regarded,
there may be a complete figure of a man in wood, or plafter of Paris, feated by the table.
4I7°
L E G E R D
over the writing on the paper, it will make it become
gradually vifible, and in this cafe the trap-door and
and dipped paper may be omitted (g).
Deception with Class II.
19. Take feveral pieces of paper, of a lize that you
The writ- can put in any book that will go into your pocket,
ing againft an£j wr;tc at the t0p 0f each 0f them a queftion, with
the wa . common jnk, and under it write the anfwer with
the folution of gold or filver. Give any of thefe
papers, clofely wrapt up, to a perfon, and tell him
to place it againft the wall of his chamber, and keep¬
ing the door locked he will next day find the anfwer
wrote on it.
As the gold ink will fometimes give a yellow caft
to the paper, you may previoufly give a flight tinflure
of that kind to the papers you ufe for this purpofe.
Deception with Class III.
20. On different papers draw the figures of feveral
Magical leaves or flowers with one of the colourlefs juices men-
vegetations, tioned : then take one of the correfponding leaves or
flowers, and laying it on an iron plate, over a cha-
fingdifh of hot-coals, let it burn to afhes. Put thefe
afhes into a fieve, in which there is fome very fine fteel-
filings, and fift them over the paper on which the flower
is drawn, when they will adhere to the glutinous li¬
quor, and form an exadt reprefentation of the figure
of the leaf or flower.
Deceptions with Class IV.
at 21. Make a little triangular box, each fide of which
The talif- is to be about five inches, and let its infide be divided
man, fig. 7. ;nt0 three parts. The firft part A, which makes the
bottom of the box, is to be covered by the fecond
part B, in form of a cafe, and let the top C exadlly
cover the part B, as is expreffcd in the figure and the
profiles.
Upon the bottom of the box let there be a plate of
copper, about one twentieth of an inch thick, on
which let there be a number of hieroglyphic characters,
contiguous to each other, and cut in different forts of
metal.
On the top of the cover place a knob O, that goes
through it, and to which the copper triangle Qjs to
be fixed occafionally, in fuch manner as it may go
into the cafe B. There muft be a fpace of one quar¬
ter of an inch between the triangle and the bot¬
tom of the cafe B ; into which another plate of cop¬
per, of that thicknefs, may be placed.
The outfide of this talifman may be decorated with
uncommon figures or charafters, to give it the appear¬
ance of greater myftery.
On feveral pieces of paper, of the fame fize with
the infide of the talifman, write different queftions, in
common ink, and write the anfwers in thofe different
forts of fympathetic ink, that appear when heated,
obferving that each word of the anfwer is to be wrote
in a different ink.
Having properly heated the triangle, and placed it
under the cover, you introduce the talifman, and tell
any one of the company to choofe one of the papers
on which the queftions are wrote, and place it in the
talifman, and he will immediately have an anfwer
E M A I N. Sed.
wrote on that paper, the words of which will be of
different colours, according to the different metals of
which the talifman is compofed. The paper being
placed in the talifman, and the cover placed over it,
the heat of the triangle will make the anfwer vifible
in a few moments. This experiment may be repeated
if the triangle be made fufficiently hot ; and two
papers may be placed in the talifman at the fame time.
This deception, when well executed, occafions a
furprife that cannot be conceived by a mere deferip-
II. .
tion.
12. Make a wooden pedeftal AB, about ten inches
long, eight wide, and one deep: and at one endereftThi
a box C, about ten inchcj high, eight broad, and^S-
two and a half deep.
The top of the pedeftal muft Aide in a groove, on
which inferibe a dial M, of fix inches diameter, and
which is to be divided into nineteen equal parts, in
twelve of which write the names of the months, and
mark the refpe&ive figns of the zodiack ; and in the
feven other divifions, which muft be next the end B,
write the days of the week, and mark the figures of
the planets. Next the inner circle NO, make an
opening into the box, of about one tenth of an inch.
On the centre of the dial place an index that turns
freely on its centre.
Within the pedeftal place a pulley P, about four
inches diameter, which is to turn on an axis that is di-
reftly under the centre of the dial; and on the upper
part of that axis fix a bent index R, which comes out
at the opening made by the inner circle (H),andpafles
over thofe feven divilions only on which are wrote the
days of the week.
Within the box C, let there be two rollers S and
T, as in the figure: let that of S contain a fpring ;
and at the end of T let there be a pulley V, of three
quarters of an inch diameter, round which goes a firing
or thread that paffes under the fmall pully X, and is
faftened to that of P: fo that when the laft pully
makes about one-third of a turn, that of V may make
three or four turns.
There muft alfo be a fcroll of paper, about two feet
long, and each end of which muft be pafted to one of
the rollers. In the front of the box, between the two
rollers, make an aperture D, about four inches long,
and one inch and a half wide : to this opening let there
be a little flap or Aider, by which it may be clofed at
pleafure.
The apparatus being thus difpofed, place the index
R fucceffively againft each of the divifions marked with
one of the planets 5 and as the paper is gradually
wound up the roller, mark, againft that part which is
at the aperture D, the name of one of the following
fibyls:
The Hellefpontian 1
fibylsfril:
Cumean
Artemifian
Phrygian
Albunean
Perfian
Libyan.
I
> fibyl.
(g) You may alfo have a glafs ink-ftand, with fome of the vivifying liquor, into which the pen may be dipped, and
it will then appear to write with common ink. The fpedtators fhould not be permitted to come very near this ma¬
chine, which may be applied to feveral other purpofes.
(h ) If the axis be made to pafs through the top of the pedeftal, this opening will not be neceflary.
41;1
lla.II. LEGERDEMAIN.
On each of the feven cards write a different que-
ftion, and draw one of the feven planets. Next,
take a memorandum-book that contains feven leaves,
and on each of them write the n#ne of one of the
foregoing fibyls; in each of the leaves place feveral
pieces of paper, and on each of them write, with the
fympathetic ink that does not appear till the paper is
heated, different anfwers to the fame queftion.
Then give a perfon the feven cards on which the
qudlions are wrote, and tell him to choofe one of
them privately, and conceal the reft, fo that it can¬
not poflibly be known which of them he has chofen.
Next, tell him to place the index that points to the
month again ft that in which he was born (i), and to
place the index of the planets againft that which is on
the card he has chofen, and which is to prefide over the
anfwer: you tell him to do this privately, that no one
may fee him, and after that to cover the dial with his
handkerchief. Then let him open the door that is be¬
fore the aperture in the box, and tell you the name of
the fibyl there vifible.
You then open the memorandum-book, and taking
©utthe papers that are in the leaf where the name of
the fibyl juft mentioned is wrote, you defire him to
L choofe any one of them he thinks proper. The talif-
I man ufed in the laft experiment being properly heated,
is then to be introduced, when you direct the perfon
| to put the blank paper into it; and, taking it out a
few moments after, he will find the anfwer to his que¬
ftion.
To make this operation appear the more extraordi-
nary, it will be proper to have a fmall prefs or cup¬
board, at the back of which there is a door that opens
into an adjoining room, by which means an affiftant ha¬
ving prepared the talifman may place it in the cup¬
board the moment before it is wanted. This contri¬
vance will be ufeful on many other occaiions.
;3 22. Provide an urn of wood or metal about fix inches
magic high, and two and a half diameter in the wideft part,
u> and of fuch figure in other refpefts as you think pro¬
per (fee fig. 9.) Let there be a cylinder of copper C,
| (fig. 10.) of about one-eighth of an inch diameter,
which is to fill a hole AB, made in the urn. The top
of this cylinder is to be in the top of the urn, fo that
it may be eafily taken out. To this urn there muft
be a cover D, which fits it exadtly.
:i On a fmall fquare piece of paper draw the figure of
a’ flower or leaf, with that fort of fympathetic ink
whofe colour moft refembles it. You then-prefent fe¬
veral forts of flowers or leaves to a perfon, and defire
him to choofe any one of them. Then put that flower
on a chafingdifh of Jiot coals; and, taking the paper on
which it is fecretly drawn, you give it to the perfon to
examine, and then put it in the urn, having previoufly
heated the cylinder (k). Then taking fome of the
allies of the burnt flower, you ftrew them over the pa¬
per, after which you take it out and fliew the com¬
pany the figure of that flower. While the flower is
burning you may fprinkle fome powder over it, fup-
pofe that of faltpetre; and by that, mixed with the
allies of the flower, the company may imagine the
effeft is produced.
The prefs or cupboard mentioned in the preceding ex¬
periment will be here very convenient for heating the
cylinder and placing it in the urn. A fimilar deception
may be performed by putting the paper in a copper
veffel, that may be placed on an iron plate over the
chafingdifh in which the flower is burnt. But this me¬
thod has not fo myfterious an appearance as the other,
and in fome perfons may caufe a fufpicion that the ef¬
fect is produced by heat.
24. To perform this experiment you muft obferve,
that there are feveral letters which may be changed into vert;bien*
others, without any appearance of the alteration; as, cards,
the a into d, the c into a, e, d, g, 0, or q, the i into
b, d, or /, the / into t, the 0 into a, d, g, or q, the v
into y, &c.
Take a parcel of cards, fuppofe 20, and on one of
them write, with the ink of the fourth clafs, the word
/«<iu (l), and on the other, with the fame ink, the
words old 'woman ; then holding them to the fire, they
will both become vifible. Now you will obferve, that
by altering the a in the word law into d, and adding
0 before the /, and otnan after the w, it becomes old
woman. Therefore, you make thofe alterations with
the invifible ink, and let it remain fo. On the reft of
the cards you write any words you think fit.
Prefent the cards in fuch a manner to two perfons,
that one of them fliall draw the word law, and the o-
ther the words cjd woman. You then tell the perfon
who drew the word law, that it fliall difappear, and
the words on the other card lhall be v/rote in its place ;
and that you may not change the cards, defire each of
the parties to write his name on his card. Then put¬
ting the cards together, and holding them before the
fire, as if to dry the names juft wrote, the word law
will prefently change into old woman.
This experiment may be varied by fixing on a word
that may be changed into three other words, and ma¬
king four perfons draw the cards on which thofe words
are wrote ; and it may be further diverfified by choo-
fing three fuch words, as that the firft can be changed
into the fecond, and the fecond into the third. You
then tell him who. drew the firft word, that it ftiall bs
changed into that drawn by the fecond perfon ; and
him you tell, that his word ihall be changed into that
of the third perfon..
25. Write on feveral flips of paper different que-Tjie1 2’r
ftions, and fuch as may he anfwered by the name ofjar ‘ *
fome perfon ; for example, Who is the merrieft man
in the company ? Anfwer, Mr * * *. To whom will
Mifs * * * be married ? Anfwer, To Mr * * *.
Thefe queftions are to be wrote in the fympathetic
ink of this clafs, and expofed to the fire, and the an¬
fwers wrote in the fame ink, and left invifible. The pa¬
pers are to be folded in form of letters, and in fuch
manner that the part where the name is wrote ftiall be
diredlly under the feal, and the heat of. the ,wax will
make it vifible. Then give the letter to the perfon
who requires the anfwer, and he will find it plainly
wrote.
A deception fimilar to this may be made with a
(1) Theft months and the index are of no other uft than to give the experiment an air of greater myflery,
( k ) There are fome forts of fympathetic inks that require much more heat than others.
U) Theft letters fhould not be joined.
4* /
L E G E R
number of blank cards, on each of which an ace of
fpades is drawn with the invifible ink ; then let a per-
fon choofe any one of them, and inclofe it in a letter-
cafe, prepared in fuch manner that the figure of the
ace (hall be dire&ly under the feal, and on opening the
letter it will be immediately vilible.
Deceptions with Class V.
ifl 26. Have a box that is divided into three parts,
Theincom- after the fame manner as the talifman in the 21ft ex-
prehenfible per;ment> except that inftead of being triangular, it
writing. nlu^ be Qf a ]ong fquare (fee fig. 14.) Divide its top
S into two equal parts D and E, as in fig. 13. and to
the part D adjuft a plate of copper L, about one quar¬
ter of an inch thick, and under both the plate L and
the opening E place a cloth. The upper part C muft
have a button by which it may be fixed on the cover
B, fo as to appear of one piece with it.
At the bottom of the box place a piece of cloth, or
other ftuff, on which you may damp certain myfteri-
ous charaAers, and obferve that the bottom of the co¬
ver mud re(t upon this cloth.
Then provide a flip of paper GH (fig. 12.) of the
fame fize with the bottom of the box; and at each end
of it write, with the green fympathetic ink, the name
of a different card, and make fome private mark by
which you can tell at which end each name is wrote
Take a parcel of cards, and offer thofe two of them
whofe names are wrote on the paper to the two per-
fons, that they may draw them. You tell the parties
to keep their cards to themfelves, and you propofe to
make the names of thofe cards appear upon a flip of
paper, which you put into the box. You then afk
which name of the two cards (hall appear firft. The
copper plate being previoufly heated and placed in the
cover, you put it over that end of the paper on which
is the name required, and it will prefently appear.
Then taking the paper out and (howing the name
wrote, you put it in again, turning the other end to
the fide of the box where the plate is, and it will in
like manner become vifible.
The firft name may be made to difappear at the fame
time that the fecond appears, if the cloth at the end
oppofite to that where the plate is be made damp.
27. Take a print that reprefents winter, and trace
Winter over the proper parts of the trees, plants, and ground,
changed vvith the green fympathetic ink; obferving to make fome
into fpring. parts deeper than others, according to their diftance.
When thofe parts are dry, paint the other objefts with
their natural colours. Then put the print in a frame
with a glafs, and cover the back of it with a paper
that is pafted over its border only.
When this print is expofed to the heat of a mode¬
rate fire, or to the warm rays of the fun, all the grafs
and foliage will turn to a pleafing green; and if a yel¬
low tint be given to fome parts of the print, before the
fympathetic ink be drawn over, this green will be of
different (hades; and the fcene that a minute before
I
D E M A I N. Sea. III.
reprefented winter, will now be changed to fpring.
When this print is placed in the cold, winter will again
uppear, and will again pe driven away by the warm
rays of the fun. This alternate change of feafons may
be repeated as often as you pleafe; remembering, how¬
ever, as was before obferved, not to make the print at
any time too hot, for then a faded autumn will for ever
remain.
Deceptions with Class VII.
28. Provide a number of artificial flowers, fuch as'i']ie*gV;
rofes, jonquils, pinks, or any other you find conveni-
ent. Thefe flowers muft be made of white thread orqucts.
filk, and their leaves of parchment. Dip the rofes in
the red fympathetic ink, the jonquils in the yellow,
the pinks in the violet, and their leaves in a folution
of fait of tartar. When they are all dry, form them in¬
to fmall bouquets, which will all appear white, and may
be ufed in this experiment, either the day they are
dipped, or feveral days after.
You take one of thefe bouquets, and after (flowing
the company that every part of it is white, you dip it i
in an infufion of any of the blue flowers mentioned
under the article CoLOUR-Af^/wg-, n° 13. and, draw¬
ing it prefently out, all the flowers and leaves will ap¬
pear in their natural colours (n).
29. Write on a paper, with the violet liquor, asT]ie*jan.
many letters or words as you pleafe ; and a(k any per-fcoioratej
fon whether he will have that writing turn to yellow, writing,
green, or red.
Have a fponge with three fides that you can readily
diftinguifti, and dip each of its fides in one of the three
fympathetic inks. Draw the fide of the fponge that
correfponds to the colour the perfon has chofe, over
the writing once only; and it will direftly change to
the colour required (o).
Sedl. III. Mifcellaneous Performances.
30. perfon having an even unmler of counters in 31
one hand, and an odd number in the other, to tell in which'^0 telloi^
hand the odd or even number is. Let the perfon mul-or evcns'
tiply the number in his right-hand by an odd number,
and the number in his left-hand by an even number,
and tell you if the fum of the produfts added toge¬
ther be odd or even. If it be even, the even number
is in the right hand; but if it be odd, the even num¬
ber is in the left hand.
Example.
l Number in the 7 o r , , r
right hand j 18 ‘k= Wi 7
Multipliers 3 2
54 14
H
2 Num-
(m) That there may be no fufpicion of the papers being prepared, you may cut it from a whole (heet, before the
company, having previoufly wrote the names.
(n) The liquor (hould be put in a fort of jar with a narrow neck, that it may not be feen by the company; and
you ftiould draw the flowers gently out, that the liquor may drop if thin, and they may have time to acquire their
colours.
(o) The fponge (hould be well cleaned immediately after the experiment.
Sefl. III.
t Number in the?
right hand \ '
Multipliers 5
21
36
Their fum 57
LEG
In the left 5*8
2
36
ERDEMAIN. 4173
infiead of counters, and that you are never to add.
more than 6; then divide 52 by the next number a-
' bove 6, that is, by 7, and the remainder, which is 3,
will be the number you mu ft ftake firft ; and whatever
the other ftakes, you muft add as much to it as will
make it equal to the number by which you divided,
that is, 7. Therefore, if his firft ftake be 1, you muft
ftake 6, &c. fo that your fecond ftake will malte the
heap 10, your third ftake will make it 17, and fo on,
31. 7<> tell, by the dial of a watch, at what hour any till you come to 45, when, as. he cannot ftake more
Hd 5 tell at perfon intends to rife. Let the perfon fet the hand of than 6, you muft make the number 52.
4 i iat hour the dial to any hour he pleafts, and tell you what hour In this, as in the former cafe, if the other perfon
' that is; and to the number of that hour you add, in ’
your mind, 12. Then tell him to count privately the
i) tends te
number of that amount upon the dial, beginning with
the next hour to that on which he propofes to rife,
and counting backwards, firft reckoning the number
of the hour at which he has placed the hand. An ex¬
ample will make this plain.
Suppofe the hour at which he intends to rife be 8,
and that he has placed the hand at 5. You add 12 to
5, and tell him to count 17 on the dial, firft reckon-
ing 5, the hour at which the index (lands, and count- ...
ing backwards from the hour at which he intends to let him dedudi 320, and tell you the remainder; from
has no knowledge of numbers, you may ftake any
number firft under 7 ; or you may let him ftake firft,
only taking care to fecure either of the numbers 10,
17, 24, 31, &c. after which he cannot make 52, if
you conftantly add as many to his ftake as will make
it 7.
33.^ perfon privately fixing on any number, to tell him 33
that number. A fter the perTbn has fixed on a number,'1'® tcl*
bid him double it and add 4 to that fum, then multiply p™’
the whole byy; to the produdl let him add 12, and mul- {bn private-
tiply the amount by 10. From the fum of the whole 'y fixes o
and the number 17 will neceffarily end at 8j
which (hews that to be the hour he chofe.
That the hour at which the counting ends muft be
that on which he propofed to rife, will be evident on
a little refledlion; for if he had began at that hour and
counted 12, he would neceflarily have come to it a-
gain; and calling the number 17, by adding 5 to it, . u
only ferves to difguife the matter, but can make no fort To which 12 being added, it is
of difference in the counting. That multiplied by 10, makes
32. If the number 11 be multiplied by any one of From which deducing 320, the remainder is
he magi- the nine digits, the two figures of the produfl will al- A ’ ’ " ’
1 century, ways be fimilar. As follows:
which if you cut off the two laft figures, the number
that remains will be that fixed on.
Example.
Let the number chofe be
Which doubled is - -
And 4 added to it, makes
Which multiplied by 5, gives
7
18
90
102
1020
700
II II II
33 44 55 66 77 99
Place a parcel of counters on a table, and propofe
And by ftriking off the two ciphers, it becomes
the original number - . j
34. Three dice being thrown on a table, to tell the Tq t^j ,
number of each of them, and the order in which they fland. nu°mbe/of
Let the perfon who has thrown the dice double the points
number of that next his left hand,, and add 5 to thatthrown l,P
fum ; then multiply the amount by 5, and to the pro- ^ ^ dlc'!!
to any one to add, alternately, a certain number of dud add the number of the middle die ; then let the',„g them'°
thofe counters, till they amount to 100, but never
to addmorethan ioat a time. You tell him, more¬
over, that, if you ftake firft, he (hall never make the
even century, but you will. In order to which, you
muft firft ftake 1, and remembering the order of the
above feries, 11, 22, 33, &e. you conftantly add, to
what he (takes, as many as will make one more than
the numbers of that feries, that is, as will make 12,
23, 34, &c. till you come to 89, after which the other
party cannot make the century Wimfelf, nor prevent you
from making it.
If the other party has no knowledge of numbers,
you may ftake any other number firft, under ten, pro¬
vided you take care to fecure fome one of the laft terms,
as 56, 67, 78, &c.
This deception may be performed with other num¬
bers ; and in order to fucceed, you muft divide the
number to be attained, by a number that has one di¬
git more than what you can ftake each time, and the And multiply the fum by
remainder will be the number you muft firft ftake.
Obferve, that, to be fure of fuccefs, there muft be al¬
ways a remainder. Suppofe, for example, the num¬
ber to be attained is 52, making ufe of a pack of cards
whole be multiplied by 10, and to that produ& add
the number of the third die. From the total let there
be fubtraded 2 jo, and the figures of the number that
remains will anfwer to the points of the three dice as
they Hand on the table.
Exatnple.
Suppofe the points of the three dice thrown on the
table to be 4, 6, and 2,
Then the double of the firft die will be - 8
To which add - - . r
That fum multiplied by 5 will be
To which add the number of the middle die
*3
5
65
6
7.10
To that product add .the number of the third die 2
From
4174
LEGERDEMAIN.
From the total
Subtraft
712
250
Sed. III. I,
3S
To tell on
what finger,
joint, &c. a
been pri¬
vately put.
And the three remaining figures 264
will anfwer to the numbers on the dice, and ftievv the
order in which they ftand.
35. Some perfon in company having put a ring pri¬
vately on one of his fingers', to name the perfon, the
hand, the finger, and the joint, on which it is placed.
Let a third perfon double the number of the order
in which he ftands who has the ring, and add 5 to that
number ; then multiply that fum by 5, and to the
produft add 10. Let him next add 1 to the laft
number if the ring be on the right hand, and 2 if on
the left, and multiply the whole by 10 : to this pro-
duft he mull add the number of the finger (counting
the thumb as the firll finger), and multiply the whole
again by 10. Let him then add the number of the
joint ; and, laftly, to the whole join 35.
He is then to tell you the amount of the whole, from
which you are to fubtrad 3535, and the remainder
will confift of four figures, the firft of which will ex-
prefs the rank in which the perfon fiands, the fecond
the hand, (the number 1 fignifying the right hand, and
2 the left) the third number the finger, and the fourth
the joint.
Example.
Suppofe the perfon who ftands the third in order
has put the ring upon the fecond joint of the thumb of
his left hand ; then
The double of the rank of the third perfon is 6
To which add 5
Multiply the fum by
To which add
And the number of the left hand
Which being multiplied by
To which add the number of the thumb
And multiply again by
Then add the number of the joint
And laftly the number
From which deducing 3535
The remainder is 32I2
Of udiich, as we have faid, the 3 denotes the third
perfon, the 2 the left hand, the 1 the thumb, and the
laft 2 the fecond joint.
36. Cover the outfide of a fmall memorandum-book
1 with black paper, and in one of its infide covers make
1 a flap, to open fecretly, and.obferve there muft be no¬
thing over the flap but the black paper that covers the
book.
Mix foot with black or brown foap, with which rub
the fide of the black paper next the nap; then wipe it
quite clean, fo that a white paper preffed againft it will
hot receive any mark.
Trovide a black-lead pencil that will not mark with¬
out prelfing hard on the paper. Have likewife a
fmall box, about the fize of the memorandum-book,
and that opens on both fides, but on one of them by
a private method. Give a perfon the pencil, and a flip
of thin paper, on which he is to write what he thinks
proper: you prefent him the memorandum-book at the
fame time,'that he may not write on the bare board.
You tell him to keep what he w'rites to himfelf, and
direft him to burn it on an iron plate laid on a cha-
fingdifti of coals, and give you the aflies. You then
go into another room to fetch your magic box a-
bove defcribed, and take with you the memorandum-
book.
Having previoufly placed a paper under the flap in
the cover of the book, when he preffes hard with the
pencil, to write on the paper, every ftroke, by means
of the fluff rubbed on the black paper, will appear on
that under the flap. You therefore take it out, and
put put it into one fide of the box.
You then return to the other room, and taking a
flip of blank paper, you put .it into the other fide of
the box, ftrewing the afhes of the burnt paper over it.
Then fhaking the box for a fewr moments, and at the fame
time turning it dexteroufly over, you open the other
fide, and fhew the perfon the paper you firft put in,
the writing on which he will readily acknowledge to
be his.
37. Take two guineas and two fhillings, and grind The tranf-i
part of them away, on one fide only, fo that they may pofable
be but of half the common thicknefs; andobferve thatP‘eces-
they muft be quite thin at the edge : then rivet a
guinea and a (hilling together. Lay one of thefe
double pieces, with the fhilling upwards, on the palm
of your hand, at the bottom of your three firft fingers;
and lay the other piece, with the guinea upward, in
like manner, in the other hand. Let the company take
notice in which hand is the guinea, and in which the
/hilling. Then as you fhut your hands, you naturally
turn the pieces o.ver; and when you open them again,
the fhilling and the guinea will appear to have chan¬
ged their places.
38. Provide a round tin box, of the fize of a large 38
fnuff-box ; and in this place eight other boxes, wh*ch
wijl go eafily into each other, and let the leaftnea> S j
of them be of a fize to hold a guinea. Each of
thefe boxes fhould {hut with a hinge; and to the lead
of them there muft be a fmall lock, that is faftened
with a fpring, but cannot be opened without a key:
and obferve that all thefe boxes muft fhut fo freely,
that they may be all clofed at once. Place thefe boxes
in each other, with their tops open, in the drawer of
the table on which you make your experiments; or, if
you pleafe, in your pocket, in fuch a manner that they
cannot be difplaced.
Then afk a perfon to lend you a new guinea, and
defire him to mark it, that it may not be changed.
Yon take this piece in one hand, and in the other you
have another of the fame appearance; and putting your
hand in the drawer you flip the piece that is marked
into the leaft box, and, fhutting them all at once, you
take
4I75
LEGERDEMAIN.
iSed. III.
take them out. Then fhowing the piece you have in
your hand, and which the company fuppofe to be the
fame that was marked, you pretend to make it pafs
through the box, and dexteroufly convey it away.
You then prefent the box, for the fpeflators do not
yet know there are more than one, to any perfon in
company ; who, when he opens it, finds another, and
another, till he comes to the laft, but that he cannot
open without the key, which you then give him, and
retiring to a diftant part of the room, you tell him to
take out the guinea himfelf, and fee if it be that he
marked.
This deception may be made more furprifing, by
putting the key into the fnufiF-box of one of the com¬
pany ; -which you may do by alking him for a pinch of
his fnuff, and at the fame time conceal the key, which
mull be very fmall, among the fnuff : and when the
perfon who is to open the box afks for the key, you
tell him that one of the company has it in his fnuff-
box. This part of the deception may likewife be per¬
formed by means of a confederate.
‘hertfufei- 35- Provide a fmall tin mortar, that is double, as A,
] ted flower (fig. 8.) whole bottom B turns round on an axis, by
means of a fpring which communicates with the piece
C. 'There muft be a hollow fpace under the falfe bot¬
tom. To the under-fide of the bottom fallen, by a
thread of fine filk,a flower, with its ftalk and leaves.
Then take a flower that exaflly refembles the other,
and plucking it from the ftalk, and all the leaves from
each other, put them into the mortar, and pound them
with a fmall peftle; after which you (how the mortar
to the company, that they may fee the parts are all
bruifed.
Then taking the mortar up in your hands, you hold
it over the flame of a lamp or candle, by whofe warmth
the flower is fuppofed to be reftored; and at the fame
time prefling the piece at 'C, the bottom will turn
round, the bruifed parts defeend into the fpace undir
the bottom, and the whole flower will be at top: you
then put your hand into the mortar, and eafily break¬
ing the filk thread, which may be very fhort as well as
fine, you take the flower out and prefent it to the com-
pany* . . . . * .
There is an experiment fimilar to this, in which a
live bird is concealed at the bottom of the mortar, and
one that is dead is pounded in it; after which, by the
motion of the bottom, the live bird is fet at liberty.
But furely the pounding a bird in a mortar, though it
be dead, muft produce, in perfons of any delicacy,
40 more difgnft than entertainment,
he lumi- 4°' Procure a tin box ABCD, (fig. i.) about eight
I 3usoracle, inches high, four wide, and two deep, and let it be
fixed on the wooden ftand E. On two of the infides
let there be a groove FG; and in the front an open-
| ing I, three inches wide and one high.
At the back of the box let there be a little tin door,
j that opens outward, by which two wax-candles M
may be put in. Let the top of the box have a cover
of the fame metal, in which there are feveral holes,
and which may be taken off at pleafure.
Vol. VI.
Provide a double glafs OP, (fig. 2.) conftru&ed in
the fame manner as that in the laft experiment. On one
of its Tides you are to pafte a black paper, the length
of which is to be divided into three parts, and the
breadth into fifteen: in every two of tliefe fifteen di-
vifions you cut out letters, which will make in the
whole three anfwers, to three queftions that may be
propofed. On the other fide of the glafs pafte a very
thin paper, and to the top fallen a fmall cord, by which
they may be made to rife or defeend in the groovS
FG.
Then take a flip of pafteboard R'S, (fig. 3.) one
inch and a half wide and three inches long, which is
to be divided into fifteen equal parts fimilar to thofe
of the paper OP, and cut out fpaces, as in the figure,
fo that this paper, Aiding horizontally before OP, will
either cover or conceal the letters cut in that.
This pafteboard is to Aide between two brafs wires,
and is to be faitened to one fide of the box, by a firing
that communicates with a fmall brafs fpring; and to
the other fide, by 3 firing fattened to the box by a
fmall piece of wax, fo fituate that the firing may be
eafily fet at liberty by the heat of the candles placed
Ln the box.
Take a parcel of cards, and write on them different
queftions, three of which are to correfpond with the
anfwers on the glafs. Shuffle thefe cards, and let a
perfon draw any one of the three queftions. Then by
raifing the glafs you bring the anfwer againft the hole
in the front in the box. You next place the candles
in the box, the heat of which will melt the wax that
holds the paper R S, which being then drawn by the
fpring the anfwer will be vifible, and in proportion as
the compofition between the glaffes becomes diluted
by the ittcreafe of the heat, the letters will become
more ftrongly illuminated.
The letters cut in the paper may be made to anfwer
feveral different queftions, as has been explained in
other experiments; and the whole parcel of cards may
confift of queftions that may be anfwered by one or
other of the three divifions in the paper.
30. Make a tin box ABCD, (fig. 4.) with a co-a fljw-r
ver M, that takes off. Let this box be fupperted by produced
the pedeftal FGHI, of the fame metal, and on whichf om ws
there is a little door L. In the front of this box is toalhfc4*
be a glafs, O.
In a groove, at a fmall diftance from O, place a
double glafs of the fame fort with that in the laft ex¬
periment. Between the front and back glalfes place a
fmall upright tin tube fupported by the crofs-piece R.
Let there be alfo a fmall chafingdilh placed in the
pedeftal FGHI. The box is to be open behind. You
privately place a flower (q^) in the tin tube R; and pre-
fenting one that refembles it to any perfon (r), defire
him to burn it on the coals in the chafingdilh.
You then ftrew fome powder over the coals, which
may be fuppofed to aid the allies in producing the
flower; and then put the chafingdifh in the pedeftal,
under the box. As the heat by degrees melts the com-
poiition between the glaffes, the flower will gradually
23 S ap-
(qj This flower muft not be placed fo near the front glafs,. as to make it in the leaft degree vifible.
(r ) You may prefent feveral flowers, and let the perfon choofe any one of them. In this cafe, while he is burning
the flower, you fetch the box from another apartment, and at the fame time put in a correfponding flower, which
will make the experiment ftill more furpi iftng.
4176
Leger,
Leghorn.
LEGERDEMAIN. Sed. Ill,
appear; bat when the chafingdifh is taken away, and philofophical nature, fee Acou-stics, Catoptrics,
the power of the afhes is fuppofed to be removed, the Chromatics, Dioptrics, Electricity, Hydxo-
flower foon difappears. statics. Magnetism, Mechanics, Pyrotechnics,
For entertaining experiments, illufions, &c. of a &c.
LEG
LEGER-line, in mufic, one added to the ftaff of
five lines; when the afcending or defcending notes run
very high or low: there are fometimes many of thefe
lines both above and below the ftaff, to the number of
four or five.
LEGHOR11, anciently called Liburnus Portus, but
by the modern Italians Livorno, a handfome town of
Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany, and a free port, about
30 miles fouth-weft from Florence, in the territory of
Pifa. The only deleft of the harbour is its being too
fhallow for large (hips. Cofmo I. had this town in
exchange for Sarzana, from theGenoefe; and it is the
only fea-port in the duchy. It. was then but a mean,
onhealthy place; but is now very handfome, and well-
built, with broad, ftraight, parallel ftreets. Itisalfo
well fortified ; but wants good water, which muft be
brought from Pifa, The port, confifting of two ha¬
vens, one for the duke’s galleys, and the other for mer¬
chant fhips, is furrounded with a double mole, above
a mile and a half in length, and defended, together
with the town, by a good citadel and 12 forts. Ro¬
man Catholics, Jews, Greeks, Armenians, Mahome¬
tans, and even the Englifh faftory, are indulged in the
public exercife of their religion ; but other Proteftants
muft be fatisfied with the private. The trade carried
on here is very great, and moft of it paffes thro’ the
hands of the Jews. Though only two piaftres, orfcu-
di, are paid for every bale, great or fmall, imported
©r exported, yet the duties on all provifions and com¬
modities brought from the continent to the town are
very heavy. The number of the inhabitants is laid to
be about 40,000 ; and one half of thefe are Jews, who
live in a particular quarter, but without any mark of
diftinftion, and have a fine fynagogue. The walks on
the ramparts are very agreeable. There is good an¬
chorage in the road ; but thips riding there are much
expoftd to the weather and the Barbayr corfairs. The
number of' Englith families in Leghorn are about 36 ;
they are much favoured by the government, and carry
on a good trade. The power of the inquifition is li¬
mited to ecclefiaftical matters, and Roman Catholics.
There are a great many Ttirkiih flaves here, brought
in by the duke’s galleys, who are often fent out on a
cruize againft the corfairs of Barbary. The light-
honfe ftands on a rock in the fea; near which is the
Lazaretto, where quarentine is performed. Another
fource, from which the duke draws a great revenue, is
the monopoly of brandy, tobacco, and fait’T but that,
with the heavy duties, makes provifions dear. The
Turks who are not flaves, live in a particular quarter,
near that of the Jews. The common proftitutes alfo
have a particular place affigned them, out of which
they mull not be feen, without leave from the commif-
fary. The number of the rowers in the galleys, whe-
therTurkifti flaves, criminals, or'volunteers, are about
2000. In the area before the darfena, or inner har¬
bour, is a fine ftatute of duke Ferdinand, with four
Tuikilh flaves, in bronze, chained to thepedeftal. The
ducal palace is one of the fineft ftruftures in the town,
L E I
and the ordinary refidence of the governor. Leghorn Le,-lon •
is the fee of a biftiop, and has a noble cathedral ; but ||
the other churches are not remarkable. E. Long. 11.0. Liebnit
N. Lat. 43. 30^
LEGION, in Roman antiquity, a body of foot
which confifted of ten cohorts. The word comes from
the Latin/rgere, to choofe; becaufe, when thelegi
were railed, they made choice of fuch of their youth
as were moft proper to bear arms.
The exaft number contained in a legion was fixed
by Romulus at 3000; though Plutarch affures us, that,
after the reception of the Sabines into Rome, he in-
creafed it to 600. The common number afterwards in
the firft times of the free ftate was 4000; but in the
war with Hannibal it rofe to 5000 ; and after that rt
is probable that it funk again 104000, or 4200, which
was the number in the time of Polybius.
They borrowed their names from the order in whiph
they were raifed, as prinia, fecunda, tertia; but be-
becaufe it ufually happened that there were feveral pri-
mae, fecundae, &c. in feveral places, they, on that ac¬
count, took a fort of furname befides, either from the
emperors who firft conftituted them, as Augufta,Clau-
diana, Galbiana ; or from the provinces which had
been conquered chiefly by their valour, as Parthica,
Scythica, Gallica, &c. or from the names of the par^-
ticular deities for whom their commanders had an e-
fpecial honour, as Mineryia and Apollinaris ; or from
the region where they had their quarters, as Creten-
fis, Cyfenaiea, Britannica, &c. or fometimes upoir
account of Idler accidents, as Ajutrix, Martia, Ful-
minatrix, Rapax, &c.
LEGISLATOR, a lawgiver, or perfon who efta-
blKhes the polity and laws of a ftate. Such was Mo-
fes, among the Jews; Lycurgus, among the Lacedse-
monians, &c.
LEGITIMATION, an aft whereby illegitimate
children are rendered legitimate. See Bastard.
LEGI TIME, in Scots law, that (hare of the move-
able eftefts belonging to a huHbaftd and wife, which'
upon the hufband’s death falls to the children.
LEGUMEN, a pod; a fpeeies of feed-veffel which
has two valves or external openings inclofing a num¬
ber of feeds that are fattened along one future only.
In this laft circumttance the feed-veffd in quettion dif¬
fers from that termed by botanillsJiliqua, in which the
inelofed feeds are fattened alternately to both the fu¬
tures or joinings of the pod.
The feed-veffel of all the pea-bloom or butterfly-
ftiaped flowers, the diadelphia of Linneus, is of this
pod-kind. Such, for inllance, is the feed-vefiel of the
pea, vetch, lupine, and broom.
LEGUMINOUS, an appellation given to all plants
whofe fruit is a legumen.
LEIBNITZ (Godefroy-William de), an eminent
mathematician and philofopHer, was born at Leipiie
in Saxony in 1646. At the age.of 15 years, he applied
himfelf to mathematics at Leiplic and Jena ; and in
1663, maintained a thefis de Priucipiis Individuationis.
The
LEI [41
s’bnitz. TKc year following he was admitted mailer of arts.
He read with great attention the Greek phtlofophers;
and endeavoured to reconcile Plato with Arifttule, as
he afterwards did Ariilotle with Des Cartes. But the
ftudy of the law was his principal view; in which fa¬
culty he was admitted bachelor in 1665. The year
following he would have taken the degree of dodlor;
but was refufed it on pretence that he was too young,
though in reality becaufe he had raifed himfelf feveral
enemies by rejecting the principles of Ariftptle.and the
fcbooltnen. Upon this he went to Altorf, where he
maintained a thefis de Cafibus Perplexis, with fuch ap-
plaufe, that he had the degree of do£lor conferred on
him. He might have fettled to great advantage at
Paris; but as it would have been neceffary to have
embraced the Roman Catholic religion, he 'refufed all
effers. In 1673, ^ie wcnt t0 England ; where he be-
became acquainted with Mr Oldenburg, fecretary of
the royal fociety, and Mr John Collins, fellow of
that fcciety. In 1676, he returned to England,
and thence went into Holland, in order to proceed to
Hanover, where he propofed to fettle. Upon,his ar¬
rival there, he applied himfelf to enrich the duke’s li¬
brary with the beft books of all kinds. The duke dy¬
ing in 1679, his fucceffor Erneft Auguftus, then bi-
fiiop of Ofnaburgh, (hewed our author the fame favour
as his predecelTor had done, and-ordered him to write
the hiftory of the houfe of Brunfwic. He undertook
k, and travelled over Germany and Italy in order to
colleft materials. The elector of Brandenburgh, af¬
terward king of Pruffia, founded an academy at Ber¬
lin by his advice; and he was appointed perpetual
prefident, though his affairs would not permit him to
refide 'conflantly at Berlin. He projected an academy
cif the fame kind at Drefden ; and this defign would
have been executed, if it had not been prevented by the
eonfunons in Poland. He was engaged likewife in a
fcheme for an univerfal language. His writings had
long before made him famous over ail Europe. Re¬
side the office of ptivy-counfeHor of juftice, which the
eleftor of Hanover had given-him, the emperor ap¬
pointed him in 1711 aulic counfellor ; and the czar
made him privy-counfellor of juflice, with a penfion of
1000 ducats. He undertook at the fame time the
eftablifhment of an academy of fcience at Vienna ;
but the plague prevented the execution of it. How¬
ever, the emperor, as a mark of his favour, fettled a
penfion on him of 2000 florins, and promifed him an¬
other of 4000 if he would come and refide at Vienna.
He wouid have complied with this offer, But he was
prevented by death in 1716. His memory was fo
ilrong, that in order to fix any thing in it, he had no
more to do but to write it once ; and he could even in
his old age repeat Virgil exactly. He profeffed the
Lutheran religion,, but never went to fermon ; and up¬
on his death-bed, his. coachman, who was his favou¬
rite fervant, dtfiring him to fend fora minifter, he re-
- fufed, faying, he had no need of one, Mr Locke and
Mr Molyneux plainly feem to think that he was not fo
great a man as he had the reputation of being ; and,
in truth, many of his metaphyfical notions are quite
unintelligible. Foreigners did for feme time aferibe
to him the honour of an invention, of which he recei¬
ved the fifft hints from Sir Ifaac Newton’s letters, who
had difeovered tke method effluxions in i664and 1665.
77 ] LEI
But it would be tedious to give the rcad r a detail of f
the difpute concerning the right to that invention. ~
LEICESTER, the capital of a county of the fame
name in England, upon the river Leire, now called
Soare. From its fituation on the Foffe-way, and the
many coins and antiquities difeovered here, it feems
probable that it was a place of fame note in the time
of the Romans. In the time of the Saxons it was a
bifhop’s fee, and afterwards’ fo repaired and fortified
by Edelflida, that it became, according to Matthew
Paris, a moll wealthy place, having 32 pariih-chunHies:
but in Henry the Second’s reign it was in a manntr
quite ruined, for joirung in rebellion againft him with
Robert earl of Leieelter. In the reign of Edward III.
however, it began to recover, by the favour of his fen
Henry Plantagenet, duke and earl of Lancafler, who
founded and endowed a collegiate church and hofpital
here. It is a borough and corporation^ governed by
a mayor, recorder, die ward, bailiff, 24 aldermen, 48
common-council men, a folicitor, a town-clerk, and
two chamberlains. It had its firfl charter from king
John. The freemen are exempt from paying toll ia
all the fairs and markets of England. It has tlire;
hofpitals; that mentioned above, built by Henry Plan¬
tagenet duke of Lancafter, and capable of fnppotting
100 aged people decently; another erected and en¬
dowed in the reign of Henry VIII. for 1 2 poor lazar.;;
and another for fix poor widows. The caftle was a
prodigious large building, where the duke of Lan¬
cafter kept his court. The hall and kitchen dill re¬
main entire, of which the former is very fpacious and
lofty; and in the tower over one of the gate-ways is
kept the magazine for the county militia. There was a
famous monaftery here, anciently called, from itslitua-
tion in the meadows, St Mary de Pratis or Prez, In
thefe meadows is now the courfe for the horfe-race.
It is faid that Richard III. who was killed at the battle
of Bofworth, lies interred in St Margaret’s church.
The chief bufinefs of Leicefter is the ftocking-tradc,
which hath produced in general to the amount of
60,0001. a^year. In a parliament held here in the
reign of Henry V. the firft law for the burning of
heretics was made, levelled againft the followers of
Wickliffe, who was reflor ef Lutterworth in this
county, and where his pulpit is faid ftill to remain.
The town fuffered greatly in'the -civil wars, by two
fieges upon the back of one another. It has given
the title of earl to feveral noble families, and laft to
Thomas Coke, lord Lovel, created earl of Leicefter in
1744. It has a market every Saturday. W. Lon. 1. 5.
N. Lat. 52. 40.
Leicestershire, an inland county of .England, in
form almoft circular. It has Nottinghamflaire and
Derbyfhire fo the north ; Rutlandftiire and Lincoln-
(hire on the eaft; Warwickfhire on the weft, from
which it is parted by the Roman military way called
IVatling-freet; and by Northamptonfhire on the
fouth. It is 33 miles long, 28 broad, and 100 in
circumference; containing 560,000 acres, 112,200 in¬
habitants, 200 parifhes, and 13 market-towns. As ic
lies at a great diftance from the fea, and is free from
bogs and marlhes, the air is fweet and wholefome. It
is a champaign country in general, and abundantly
fertile in corn and grafs, being watered by feveral ri¬
vers, as the Soure, or Sare, which paffes through the
23 S z middle
LEI [41
Leighton, middle of it, and abounds in excellent ialmcn and other
" fifh ; the Wreke, Trent, Eye, Senfe, Auker, and
Aven. Thefe rivers being molUy navigable, greatly
facilitate the trade of the county. In fome parts
there is a great fcarcity of fuel, both wood and coal;
but in the more billy parts there is plenty of both,
together with great flocks of (beep. Befides wheat,
barley, oats, and peafe, it produces the bed beans in
England. They grow fo tall and luxuriant in fome
places, particularly about Barton in the Beans, that
they look, towards the harveft-time, like a foreft: and
the inhabitants eat them not only when they are green,
as in other places, but all the year round ; for which
reafon their neighbours nickname them bean-bellies.
They have plenty of very good wool, of which they
not only make great quantities of (lockings, but fend
a great quantity unmanufadlured into other parts of
England. They make great profit of their corn and
pulfe; and likewife breed great numbers of coach and
dray horfes, moil of the gentlemen being graziers;
and it is not uncommon to rent grafs-farms from
500I. to 2000I. a-year. It is in the midland cir¬
cuit, and dioccfe of Lincoln ; and fends four members
to parliament, two for Leicefter, and two for the
county.
LEIGHTON (Robert), archbifliop of Glafgow.
During Cromwell’s ufurpation, he was minifter of a
church near Edinburgh, and diftinguifhed himfelf by his
charity,and his averfion to religious and political difputes.
The miniflers were then called over yearly in the fynod,
and were commonly afleed, Whether they had preached
to the times? “ For God’s fake, (anfwered Leighton),
when all my brethren preach to the times, fuffer me to
preach about eternity.” His moderation, however,
giving offence, he retired to a life of privacy. But
foon after, he was called, by the unanimous voice of
the magiflrates, to prefide over the college of Edin¬
burgh; where, during 10 years, he difplayed all the
talents of a prudent, wife, and learned governor.
Soon after the Reftoration, when the ill-judged affair
of introducing epifcopacy into Scotland was refolved
on, Leighton was confecrated bifhop of Dunblane,
and immediately gave an inftance of his moderation:
for when Sharpe and the other bifhops intended to
enter Edinburgh in a pompous manner, Leighton re-
monftrated againft it; but finding that what he faid
had no weight, he left them, and went to Edinburgh
alone. Leighton, in his own diocefe, fet fuch a re¬
markable example of moderation, that he was revered
even by the mod ri^id of the oppofite party. He
went about, preaching without any appearance of
pomp; gave all he had to the poor; and removed none
of the minifters, however exceptionable he might think
their political principles. But finding that none of
the other bifhops would be induced to join, as he
thought, properly in the work, he went to the king,
and refigned his bifliopric, telling him he would not
have a hand in fuch oppreffive meafures. Soon after,
the king and council, partly induced by this good
bifhop’s remonftrances, and partly by their own ob-
fervations, refolved to carry on the eaufe of epilcopacy
in Scotland on a different plan ; and with this view,
Leighton wasperfuaded to accept of the archbifliopric
Glafgow, on which he made one effort more ; but
finding it not in his power to ftem the violence of the
78 ] LEI
times, he refigned his archbifncpric, and retired into Ldnfcr
Suffex, where he devoted himfelf to adts of piety. Fie |
died in the year 1684. He was of a mod amiable
difpofition, ftridl in his life, polite, cheerful, engaging
in his manners, and profoundly learned. He left
many fermons and uftful tradls, which are greatly
.dteemed.
LEINSTER, or Lemfster, a province of Ire¬
land, called in Latin Lagenia, bounded by Ulfter on
the north, by Connaught and Munfler on the weft
and fouth-weft, and by the fea on the fouth and call.
The Shannon feparates it from Connaught, and the
Sure from a part of Munller. Its length from north
to fouth amounts to about 112 miles; its breadth from
eaft to weft 70; and its circumference, including the
windings and turnings, to 360 miles. It contains 12
counties, viz. Louth, Eall-Meath, Weft-Meath, Long¬
ford, Dublin, Kildare, Klng’s-county, Queen’s-county,
Wicklow, Catherlogb, Kilkenny, and Wexford; 90.
baronies, one archbifhopric, three bifhoprics, 926 pa-
rifhes, 47 parliamentary boroughs, and 63 market-
towns and places of trade. Leinfter in general is very
well cultivated, enjoys a good air and foil, and abounds
in corn, cattle, filh, and fowl. Its principal rivers arc
the Boyne, Barrow, Liffey, Nuer, Slane, or Urrin,
and the May; of which the firft is famous for the vic¬
tory obtained on its banks by king William over king
James, and gives title of vifeount to a family of the
name of Hamilton. The bog of Allen, the largeft in
the kingdom, extends almoft acrofs the whole province
from eaft to well, the turf of which is univerfally
elleemed the bell in Ireland. This province, formerly
governed by petty kings of its own, is now the moft
populous in the kingdom, containing the capital and
feat of government. The inhabitants are alfo the moft
polite, and, in general, as zealous Proteftants as any
in the Britilh dominions. Leintier gives the title of
duke to the family of Fitzgerald, formerly earls of
Kildare.
LEIPSIC, a large, flrong, and populous town of
Mifnia in Germany, with a caftle, and a famous uni-
verfity. It is neat, and regularly built, and the ftreets
are lighted in the night; it .carries pn a great trade,
and has a right to Hop and fell the merchandizes de-
figned to pafs through it, and the country for.75 miles
round has the fame privilege. There are three great
fairs every year; at the beginning of the year, Ealler,
and Michaelmas, which lad 15 days each. There are
fix handfome colleges belonging to the univerfity, be¬
fides the private colleges. The town houfe makes an
indifferent appearance, but the exchange is a fine (truc-
ture. The town was taken by the king of Pruflia in
the late war, but given up by the peace in 1763. It
is feated in a plain between the rivers Saale and Muld,
near the confluence of the Playffe, the Elder, and the
Barde. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 51. 19.
LEITH, (anciently called Inverleith), the port of
Edinburgh, is feated on the banks of the Forth, about
a naile from the capital. It is divided into two parts,
called North and South Leith. The former is a part of
the barony of the Canongate; and is fubjeA to the
baron-bailie of that didridl, and to the magidrates of
Edinburgh. The communication between North and
South Leith is by a done-bridge of three arches,
which appears to have, been founded by Robert Bal-
lentyne>
Leitft.
LEI [41
eith. lontyne, abbot, of Holyrood-houfe, in 1493. The
harbour, however, is what gives the importance to
Leith, and indeed to Edinburgh alfo. It is formed
by the conflux of the rivulet called the Water of Leith
with the Frith of Forth. The depth of water, at
neap-tides, is about nine feet; but in high fpring-tides,
it is about 16 feet. In the beginning of the prefent
century, the town council of Edinburgh improved the
harbour at an enormous expence, by extending a flone-
pier a confiderable way into the fea. In 1753, an adl
was pafled for enlarging and deepening the harbour of
Leith ; but as, no adequate means were propofed by
the ftatute for defraying the expence, nothing was
done in confequence. A plan was foon afterwards
formed for enlarging the harbour upon a Hill larger
plan; and, to carry this expenfive projeft into execu¬
tion, a bill was framed by which an additional duty
from 1 d. to 6d. a ton was to be laid upon all (hipping
in the harbour. But the fcheme was dropped, in
confequence of a vigorous oppofition. In 1777, the
ttfwn of Edinburgh confiderably improved the har¬
bour, by ere&ing an additional ftone-qnay towards its
weft fide. Upwards of 100 (hips can lie conveniently
in this port. It is accommodated with wet and dry
docks, and other conveniencies for (hip-building, which
is there carried on to 'fome extent, as vefirls come to
Leith to be repaired from all parts of Scotland.
The harbour of Leith was granted to the commu¬
nity of Edinburgh by king Robert, in 1329 ; but the
banks of the harbour belonged to Logan of Reftalrjg,
a turbulent and ambitious baron, from whom the citi¬
zens were under the necefiity of purchafing the bank
or wafte piece of ground between the houfes and the
rivulet abovementioned, for the purpofes of wharfs, as
well as for erecting (hops and granaries, neither of
which they could do before. As the (ituation of Leith,
howfever, is much more convenient for trade than that
of Edinburgh, two miles diftant from the harbour,
the inhabitants- of the metropolis have fallen upon va¬
rious methods of reftraining the trade of Leith. They
firft purchafed, from Logan of Reftalrig, an exclufive
privilege of carrying on every fpecies of traffic in the
town of Leith ; of keeping warehoufes and inns for
the entertainment of ftrangers in that place ; and in
1483, the town-council of Edinburgh prohibited, under
fevere penalties, the citizens of Edinburgh from taking
into partnerfliip any inhabitant of Leith. To free
themfelves from this oppreffion, the people of Leith
purchafed the fuperiority of their town from Logan of
of Reftalrig for 3000 1. Scots, and it was ere&ed into
a burgh of barony by the queen-regent, Mary of Lor¬
raine, who promifed to ere6i it into a royal burgh.
She died, however, before this was accompliftied; and
upon her death, Francis and Mary, in violation of the
private rights of the people of Leith, re-fold the fu¬
periority to the town of Edinburgh, to whom it has
iince been confirmed by grants from fucceffive fove-
reigns.
On the breaking out of the difturbances at the Re¬
formation, the queen-regent caufed the whole town to
be fortified, that the French troops might have a more
ready inlet into the kingdom. It was accordingly^
furrounded with a wall, having eight baftions : but
this wall went no farther tharr the ftreet now called
Bernard's-mok, becaufe at that time the fea came,
79 1 LEI
up the length of that ftreet; and even as late as
1623, ahoufe fituated exa&ly where the weigh-houfe
is at jarefent, is deferibed as bounded on the eaft
by the “ fand of the fea-(hore.” All that fpace,
therefore, on- which the row of houfes neareft the har-
btuir of Leith now (lands, has been gained fince that
time from the fea.
In the time of Charles I. a fortification was ere&ed
at Leith by the Covenanters. Cromwell built a ftrong
fort at the place Hill called the citadel in North-Leith ;
but it was pulled down on the reftoration of Charles II.
by order of government. A gate with portcullices
are the prefent remains of that fortification.—A pa¬
lace alfo appears to have formerly flood here, fituated
at the north-eaft boundaries of the former town, on
the fpot where the prefent weigh-houfe (lands. It
was deftroyed by the Englifli in the time of Henry VIIL
The remains of this building, called the king's •work,
with a garden, and piece of wafte land that iurround-
ed it, was creeled into a barony by James VI. and
beftowed upon Bernard Lindfay of Lochill, groom
of the chamber to that prince. He is faid to have
fully repaired, and appropriated it to the recreations
of the court; but it foon fell from its dignity, and be¬
came fubfervient to much more ignoble purpofes. The
tennis-court was converted into a weigh-houfe ; and
the ftreet which bounds it ftill bears the name of the
founder, from whom it is called Bernard's nock.
As Leith lay within the parifh of Reftaltig, the
church of Reftalrig was of confequence the place of
worfliip for the inhabitants of Leith ; but in 1650
the affembly ordered that church to be pulled down
as a monument of idolatry, fo that Leith wanted a
parifh-church for upwards'of 50 years. During that
period they reforted for worfhip, to a large and beau¬
tiful chapel already built, and dedicated to St Mary,
which is now called South-Leith church; and in 1609
this chapel was by authority of parliament declared
to be the parifti-church of the diftridl, fo that Reftal¬
rig is now in the parifb of South-Leith^ as the latter
was formerly in that of Reftalrig. In 1772, a chapel
of Eafe was ere&ed by the inhabitants, as the pariftt-
church was infufficient to contain the number of hearers.
Its dimenfions are 72 feet by 52 within the walls, and
it can accommodate 1500 perfons. There is alfo anx.
epifcopal and feveral dilfenting congregations in Leith.
North-Leith is a parifh by itfelf, and the.church is
fituated at the fouth-end of the bridge.
Though a very great trade is carried on between
Leith and many foreign ports, yet the articles of ex¬
port and import fluctuate fo much, , that no quantity
can be fettled upon as an average, at leaft without
having a table of exports and imports for fuch a num¬
ber of years as is perhaps impoffible to be obtained.
The following is an account of the number of (hips, Set.
employed in the foreign and coafting trades, for one
year ending January 5th 1778, taken from Mr At-
net’s Hiftory of Edinburgh.
Foreign Trade,
Ships Tons , Men
53 6800 418
Coajling and Fijhing Trades,
Ships Tons Men
44 3341* »8i
N. B.
Leith.
LEI f ai8o 1 LEI
AT. B. It is to be obferved, that befides the vef-
fels belonging to Leith, there are employed in the
trade, (hips belonging to other ports on the Frithj
and to the north of England, to the amount of about
one fourth of the tonnage of the Leith veffels. Ships
in the London trade make, at an average, feven voyages
up, and as many down, every two years.
The following is an account of the articles of im¬
port and export to and from the port of Leith, taken
from the fame work:.
Imports.
From .Denmark. Confiderable quantities of oats,
pea'fe, and barley, when the port is open : fmall quan¬
tities of batter, cheefe, old iron, and fcull iron.
From Norway. Deals, about 15,006 annually; bat¬
tens, fpars, handfpikes, oak-fpokes for cart wheels ;
harrow-bills, hafel-cuts, fir-timber, middle balks,
fmall balks, pailing boards, wood-hoops for coopers;
oak-knees for fitips ; tar, in 1777 3000 barrels ;
oak-timber, bar-iron, oars, tree-nails, (lock-fi(h, bar¬
ley, fie ve-rims.
From Sweden. Bar-iron, about 400 tons annually;
deals, about f0,000 annually; battens; tar, in 1777
about 600 barrels ; barrel-ftaves, handfpikes, fpars,
pailing boards, fir-timber, oats, barley..
From RuJJia. Bar-iron, about 600 tons annually;
deals, in 1777, 35,000; battens, in 1777, 12,000;
fir-timber; flax, about 250 tons annually; hemp,
Cordelia; tallow, in 1777, 200 tons; hogs-briftles,
matts, wheat, oats, barley, (hips malls, fpars, fieve-
rims, feather-beds, oak-timber, a confiderable quan¬
tity of linens of different kinds ; flax-feed, about 100.0
barrels annually; cordage, elk’s hair, old iron, furs,
knees of oak for (hips ; handfpikes, neats-tongues,
ifinglafs, indigo, rofin ; tar, in 1777, UOO barrels ;
tallow-candles, hard-foap, pearl-alhes, fail-cloth, pall¬
ing boards.
From Pruflia. Fir-timber, in 1777, 1200 loads ;
deals, battens, pipe and barrel ftaves ; wheat, oats,
barley, peafe, pearl-alhes, flax, hemp, bar-iron, fcull-
iron, old iron, (hips malts, linen-yarn, weed-alhes,
pot-alhes, ox and cow-hides, calves-lkins.
From Poland. Weed-alhes, pearl-alhes, and pot-
alhes; oak-plank, in 1777, 115 loads; oak-timber,
clap-boards, barrel and kilderkin Haves; pipe and
hoglhead ftavps; falt-petre, honey, fpruce-beer, hogs-
brillles, wheat, deals, feathers for beds, tree-nails,
linens, linen-yarn, linen-rags, ox and cow-hideS,
calve’s-fkins, beech and elm timber, oats, barley,
peafe.
From Germany. Oak-timber, in 1777, 116 loads;
.oak-plank, in 1777, 37 loads; oak-bark, linen-rags,
wheat, oats, barley, beans*and peafe, apples ; linen-
yarn, in 1777, 116 tons ; oak-knees, for fhips ; earth¬
en ware, pearl-alhes, fmalt, Rhenilh wine, vinegar;
pipe, hoglhead, and barrel ftaves; firkin-ftaves, chef-
nuts, madder ; tanned leather, in 1777, 11000 pounds;
feal-lkins, mineral waters, beech-timber, calf-pelts,
horfe-hides, matts, flax-feed, bar-iron, linens, wood-
hoops, wooden clocks, tree-nails, caraway-feeds, ju¬
niper-berries, drugs.
From Holland. Flax, about 350 tons annually;
flax-feed, about 500 hoglheads annually; madder,
clover-feed, matts, wood-hoops for coopers; linen-
yarn, in 1777, 11,330 pound'weight; old-iron, bat¬
ter and cheefe, cinnamon, unbound books, garden*
feeds, tanned leather, wheat, oats, barley, peafe and
beans, pearl-alhes, fmalt, wain foots, Rhenifn wine,
oak-bark, iron nails, cork, bridges thread, incle,
wood-alhes, galley-tiles, writing paper, wooden clocks,
tarras, oakhum, faccharum faturni, white-lead, mi¬
neral waters, flower-roots, burrs for mill-ftones, goofe-
quills, liquorice.-juice, onions, hard foap, linen-rags,
oak-timber, goat-lkins, red-lead, apples, vinegar.
From France. Wine, walnuts, "chefnuts, prunes,
cork, brandy, pickles, apples, olives, fuccads, capers,
anchovies, dried plums, almonds, fait, rolin, vine¬
gar, verdigreafe.
From Spain. Wine and oil, grapes, figs, almonds,
raifins, lemons and oranges, fait, cork, brandy, Je-
fuits-bark, cow-hides, reeds, lemon-juice, drugs, 10-
fin, and turpentine.
From Portugal. Wine and toil, raifins, cork, fait,
lemons and oranges, figs, reeds, onions, fumach,
drugs, fuccads, rofin.
^rotn Guernfey. French, Spanifh, and Portuguefe
wines; rofin, cork, apples and pears; brandy, chef-
nuts and walnuts; pickles, capers, olives, anchovies,
cows, cyder, prunes.
From Ireland; butter.
From Gibraltar. Spanifti and Portuguefe wines.
From Italy. Drugs, Levant wine, currants} falad-
oil, rough and poliftied marble, gum-arabic, cheefe,
anchovies, brimftone.
From Sicily ; fait.
From North America, (before the differences with
our colonies.) Rice, indigo, tar, pitch, turpentine,
pine-plank, lignum-vitae, barrel and hogfhead ftaves,
ox and cow hides, deer-fltins, otter and racoon
fleins, logwood, mahogany, fir-plank, fago powder,
mufcovado fugar, rum.
From the Wejl Indies. Rum, mufcovado fugar, in¬
digo, cotton-wool, cow-hides, mahogany, logwood,
and fuftic ; coffee-berries, fuccads, pimento.
Exports.
To Denmark. Coals, rod-iron, fire-grates, thread-
ftockings.
To Norway. Lead, earthen-ware, ftrong beer, glafs-
bottles, tow, printed linen, printed paper, tanned
leather, hard-ware, woollen drapery, ' bricks, wheat,
flour, fmall coals, malt, haberdafhery.
To Sweden. Hard-ware, woollen drapery, cot ton-
fluffs,_velverets, worded hofe, filk-ftuffs, porter, ftone-
ware,-lead, tanned leather.
To Rufia. Coaches and chariots, with braces and
harnefs, filk-ftuffs, houfchold-furniture, faddlery-ware,
coals, Spanifh fait, ftrong-beer, glafs-bottles, chec-
quered linen furniture, diaper, velvets, worded ftock-
fngs, printed linen hafidkerchiefs, fine linen, clocks,
haberdafhery, hard-ware, oil of vitriol, fal-ammoniae,
wine.
To Poland. Coaches and chariots, with braces and
harnefs; filk-ttuffs, alum, worded dockings, rum,
herrings, mahogany furniture, ftone-ware, fmall coals,
hats.
To Germany. Houfehold furniture, glafs-bottles,
porter and ftreng-beer, oil of vitriol, earthen ware,
millenery ware, rum, coals, fail-cloth, lead, carpet-
ting, worded dockings.
To Holland. Lead, in 1776, 1650 tens; in 1777,
1 >509
LEI [ 4181 ] LEI
* ptith- 1500 tons; falmon, porter and ftrong-beer; carpet-
- ting» coals, oil of vitriol, Spanilh and French wines
J .. a frriall quantity, fteel, rod-iron, velveret, rum, filk-
ftuffs, woollen cloth, earthen ware, fire-grates, fad-
lery.
To France. Coaches and chariots, with braces and
harnefs; a few.
To Spain. Linens and dama/ks; ftrong-beer and
porter; iron-hoops, fmall coals, fail-cloth, tarred cord¬
age, wheat, flour, ftone-ware, fmall-beer, deals and
cuts of deals, barley, glafs-bottles, filk-gauze.
To Portugal. Glafs-bottles, ftrong-beer, packing-
mats, fail-cfoth, barley and big; wheat, wheat-flour,
iron-hoops, pipe-ftaves, dried cod-fiih, fmall coals.
To Gibraltar. Coals and bricks, linens, glafs-bot-
tles, houfehold furniture, beer and porter, iron-hoops.
To Guernfey, coals, glafs-bottles.
To Ireland', porter and ftrong-beer, barrel-ftaves,
1 glafs-bottles, bifeuit.
To North America, ..(before the differences with
that, country.) Great quantities of linen; houfehold fur¬
niture, wearing apparel, writing-paper, printing and
brown paper, books, haberdafhery, ftone-ware, porter
and ftrong-beer, fadlery-ware, worfted hofe, thread
ditto, fewing-thread, wrought iron, hats, coals, fpades,
feythes, and corn-hooks; waggon-wheels, window-
glafs, cordage and fail-cloth, bricks, flioes, carpetting,
lawns and gauzes, printed linen handkerchiefs, mens
fhirts, clocks; French, Spanifh, an^Portuguefe wines;
glafs-bottles.
To the WejlIndies. Linens, herrings, houfehold fur¬
niture, wood hoops for coopers, coals and bricks;
French, Spanifh, and Portugal wines; negroes,cloath-
Iing, hats, Ihoes, fadTery ware, thread-hofe, fewing-
thread, fugar-boilers, nails, ftrong-beer and porter,
haberdafliery, fmiths and joiners tools, ploughs and
furniture, yetlin pots, bliftered fteel, iron crows, mule-
harnefs, fifh-oil, medicines, chaifes with harnefs, fail-
cloth and cordage, lime and lime-ftones, linen hand¬
kerchiefs, wearing apparel, wheat-flour and bread,
woollen drapery, ling-fifh; hulled barley, oats, peafe,
and beans; horfes, writing-paper, .books, blanketing,
iron hoops, ftationary ware, (hips anchors, call-iron
■: work, window-fafhes, cutlery-ware.
Oyfters began to be exported from Leith for Lon¬
don in the year 1773. They are taken from their
beds in the Forth to the Medway and other rivers in
the neighbourhood of London, where they fatten for
the confumption of that metropolis. This oyfter-trade
is carried on with fo much fa much avidity, that, ac¬
cording to Mr Arnot, if the banks on the Forth are
not more fparingly dragged, they muft of necefiity be
foon eithaufted. As. the quantity exported hath di-
minifhed, however, the price hath increafed. The firft
year the oyfters were fold at 4 s. per barrel.
The fhipping at Leith render tb.e demand for ropes,-
fail-cloth, and cordage, very conliderable. There are
three different companies who carry on thefe manufac-
tnres, befides fome private perfons who deal lefs con-
_ fiderably. The firft of thefe companies was eftablifh-
ed in the beginning of the prefent century; and about
12 years ago made, perhaps, Jarger dividends among
the partners than any trading or manufafturing com¬
pany in the' nation. The three companies at prefent
employ about 1^0 weavers,'flax-dreffers, and fpinners
of rope-yarn, 60 rope-makers, and 450 fpinners of Leith,
flax.
In the middle of the laft century, a manufa&ory of
green glafs was eftablifhed at the citadef of Leith.
Chopin-bottles were fold at 4s. 6d. per dozen, and
other bottlgs in proportion. Soon afterwards this ar¬
ticle was manufaftured alfo in North Leith ; and, in
1707, chopin-bottles were fold at 2s. 6d. per dozen,
and fo proportionably. The prefent Bottle-houfe
Company was eftablifhed in 1746. They began work
in the bottle-houfe of North-Leith; but that houfe
being burned down during the firft year of the part-
nerlhip, a new houfe was built on South-Leith fands
in 1747, and an additional one in 1764. The annual
expence of both houfes is between 8000 or 90001.
The manufa&ures of- foft-foap and candles were
eredled by William St Clair of Roflin and fome mer¬
chants ; the former in 1750, and the latter in 1770 ;
a manufacture of hard-foap was alfo eftablifhed in 1770
by David Neilibn. Befides thefe, there is alfo a fu-
gar-houfe, and a confiderable manufadture for making
cards with which wool is combed.
The inhabitants of Leith were divided into four
claffes; and thefe eredfed into corporations by the queen
dowager, Mary of Lorraine. Thefe were mariners,
maltmen, trades, and traffickers. The firft of thefe
eonfifted of ftiip-mafters and bailors; the fecond o£
malpmakers and brewers ; the third of coopers, ba¬
kers, fmiths, wrights, &c.; and the fourth, of mer¬
chants and fliop-keepers. Of thefe corporations the
mariners are the moft confiderable. They obtained
from Mary of Lorraine a gift, afterwards ratified by
William and Mary, of one penny duty on the ton of
goods in the habour of Leith,, for the fupport of their
poor. This duty, which not many years ago did not
amount to 40I. a-year, now rifes from 70I. to 120I.
as trade flourifhes. For the fame purpofe the ftiip-
mafters alfo pay 6d. a-pound out of their own wages
annually; and the like fum they give upon the wages
of their bailors. From thefe and other donations, this
corporation is enabled to pay from 6160I. to 700I. a-
year to their poor. Oppofite to South-Leith church
there is a large houfe belonging to them, called the
Trinity hofpital, becaufe originally confecrated to the
Holy Trinity. Ip this houfe fome of their poor ufed
formerly to be maintained, but now they are all out-
penfioners. Befides other apartments, this hofpital
contains a large handfome hall for the meetings of the
corporation. Adjoining to the fcliOol-houfe there is
another hofpital, called king James's hofpital; and
bears upon its front the cipher and arms of that prince.
Here fome poor women belonging to the other corpo¬
rations are maintained.
As the town of Leith was very ill fupplied with wa¬
ter, and the ftreets were neither properly cleaned nor
lighted, an aft was paffed for remedying thefe defefts
in the year 1771, appointing certain perfons from a-
mong the magiftrates of Edinburgh, lords of feffion,
inhabitants of Edinburgh and Leith, and members of
the corporations of Leith, comn/ijfioners of police; em¬
powering them to put this aft in execution; and, for
that purpofe, to levy a fum not exceeding 6d. in the
pound upon the valued rent cf Leith. The great
change which has fince taken place on the ftreets of
Leith ftiows the good effeft of tifs aft, and that it hath
both
L E L [ 4182 ] LEM
Lehnd. both been judicioufly prepared, and attentively exe-
cuted.
LELAND (John), the great Englifh antiquary,
was born in London, about the year 1507. Having
loft his parents when a child, he had the good for¬
tune to find a friend and patron in one Mr Thomas
Miles, who placed him in St Paul’s fchool, of which
the grammarian Lillye was mafter. From that fchool
he was fent to Chrift’s college, Cambridge; whence,
after fome years refidence, he removed to All-Souls,
Oxford. From Oxford he went to Paris, chiefly with
a defign to ftudy the Greek language, which at that
time was but little underftood in this kingdom. On
his return to England he took orders, and was foon
appointed chaplain to king Henry VIII. who alio
gave’him the reftory of Poppeling, in the riiarfhes of
Calais, appointed him his librarian, and in 1533
granted to him, by commifiion under the great feal,
the office of king’s antiquary ; au office never borne
by any other perfon before or fince. By this com-
miffion he was empowered to fearch fo. ancient wri¬
tings in all the libraries of colleges, abbeys, priories,
See. in his majefty’s dominions. We are told by his
daft biographer, that he renounced popery foon after
his return to England ; but he quotes no authority.
Be this as it may, in 1536, he obtained a difpenfa-
tion to keep a curate at Poppeling, and fet out on his
journey in fearch of antiquities. In this employment
he fpent fix years, during which time he vilited every
part of England where monuments of antiquity were
to be expefted. After his return, in the year 1542, he
was prefented by the king to the rich re&ory of Hafeley
on Oxfordffiire; and in the following year he gave him
a prebend of King’s-college, now Chrift’s church, in
Oxford, befides that of eaft and weft Knowle, in the
cathed-ral of Salifbury. Being thus amply provided
for, he retired to a houfe of his own in the parifh of
St Michael le Qucrne in London, where he fpent fix
years more in digefting the materials which he had
collected. King Henry VIII. died in 1547 ; and in
a ffiort time after, poor Leland loft his fenfes. He
was at firft feized with a deep melancholy, which was
fucceeded by a total deprivation of his reafon. In this
dreadful ftate he continued till the beginning of the
year 1552, when he was happily releafed by death.
He was buried in the church of St Michael le Querne,
which was deftroyed by the fire in 1666. Mr Leland is
remembered as a man of great learning, an univerfal
iirrguift, an excellent Latin poet, and a moft indefa-
- tigable and Ikilful antiquary. On his death, king
Edward VI. gave all his papers to Sir John Checke,
his tutor and Latin fecretary of ftate. The king dying,
and Sir John being obliged to leave the kingdom, he
gave four folio volumes of Leland’s colledlion's to
Humphrey Purefoy, Efq; which, in 1612, were by
his fon given to William Burton, author of thehiftory
of Leicefterlhire. This gentleman alfo became pof-
fefled of the Itinerary in 8 vols fol. which, in 1632,
he depofited in the Bodleian library. Many, other of
Lelano’s manuferipts, after the death of Sir John
Checke, fell into the hands of lord Paget, Sir Wil¬
liam Cecil, and others, which at laft fortunately came
into the pofleffion of Sir John Cotton. Thefe manu¬
feripts were of great ufe to all our fubfequent antiqua¬
rians, particularly Cambden, Sir William Dngdale, Lely
Stowe, Lambard, Dr Batteley, Ant. Wood, &c. (1
His Itinerary throughout moft part of England and Lemery»
Wales, was publifhed by Mr Hearne, 9 vols 8vo, in
1710-11 ; as was alfo his Cdlettanea de rebus Britan-
nicis, 6 vols 8vo, in 1715.
LELY (Sir Peter), an excellent painter, born in
Weftphalia, in the year 1617. He was placed as a
difciple with Peter Grebber at Haerlem ; and in 1641
w^s induced, by the encouragement Charles I. gave to
the fine arts, to come to England : he became ftate-
painter to Charles II., who knighted him ; and being
as complete a gentleman as a painter, that king took
pleafure in converfing with him. He pradtifed por¬
trait-painting, and fucceeded fo well that he excelled
all his cotemporaries; on which account he was al¬
ways involved in bufinefs. Yet the critics remark, that
he preferved in almoft all his female faces a drowfy
fweetnefs of the eyes peculiar to himfelf; for which he
is reckoned a mannerift. The hands of his portraits
are remarkably fine and elegantly turned; and he
frequently added landfcapes in the back-grounds of
his pi&ures, in a ftyle peculiar to himfelf, and better
fuited to his fubjedl than moft men could do. He
excelled likewife in crayon-painting. He died in 1680.
LEMBERG, a town pf Poland, capital of Red
Ruffia, feated in the palatinate of Lembnrg, on the ri¬
ver Pelteu. It is pretty well fortified, and defended by
two citadels, one of which is feattd on an eminence with¬
out the town. Therquare, the churches, and the pub¬
lic buildings, are magnificent; and it is a large and rich
trading place. It has a Roman-Catholic archbifhop,
and an Armenian as well as a Ruffian bifhop; but the
Proteftants are not tolerated. This city was reduced
to the laft extremity by the rebel Cofiacks and Tar¬
tars, arid was forced to redeem itfelf with a large futn
of money. In 1672, it was befieged in vain by the
Turks; but in 1704, was taken by ftorm by Char.XII.
of Sweden. E. Long. 24. 46. N. Lat. 49. 51.
LEMERY (Nicholas), a celebrated chemift, born
at Rouen in Normandy in 1^45. After having made
the tour of France, he, in 1672, commenced an ac¬
quaintance with M. Martyn apothecary to Monfieur
the Prince; and performed feveral courfes of chemiftry
in the laboratory of this chemift at the Hotel,de Conde;
which brought him to the knowledge and efteem of
the prince. He provided himfelf at length with a la¬
boratory of his own, and might have been made a doc¬
tor of phyfic: but he chofe to continue an apothecary,
from his attachment to chemiftry, in which he opened
public ledlures; and his confluence of fcholars was fo
great as fcarcely to allow him room to perform his
operations. The true principles of chemiflry in his
time were but ill underftood; Lemery was the firft
who abolilhed the fenfelefs jargon of barbarous terms,
reduced the fcience to clear and fimple ideas, and pro-
ni.ifed nothing that he did not perform. In 1681, he
was difturbed on account of his religion ; and came to
England, where he was well received by Charles II. :
but affairs not promifing him the fame tranquillity, he
returned to France, and fought for /belter under a Doc¬
tor’s degree; but the revocation of theedid ofNantz
drove him into the Romifh communion to avoid perfecu-
tion. Fie then became affociate chemift and penfionary in
L E M [ 41
I.cming Ae royal academy of fciences, and died in 1715. He
|j wrote, A courfe of chemiftry ; An univerfal phar-
I,emur. macopoeia ; An univerfal treatife of drugs; and, A
“ treatife on Antimony.”
LEMING, in zoology. See Mus.
LEMMA, in mathematics, a propofition which
ferves previouily to prepare the way for the more eafy
apprehenlion of the demonftration of fome theorem, or
conftru&ion of fome probletn.
LEMNA, Duck-meat; a genus of the diandria
order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants. There
are three fpecies, all natives of Britain, growing fre¬
quently in ditches and the (hallow parts of ifagnant
waters. All of them are acceptable food for ducks
and geefe.
LEMNIAN earth, Terra Lemnia, a medicinal,
aftringent fort of earth, of a fatty confidence and
reddilh colour; ufed in the fame cafes as bole. It
has its name from the ifland of Lemnos, whence it is
chiefly brought. Many form it into round cakes, and
imprefs a feal upon it; whence it is alfo called terra
Jigillata.
LEMN1US (Ltevinus), a famous phyfician, born at
Ziric-Zee in Zealand, in 1505. He pradfiftd phyfic
with applaufe; and after his wife’s death being made
prieft, became canon of Ziric-Zee, where he died in
1560. He left feveral citeemed works, the principal
of which is entitled De occultis naturae 'miraculis.
LEMNOS, (anc. geog.) a noble ifland in theiEgean
fea, near Thrace, called Dipolis, from its confiding of
two towns, into the forum of which mount Athos cafts
its fliadow at the folftice, (Pliny); in compafs 112
miles. An ifland facred to Vulcan, (Val. Flaccus.)
Famous for its aftringent earth, ufed for confolidating
wounds.
LEMON, in botany. See Citrus.
LEMONADE, a liquor prepared of water, fugar,
and lemon or citron juice; it is very cooling and grate¬
ful.
LEMUR, or Maki, in zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of primates, the cha-
radters of which are thefe: There are four fore teeth
1. CLIX. 'n t^'e upperjaw, the intermediate ones being remote;
and fix long, comprefled, parallel teeth in the under
jaw; the dog-teeth are folitary, and the grinders are
fomewhat labated. There are five fpecies, viz.
1. The tardigradus, a fmall animal found in the
ifland of Ceylon. It is of a very lingular conftrudlion,
and perhaps longer in proportion to its thicknefs than
any other quadruped. The l^ead is roundifh, with a
prominent nofe ; the legs are long-and thick, and the
feet rcfemble tbofe of a monkey; it has no tail. It
lives in the woods, and feeds on fruits ; is a tender a-
nimal; has the fenfe of fmell very acute, and the aftion
of an ope,; and is very agile, though its name im¬
plies the contrary.
2. The mongooz inhabits Madagafcar and the
iflands to :the eaitward as far ns Celebes, is about the
(ize of a cat; hath the whole upper part of the body
covered with long, foft, and thick fur, a little curled
or waved, of a deep brownifli a(h-colour; the tail very
long, covered with the fame fort of hair, and 6f the
fame colour. It lives on fruits, turns its tail over its
head to protedl it from rain, and deeps on trees; it
is very fportive and good-natured, and very tender.
Vcl. VI.
83 ] L E N
3. The catta, or arch-tailed maki, inhabits Mada- Lemuiet
gafcar and the neighbouring ides. It is of the (ize of , ^
a cat; has the hair on the top and hind-part of the L
head of a deep afh-colour, the back and fides reddifh,
the belly and infides of the limbs white; all its hair
very foft, clofe and fine, and etedt like the pile of vel¬
vet ; the tail is twice the length of the body. It is very
good-natured, and has all the life of a monkey, with¬
out its mifchievous difpofition ; it is very clean¬
ly, and has a weak cry. In a wild date they go in
troops of 30 or 40, and are eafily tamed when taken
young.
4. The caudatus niger, or rufled maki, is alfo an
inhabitant of Madagafcar. It is fomewhat larger than
the laft, and hath long hair (landing out round the
fides of the head like a ruff; a long tail ; the colour
of the whole animal generally black, but fometimes
white fpotted with black. In a wild (late it is very
fierce; and makes fuch a violent noife in the woods,
that the cries of two might be eafily millaken for the
noife made by a hundred.
5. The volans, or flying maki, refembles a bat ;
being furnilhed with a flrong membrane like that ani¬
mal, by which it is enablecf to fly. It inhabits the
country about Guzarat, the Molucca ides, and the Phi¬
lippines ; feeds on the fruits of the trees, and is very
diftindt both from the bat and flying fquirrel. Its hi-
ftory, however, is very little known.
LEMURES, in antiquity, fprites or hobgoblins;
reftlefs ghofts of departed perfons, who return to ter¬
rify and torment the living.—Thefe are the fame
with larvae, which the ancients imagined to wander
round the world, to frighten good people, and plague
the bad. For which reafon, at Rome they had le-
muria, or feafts indituted to appeafe the manes of the
defur. 61.
LEMURIA, or LemuraliA, a feaft folemniz-ed at
Rome on the ninth of May, to pacify the manes of
the dead, or in honour of the lemures.—The infti-
tution of this feaft is afcribed to Romulus, who, to rid
himfelf of the phantom of his brother Remus (whom
he had ordered to be murdered) appearing always be¬
fore him, ordained a feaft called after his name remu~
ria,ox lemuria.—In the lemuria, they offered facrifices
for three nights together; during which time all the
temples of the gods were (hut up, nor were any mar¬
riages permitted. There were 3 world of ceremonies
in- this feaft, chiefly intended to exorcife the lemures,
and prevent their appearing or giving any difturbance
to the living.
LENA, a great river of Siberia in Afia, which
takes its rife in N. Lat. 52. 30. and E. Long. 124. 30—
from Ferro. After traverfing a large tra61 of land, it
divides itfelf into five branches about Lat. 730. Three
of thefe run weftward, and two eaftward, by which it
difeharges itfelf into the Icy Sea. Its three weftern
mouths lie in 1430 E. Long, from Ferro, but the
eaftern ones extend to 153. The current is every¬
where flow, and its bed entirely free from rogks. The
bottom is fandy, and the banks are in fome places
rooky and mountainous. Sixteen large rivers fall in¬
to the Lena during its courfe to the northern ocean.
LENjEA, in antiquity, a feftival of Bacchus, fur-
named I,etueus, from a wine-prefs. Belides the ufual
ceremonies at feafts facred to this god, it was remark-
23 T able
I.enfant,
Lenglet
L E N [ 4184 ] L E N
abla for poetic contentionr, and the a&ing of tragedies.
LENFANT (James), a learned French writer born
in 1661. After itudying at Saumur, he went to Hei¬
delberg', where he received impofition of hands for the
niinillry in 1684. He difcharged the fun&ions of
this chara&er with great reputation there, as chaplain
of the eledlrefs dowager of Palatine, and paftor in
ordinary to the French church. The defeent of the
French into the Palatinate obliged our author to de¬
part from Heidelberg in 1688. He went to Berlin,
where the eleftor Frederic, afterward king of Pruf-
fia, appointed him one of the minifters. There
he continued 39 years, diftinguilhing himfelf by his
writings. He was preacher to the queen of Pruf-
fia, Charlotta Sophia; and after her death, to the
late king of Pruffia. In 1707, he took a journey
to England and Holland, where he had the honour to
preach before queen Anne; and plight have fettled in
London, with the title of chaplain to her majejly. In
1712 he went to Heimftad, in 1715 to Leipfic, and
in 1725 to Breflaw, to fearch for rare books and MSS.
It is not certain whether it was he that firft formed
the defign of the Bibiiotheque Gennatiique, which be¬
gan in 1720; or whether it was fuggefted to him by
vine of the fociety of learned men, which took the name
of Anonymous, and who ordinarily met at his houfe.
He died in 1728. His principal works are, 1. The
hiftory of the Council of Conftance, 2 vols 410. 2. A
hiftory of the Council of Pifa, 2 vols 410. 3. The
New Teftament tranflated from the Greek into the
French, with Notes by Beaufobre and Lenfant, 2 vols
4to. 4. The hiftory of pope Joan, from Spanheim’s
Latin diflertation. 5. Several pieces in the Bibiio¬
theque Cho'i/ie, La Republic des Lettres, La Bibiiotheque
Germanique, &c.
LENGLET (Nicholas du Frefnoy, P abbe), born
at Beauvais in France, 1674, was a moll fertile and
ufeful French author on a variety of fubjedls, hiftori-
cal, geographical, political, and philofophical. The
following deferve particular notice, I. A method of
ftudying hiftory, with a catalogue of the principal hi-
llorians of every age and country, publilhed in 1713 ;
a work which eftablilhed his reputation as an hiftori-
cal writer: it was tranflated into molt of the modern
languages, particularly our own, with confiderable im¬
provements, by Richard Rawlinfon,LL.D. andF.R.S.
and publilhed at London in 1730, in 2 vols 8vo. 2. A
copious abridgment of univerfal hiftory and biogra¬
phy, in chronological order, under the title of Tablettes
chronologiques; which made its firft appearance at
Paris in 1744, in 2 vols fmall 8vo, and was univerfally
admired by the literati in all parts of Europe. The
author attended with great candour, as every writer
ought, to well-founded, judicious criticifms. In future
editions, he made feveral alterations and improvements,
and from one of thefe, we believe that of 1759, an
Englilh tranflation was made, and publilhed at Lon¬
don in 1762, in 2 vols large 8vo. Du Frefnoy died
in 1755: the Paris edition of 1759 was printed from
the author’scorredled copy; and the impreffion being
fold off, another edition appeared in 1763, with con¬
fiderable improvements by an unknown editor: to the
biographical part, a great number of names of refpec-
table perfons are added, not to be found in the former
edition; and it has this fuperior advantage in the hi-
ftorical parts, that the general hiftory is brought down
to the year 1762. Du Frefnoy, however, has loaded
his work with catalogues of faints, martyrs, councils,
fynods, herefies, fchifms, and other ecclefiaitical mat¬
ters, fit only for the libraries of popilh convents and
feminaries.
LENGTH, the extent of any thing material from
end to end. In duration, it is applied to any fpace of
time whether long or lhort.
LENGTHENING, in (hip-carpentry, the opera¬
tion of cutting a (hip down acrofs the middle, and add¬
ing a certain portion to her length. It is performed
by fawing her planks afunder in different places of her
length, on each fide of the midftiip-frame, to prevent
her from being too much weakened in one place. The
two ends are then drawn apart to a limited diftance;
which muft be equal to the propofed addition of
length. An intermediate piece of timber is next added
to the keel, upon which a fufficient number of timbers
are eredled, to fill up the vacancy produced by the re¬
paration. The two parts of the kelfon are afterwards
united by an additional piece which is fcored down
upon the floor-timbers, and as many beams as may
be necelfary are fixed acrofs the (hip in the new inter¬
val. Finally, the planks of the fide are prolonged fo
as to unite with each other; and thofe of the ceiling
refitted in the fame manner; by which the whole pro-
cefs is completed.
LENEICIA, a ftrong town of Poland, and capi¬
tal of a palatinate of the fame name, with a fort feat-
ed on a rock. The nobility of the province hold their
diet here. It (lands in a morafs on the banks of the
river Bfura, in E. Long. 19. 27. N. Lat. 52. 12.
LENOX, or Dunbarton-S^Vi?, a county of Scot¬
land, ftretching 24 miles in length and 20 in breadth,
is bounded on the fouth by the river and frith of
Clyde, on the weft by Lochlong and Argylefhire, on
the north by the Grampian hills, and on the eaft by
Monteith and Stirlingfhire. Great part of this county
confifts of hills and heaths, fit for nothing but paftu-
rage and fport; even in the lower lands, the foil is not
extremely fertile: yet the face of the country is agree¬
ably diverfified with hill, dale, mountain, heath,
dreams, lakes, woods, and fields of corn: the (hire is
likewife beautified with a great number of agreeable
feats and plantations, belonging to gentlemen of for¬
tune. Part of this county is walked by the river Clyde
in its courfe to the fea : even at the caftle of Dumbar¬
ton, the breadth of it amounts to two miles at high-
water, and it continues extending in width an"d depth
until it joins the ocean. From the mouth of the Clyde,
the two bays of Lochlong and Lochfyn make large
indentations in the (hire of Dumbarton. The only ri¬
ver of any confideration that runs through this coun¬
ty, is the Leven, the Lelanonius of Ptolemy, otherwife
called Levinia, the Latin name for Lenox. The river
Leven is a pure tranfparent paftoral dream, that warbles
over a bed of pebbles, thro’ a delightful vale adorned
with farms, feats, woods, and plantations. It derives its
origin from the great lake called Lochlomond, of which
indeed it is the overflowing, and, after a delightful
meandring courfe of five or fix miles, difembogues it-
felf into the Clyde at the caftle of Dumbarton. But
the greateft curiofity of this county is Lochlomond it-
felf, a vaft body of frefh water, fupplied by fubterra-
neous
L E N [ 4185 ] LEO
Leno* neous fprings and rivulets, furrounded with huge moun-
" tains, extending 25 miles in length, and in fome places
J'ent‘ five milts in breadth, incredibly deep in every part,
interfperfed with 24 verdant ifles, fome of which are
(locked with red deer, and inhabited. Nothing can
be more wildly romantic than this part of the country,
during the fummer-feafon, on the fouth fide of the
lake: the high road runs in fome places through na¬
tural woods; overhung, on one hand, by fteep moun¬
tains, covered with flowery heath ; and on the other
opening in long villas upon the lake, terminated by
green iflands that feem to float upon the water. A-
mong the rivers of this (hire we lhall likewife mention
the water of Blane, which, though itfelf an inconfi-
derable ftream, hath been rendered famous by the birth
of George Buchannan, the celebrated Latin poet and
hillorian. He was born on the north fide of the lake,
not far from the place called Buchannan, where we
may behold an elegant feat belonging to the duke of
Montrofe, head of the noble family of Graham, fo of¬
ten diftinguilhed by its loyalty, integrity, and valour.
The fame part of the country gave birth to the great
mathematician and naturalift, Napier lord Merchifton,
inventor of the logarithms. The title of Lenox, with
the property of great part of the (hire, was heretofore
veiled in a branch of the royal family of Stuart, with
which it was reunited in the perfon of king James VI.
whofe father, Henry lord Darnly, was fon to the duke
of Lenox. This prince conferred the title upon his
kinfman Efme Stuart, fon of John lord D’Aubigney in
France: but, his race failing at the death of Charles
duke of Lenox and Richmond, and the ellate devol¬
ving to the crown, king Charles II. conferred both
titles on his own natural fon by the duchefs of Portf-
mouth ; and they are Hill enjoyed by his pollerity.
The people of Lenoxlhire are chiefly Lowlanders,
though in fome parts of it divine fervice is performed
in the Erfe language. The moll numerous clans in
this dillridl, are the Macfarlanes, the Colquhouns, and
the Buchannans. They generally profefs the Prote-
fiant faith, according to the Prelhyterian difcipline;
yet fome of the gentlemen follow the Englilh ritual.
The commonalty are for the mod part fober, honell,
and indultrious; and though they live poorly, are tall,
vigorous, and healthy.
LENS, a piece of glafs, or any other tranfparent
fubllance, the furfaces of which are fo formed, that the
rays of light, by palling through it, are made to
change their dire6lion, either tending to meet in a
point beyond the lens, or made to become parallel af¬
ter converging or diverging ; or laftly proceeding as if
they had ifiued from a point before they fell upon the
lens. Some lenfes are convex, or thicker in the middle;
fome concave, or thinner in the middley fome plano¬
convex, or plano-concave; that is with one fide flat,
and the other convex or concave ; and fome are called
menifcufes, or convex on one fide and concave on the
other. See Dioptrics, p. 2475.
LENT, a foletiin time of falling in the Chriftian
church, obferved as a time of humiliation before Ea-
ller, the great feftival of our Saviour’s refurreflion.
Thofe of the Romifh church, and fome of the Pro-
tellant communion, maintain, that it was always a
fad of forty days, and, as fuch, of apodolical inflitu-
tion. Others think it was only of ecclefialtical in-
flitution, and that it was varioufly obferved in dif- Lent
ferent churches, and grew by degrees from a fad l!
of forty hours, to a fad of forty days. This is the Lco'
featiment of Morton, bilhop Taylor, du Moulin, Dail-
le, and others.
Anciently the manner of obferving lent among thofe
who were pioully difpofed, was to abdain from food
till evening: their only refrelhment was a fupper; and
then it was indifferent whether it was flelh or any o-
therfood, provided it was ufed with fobriety and mo¬
deration.-
Lent was thought the proper time for exercifing,
more abundantly, every fpecies of charity. Thus what
they fpared from their own bodies by abridging them
of a meal, was ufually given to the poor; they em¬
ployed their vacant hours in vifiting the fick and thofe
that were in prifon, in entertaining llrangers, and re¬
conciling differences. The imperial laws forbad all
profecution of men in criminal adlions, that might
bring them to corporal punifliment and torture, du¬
ring the whole feafon. This was a time of more than
ordinary dridnefs and devotion, and therefore in ma¬
ny of the great churches they had religious affemblies
for prayer and preaching every day. All public games
and dage-plays were prohibited at this feafon ; as alfo
the celebration of all feftivals, birth-days, and marria¬
ges, as unfuitable to the prefent occafion.
The Chridians of the Greek church obferve four
lents : the fird commences on the 15th of November 5
the fecond is the fame with our lent; the third be¬
gins the week after Whitfuntide, and continues till the
feflival of St Peter and St Paul ; and the fourth com¬
mences on the fird ofAugud, and lalls no longer than
till the 15th. Thefe lents are obferved with great
Ari&nefs and auderity; but on Saturdays and Sun¬
days they indulge themfelves in drinking wine and u-
fing oil, which are prohibited on other days.
LENTISCUS, in botany. See Pistacia.
LEO, in zoology. See Felis.
Leo, in adronomy. See there, n° 206.
Leo X. whofe proper name was John de Medicis, is
a pope ever to be remembered by Protedants, as ha¬
ving proved the caufe of the reformation begun by
Martin Luther. He had been honoured with a car¬
dinal’s hat at 14 years of age, and fome years after
with the dignity of legate by Julius II. He was in
that quality in the army which was defeated by the
French near Ravenna in 15x2, where he was taken pri-
foner. The foldiers, who had overcome him, fhewed
him fuch great veneration, that they humbly alked his
pardon for gaining the vi&ory, befought him-to give
them abfolution for it, and promifed never to bear arms
againd thepope. When pope Julius died, Leo was very
ill of the venereal difeafe at Florence, and was carried
to Rome in a litter. His hurrying about every night
to the cardinals of his fadlion, occafioned the break¬
ing of his ulcer; and the matter which ran from it ex¬
haled fuch a dench, that all the cells in the conclave,
which were feparated only by thin partitions, w-ere
poifoned by it. Upon this the cardinals confulted
the phyficians of the conclave, to know what the mat¬
ter was. They, being bribed, laid the cardinal de
Medicis could not live a month ; which fentence oc¬
cafioned his being chofen pope. Thus cardinal dfe
Medicis, then not 30 years of age, w'as elt&ed pope
23 T 2 upon
LEO [ 4186 1 LEO
upon a falfe information ; and as joy is tiie moil fove-
reign of all remedies, he foon after recovered his
health, fo that the old cardinals had reafon to repent
their credulity.-—He was better calculated for a tem¬
poral prince, being ambitious, politic, luxurious, a
connoiffeur in the fine arts, and an accomplifhed fine
gentleman : thus qualified, it is no wonder that fo
young a pontiff, negle&ing the -true iptereft of his
church, fhould avail himfeif of the folly of religious^
dupes, and publicly fell indulgences to fupport his pro¬
digality, efpecially as he was known to difbelieve Chri-
ftianity itfelf, which he called Avery profitable fable for
him and his predecejfors. In 1517, he publifhed ge¬
neral indulgences throughout Europe (and ordered the
priefts to recommend them) in favour of thofe who
would contribute any fum towards completing the
church of St Peter ; and this was the balls of the re¬
formation. (See Luther and Indulgence.) Leo
died in 1521.
It is butjuftice to add, that to this pope was prin¬
cipally owing the revival of polite literature in Italy.
He fpared neither pains nor expence in recovering an¬
cient manufcripts, and procuring good editions of
them ; he favoured the arts and fciences; and gloried
in being the patron of learned and ingenious men, who
in return have been very lavilh in his praife. Mr
Pope, in his effay on Criticifm, bellows on him thefe
harmonious lines.
But fee! each Mufe, in Leo’s golden days,
Starts from her trance, and trims her wither’d bays :
Rome's ancient Genius, o’er its ruins ipread.
Shakes off the dnfl, and rears his rev’rend head.
Then Sculpture and her fifter Arts revive :
Stones leap to form, and rocks begin to live; .
With fweeter notes each rifrng temple rung ;
A Raphael painted, and a Vida fung.
Leo (St.), a fmall but ftrong town of Italy, in the
territory of the church, and duchy of Urbino, with a
bifhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, near the ri¬
ver Marrechia, in E. Long. 12. 25. N. Lat. 43. 57.
LEOMINSTER, a town of Herefordlhire, in
England, feated on the river Lug; which waters the
north and eaft fides of the town. It contains one pa-
rifli, about 400 houfes, fix wards, and the principal
officer is a bailiff. It is of great note for its fine wool,
has feveral good inns, and fends two members to par¬
liament. W. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 52. 20.
LEON, an ancient town of France, in Lower Bre¬
tagne, and capital of the Lyonnois, with a bifhop’s
fee. It is feated near the fea, in W. Long. 3. 55. N.
Lat. 48. 41.
Leon, a province of Spain, with the title of a king¬
dom ; bounded on the north by Afturias; on the weft
by Galicia and Portugal ; and on the fomh by Eftre-
madura and Caftile, which alfo bounds it on the eaft.
It is about 125 miles in length, and xoo in breadth;
and is divided into almoft two equal parts by the ri¬
ver Duero, or Douro. It produces all the necefiaries
of life, and Leon is the capital town.
Leon, an ancient and large epifcopal town of Spain,
and capital of the kingdom of that name, built by the
Romans in the time of Galba. It has the fineft cathe¬
dral church in all Spain. It was formerly more rich
and populous than at prefent, and had the honour of
being the capital of the firft Chriftian kingdom in
Spain. It is feated between two fources of the river
Efra, in W. Long. 5. 13. N. Lat. 42. 55.
LEON (Peter Cicca de), author of the hiftory of
Peru. He left Spain his native country at 13 years of.
age, in order to go into America, where he refided 17
years; and obferved fo many remarkable things, that
he refolved to commit them to writing. The firft part
of his hiftory was printed at Sevil in 1553. He be¬
gan it in 1541, and ended it in .1570. He was at Li¬
ma, the capital of the kingdom of Peru, when he gave
the finifhing ftroke to it, and was then 32 years of
age.
Leon de Nicaragua, a town of North America, in
New' Spain, and in the province of Nicaragua ; the re-
fidence of the governor, and a bifhop’s fee. It con*
fills of about 1000 houfes, and has feveral monaftcries
and nunneries belonging to it. At one end of the
town is a lahe which ebbs and flows like the fea. The
town is feated at the foot of a volcano, which ren*
ders it fubjedl to earthquakes. It was taken by
the bucaneers in 1687, in fight of a Spanifh ar¬
my who were fix to one. W. Long. 86. 10. N.
Lat. 12. 27.
LEONARD de Noblet (St.), an ancient town of
France, in the province of Guienne and territory of Li-
mofin, with a confiderable manufa&ory of cloth and
paper. It is feated on the river Vienne, in E. Long.
1. 37. N. Lat. 47. 70.
LEONARDO da vinci. See Vinci.
LEONCLAVIUS (John), one of the mod learn¬
ed men of the 16th century, w'as a native of Weftpha-
lia. He travelled into Turky, and colledled excel¬
lent materials for compofing The Ottoman hiflory ; and
it is to him the public is indebted for the belt account
we have of that empire. - To his knowledge in the
learned languages, he had added that of the civil law;
whereby he was very well qualified to tranflate the Ba-
ftlica. His other venfions were efteemed, tho’ critics
pretend to have found many faults in them. He died
in 1593, aged 60.
LEONIDAS I. king of Sparta, a renowned war¬
rior, fiain in defending the ftraits of Thermopylae a-
gainft Xerxes, 4,80 B. C. See Sparta.
LEONINE, in poetry, is applied to a kind of
verfes which rhime at every hemiltic, the middle al¬
ways chiming to the end. Of which kind we find fe¬
veral ancient hymns, epigrams, prophecies, &c.— For
inftance, Muretus fpeaking of the poetry of Lorenzo
Gambara of Breffe, fays,
Brixia, vejirzus, tnerdofa volumina e>atis,
Non funt noflr&les tergere digna «ates.
The following one is from the fchool of Salernum :
Ut vites poenam de potibus incipe ccenam.
The origin of the word is fomewhat obfeure : Paf-
quier derives it from one Leoninus, or Leonius, who
excelled in this way, and dedicated feveral pieces to
pope Alexander III.; others derive it from pope Leo;
and others from the beaft called /;’(?», by reafon it is the
loftieft of all verfes.
LEONTICE, lion’s leaf; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, to the hexandria clafs of plants. There
are four fpecies, natives of the fouthern parts of Eu¬
rope, two of which are fometimes cultivated in this
country. Thefe are, 1. The chryfogonum with winged
leaves; and, 2. The leontopetalum with decompounded
leaves. Both thofe plants are natives of the Archi¬
pelago
Lena
II.
Leontice.
LEO [ VT.
'’"t*"1'”’ Pe^aS° iflands, and alfo grow in the corn-fields about
II Aleppo in Syria, where they flower foon after Chrift-
^.eonuros. mafs> They have large tuberous roots like thofe of
the cyclamen, covered with a dark-brown bark. The
flowers fit upon naked footftalks : thofe of the firft fort
fuftain many yellow flowers, but the flowers of the fe-
cond are of a paler colour. Both fpecies are propagated
by feeds, which muft be fown foon after they are ripe,
otherwife they feldom fucceed. When fent to diftant
countries, they muft. be preferred in fand. The plants
are, however, very difficult to be preferred in this
country: for they will not thrive in pots ; and when
they are planted in the full ground, the froft frequent¬
ly deftroys them. The beft way is to fow the feed as
foon as it comes from abroad, covering it with glafles
in the winter to protedt it from froft ; and, in the
fpring, when the plants begin to appear, they muft
have free air admitted to them at all times when the
weather is mild, otherwife they, will be weak.
LEONTINI, or Leontium, (anc. geog.) a town of
Sicily on the fouth fide of the river Terias, 20 miles
north-weft of Syracufe. The territory, called Campi
Leontini, wasextremely fertile, (Cicero): thefe were the
ancientlyfocalled; thefeatof theLae-
ftrigons, according to the commentators on the poets.
The nimz Leontini is from Am, the impreffion on their
coin being a lion. Now called Lentini, a town fi-
tuate in the Val di Noto, in the fouth-eaft of Sicily.
LEONITUM, one of the twelve towns of Achaia,
whether on, or more diftant from, the bay of Corinth,
is uncertain. Leontium of Sicily. See Leontini.
LEONTODON, dandelion ; a genus of the po-
lygamia tequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. There are nine fpecies, of which the
only remarkable one is the Taraxacum, or common
dandelion, found on the road Tides, in paftures, and on
the banks of ditches. Early in. the fpring, the leaves
vdiilft yet white and hardly unfolded are an excellent
ingredient in falads. The French eat the roots and
tender leaves with bread and butter. Children that eat
it in the evening experience its diuretic effects in the
night, which is the reafon that other European na¬
tions as well as ourfelves vulgarly call it pifs-a-bed.
When a.fwarm of locufts had deftroyed the harveft in
the ifland of Minorca, many of the inhabitants fubfift-
ed upon this plant. The exprefled juice has been gi¬
ven to the quantity of four ounces three or four times
a-day ; and Boerhaave had a great opinion of the uti¬
lity of this and other ladlefcent plants in vifceral ob-
ftrudtions. Goats eat it; fwine devour it greedily;
(keep and cows are not fond of it, and horfes refufe it.
Small birds are fond of the feeds.
LEONURUS, lion’s-tail ; a genus of the
gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants.
Species. 1. The Africana, with fpear-fliaped leaves,
is a native of Ethiopia. It rifes with a ffirubby ftalk
feven Or eight feet high, fending out feveral four- cor¬
nered branches, garniihed with oblong narrow leaves,
acutely indented on themedges, hairy on their upper
fide, and veined on the under fide, Handing oppofite.
The flowers are produced in whorls, each of the
branches having two or three of thefe whorls towards
their ends. They are of the lip kind, ftiaped fome-
what like thofe of the dead nettle; but are much long-
87 ] L E P
er, and covered with ffiort hairs. They are of a gol¬
den fcarlet colour, fo make a fine appearance. The
flowers commonly appear in O&ober and November,
and fometimes continue till the middle of December,
but are not fucceeded by feeds in this country. There
is a variety with variegated leaves which is admired
by fome, but the whorls of flowers are fmaller than
thofe ©f the plain fort. 2. The nepetsefolia, with oval
leaves, is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. This
rifes with a fquare fhrubby ftalk about three feet high,
fending outTeveral four-cornered branches, garniffied
with oval crenated leaves, rough on their under fide
like the dead-nettle, but veined on the upper fide, and
placed oppofite. The flowers come out in whorls like
thofe of the former fort, but are not fo long nor fo
deep-coloured. They appear at the fame feafon with
the firft, and continue as long in beauty. There are
three other fpecies, but the above are the moft remark¬
able.
Culture. Both forts are -propagated by cuttings,
which fhould be expofed to the air long enough to
harden the fhoots, and planted in the beginning of
July, after which they will take root very freely.
They ftiould be planted in a loamy border to an ea-
ftern afpeft; and if they are covered clofely with a bell
or hand-glafs to exclude the air, and ffiaded from the
fun, it will forward their putting forth roots. As foon
as they have taken good root, they ffiould be taken
up and planted each in a feparate pot filled with foft
loamy eaith, and placed in the fliade till they have ta¬
ken new root. In Odlober they muft be removed into
the green-houfe.
LEOPARD. See Felis.
Leopard’s Bane, in botany. See Doronicum.
DE PANTO, a ftrong and very confiderable town
ofTurky in Europe, and in Livadia, with an archbi-
fhop’s fee and a ftrong fort. It is built on the top of
a mountain, in form of a fugar-loaf; and is divided in¬
to four towns, each furrounded by walls, and com¬
manded by a caftle on the top of the mountain. The
harbour is very final], and may be fhut up by a chain,
the entrance being but 50 feet wide. It was taken
from the Turks by the Venetians in 1687; w'as
afterwards evacuated, and the caftle demolilhed in
1699, in confeiqnence of the treaty of Carlowik. It
was near this town tha't Don John of Auftria obtain¬
ed the famous viitory over the Turkifli fleet in 1571.
The produce of the adjacent country is wine, oil, corn,
and rice. Turky leather is alfo manufa£lured here.
The wine would be exceedingly good if they did not
pitch their vefiels on the infide, but this renders the
.tafte very difagreeable to thofe who are not accu-
ftomed to it. The TurksLave fix or feven mofques
here, and the Greeks two churches. It is fealed on
a gulph of the fame name, in E. Long. 22. 13. N.
Lat. 38. 34.
LEPlDlUM, dittander, or Pepperiuort, a ge¬
nus of the filiculofa order, belonging to the tetrady-
namia clafs of plants. There are 19 fpecies, of which
the only remarkable one is the latifolium or common
dittander. This is a native of many parts both of
Scotland and England. It hath fmall, white, creeping
roots, by which it multiplies very faft, and is difficult
to be eradicated after it has long grown in any place.
The ftaiks are fmooth, rife two feet high, and fend
out
Leopard
I.
Lepidinro.
L E P [ 4188 ] ■ L E P
Ltpidop- out many fide-branches. The flowers grow in clofe
te.ra bunches towards the top of the branches, coming out
Lepus from t^ie > ^ey are fmall, and compofed of four
    fmall white petals. The feeds ripen in autumn. The
whole plant has a hot biting tafte like pepper; and the
leaves have been often ufed by the country-people to
give a relifh to their viands inftead of that fpice,
whence the plant has got the appellation olpoor tticin’s
pepper. It is reckoned an antifcorbutic, and was for¬
merly ufed inftead of \.he horfe raddijb fcurvy-grafs.
LEPIDOPTERA, in zoology, an order of in¬
fects, with four wings, which are covered with imbri¬
cated fquamulx. See Zoology.
LEPIUM, in natural hiftory, a genus of foflils of
the harder gypfum, compofed of very fmall particles,
and of a lefs glittering hue.
There is only one fpecies of this genus, being one
of the lead valuable and moft impure of the clafs of
gypfums. It is of an extremely rude, irregular, coarfe,
and unequal ftrudture; a little foft to the touch, of a
very dull appearance, and of different degrees of a
greyifh white. It is burnt in plafter for the coarfer
works; it calcines very flowly and unequally, and
makes but a very coarfe and ordinary plaifter.
LEPROSY, a foul cutaneous difeafe, appearing in
dry, white, thin, fcurfy fcabs, either on the whole
body, or only fome part of it, and ufually attended
with a violent itching and other pains. See (the/Wex
Subjoined to) Medicine.
LEPTODECORHOMBES, in natural hiftory, a
genus of foffils of the order of the felenitse ; confifting
of 10 planes, each fo nearly equal to that oppofite to
it as very much to approach to a decahedral parallelo-
pepid, though never truly or regularly fo.
Of this genus there are only live known fpecies. 1.
A thin, fine, pellucid, and flender-ftreaked one, with
tranfverfe ftriae, found in confiderable quantities in the
ftrata of clay in moft parts of England, particularly
near Heddington in Oxfordfhire. 2. A thin, dull-
looking, opake, and flender-ftreaked one, more fcarce
than the former, and found principally in Leicefter-
fliire and Staffordlhire. 3. A thin fine-ftreaked one,
with longitudinal ftriae, found in the clay-pits at
Richmond, and generally lying at great depths. This
has often on its top and bottom a very elegant fmaller
rhomboide, defcribed by four regular lines. 4. A
rough kind, with thick tranfverfe ftriae, and a fcabrous
furface, very common in Leicefterlhire and Yorklhire.
And, 5. A very Ihort kind, with thick plates, com¬
mon in the clay-pits of Northamptonlhire and York-
fliire.
LEPTOPOLYGINGLIMI, in natural hiftory, a
genus of fofiil Ihells, diftinguilhed by a number of
minute teeth at the cardo; whereof we find great
numbers at Harwich-cliff, and in the marie pits of
Suffex.
LEPTURA, in zoology, a genus of inft&s be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera, the characters of
which are thefe:—The feelers are briftly; the elytra
are attenuated towards the apex: and the thorax is
fomewhat cylindrical. There are 25 fpecies, princi¬
pally diftinguifhed by their colour.
LEPUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds be-
longing to the order of glires. The characters are
thefe;—They have two fore-teeth in each jaw; thofe
in the upper-jaw are double, the interior ones being Lepus.
fmalleft. There are four fpecies, viz.
1. The timidus, or hare, has a ftiort tail; the points
of the ears are black; the upper-lip is divided up to
the noftrils; the length of the body is generally about
a foot and a half; and the colour of the hair is reddifh,
interfperfed with white. The hare is naturally a timid
animal. He fleeps in his form, or feat, during the
day; and feeds, copulates, &c. in the night. In a
moon-light evening, a number of them are fometimes
feen fporting together, leaping and purfuing each
other; But the leaft motion, the falling of a leaf,
alarms them ; and then they all run off feparately,
each taking a different route. They are extremely
fvvift in their motion, which is a kind of gallop, or a
fuccelfion of quick leaps. When purfued, they always
take to the higher grounds: as their fore-feet are
much fhorter than the hind-ones, they run with more
eafe up-hill than down hill. The hare is endowed
with all thofe inftinfts which are neceffary for his own
prefervation. In winter he choofes a form expofed to
the fouth, and in fummer to the north. He conceals
himfelf among vegetables of the fame colour with him-
felf. Mr Fouilloux fays, that he obferved a hare, as
foon as he heard the found of the horn, or the noife
of the dogs, although at a mile’s diftance, rife from
her feat, fwim acrofs a rivulet, then lie down among
the rufties, and by this means evade the fcent of the
dogs. After being chafed for a couple of hours, a
hare will fometimes pulh another from his form, and
lie down in it himfelf. When hard preffed, the bare
will mingle with a flock of ftieep, run up an old wall
and conceal himfelf among the grafs on the top of it,
or crofs a river feveral times at fmall diftances. He
never runs againft the wind, or ftraight forward; but
conftantly doubles about, in order to make the dogs
lofe their fcent.
It is remarkable, that the hare, although ever fo
frequently purfued by the dogs, feldom leaves the
place where ftie was brought forth, or even the form
in which flie ufually fits. It is common to find them
in the fame place next day, after being long and
keenly chafed the day before. The females are more
grofs than the males, and have lefs ftrength and agi¬
lity; they are likewife more timid, and never allow
the dogs to approach fo near their form before rifing
as the males. They likewife pra&ife more arts, and
double more frequently, than the males.
The hare is diffufed almoft over every climate ; and,
notwithftanding they are every-where hunted, their
fpecies never diminilhes. They are in a condition of
propagating the firft year of their lives ; the females
go with young about 30 days, and produce four or
five at a time ; and as foon as they have brought forth,
they again admit the embraces of the male ; fo that
they may be faid to be always pregnant. The eyes
of the young are open at birth; the mother fuckles
them about 20 days, after which they feparate from
her, and procure their own food. The young never
go far from the place where they were brought forth;
but ftill they live iblitary, and make forms about 30
paces diftant from each other; Thus, if a young hare
be found any-where, you may almoft be certain of find¬
ing feveral others within a very fmall diftance. The
hare is not fo favage as his manners would indicate. He
L E P [ 4189 I L E P
f,tnn. ;s gentle, and fufceptible of a kind of education. He is
f ~pretty eafily tamed, and will even Pnow a kind of attach¬
ment to the people of the houfe: But ftill this attach¬
ment is not fo itrong or lafting as to engage him to
become altogether domeftic; for although taken when
very young, and brought up in the houfe, he no
fooner arrives at a certain age, than he takes the firft
opportunity of recovering his liberty, and flying to
the fields. The hare lives about feven or eight years.
He feeds upon grafs, and other vegetables. His flefh
I is excellent food.
Mr Pennant defcribes a fpecies called t\\e jflpine
hare, which inhabits the fummits of the Highland
1 mountains, never defcends into the vales, or mixes it-
felf with the common kind, which is frequent in the
bottoms : it lives among the rocks with ptarmigans,
natives of the loftieft fituations. It does not run faft;
and, if purfued, is apt to take flicker beneath ftones
and in clefts of rocks: is eafily tamed, and is very
fprightly and full of frolic. It is fond of honey and
carraway comfits, and* is obferved to eat its own dung
before a ftorm. It is lefs than the common hare,
weighing only lb. whereas the former weighs from
8 lb. to 12 lb. Its hair is foft and full; the predo¬
minant colour grey, mixed with a little black and
tawny. In winter it entirely changes to a fnowy
whitenefs, except the edges and tips of the ears, which
retain their black colour. The alteration begins in
September, and firft appears about the neck and
rump. In April it again rCfumes its grey coat.
This is the cafe in Styria; but in the polar trails it
never varies from white, the perpetual colour of the
country. In the intermediate climates between tem¬
perate and frigid, fuch as Scotland and Scandinavia,
it regularly experiences thefe viciffitudes of colour.
Hares are very fubjedf to fleas. Linnaeus tells us,
that the Dalecarlians make a fort of cloth, called ///,
of the fur; which, by attradling thefe infefts, pre-
ferves the wearer from their tronblefome attacks. The
hair of this creature makes a great article in the hat-
manufa&ure ; and, as our country cannot fupply a
fufficient quantity, a great deal is annually imported
from Rufiia and Siberia. The hare was reckoned a
great delicacy among-the Romans; the Britons, on
the contrary, thought it impious even to tafte it: yet
this animal was cultivated by them, either for the plea-
fure of the chace, or for the purpofes of fuperrtition;
as we are informed, that Boadicea, immediately before
her laft conflidf. with the Romans, let loofe a hare fhe
had concealed in her bofom, which taking what was
deemed a fortunate courfe, animated her foldiers by
the omen of an eafy vidlory over a timid enemy.,
2. The cuniculus, or rabbit, has a very fhort tail,
and naked ears. Its native country is Spain, where
they were formerly taken with ferrets, as is pradiifed
in this country at prefent; which animals were firft
introduced into that country from Africa. They love
a temperate and warm climate, and are incapable of
bearing great cold; fo that in Sweden they are obliged
to be kept in houfes. They abound in Britain; their
furs make a confiderable article in the hat manufac¬
tories; and, of late, fuch part of the fur as is unfit for
that purpofe, has been found as good as feathers for
ftuffing beds and bolfters. Numbers of the fkins are
annually exported into China. The Englifli counties
moftly noted for rabbits are Lincolnfliire, Norfolk,
and Cambridgefhire. Methold, in the laft county, is_
famous for the belt kind for the table : the foil there is
fandy, and full of mofles and the ryrrex grafs. Rabbits
fwarm in the ifles of Orkney, where their fkins form
a confiderable article of commerce. Excepting otters,
brown rats, common mice, and fhrews, no other qua¬
drupeds are found there. The rabbits of thofe ffles
are in general grey; thofe which inhabit the hills
grow hoary in winter.—Formerly the filver-haired
rabbits u'ere in great efteem for lining of clothes, and
their fkins fold for three fhillings a-piece ; but fince
the introdu&ion of more elegant furs,, their price has
fallen to 6d. The Suxh IJlaud in the Humber was
once famous for a moufe-coloured fpecies, which has
fince been extirpated by reafon of the injury they did
to the banks by burrowing.
The fecundity of the rabbit is ftill greater than that
of the hare. They will breed feven times in the year,
and the female fometimes brings eight young ones at
a time. Suppofing this to happen regularly for four
years, the number of rabbits from a Angle pair will
amount to 1,274,840. By this account we might
juftly apprehend Being overftocked with thefe animals;
but a great number of enemies prevents their increafe;
not only men, but hawks and beafts of prey making
dreadful havoc among them. Notwitbftanding all
thefe different enemies, however, we are told by Pliny
and Strabo, that they once proved fuch a nuifance to
the inhabitants of the Balearic iflands, that they were
obliged to implore the afllftance of a military force
from Auguftus, ig order to exterminate them. They de¬
vour herbage of all kinds, roots, grain, fruits, &c. They
are in a condition for generating at the end of fix
months; and, like the hare, the female is almoft con-
ftantly in feafon ; (he goes with young about 30 days,
and brings forth from four to eight at a litter. A few
days before littering, flie digs a hole in the earth, not
in a ftraight line, but in a zig-zag form: the bottom
of this hole Are enlarges every way, and then pulls off'
a great quantity of hair from her belly, of which fhe
makes a kind of bed for her young. Luring the two
firft days after birth, (he never leaves them,, but when
preffed with hunger, and then flie eats quickly and
returns: and in this manner flie fuckles and attends
her young for fix weeks. All this time both the hole
and the young are concealed from the male; fome¬
times when the female goes out, ihe, in order to deceive
the male, fills up the mouth of the hole with earth
mixed with her own urine;. But when the young
ones^ begin to come to the mouth of the hole, and to
eat fuch herbs as the mother brings to them,, the fa¬
ther feems to know them: be takes them betwixt his
paws, fmooths their hair, and careffes them with great
fondnefs.
j. The capenfis has a tail about the length of
his head, and red legs. It is a native of the Gape of
Good Hope.
4. The brafifienfis has no tail. It is a native of
South-America.
Eepus, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206.
LERI (John de), a Proteftant minifter of the pro¬
vince of Burgundy. He was ftiidying at Geneva
when it was reported there that Villegagnon defired
they would fend him fome paftors into Brazil. He
made-
Lepus;
Leri.
' wu
L E S [ 4190 ] L E S
Leria made that voyage with two mioifters, whom the church
!l, of Geneva fent thither in 1556; and wrote an. account.
I.efcaillc. o£ tjiat VOyage> which has been much commended by
Thuanus and others.
LERIA, or Leiria, a ftrong town of Eftremadiira
in Portugal, with a caftle and bifhop’s fee. It con¬
tains about 3,500 inhabitants, and was formerly the
refidence of the kings of Portugal. W. Long. 7. 50.
N. Lat. 39. 40.
LERIDA, an ancient, ftrong, and large town of
Spain, in Catalonia, with a biftiop’s fee, an univerfity,
and a ftrong caftle. This place declared for king
Charles after the reduction of Barcelona in 1705; but
it was retaken by the duke of Orleans in 1707, after
the battle of Almanza. It is feated on a hill near
the river Segra, and in a fertile foil, in E. Long. o. 35.
N. Lat. 41. 31.
LERINS, the name of two iflands in the Medi¬
terranean Sea, lying oji the coaft of Provence in France,
five miles from Antibes; that near the coaft, called St
Margaret, is guarded by invalids, ftate-prifoners being
fent here. It was taken by the Engliih in 1746, but
marftial Belleifle retook It in 1747. The other is
called St Honor at; and is lefs than the former, but has
a Benedidtine abbey.
LERMA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, feated
on the river Arlanza, with the title ol* duchy. W. Lon.
3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 2.
LERNICA, formerly a large city in the ifland of
Cyprus, as appears from its ruins ; but is now no
more than a large village, feated on the fouthern coaft
of that ifland, where there is a good road, and a fmall
fort for its defence.
LERO, or Leros, an ifland of the Archipelago,
and one of the Sporades; remarkable, according to
fome authors, for the birth of Patroclus. E. Long.
26. 15. N. Lat. 37. o.
LE Roy le veut, the king’s affent to public
bills. See the articles Bill, Statute, and Parlia¬
ment.
LESBOS, Lesbus, or Lejhia, [znc. geogr.), an
ifland on the coaft of Troas and Myfia, in the Hither
Afia, inhabited by .Solians, (Scylax); taking its name
from Lefloos, grandfon of .tEolus, according to Dio¬
dorus Siculus. In length from north to fouth 560
ftadia; in compafs, 1500. A noble and pleafant
ifland, fays Tacitus; famous for the fertility of its
foil, the generoufnefs of its wines, and the beauty of
its women : the native place of Sappho the poetefs.
Anciently called Lajia, Pelafgia, JEgira, JElhiope, and
Macaria, (Pliny); Lejbiur, and the epithets,
(Horace); Lejhia regula (Ariftotle), a proverbial fay¬
ing for bringing down the rule to our actions, inftead
of our aftions up to the rule. The ifland is now
called Lejbos, or Metelin. See Metelin.
LESCAILLE (James), a celebrated Dutch poet
and printer, was born at Geneva. He and his daugh¬
ter Catharine Lefcaille have excelled all the Dutch
poets. That lady, who was furnamed the Sappho of
Holland, and the tenth Mufe, died in 1711. A col¬
lection of her poems has been printed, in which are
the Tragedies of Genferic, Wenceflaus, Herod and
Mariamne, Hercules and Dejaneira, Nicomedes, A-
riadne, Caflandra, &c. James Lefcaille her father
deferved the poet’s crown, with which the emperor
Leopold honoured him in the year 1663 : he died Lefcar
about the year 1677, aged 67. . ]■
LESCAR, a town of Gafcony,'in France, and in Le"‘e-
the territory of Bearn, with a bilhop’s fee ; feated on
a hill, in W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 43. 23.
LESKARD, a town in Cornwall, feated in a le¬
vel, is a corporation, and fends to members to parlia¬
ment. It had formerly a caftle, now in ruins ; and has
a good free-fehool, and a confiderable manufacture of
yarns, which is chiefly fold at Exeter. W. Lat. 4. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 34.
LESLIE (John), bilhop of Rofs in Scotland, the
fon of Gavin Lefly an eminent lawyer, was born in
the year 1526, and educated at the univerfity of A-
berdeen ; of which diocefe he was made official, when
but a youth. He was foon after created doCtor of
civil and canon law; but being peculiarly addicted to
the ftudy of divinity, he took orders, and became par-
fon of Une.
When the reformation began to fpread in Scotland,
and difputes about religion ran high, Dr Lefly, in
1560, diftinguifhed himfelf at Edinburgh as a princi¬
pal advocate for the Romifti church, and was after¬
wards deputed by the chief nobility of that religion
to condole with queen Mary on the death of her huf-
band the king of France, and to invite her to return
to her native dominions. Accordingly, after a ftiort
refidence with her majefty, they embarked together
at Calais in 1561, and landed at Leith. She imme- '
diately made him one of her privy-council, and a fe-
nator of the cdllege of juftice. In 1564, he was made
abbot of Lundores; and, on the death of Sinclair, was
promoted to the bifhopric-of Rofs. Thefe accummii-
lated honours he wifhed not to enjoy in luxurious in¬
dolence. The influence derived from them he exert¬
ed to the profperity of his country. It is to him
that Scotland is indebted for the publication of its
laws, commonly called “ The black ads of parlia¬
ment,” from the Saxon charaCIer in which they were
printed. At his moll earned defire, the revifion and
collection of them were committed to the great officers
of the crown.
In 1568, queen Mary having fled to England for
refuge, and being there detained a prifoner, queen
Elizabeth appointed certain commiffioners at York to
examine into the caufe of the difpute between Mary
and her fubjeCts. Thefe commiffioners were met by
others from the queen of Scots. The biftjop of Rofs
was of the number, and pleaded the caufe of his royal
miftrefs with great energy, though without fuccefs :
Elizabeth had no intention to releafe her.
Mary, difappointed in her expedations from the
conference at York, fent the bijhop of Rofs ambafla-
dor to Elizabeth, who paid little attention to his
complaints. He then began to negotiate a marriage
between his royal miftrefs and the duke of Norfolk ;
which negociation, it is well known, proved fatal to
the duke, and was the caufe of Lefly’s being fent to
the tower. In 1573 he was banilhed the kingdom,
and retired to Holland. The two following years he
fpent in fruitlefs endeavours to engage the powers of
•Europe to efpoufe the caufe of his queen. His laft
application-was to the pope” but the power of the
heretic Elizabeth had no lefs weight with his holinefs,
than with the other Roman catholic princes of Eu¬
rope.
j ....
L E S [ 4191 ] L E S
M. Leflie rope. Finding all his perfonal applications ineffe&ual,
' [I he had recourfe to his pen in queen Mary’s vindica-
° Qns' tion : but Elizabeth’s ultima ratio rtgum was too
potent for all his arguments.
Bilhop Lefly, during his exile, was made coadjutor
to the archbifhop of Rouen. He was at Brufiels when
he received the account of queen Mary’s execution ;
and immediately retired to the convent of Guirtern-
berg near that city, where he died in the ye*ar 1596.
It was during the long and unfortunate captivity
of Mary, that he a mu fed himfelf in writing the hi-
ftory of Scotland, and his other works. The elegance
and charms of literary occupations ferved to affuage
the violence of his woes. His knowledge and judge¬
ment as an hiftorian are equally to be commended.
Where he a&s as the tranfcriber of Boece, there may
be diltinguifhed, indeed, fome of the inaccuracies of
that writer. But, when he fpeaks in his own perfon,
he has a manlinefs, a candour, and a moderation,
which appear not always even in authors of the Pro-
teftant perfuafion. His works are, 1. jlffliRi avimi
confolationes, &c. compofed for the confolation of the
captive queen. ?. De origine, moribus, et geJUs Sco-
torum. 3. De titulo et jure fereniflim# Maria Scoto-
\ \ rum regime, quo regni Anglia: fuccefionem fibi jujle via-
dicat. 4. Paranefts ad Anglos et Scot os. 5. De il-
luft. fieminarurrt in republ. adminijlranda, &c. 6. Ora-
tio ad reginam Elizabetbam pro libertate ifnpetranda.
7. Paranejis adnobilitalempcpulumque Scoticum. 8. An
account of his proceedings during his embafly in Eng-
lahcLfrom 1568 to manufcript, Oxon. 9. Apo-
I < logy for the bilhop of Rofs, concerning the duke of
Norfolk ; manufcript, Oxon. 10. Several letters,
manufcript.
Leslie (Charles), an Irifh divine, and a zealous Pro-
teftant: but being attached to the houfe of Stuart, he
left Ireland, and went to the pretender at Barle Due,
and refided with him till near the time of his death;
conftantly endeavouring to make him a proteftant,
but without effeiff. He died in 1722. His principal
works are, 1. A Ihort and eafy method with the
Deifts. 2. A Ihort and eafy method with the Jews.
3. The fnake in the grafs. 4. Hereditary right
to the Crown of England afferted. 5. The Socinian
Icontroverfy difeufled. 6. The charge of Sociniafrn
againil Dr Tillotfon confidered ; and many others.
All his theological pieces, except that againft arch-
bilhop Tillotfon, were colledted and publilhed by
Rimfelf, in 2 vols folio.
LESSER tone, in mu fie. See Tone.
LESSINES, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in Hainault, feated on the river Dender, and famous
far its linen manufa&ure. W. Long. 3. 53. N. Lat.
J1- 41-
LESSONS, among ecclefiaftical writers, portions
of the holy feripture, read in Chriltian churches, at
the time of divine fervice.
In the ancient church, reading the feriptures was
one part of the fervice of the catechumens; at which
all perfons were allowed to be prefeui, in order to ob¬
tain inftruftion.
The church of England, in the choice of leflons,
proceeds as follows: for the firft lefibn on ordinary
days, fhe diredls, to begin at the beginning of the
year with Genefis, and lb continue on, till the books
Vol. VI.
of the old Teftament are read over; only omitting the
Chronicles, which are for the moil part the fame with J
the books of Samuel and Kings, and other particular
chapters in other books, either becaufe they contain
names of perfons, places, or other matters lefs pro¬
fitable to ordinary readers.
The courfe of the firft leflbns for Sundays is regu¬
lated after a different manner. From Advent to Sep-
tuagefima-Sunday, fome particular chapters of Ifaiah
are appointed to be read, becaufe that book contains
the cleareft prophecies concerning Chrift. Upon Sep-
tuagefima-Sunday Genefis is begun, becaufe that book
which treats of the fall of man, and the fevere judg¬
ment of God inflidfed on the world for fin, belt fuits
with a time of repentance and mortification. After
Genefis, follow chapters out of the books of the Old
Teftament, as they lie in order; only on feftival Sun¬
days, fuch as Eafter, Whitfunday, &c. the particular
hiftory relating to that day is appointed to be read;
and on the Saints-days, the church appoints lefi’ons
out of the moral books, fuch as Proverbs, Ecclefiaftes,
Ecclefiafticus, &c. as containing excellent inftruc-
tions for the condudl of life.
As to the fecond lefibiis, the church obferves the
fame courfe both on Sundays and week-days; reading
the gofpels and Adis of the Apoftles in the morning,
and the epiftles in the evening, in the order they (land
in the New Teftament: excepting on faints days and
holy-days, when fuch lefibns are appointed as either
explain the myftery, relate the luftory, or apply the
example to us.
LESTOFF, or Leostoff, a town of Suffolk, in
England, feated on the fea-fhore, is concerned in the
fifheries of the North-fea, cod, herrings, mackerels,
and fprats; has a church, and a difienting meeting-
houfe ; and for its fecurity, fix 18-pouoders, which
they can move as occafion requires; but it has no bat¬
tery. The town confifts of 500 houfes; but the
ftreets, though tolerably paved, are narrow. The coafl:
is there very dangerous for ftrangers. £. Long. 1.45.
N. Lat. 52. 37.
L’ESTRANGE (Sir Roger), a noted writer in
the 17th century, was dtfeended from an ancient fa¬
mily, feated at Hunftanton hall in the county of Nor¬
folk, where he was born in 1616, being the youngeft
fon of Sir Hammond L’Eftrange baronet, a zealous
royalift. Having in 1644 obtained a commiflion from
king Charles I. for reducing Lynn in Norfolk, then in
poffeffion of the parliament, his defign was difeovered,
and his perfon feized. He was tried by a coart mar¬
tial at Guildhall in London, and condemned to die as
a fpy ; but was reprieved, and continued in Newgate
for fome time. He afterward went beyond fea; and
in Auguft 1653 returned to England, where he ap¬
plied himfelf to the proteftor Oliver Cromwell, and
having once played before him on the bafs-viol, he was
by fome nicknamed Oliver’s fiddler. Being a man of
parts, mafter of an eafy humorous ftyle, but withal
in narrow circumftances, he fet up a newfpaper, un¬
der the title of The public intelligencer, in 1663 ; but
which he laid down, upon the publication of the firft;
London gazette in 1665, having being allowed, how¬
ever, a confideration by government. Some time af¬
ter the Popilh plot, when the Tories began to gain
the afcendant over the Whigs, he, in a paper called
23 U the
LeflofT,
^’eitrangc.
L E T [ 4192 ] LET
Leftweithel the Obfervaior, became a zealous champion for the
former. He was afterward knighted, and ferved in
jetl* the parliament called by king James II. in 1685. But
things taking a different turn in that prince’s reign, in
point of liberty of confcience, from what mod people
expefted, our author’s Obfsrvators were difufed as not
at all fuiting the times. However, he continued li-
cenfer of the prefs till king William’s acceffion, in
whofe reign he met with fome trouble as a difaffe&ed
perfon. However, he went to his grave in peace, af¬
ter he had in a manner furvived his intelleftuals. He
publifhed a great many political trails, and tranflated
feveral works from the Greek, Latin, and Spanifh :
viz. Jofephus’s works, Cicero’s Offices, Seneca’s
Morals, Erafmus’s Colloquies, flop’s Fables, and
Bonus’s Guide to Eternity. The character of his
ftyle has been varioufly reprefented ; his language be¬
ing obferved by fome to be eafy and humorous, while
Mr Gordon fays, “ that his productions are not fit to
be read by any who have tafte or good-breeding.
They are full of phrafes picked up in the llreets, and
nothing can be more low or naufeous.”
LESTWEITHEL, a town of Cornwall, in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Foy, not far from its fall in¬
to Foy-haven. Formerly fhips came as far up as the
town ; but the channel is now flopped up. It is a cor¬
poration, and fends two members to parliament. They
alfo keep courts here belonging to the ftannery; and
the county-gaol is likewife here. It is conveened by
a mayor, 6 capital burgeffes, and 17 common-coun-
eil men. The town confifts of about too houfes; but
the ftreets, though paved, are bad. W. Long. 5. o.
N. Lat. 50. 30.
LETHARGY. See {Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
Lethargy, in farriery. See there, $ 9.
LETHE, in the ancient mythology, one of the
livers of hell, fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnefs ; its
waters having, according to poetic fi&ion, the peculiar
quality of making thofc who drank them forget every
thing that was palt.
LETI (Gregorio), an eminent Italian writer, was
defcended of a family -which once made a confiderable
figure at Bologna : Jerom, his father, was page to
prince Charles de Medicis ; ferved fome time in the
troops of the grand duke as captain of foot; and
fettling at Milan, married there in 1628. He was af¬
terward governor of Almantea in Calabria, and died
at Salerno in 1639. Our author was born at Milan
in 1630, ftudied under the Jefuits at Cofenza, and
was afterward fent by an uncle to Rome, who would
have him enter into the church ; but he being averfe
to it, went to Geneva, where he ftudied the govern¬
ment and the religion there. Thence he went to Lau-
fanne ; and contrafting an acquaintance with John
Anthony Guerin, an eminent phyfician, lodged at his
houfe, made profeffion of the Calvinift religion, and
married his daughter. He fettled at Geneva; where
he fpent almpft twenty years, carrying on a corre-
fpondence with learned men, efpecially thofe of Italy.
Some contefts obliged him to leave that city in 1679;
upon which he went to France, and then into Eng¬
land, where he was received with great civility by
Charles II. who, after his firft audience, made him a
prefent of a thoufand crowns, with a promife of the
place of hiftoriagrapher. He wrote there the hiftory Let
of England ; but that work not pleafing the court on Lel
account of his too great liberty in writing, he was or-
dered to leave the kingdom. He went to Amfterdam
in 1682, and was honoured with the place of hifto-
riographer to that city. He died fuddenly in 1701.
He was a man of indefatigable application, as the mul¬
tiplicity of his works (how. The principal of thefe
are, I. The nepotifm of Rome. 2. The unlverfal
monarchy of Lewis XIV. 3. The life of pope Six¬
tus V. 4. The life of Philip II. king of Spain.
5. The life of the emperor Charles V. 5. The life of
Elizabeth, queen of England. 7. The hiftory of O-
liver Cromwell. 8. The hiftory of Great Britain,
5 vols, i2mo. 9. The hiftory of Geneva, &c.
LETRIM, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Connaught, 44 miles in length, and 17 in breadth ;
bounded on the eaft and north-eaft by Cavan and Fer¬
managh, by Sligo and Rofcommon on the weft and
fouth-weft, and by Longford on the eaft and fouth-
eaft. It is a hilly country, with rank grafs, which
feeds a great number of cattle. The chief town is
Letrim, feated not far from the river Shannon. It
contains 4000 houfes, 21 parifties, 5 baronies, 2 bo¬
roughs, and fends 6 members to parliament.
LETTER, a charafter ufed to exprefs one of the
fimple founds of the voice ; and as the different Ample
founds are expreffed by different letters, thefe, by be¬
ing differently compounded, become the vifible figns
or charafters of all the modulations and mixtures of
founds ufed to exprefs our ideas in a regular language.
Thus, as by the'help of fpeech we render our ideas
audible ; by the affiftance of letters we render them vi¬
fible, and by their help we can wrap up our thoughts,
and fend them to the molt diftant parts of the earth,
and read the tranfadlions of different ages. As to the
firft letters, what they were, who firft invented them,
and among what people they were firft in ufe, there is
ftill room to doubt: Philo attributes this great and
noble invention to Abraham ; Jofephus, St Irenseus,
and others, to Enoch ; Bibliander, to Adam ; Eufe-
bius, Clemens Alexandrines, Cornelius Agrippa, and
others, to Mofes; Pomponius Mela, Herodiao, Ru¬
fus Feftus, Pliny, Lucan, &c. to the Phoenicians ;
St Cyprian, to Saturn ; Tacitus, to the Egyptians ;
fome, to the Ethiopians; and others, to the Chinefe :
but, with fefpeA to thefe laft, they can never be en¬
titled to this honour, fince all their chara&ers are the
figns of words, formed without the ufe of letters ;
which renders it impoffible to read and write their
language, without a vail expence of time and trouble;
and absolutely impofiible to print it by the help of
types, or any other manner but by engraving, or eat¬
ing in wood. See Printing.
There have alfo been various conje&ures about the
different kinds of letters ufed in different languages:
thus, according to Crinitus, Mofes invented the He¬
brew letters ; Abraham, the Syriac and Chaldee; the
Phoenicians, thofe of Attica, brought into Greece by
Cadmus, and from thence into Italy by the Pelaf-
gians; Nicoftrata, the Roman ; Ills, the Egyptian;
and Vulfilas, thofe of the Goths.
It is probable, that the Egyptian hieroglyphics
were the firft manner of writing : but whether Cadmus
and the Phoenicians learned the ufe of letters from the
E-
LET [ 4193 ] L E T
Letter. Egyptians, or from their neighbours o? Judea or Sa-
 maria, is a queftion ; for fince fome of the books of
the Old Teftnment were then written, they are more
^ likely to have given them the hint, than the hierogly¬
phics of Egypt. But wherefoever the Phoenicians
learned this art, it is generally agreed, that Cadmus,
the fon of Agenor, firft brought letters into Greece ;
whence, in following ages, they fpread over the reft
of Europe.
Letters make the firft part or elements of grammar;
an aflemblage of thefe compofe fyllables and words,
and thefe compofe fentences. The alphabet of every
language confifts of a number of letters, which ought
each to have a different found, figure, and ufe. As
the difference of articulate founds was intended to ex-
prefs the different ideas of the mind, fo one letter was
originally intended to fignify only one found, and not,
as at prefent, to exprefs fometimes on« found and
fometimes another; which pradlice has brought a great
deal of confufion into the languages, and rendered the
learning of the modern tongues much more difficult
than it would otherwife have been. This confidera-
tion, together with the deficiency of all the knowm al¬
phabets, from their wan,ting fome,letters to exprefs
certain founds, has occafioned feveral attempts towards
an univerfal alphabet, to contain an enumeration of
all fuch fingle founds or letters as are ufed in any lan¬
guage. See Alphabet.
Grammarians diftinguifh letters into vowels, confo-
nants, mutes, liquids, diphthongs, and charafteri-
fiics. They are likewife divided into capital and fmall
letters. They are alfo denominated from the fhape
and turn of the letters; and in writing are diftinguilh-
ed into different hands, as round-text, German-text,
round-hand, Italian, &c. and in printing, into roman,
italic, and black letter.
The term letter, or type, among printers, not on¬
ly includes the CAPITALS, small capitals, and
fmall letters, but all the points, figures, and other
marks call and ufed in printing; and alfo the large
ornamental letters, cut in woad or metal, which take
place of the illumined letters ufed in manufcripts. The
letters ufed in printing are call at the ends of fmall
pieces of metal, about three quarters of an inch in
length ; and the letter being not indented, but raifed,
eafily gives the impreffion, when, after being blacked
with a glutinous ink, paper is clofely preffed upon it.
See the articles Printing and Type. A fount of
letters includes fmall letters, capitals, fmall capitals,
points, figures, fpaces, &c. but befides they have dif¬
ferent kinds of two-lined letters, only ufed for titles,
and the beginning of books, chapters, &c. See Fount.
Letter, is alfo a writing addreffed and fent to a
perfon. See Epistle.
The art of epiftolary writing, as the late tranflator
of Pliny’s Letters has obferved, was efteemed by the
Romans in the number of liberal and polite accom-
plilhments ; and we find Cicero mentioning with great
pleafure, in forae of his letters to Atticus, the elegant
fpecimen he had received from his fon, of his genius
in this way. It feems indeed to have formed part of
their education ; and, in the opinion of Mr Locke,
it well deferves to have a fhare in ours. “ The wri-
“ ting of letters (as that judicious author obferves)
“ enters fo much into all the occafions of life, that no Letter.
“ gentleman can avoid Ihewing himfelf in compofi-
“ tions of this kind. Occurrences will daily force him'
“ to make this ufe of his pen, which lays open his
“ breeding, his fenfe, and his abilities, to a feverer
“ examination than any oral difeourfe.” It is to be
wondered we have fo few writers in our own language,
who deferve to be pointed out as models upon fuch an
occafion. After having named Sir William Temple,'it
wouldperhaps be difficult to add a fccond. The elegant
writer of Cowley’s life mentions him as excelling in
this uncommon talent; but as that author declares
himfelf of opinion, “ That letters which pafs between
“ familiar friends, if they are written as they ftieuld
“ be, can fcarce ever be fit to fee the light,” the
world is deprived of what, no doubt, would have been
well worth its infpedb’on. A late diftinguifhed ge¬
nius treats the very attempt as ridiculous, and pro-
fefies himfelf “ a mortal enemy to what they call a
fine letter.” His averfion however was not fo ftrong,
but he knew to conquer it when he thought proper;
and the letter which clofes his correfpondence with
bifhop Atterbury is, perhaps, the molt genteel and
manly addrefs that ever was penned to a friend in dif-
grace. The truth is, a fine letter does not confift in
faying fine things, but in exprelling ordinary ones in
an uncommon manner. It is the proprie comniur.ia
dicere, the art of giving grace and elegance to fami¬
liar occurrences, that conftitutes the merit of this kind
of writing. Mr Gay’s letter, concerning the two
lovers who were ftruck dead with the fame flalh of
lightening, is a mafter-pieee of the fort; and thefpe-
men he has there given of his falents for this fpecies
of compofition makes it much to be regretted we have
not more from the fame hand.
Of the Style of Epijlolary Compofition. Purity in the
choice of words, and jultnefs of conftru&ion, joined
with perfpicuity, are the chief properties of this ftyle.
Accordingly Cicero fays : “ In writing letters, we
make ufe of common words and expreffions.” And
Seneca more fully : “ I would have my letters to be
like my difeourfes, when we either fit or walk to¬
gether, uniludied and eafy.” And what prudent
man, in his common difeourfe, aims at bright and
ftrong figures, beautiful turns of language, or la¬
boured periods ? Nor is it always requifite to attend
to exaft order and method. He that is mailer of
what he writes, will naturally enough exprefs his
thoughts without perplexity and confufion ; and more
than this is feldom neceffary, efpecially in familiar
letters.
Indeed, as the fubje<5ls of epiftles are exceedingly
various, they will neceffarily require fome variety in
the manner of exprefiion. If thefubjeft be fomething
weighty and momentous, the language ftiould be
ftrong and folemn : in things of a lower nature, more
free and eafy; and upon lighter, matters, jocofe and
pleafant. In exhortations, it ought to be lively and
vigorous; in confolations, kind and compafiionate; and
in advifing, grave and ferious. In narratives, it Ihould
be clear and diftinft ; in requefts, modeft; in commen¬
dations, friendly; in profperity cheerful, and mournful
in adverfity. In a word, the ftyle ought to be ac¬
commodated to the particular nature of the thing
23 U 2 about
LET [ 4194 ] LEU
about which it is converfant.
Befides, the different character of the perfon, to
whom the letter is written, requires a like difference
in the modes of expreffion. We do not ufe the fame
language to private perfons, and thofe in a public fta-
tion ; to fuperiors, inferiors, and equals. Nor do we
exprefs ourfelves alike to old men and young, to the
grave and facetious, to courtiers and philofophers,
to our friends and ftrangers. Superiors are to be ad-
dreffed to with refpefl, inferiors with courtefy, and
equals with civility ; and every one’s charafter, fta-
tion, and circumftances in life, with the relation we
(land in to him, occafions fome variety in thisrefpecf.
But when friends and acquaintances correfpond by
letters, it carries them into all the freedom and good-
humour of converfation ; and the nearer it refembles
that the better, lince it is defigned tofupply the room
of it. For when friends oannot enjoy eacji others
company, the next fatisfattion is to converfe with
each other by letters. Indeed, fometimes greater
freedom is ufed in epiflles, than the fame perfons
would have taken in difcourfing together ; becaufe,
as Cicero fays, “ A letter does not blufli.” But (till
nothing ought to be faid in a letter, which, coniidered
in itfelf, would not have been fit to fay in difcourfe ;
though modefty perhaps, or fome other particular
reafon, might have prevented it. And thus it fre¬
quently happens in requelts, reproofs, and other cir¬
cumftances of life. A man can afk that by writing,
which he could not do by words, if prefent; or blame
what he thinks amifs in his friend with greater liberty
when abfent, than if^they were together. From hence
it is eafy to judge of the fitnefs of any exprefiion to
Hand in an epiftie, only by confidering, whether the
fame way of fpeaking would be proper in talking with
the fame perfon. Indeed, this difference may be al¬
lowed, that as perfons have more time to think, when
they write, than when they fpeak ; a greater accu¬
racy of language may fometimes be expeded in one,
than the other. However, this makes no odds as to
the kind of flyle ; for every one would choofe to fpeak
as corredly as he writes, if he could. And there¬
fore all fuch words and expreffions, as are unbecom¬
ing in converfation, fhould be avoided in letters ; and
a manly fimplicity free of all affedation, plain, but
decent and agreeable, fhould run through the whole.
This is the ufual ftyle of Cicero's epiftles, in which
the plainnefs and fimplicity of his didion, is accom¬
panied with fomething fo pleafant and engaging, that
he keeps up the attention of his reader, without dif¬
fering him to tire. On the other hand, Pliny’s ftyle
is fuccind and witty ; but generally fo full of turns
and quibbles upon the found of words, as apparently
render it more ftiff and affeded than agrees with
converfation, or than a man of fenfe would choofe in
difcourfe, were it in his power. Yqu may in fome
nitafure judge of Pliny’s manner, by one fhort letter
to his friend, which runs thus: “ How fare you ?
“ As I do in the country ? pleafantly ? that is, at
“ leifure ? For which reafon I do not care to write long
“ letters, but to read them ; the one as the effed of
“ nicenefs, and the other of idlenefs. For nothing
“ is more idle than your nice folks, or curious than
“ your idle ones. Farewell.” Every fentence here
coufilts of an antithefis, and a jingle of words, very
different from the ftyle of converfation, and plainly
the effed of fludy. But this was owing to the age
in which he lived, at which time the Roman eloquence
was funk into puns, and an affedation of wit ; for he
vfras otherwife a man of fine fenfe, and great learning.
Letter of Attorney, in law, is a writing by which
one perfon authorifes another to do fome lawful ad
in his ftead ; as to give feifin of lands, to receive debts,
fue a third perfon, &c.
The nature of this inftrument is to transfer to the
perfon to whom it is given, the whole power of the
maker, to enable him to accomplifh the ad intended
to be performed. It is either general or fpecial : and
fometimes it is made revocable, which is when a bare
authority is only given; and fometimes it is irrevo¬
cable, as where debts, &c. are affigned from one per¬
fon to another. It is generally held, that the power
granted to the attorney muff be ftridly purfued ; and
that where it is made to three perfons, two cannot
execute it. In mo ft cafes, the power given by a let¬
ter of attorney determines upon the death of the per¬
fon who gave it. No letter of attorney made by any
feaman, &c. in any fhlp of war, or having letters of
^marque, or by their executors, &c. in order to em¬
power any peffon to receive any (hare of prizes or
bounty-money, (hall be valid, unlefs the fame be made
revocable, and for the ufe of fuch feamen, and be
figne'd and executed before, and attefted by, the cap¬
tain and one other of the figning officers of the ihip,
or the mayor or chief magiftrate of forne corporation.
Letter of Mart, or Marque. See Marque.
Letters Patent, or Overt, are writings fealed wiih
the .great feal of England, whereby a man is autho-
rifed to do, or enjoy any thing, which, of himfelf,
he could not do. See Patent.—They are fo called,
by reafon of their form ; as being open, with the feal
affixed, ready to be (hewn for the confirmation of the
authority given by them.
LETTUCE, in botany. See Lactuca.
LEVANT, in geography, fignifies any country
fituated to the eaft of us, or in the eaftern fide of any
continent or country, or that on which the fun rifes.
Levant, is alfo a name given to the eaftern part
of the Mediterranean fea, bounded by Natclia or the
leffer Afia on the nprth, by Syria and Paleftine on
the eaft, by Egypt and Barca .on the fouth, and by
the ifland of Candia and the other part of the Medi¬
terranean on the weft.
LEVATOR, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
LEUCA, in antiquity, a geographical meafure of
length in ufe among the later Gauls; which accord-
ing to Jornandes, who calls it Leuga, contained fif¬
teen hundred paces, or one mile and a half. Hence
the name of league, now reckoned at three miles, in
the lower age called leuva.
LEUCADIA, formerly called Neritis, and a pe-
ninfula of Acarnania, (Homer) ; but afterwards, by
cutting through the peninfula, made an ifland, as it
is at this day ; called St Maura.
LEUCAS, (anc. geog.), formerly called Neritos
and Neritum, a town of Leucadia or Leucas; fituated
near a narrow neck of land, or ifthmus, on a lull fa¬
cing the eaft and Acarnania : the foot or lower part
of the town was a plain lying on the fea by which
Leu-
Letter
Leilas i
LEU [ 4195 ] LEV
Leucadia was divided from Acarnania, (Livy); though
Thucydides places Leacas more inward in the Ifland,
which was joined to the continent by a bridge. It
was an illultrious city, the capital of Acarnania, and
the place of general aflembly.
LEUCATA or Leucate, (anc. geog.); a pro¬
montory of Leucadia according to Strabo, a white
rock projefting into the fea towards Cephalenia, on
which itood a temple of Apollo furnamed Leucadius.
This place was famous for being the lalt refource of
defpairing lovers; from which they took a leap into
the fea, as Sappho is faid to have done.
LEUCIPPUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher
and mathematician ; firft author of the famous fyltem
of atoms and vacuums, and of the hypothefis of ftorms;
fmce attributed to the moderns. He flourifhed about
428 B. C.
LEUCOG2EUS, (anc. geog.), a hill fituated
between Puteoli and Neapolis in Campania, abound¬
ing in fulphur; now PAlumera. Whence there
were alfo fprings called Leucogxi forties, the waters
of which, according to Pliny, gave a firranefs to the
teeth, clearnefs to the eyes, and proved a cure in
wounds.
LEUCOJUM, Great snow drop ; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs
of plants.
Species, t. The vernnm, verna}, or fpring leuco-
jum, hath an oblong bulbous root, fending up feveral
flat leaves fix or eight inches long; and amidil them
an upright, channelled, hollow, naked ftalk,.about
a foot high, terminated by a fpatha, protruding one or
two white flowers on {lender footftalks drooping down¬
wards, and appearing in March. 2. The seftivum, or
fummer kucojum, hath a large, oblong, bulbous root,
crowned with feveral long, flat, broad leaves; and a-
midft them an upright, thick, hollow {talk, 15 or 18
inches high ; terminated by a fpatha, protruding many
white flowers, on {lender footftalks, drooping down¬
wards; flowering in May. 3. The autumnale, or au¬
tumnal leucojum, hath a large oblong bulbous root,
crowned with many narrow leaves, an upright, naked,
hollow ftalk, terminated by a fpatha protruding many
white flowers on long weak footftalks, hanging down¬
wards, and flowering in autumn.
Culture. All the three fpecies are very hardy, du¬
rable in root, and inereafe exceedingly by offsets, which
may be ftparated every two or three years.
LEUCOMA, in furgery, a diftemper of the eye,
otherwife called albugo. See Albugo, and (Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
LEUCOPHLEGMATIA, in medicine, a kind
of dropfy, otherwife called anafarca. See (Index fub¬
joined to) Medicine.
LEUCTRA, (anc. geog.), a town of Bccotia, to
the weft of Thebes, or lying between Plates and Thef-
pise, where the Lacedemonians had a great defeat gi¬
ven them by Epaminondas and Pelopidas the Theban
generals. The Theban army confifted at mod but of
6000 men, whereas that of the enemy was at leaft
thrice that number: but Epaminondas traded mcft in
his horfe, wherein he had much the advantage, both
in their quality and good management; the red he en¬
deavoured to fupply by the difpofition of his men, and
the vigour of the attack. He even refufed to luCer
any to fcrve under him in the engagement, but fuch Leuftra,
as he knew to be fully refolved to conquer or die. He Leve'
put himfelf at the head of the left wing, oppofite to
Cleomhrotus king of Sparta, and placed the main
ftrefs of the battle there; rightly concluding, that, if
he could break the body of the Spartans, which was
but 12 men deep, whereas his own was 50, the reft
would be foon put to flight. He clofed his own wrj)
the facred band, which was commanded by Pelopidas;
and placed his horfe in the front. His right, from
which he had drawn fo many men, he ordered to fall
back, in a flaming line, as if they declined to fight,
that they might not be too much expofed to the e-
nemy, and might ferve him for a corps ©f referve iq
cafe of need. This was the wife difpolition which the
two Theban generals made of their few, but refolute
forces; and which fucceeded, in every part, according
to their w’ifh. Epaminondas advanced with his left
wing, extending it obliquely, in order to draw the ene¬
my’s right from jhe main body; and Pelopidas char¬
ged them with fuch defperate fpeed and fury, at the
head of his battalion, before they could reunite, that
their horfe, not being able to {land the ftiock, were
forced back upon their infantry, which threw the
whole into the greateft confufion; fo that though the
Spartans were of all the Greeks the moft expert in re¬
covering from any furprize, yet their {kill on this oc-
cafion either failed them or proved of no effeift; for
the Thebans; obferving the dreadful impreflion they
had made on them with their horfe, pufhtd furioufly
upon the Spartan king, and opened their way to him
with a great {laughter.
Upon the death of Cleombrotus, and feveral officers
of note, the Spartans, according to cullom, renewed
the fight with double vigour and fury, not fo much to
revenge his death as to recover his body, which was
fuch an eftabliftied point of honour as they could not
give up without the greateft difgrace: but here our
Theban general wifely chofe rather to gratify them in
that point, than to hazard the fuccefs of a fecond on-
fet; and left them in poffeffion of their king, whilft
himfelf inai ched ftraight againft their other wing, which
was commanded by ArchidamuS, ahft confided chiefly
of fueh auxiliaries and allies as had not heartily enga¬
ged in the Spartan intereft: and thefe were fo dif-
heartened at the death of the king, and the defeat of
that wing, that they betook theinfelVes to flight, and
were prcfently after followed by the reft of the army.
The Thebans, however, purfoed them fo cloftly, that
they made a fecond dreadful flaughter among them;
which completed Epaminondas’s vidlory, who remain¬
ed mailer of the field, and credit'd a trophy iuvnemory
of it. This was the conclufion of tfce famed battle of
Leudtra, in which the Lacedemonians loft 4000 men,
and the Thebans but 300.
LEVEL, an inftrument wherewith to draw a line
parallel to the horizon, by means of which the true
level, or the difference of afcent or defcent between fe¬
veral places, may be found for conveying water, drain¬
ing fens, &c.
There are feveral inflruments of different contrivance
and matter, invented for the perfedlion of levelling; all
of which, for the practice, may be reduced to thofe
that follow.
^;>-Level, that which {hews the line of level by
means
I^evel.
Plate
ClKII.
Jfig. i.
LEV [ 4196 ] LEV
means of a bubble of air inclofed with fome liquor in
a glafs-tube of an indeterminate length and thicknefs,
whofe two ends are hermetically fealed. When trie
bubble fixes itfelf at a certain mark, made exafUy in
the middle of the tube, the plane or ruler wherein it
is fixed is level. When it is not level, the bubble will
rife to one end. This glafs-tube may be fet in another
of brafs, having an aperture in the middle, whence the
bubble of air may Ire obferved. The liquor wherewith
the tube is filled, is oil of tartar, or aqua fecunda;
thofe not being liable to freeze as common water, nor
to rarefaftion and condenfation, as fpirit of wine is.
There is one of thefe inftruments with fights, being
an improvement upon that lad defcribed, which, by the
addition of more apparatus, becomes more commodious
and exa$. It confifts of an air-level, n° 1. about eight
inches long, and feven or eight lines in diameter, fet
in a :brafs-tube, 2, with an aperture in the middle,
C. The tubes are carried in a ftrong ftraight ruler, a
foot long ; at whofe ends are fixed two fights, 3, 3,
exactly perpendicular to the tubes,' and of an equal
height, having a fquare hole, formed by two fillets of
brafs croffing each other at right angles, in the middle
whereof is drilled a very little hole, through which a
point on a level with the inftrument is defcried. The
brafs-tube is faftened on the ruler by means of two
fcrews; one whereof, marked 4, ferves to raife or de-
prtfs the tube at pleafure, for bringing it towards a
level. The top of the ball and focket is rivetted to a
■little ruler that fprings, one end whereof is faftened
with fcrews to the great ruler, and at the other end has
a fcrew, 5, ferving to raife and deprefs the inftrument
when nearly level.
This inftrument, however, is yet lefs commodious
than the following one; becaufe though the holes be
ever fo fmall, yet they will ftiil take in too great a
fpace to determine the point of level precifely.
This inftrument donfifts of an air-level, with tele-
fcope fights. This level [ibid. n°2.) is like the laft; with
this difference, that, inftead of plain fights, it carries a
telefcope to determine exadlly a point of level at a
good diftance. The telefcope is a little brafs-tube,
about 15 inches long, faftened on the fame ruler as the
level. At the end of the tube of the telefcope, mark¬
ed t., enters the little tube r, carrying the eye-glafs
and an hair horizontally placed in the focus of the ob-
je&-glafs, 2 ; which little tube may be drawn out, or
pufhed into the great one, for adjufting the telefcope
to different fights: at the other end of the telefcope is
placed the objeft-glafs. The fcrew 3, is for raifing
or lowering the little fork, for carrying the hair, and
making it agree with the bubble of air when the im
ftrument is level; and the fcrew 4, is for making the
bubble of air, D or E, agree with the telefcope : the
whole is fitted to a ball and focket. M. Huygens is
faid to be the firft inventor of this level; which has this
advantage, that it may be inverted by turning the ru¬
ler and telefcope half round; and if then the hair cut
the fame point that it did before, the operation is juft.
It may be obferved, that one may add a telefcope to
any kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to,
the bafe or ruler, when there is occafion to take the
level of remote obje&s.
Dr Defaguliers contrived an inftrument, by which
the difference of level of two places, which could not
be taken in lefs than four or five days with the beft
telefcope-levels, may be taken in as few hours. The
inftrument is as follows. To the ball C (ibid. n° 3.)
is joined a recurve tube BA, with a very fine bore,
and a fmall Bubble at top, A, whofe upper-part is
open. It is evident from the make of this inftrument,
that if it be inclined in carrying, no prejudice will be
done to the liquor, which will always be right both in
the ball and tube when the inftrument is let upright.
If the air at C be fo expanded with heat, as to drive
the liquor to the top of the tube, the cavity A will
receive the liquor, which will come down again and
fettle at D, or near it, according to the level of the
place where the inftrument is, as fopn as the air at C
returns to the fame temperament as to heat and cold.
To preferve the fame degree of heat, when the diffe¬
rent obfervations are made, the machine is fixed in a
tin veffel EF, filled with water up to above'the
ball, and a very fenfible thermometer has alfo its ball
under water, that one may obferve the liquor at D, in
each experiment, when the thermometer Hands at the
fame height as before. The water is poured out
when the inftrument is carried ; which one may do
conveniently by means of the wooden frame, which is
fet upright by the three fcrews S, S, S, ibid. n° 4. and
a line and plummet P P, n° 5. At the back part of
the wooden frame, from the piece at top K, hangs the
plummet P, over a brafs point at N; Mare brackets
to make the upright board K N continue at right
angles with the horizontal one at N. N° 6. reprefents
a front view of the machine, fuppofing the fore part
of the tin-veffel tranfparent; and here the brafs-focket
of the recurve-tube, into which the ball is fcrewed, has
two wings at II, fixed to the bottom, that the ball
may not break the tube by its endeavour to emerge
when the water is poured in as high asgh.
After the Dodlor had contrived this machine, he
confidered, that as the tube is of a very fmall bore, if
the liquor ftiould rife into the ball at A, n° 3. in car¬
rying the inftrument from one place to another, fome
of it would adhere to the fides or the ball A, and up¬
on its defeent in making the experiment, fo much
might be left behind, that the liquor would not be
high enough at D to (hew the difference of the level:
therefore, to prevent that iucortveniency, he contrived
a blank fcrew, to (hut up the hole at A, as foon as one
experiment is made, that, in carrying the machine, the
air in A may balance that in C, fo that the liquor
ftiall not run up and down the tube, whatever degree
of heat and cold may a& upon the inftrument, in go¬
ing from one place to another. Now, becaufe one ex¬
periment may be made in the morning, the water may
be fo cold, that when a fecond experiment is made at
noon the water cannot be brought to the fame degree
of cold it had in the morning ; therefore, in making
the firft experiment, warm water muft be mixed with
the cold, and when the water has ftood fome time be¬
fore it comes to be as cold as it is likely to be at the
warmeft part of that day^ obferve and fet down the de¬
gree of the thermometer at which the fpirit Hands,
and likewife the degree of the water in the barometer
at D; then fcrew on the cape at A, pour out the wa¬
ter, and carry the inftrument to the place whofe level
you would know; then pour in your water, and when
the thermometer is come to the fame degree as before,
open
      - • • •• • • ■ ■:  
LEV [41
open the icrew at top, and obferve the liquor in the
barometer.
The Doftor’s fcale for the barometer is ten inches
long, and divided into tenths ; fo that fuch an inftru-
xnent will ferve for any heights not exceeding ten feet,
each tenth of an inch anfwering to a foot in height.
The Doftor made no allowance for the decreafe of
denfity in the air, becaufe he did not propofe this ma¬
chine for meafuring mountains, (tho.% with a proper
allowance for the decreafing denfity of the air, it will
do very well), but for heights that want to be known
in gardens, plantations, and the conveyance of water,
where an experiment that anfwers two or three feet in
a diftance of 20 miles, will render this a very ufeful
inftrument.
Artillery /ic?-Level is in form of a fquare, having
its two legs or branches of an equal length ; at a junc¬
ture whereof is a little hole, whence hangs a thread
and plummet playing on a perpendicnlar line in the
middle of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45
degrees from the middle, ibid. n° 7.
This inftrument may be ufed on other occafions, by
placing the ends of its two branches on a plane; for
when the thread plays perpendicularly over the middle
divifion of the quadrant, that plane is afluredly level.
To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece
of artillery, which you may raife to any propofed
height, by means of the plummet, whofe thread will
give the degree above the level.
Carpenters and Paviour's Level, confifts of a long
ruler, in the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles,
another fomewhat bigger, at the top of which is
fartened a line, which, when it hangs over a fiducial
line at right angles with the bafe, (hews that the faid
bafe is horizontal. Sometimes this level is all of one
board. Ibid. n° 8.
Gunners Level, for levelling cannons and mortars,
confifts of a triangular brafs plate, about four inches
high, ibid. 9. at the bottom of which is a portion
of a circle, divided into 45 degrees; which number
is fufficient for the higheft elevation of cannons and
mortars, and for giving {hot the greateft range: on
the centre of this fegment of a circle is fcrewed a piece
of brafs, by means of which it maybe fixed or fcrewed
at pleafure : the end of this piece of brafs is made fo
as to ferve for a plummet and index, in order to fhew
the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery.
This inftrument has alfo a brafs foot, to fet upon can¬
nons or mortars, fo as, when thofe pieces are horizon¬
tal, the inftrument will be perpendicular. The foot
of this inftrument is to be placed on the piece to be
elevated, in fuch a manner, as that the point of the
plummet may fall on the proper degree : this is what
they call levelling the piece.
Mafon's Level, is compofed of three rules, fo join¬
ed as to form an ifofceles-reftangle, fomewhat like a
roman A ; at the vertex whereof is faftened a thread,
from which hangs a plummet, that paffes over a fidu¬
cial line, marked in the middle of the bafe, when the
thing to which the level is applied is horizontal ; but
declines from the mark, when the thing is lower on
the one fide than on the other.
Plumb or Pendulum Level, that which fhews the
horizontal linefc by means of another line perpendicular
to that defcribed by a plummet or pendulum. This
97 ] LEV
inftrument, ibid. n° 10. confifts of two legs or branches,
joined together at right angles, whereof that which "
carries the thread and plummet is about a foot and a
half long; the thread is hung towards the top of the
branch, at the point 2. The middle of the branch
where the thread paffes is hollow, fo that it may hang
free every where : but towards the bottom, where there
is a little blade of filver, whereon is drawn a line per¬
pendicular to the telefcope, the faid cavity is covered
by two pieces of brafs, making as it were a kind of
cafe, left the wind ftiould agitate the thread ; for
which reafon the filver blade is covered with a glafs G,
to the end that it may be feen when the thread and
plummet play upon the perpendicular: the telefcope
is faftened to the other branch of the inftrumenr, and
is about two feet long; having an hair placed hori¬
zontally acrofs the focus of the objeft-glafs, which,
determines the point of the level. The telefcope muff
be fitted at right angles to the perpendicular. It has
a ball and focket, by which it is faftened to the foot,
and was invented by M. Picard.
Reflecting Level, that made by means of a pretty
long furface of water reprefenting the fame objedt in¬
verted which we fee eredted by the eye, fo that the
point where thefe two objedts appear to meet is a level
with the place where the furface of the water is found.
This is the invention of M. Marriotte.
There is another refledling level confiding of a mir¬
ror of ftcel, or the like, well poliftied, and placed a
little before the objedt-glafs of a telefcope, fufpended
perpendicularly. This mirror muft make an angle of
450 with the telefcope, in which cafe the perpendicu¬
lar line of the faid telefcope is converted into a horizon¬
tal line, which is the fame with the line oflevel. This
is the invention of M. Cafiini.
/•f'hter-LEVEL, 'that which (hews the horizontal line
by means of a.furface of water or other liquor; found¬
ed on this principle, that water always places itfelf le¬
vel.
The moft fimple is made of a long wooden trough, .
or canal, whofe fides are parallel to the bafe ; fo that
being equally filled with water, its-furface (hews the
line of level. This is the chorobates of the ancients.
See Chorobata.
It is alfo made with two cups fitted to the tw’o ends
of a pipe, three or four feet long, about an inch in
diameter, by means whereof the water communicates
from the one to the other cup; and this pipe being
moveable on its ftand by means of a ball and focket,
when the two cups become equally full of water, their
two furfaces mark the line of level.
This inftrument, inftead of cups, may alfo be made
with two ftiort cylinders of glafs three or four inches
long, faftened to each extreme of the pipe with wax
or maftic. Into the pipe is poured fbme common or
coloured water, which (hews itfelf through the cylin¬
ders, by means whereof the line of level is determined;
the height of the water, with refpedl to the centre of
the earth, being always the fame in both cylinders:
this level, though very fimple, is yet very commodious
for levelling fmall diftances.
Level of Mr Huygens's invention, confifts of a te¬
lefcope a, ibid. n° 11. in form of a cylinder, going
through a ferril, in which it is faftened by the middle.
This ferril has two fiat branches b „one above, and:
the
LEV
LEV
t 4198 ]
Levelling, the other below: at the ends whereof are fattened the vifual ray or point of the apparent level points at Levelling.
little moving pieces, which carry two rings, by one of E, and then to fink the bottom of the canal at B as  
which the telefcope is fufpended loan hook at the end much below E as A is below D. But this will not
of the fcrewj.and by the other a pretty heavy weight give the true level: for, according to Cafiini’s calcula-
is fufpended, in order to keep the telefcope in acquili- tion, at the dittance of 5078 feet the apparent level is »
brio. This weight hangs in the box 5, which is al- feven inches above the true ; and therefore, to make
moft filled with linfeed oil, oil of walnuts, or other a true level, B muft be funk feven inches lower than
matter that will not cafily coagulate, for more aptly the apparent level direfts ; fo that if A be four feet
fettling the balance of the weight and telefcope. The below D, B muft be four feet feven inches below the
inftrument carries two telefcopes clofe and very paral- mark E. We have here mentioned the error which
lei to each.other; the eye-glafs of the one being a- will arife from placing the level at one end of the line
gainft the obje£f-glafs of the other, that one may fee to be levelled, and (hewn how to corredt it ; but in
each way without turning the level. In the focus of moft cafes it is better to take a ftation in the middle
the objedt-glafs of each telefcope muft a little hair be of the line to be levelled: thus, if the points H and B
ftrained horizontally, to be raifed and lowered as occa- are to be levelled, place the inflrument in the middle
fion requires by a little fcrew. If the tube of the te- at A, and fetting up fticks perpendicular at H and B,
lefcope be not found level when fufpended, a ferril or make marks upon each ftick where the apparent level
ring, 4, is put on it, and is to be did along till it points, as Eand F; thofe points are level: and if you
fixes to a level. The hook on which the inftrtiment is " ' ... —   "
hung, is fixed to a flat wooden crofs; at the ends of
each arm whereof there is a hook ferving to keep the
telefcope from too much agitation in ufing or carriage.
To the faid flat crofs is applied another hollow one,
that ferves as a cafe for the inftrument; but the
Plate
CLXII,
fig. 1.
fink H as much below F, as B is below E, HAB will
be a true level.
The operation of levelling is as follows. Suppofe
the height of the point A [ibid. n° 3.) on the top of a
mountain above that of the point B, and at the foot
thereof, be required. Place the level about the middle
ends are left open, that the telefcope may be fecured diftance between the two points as in D, and ftaffs in A
from the weather, and always in a condition to be and B ; and let there be perfons inflrufted with fignals
ufed. The foot of this inftrument is a round brafs for raifing and lowering, on the faid ftaffs, little marks
plate, to which are fattened three brafs ferrils, move- of pafteboard or other matter, the level being placed
able by means of joints wherein are put ftaves, and on horizontally by the bubble, &c. Look towards the
this foot is placed the box.
N° 12. marked I, is a balance-level; which being
fufpended by the ring, the two fights, when in tequi-
librio, will be horizontal, or in a level.
LEVELLING, the art of finding a line parallel
to the horizon at one or more ftations, in order to de¬
termine the height of one place with regard to another.
See the preceding article.
ttaff AE, and caufe the mark fo raifed to be lowered
till the middle, upper edge, or other moft confpicuous
part, appear in the vifual ray. Then meafuring ex-
adtly the perpendicular height of the point E above the
point A, which fuppofe fix feet four inches; fet that
down in your book; then turn the Icvel horizontally
about, that the eye-glafs of the telefcope may be ftill
next the eye when you look the other way ; if you have
A truly level furfsce is a fegment of a fpberical fur- only plain fights, the inftrument need not be turned ;
face, which is concentric to the globe of the earth. A and caufe the perfon at the ftaff B, to raife orlower his
true line of level is an arch of a great circle, which is mark, till fome confpicuous part of it fall in the vifual
imagined to be defcribed upon a truly level furface. ray, as at C : then meafure the perpendicular height
This apparent level is a ftraight line drawn tangent to of C above B, which fuppofe fixteen feet fix inches.:
an arch or line of true level. Every point of the ap- fet tin's alfo down in the book above the other number
parent level, except the point of contadl, is higher of the firft obfervation; fubtradl the one from the other,
than the true level: thus let EAG (n° 1.) be an arch of and the remainder will be ten feet two inches, which
a great circle drawn upon the earth; to a perfon who is the difference of the level between A and B, or the
ftands upon the earth at A, the line HD is the ap- height of the point A above the point B.
parent level parallel to his rational horizon RR: but If the point D, where the inftrument is fixed, be in
this line, the farther it is extended from his ftation the middle between the two points A and B, there wilt
A, the farther it recedes from the centre ; for BC is be no necefiity for reducing the apparent level to the
longer than AC, and DC is longer than BC, &c. true level; the vifual ray in that cafe being raifed e-
The common methods of levelling are fufficient for qually above the true level. If it be further required
laying pavements of walks, for conveying water to to know whether there be a fufficient defcent for con-
fmall diftances, for placing horizontal dials, or aftro- veying water from the fpring A {ibid. n° 4.) to the
nomical inftruments : but in levelling the bottoms of point B. Here, in regard the diftance from A to B is
canals which are to convey water to the diftance of confiderahle, it is required that feveral operations be
many miles, the difference between the apparent and made. Having then chofen a proper place for the firlt
true level muft be taken into the account. Thus let ftation, as at I, fet up a ftaff in the point A, near the
IAL {ibid. n° 2.) be an arch of a great circle upon fpring, with a proper mark to Aide up and down the
the earth : let it be required to cut a canal whofe hot- ftaff, as L ; and meafure the. diftance from A to I,
tom (hall be a true level from A to B, of the length of which fuppofe 2000 yards. Then the level being ad-
5078 feet : the common method is to place the level- jufted in the point I, let the ma‘rk L be raifed and
ling inftrument in the bottom of the canal at A; and, lowered till fuch time as you fpy fome confpicuous
looking through the fights placed horizontally at a part of it through the telefcope or fights of the level,
Rick fet up perpendicular at B, to make a mark where and meafure the height AL, which fi^pofe thirteen
feet
Lever
Ipeyelling. feet five inches. But in regard the diftance AI is 2000
"I yards, you muft have recourfe to your table for a re-
1 du&ion, fubtrafting 11 inches, which will leave the
height of AL twelve feet fix inches; and this note down
!; in your book. Now turn the level horizontally about,
fo that the eye-glafs of the telefcope may be towards
A; and, fixing up another llaff at H, caufe the mark G
to be moved up and down till you fpy fome confpicu-
ous part through the telefcope or fights. Meafure the
height HG, which fuppofe feven yards one foot two
, inches. Meafure likcwife the diftance of the points IH,
which fuppofe 1300 yards; for which diftance four
inches eight lints muft be fubtrafted from the height
HG, which confequently will only leave feven yards
nine inches four lines, to be taken down in your book.
This done, remove the level fowards to fome other emi¬
nence, as E, whence the ftaff H may be viewed; as
alfo another ftaff at D, near the place whither the wa¬
ter is to be conveyed. The level being again adjufted
in the point E, look back to the ftaff H; and mana¬
ging the mark as before, the vifual ray will give the
point F. Meafure the height HF, which fuppofe ele¬
ven feet fix inches. Meafure likewifc the diftance HE,
which fuppofe 1000 yards, for which there is two
inches nine lines of abatement; which being taken
from the height HF, there will remain eleven feet three
inches three lines; which enter in your book: Laftly,
turning the level to look at the next ftaff D, the vifual
ray will give the point D. Meafure the height of D
from the ground, which fuppofe eight feet three inches.
Meafure alfo the diftance from the ftation E to B,
which fuppofe 900 yards, for which diftance there are
two inches three lines of abatement; which being ta¬
ken from the height BD, there will remain eight feet
nine lines; which enter as before.
For the manner of entering down obfervations in
your book, obferve, that when a proper place or fta¬
tion for the level between the two points has been
pitched upon, write down the two heights obferved at
that ftation in two different columns, viz. under the
firft column, thofe obferved in looking through the te¬
lefcope when the eye was from the fpring, or towards
the-point, which we may call hack-fights; and under
the fecond column, thofe obferved when the eye was
next the fpring, which we call fore fights. Having fum-
med up the heights of each column feparately, fubtraft
the leffer from the greater, the remainder will be the
difference of the level between the points A and B. If
the diftance of the two points be required, add all the
diftances meafured together; and dividing the differ¬
ence of height by the yards of the diftances, for each
200 yards you will have a defcent of about two inches
| . nine lines.
Dr Halley fuggefts a new method of levelling, per¬
formed wholly by means of the barometer, in which
the mercury is found to be fufpended to fo much the
, lefs height, as the place is farther remote from the cen¬
tre of the earth; whence the different heights of the
i i mercury in two places give the difference of level. This
method has been put in praftice by fome of the French
academy.
' LEVELtiNG-5/at;e/, inftruments ufed in levelling,
ferving to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the
fame time to meafure the heights of thofe marks from
the ground. They ufually cohfift each of two long
Vol. VI.
LEV
wooden rulers, made to Aide over one another, and di¬
vide into feet, inches, &c. II.
LEVER, in mechanics, is a bar of iron or wood, evite’
one part of which being fupported by a prop, all other
parts turn upon that prop as their centre of motion.
This inftrument is of two kinds. Firft, the common
fort, where the weight we defire to raile, refts at one
end of it, our ttrength is applied at the other end, and
the prop is between both. When we ftir up the fire
with a poker, we make ufe of this lever; the poker is
the lever, it refts upon one of the bars of the grate as
a prop, the incumbent fire is the weight to be over¬
come, and the other end held in the hand is the ftrength
or power. In this, as in all the reft, we have only to
increafe the diftance between the ftrength and prop,
to give the man that works the inftrument greater
power.
The lever of the fecond kind, has the prop at one
end, the ftrength is applied to the other, and the weight
to be raifed refts between them. Thus in raifing the
water plug in the ftreets, the workman puts his iron
lever through the hole of the plug till he reaches the
ground on the other fide, and, making that his prop,
lifts the plug with his ftrength at the other end of the
lever. In this lever alfo, the greater the diftance of
the prop from the ftrength, the greater is the work¬
man’s power.
Thefe inftruments, as we fee, affift the ftrength; but
fometimes a workman is obliged to aft at a difadvan-
tage, in raifing either a piece of timber or a ladder
upon one end. We cannot, with grammatical proprie¬
ty, call this a lever, fince fuch a piece of timber in faft
in no way contributes to raife the weight. In this cafe,
the man, who is the ftrength or power, is in the middle,
the part of the beam already raifed is the weight, the
part yet at the ground is the prop, on which the beam
turns or refts. Here the man’s ftrength will be dimi-
nilhed, in proportion to the weight it fuftains. The
weight will be greater the farther it is from the prop,
therefore the man will bear the greater weight the
nearer he is to the prop. See Mechanics.
LEVERET, among fportfmen, denotes a hare in
the firft year of her age.
LEVIGATION, in pharmacy and chemiftry, the
reducing hard and ponderous bodies to an impalpable
powder, by grinding them on a porphyry, or in a mill.
See Chemistry, n° 97.
LEWDNESS. See Fornication.
LEVITE, in a general fenfe, means all thedefcen-
dants of Levi, among whom were the Jewilh priefts
themfelves, who, being defcended from Aaron, were
likewife of the race of Levi.—In a more particular fenfe,
Levite is ufed for an order of officers in that church,
who were employed in performing the manual fervice
of the temple; fuch as in fetching wood, water, and
other things neceffary for the facrifices ; and in Ting¬
ing, and playing upon inftruments of mufic.
The confecration of the Levites was to be perform¬
ed with the following ceremonies: They were to be
fprinkled with the water of expiation, to ftiave all their
flefh, and waff their clothes: they were then to bring
two bullocks before the door of the tabernacle,, where
the whole congregation laid their hands upon the Le¬
vites heads: the bullocks were then facrificed, one for
a burnt-offering, and the other for a fin-offering; and,
23 X laftly.
[ 4!99 ]
LEV [ 4200 ] LEW
laftly, they were to be prefented to the high-prieft, levy money, and to levy a fine of lands in the pafiing Lewentz
who was to confecrate them to the Lord. a fine. - tl , H
The Levites were fubfifted by the tythe of all the LEWENTZ, a town of Upper Hungary, in the Iew;s-
corn, fruit and cattle, throughout Ifrael ; a tythe of county of Gran, and on the river of the fame name,
which tythe they were to give to the priefts: they had where the Turks were defeated in 1644. E. Long. 18.
alfo 48 cities for their habitation; and while they were 19. N. Lat. 48. 15.
a&ually employed in the fervice of the temple, they LEWES, a town of Suflex in England, feated on
were fubfifted out of the daily facrifices. an eminence on the banks of the river Oufe. It is a
LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the OldTefta- large well built place, hath two ftreets paved, and fix
ment, fo called from its containing the laws and regu- pariflvchurches built with flint-itone. It contains about
lations relating to the priefts, Levitts, and facrifices. 1500 houfes, and upwards of 6000 inhabitants. E.
LEVITY, in phyfiology, the privation or want of Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 50. 50.
weight in any body when compared with another that LEWIS, one of the iargefl of the Hebrides or we-
is heavier than it; in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to ftern iflands of Scotland, extending 100 miles in length ' ||
gravity. from north to fouth, and from 13 to 14 in, breadth,
LEUK, a town of Switzerland, almoft in the middle confifting of a great number of ifies and rocks, and
of the Valais; remarkable for its natural ftrength, for parted by the fea into two divifions, called Lewis and
the affembly of the ftates that often meet there, and Harries, the former lying to the weftward of the o-
for its baths, whofe water is fo hot that they will boil ther. Lewis belongs to the Ihireof Rofs ; is divided
eggs. by feveral channels, diftinguifhed by feveral names,
LEUSDEN (John), a celebrated philologer, born and portioned out among different proprietors; but
in 1624. He ftudied the learned languages and ma- the Lewis, ftri&ly fo called, ftretches about 36 miles
tbematics at Utrecht 5 and then went to Amfterdam, in length, from the north point of Bowling-head to
to converfe with the rabbis, and perfeA himfelf in the the fouthern extremity of Huflinefs in Harries. The
Hebrew tongue. After which he was profeffor of air is temperately cold, moift, and healthy ; great parts
Hebrew at Utrecht, where he acquired a great repu- of the low ground is flooded with Jakes; the reft is a-
tation, and died in 1699. He wrote many valuable rable in many places, and has been counted fruitful in f
works; the principal of which are, 1. Ommafiicum oats, barley, rye, flax, and hemp. The foil in thefe |i
Sacrum, 8vo. 2. Clavis Hebraica & Philologica Vete- parts is a light fand, which the inhabitants manure ^tate.
ris Tejiamenti, 410. 3. Novi T. Clavis Grseca, cum with foot and fea-ware; but great part of the ifland ■'
Hnnotaticnibus Philologicis, 8vo. 4. Compendium Bi- is covered with heath. The labouring people dig the
llicum Veteris Tejiamenti, 8vo. 5. Compendium Gras- land with fpades, and break the clods with fmall har-
cum Novi Tejhmenti, the heft edition of which is that rows, the foremoft teeth of which are made of wood,
of London, in 1688, i2mo. 6. Philologus Hebraus, and the remainder of rough heath, which fmooths what
410. 7. Philologus Hebrao mixtus, 410. 8. Philolo- the others have broke ; and this harrow is drawn by
gus Hebrao-Gracus, 410. 9. Notes on Jonas, Joel, one man, having a ftrong trace of horfe-hair acrofs
Hofea, &c. He alfo gave correft editions of feveral his bfeaft- Of their corn they not only make malt for
learned works. ale, but likewife a ftrong fpirit called trejlareg, which
LEUTKIRK, a free and imperial town of Ger- is the whilky, or nfquebaugh, three times diftilled.
many, in Suabia, and in Algow, feated on a rivulet Lewis abounds with convenient bays and harbours,
that falls into the lllar, in E. Long. 10. 10. N. Lat. namely, Lochftornvay, on the call fide; the Birken
47.53. ides, about feven miles farther fouthward; Loch-cre-
LEUTMERITZ, a town of Bohemia, capital of fort, three miles more to the fouth; Loch-feafort, a-
a circle of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee, feated bout five miles (till farther in the fame dire&ion ; Loch-
on the river Elbe, in E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 50. 34. carlvay, a capacious and fecure harbour, about 24
LEWARDEN, a handfome, rich, and ftrong town miles to the fouth-weft ; and Loch-rague, four miles
cf the United Provinces, capital of Oftergow, Wefter- more foutherly on the fame coaft : all thefe bays a-
gow, Sevenwolden, and Weft Friefland. It was the bound with cod, ling, and herring : here are likewife
ufual place of refidenee of the Stadtholder; and in whales of different iizes, which the natives drive into
buildings, as well public as private, is very magtjifi- the bays, and kill with harpoons. Fifty young whales
cent. It has feveral canals running through the ftreets, have been killed on this coaft in one feafon ; and their
which are of great fervice to their trade, efpecially as fleftt was eaten by the natives, who count it falutary
they are continued to the fea and to the moft confider- and toothfome, diftinguifhing it by the name of /ba¬
uble towns of the province. E. Long. j. 42. N. Lat. pork. Thefe bays afford great plenty of (hell-fifh ;
53. 12. fuch as clams, oyfters, cockles, muffels, lympits, welksj
LEUWENHOEK (Anthony de), a celebrated and fuch a prodigious quantity of fpout-fifh is fome-
Dutch phyfician and naturalift, was born at Delft, in times caft up from the fand off Loeh tua, that they in-
1632, of an ancient family of that city; and acquired fe& the air, and render it unhealthy to the neighbour-
a very great reputation throughout all Europe, by his ing inhabitants, ^ho are not able to confume them,
experiments and difeoveries. He particularly excel- either by eating, or ufing them as manure for the
Jed in making glaffes for microfcopes and fpe&acles, ground. Some of thefe lochs and bays likewife pro-
and died in 1723. His letters to the royal fociety of duce fmall coral and coralline. The frefh-water lakes
London, of which he was a member, were printed at are well ftored with trout and eels, and the rivers
Leyden, in 1722, in 410. yield plenty of falmon. Along the coaft are found a
LEVY, in law, fignifies to gather or coiled; as to great number of caves, which ferve as ftielter for the
feals
LEW [ 4201 ] LEW
..’»Lewis. feals and otters, which are alfo eaten as dainties by the
'inhabitants j and valt numbers of fea*fowl build upon
the rocks and promontories*
The land-animals reared in this ifland, are cows,
horfes, fheep, goats, hogs, and deer ; all thefe are of
a diminutive fize. The beef, mutton, and pork, are
juicy and delicious ; the horfes are active and hardy :
the deer, which are of the red kind, confine themfelves
to the chace of Ofervaul, about 15 miles in compafs,
which affords tolerable palturage; but in the winter,
when the ground is covered with froft and fnow, thefe
animals are forced to feed on fea-ware, and endure all
the rigour of the feafon, without any flicker from
wood or copfe, for there is not a tree to be feen ; ne-
verthelefs, the roots of very large trees, which have
been cut by the ax, are found in different places.
There is likewife a fmall grove of birch and hazle on
the fouth-we!t fide of Loch-Stornway.
The inhabitants of Lewis are in general well-pro¬
portioned, tall, fair, fanguine, ftrong, and healthy.
The fmall-pox fometimes makes terrible havock among
them. The other difeafes to which they are fubjecl,
are the chin-cough in children, the fever, the diar-
vhsea, dyfentery, fore-throats, jaundice, flitches, pleu-
rifies,. coughs, and rheums. As a medicine for the
diarrhaea and dyfentery, they admioifter the kernel of
the black Molucca beans, powdered and drank in boil¬
ed milk ; and fometimes the patient fwallows a fmall
dofe of their ftrong whifky diluted with water. This
is likewife prefcribed to children in the fmaH-pox,
when the pulfe finks and the puftules do not fill. In¬
flammatory diforders they cure by repeated bleeding ;
coughs and colds are removed by drinking plentifully
of warm brochan, or water-gruel, with butter or ho¬
ney, taken at bed-time ; which not only a<Ss as a bal-
famic pe&oral, but wonderfully promotes the dif-
charge of fweat and urine. When the uvula is enlon-
gated, they fnip off part of it with a pair of fciffars :
for the jaundice, they fluice a pail-full of cold water by
furprife on the patient’s naked back, or fear the ver¬
tebras with an adlual cautery when he dreams of no fuch
application. Green wounds they cure with-ointments
made of vulnerary plants and frefti-butter.
The natives of Lewis are quick of apprehenfion ; in¬
genious in mechanics; and much addidled to poetry and
mufick, many of them learning to play on the bag¬
pipe and violin. They are in general fober, circum-
fpedl, and hofpitable; dexterous in fhooting, fwim-
ming, leaping; bold and fleilful" mariners ; and fo
temperate, that they will tug at'the oar all day, with¬
out any other provifion than bread and water, with a
fnufh of tobacco.
Along this coaft we fee feveral natural mounts or
forts, called Dun, fuch as Dun-rowly, Dun-coradel,
and Dun-eiften. There are alfo the remains of fome
old cattles, and other monuments of antiquity. At
Stornvay village we fee the ruins of a fortrefs deftroy-
cd by the Englilh garrifon fent thither by Oliver Crom¬
well. To the northward of Brago there is a round
tower built of large ftones, three itories high, taper¬
ing towards the top, with a double wall, and a circu¬
lar ftaircafe between, by which one may go quite
round the building. On the heaths and fummits of
hills there are feveral cairns or heaps of ftones, which
ferved either for graves or beacons. In the parilh of
Barvas we fee a (ingle ftone called the thrujld, fiand- Lev
ing upright, above zo feet high, and almoit as much
in breadth. Three ftones, about 12 feet high each,
are feen (landing on the north fide of Loch-carlvay ;
and many others (landing tingle at great diftances,
and in remote parts of the ifland. But the moil re¬
markable monument of this kind appears by the village
of Claffernifs. Here we find 39 pyramidal ftones (laud¬
ing upright, about fix or feven feet high from the fur-
face, each about two feet in breadth. They are pla¬
ced in form of an avenue, eight feet wide ; the di-
ttance between every ftone amounting to fix feet, and
a fingle piece (lands at the entrance. This avenue
leads to a circle of 12 ftones of the fame dimenfions,
with one in the centre 13 feet in length, and (haped
like a rudder: on the tail, fouth, and weft (ides of
this circle, are four ftones, fuch as thofethat compoie
this round and avenue, forming three lines, or as it
were rays, from the body of the circle. This is flip-
pofed to have been a Druid temple; and tradition re¬
ports, that the chief Druid flood by the large (lone in
the centre, and harangued the audience. At the di-
ftance of a quarter of a mile there is another circle of
the fame nature; but without the range and avenue.
In all probability, thefe, as well as the monuments we
have deferibed in our account of the Orkneys, and
Stone-henge on Salifbury-plain, were places of wor-
ftiip erefted by the Druids in time of Pagan fuperfti-
tion. The chief town in Lewis is called Storn-bay,
from its fituation at the head of the bay known by
this name: it is a village, confiding of about 60 fa¬
milies, with a church, a grammar-fchool, and fome
public-houfes; here alfo refides the Reward for the
laird of Macleod, who is a proprietor of the ifland.
There is a confiderable number of inferior adjacent
ifles and rocks, fome of which hardly deferve to be
mentioned ; fuch as the fmall ifland Garve at the
mouth of Loch Carlvay, Berinfay, Fladda, Bernera
Minor, and Bernera Major, Kialify, Cavay, Carvay,
Grenim, Pabay, Shirem, Vexay, Wuya the Larger
and Leffer, and the Flannan iflands, which the feamen
denominate the northern hunters. Thefe are vifited
-every fummer by the inhabitants of the Lewis, who
go thither in queft of fowls, eggs, down, quills, and
feathers, as well as to (beer or kill the (beep that are
kept here forpafture. As thefe iflands are very deep
and rocky, the vifitors, after liaving landed and
climbed up the rock by a ladder, uncover their heads,
and, making a turn fun-ways, thank God for having
efcaped the danger they have undergone. In the lar¬
ged ifland are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to St
Flannan, from whom the ifles derive their name.
Thither the fowlers repairing, ftrip themfelves of
their upper garments, which being laid upon a ftone,
they advance towards the altar, and repeat three pray¬
ers ; an exercife which is performed every morning and
evening. They obferve many other fuperftitious cu-
ftoms during their refidence on thefe rocks ; and when
they have landed their boat with their purchafe, re¬
turn to the larger iflands. Among the iflands be¬
longing to the Lewis, we may likewife take notice
of the fmall ifle of Pigmies, fo called, becaufe bones
refembling thofe of human creatures, but of very
fmall dimenfions, have been dug out of the ground.
The iflands of Lewis are divided into the two parifties
23 X 2 of
LEW [ 4202 ] LEW
2.ewis. of Dams and Eye, and in each of thefe one mini-
~ fl-er jg fettled ; but there is a great number of churches
and chapels dedicated to different faints, in the diffe¬
rent ifles which compofe this clufter. All thefe were
fandtuaries before the reformation, but now they are
divefted of that privilege. The people of thefe
iflands are Prefbyterians, with a few Proteflants of
the Englifh communion, and a flill fmaller number of
Roman Catholics. The Proteflants obferve the fefti-
vals of Chriflmas, Good Friday, Eafler and Michael¬
mas 5 on the lafl of which the individuals of both
fexes perform an univerfary cavalcade.
LEWIS, or Louis, the name of feveral kings of
France. See France.
Lewis VII. anno 1137, was the firfl who had the
courage to oppofe the encroachments of the popes on
the regal authority: pope Innocent II. excommuni¬
cated him for appointing an archbifhop of Bourges;
but Lewis defended his prerogatives, and put the
priefts to death who had been the authors of the quar¬
rel. In 1147, he put himfelf at the head of an army
of 80,000 men, and marched againft the Saracens, in
the fecond crufade, but was defeated; and returning
into France by fea, was taken by the Greeks, but
refcued by Roger king of Sicily. His queen Eleo¬
nora accompanied him in this expedition; and being
fufpe&ed of infidelity with Saladin, a young Turk,
Louis divorced her, and fhe was married fix weeks
after to Henry duke of Normandy, (Henry II. king
of England). Lewis died in 1180, aged 60.
Lewis IX. anno 1226, (canonized), was one of the
greatefl monarchs of France; equally memorable for
his valour and his virtues, but unfortunately mifled
by the fupetflition of the times: he facrificed his own
repofe, and the welfare of his kingdom, to the folly of
crufading. In 1248, leaving France to the care of
his mother, he embarked for Egypt, attended by his
queen, his three brothers, and the flower of the French
nobility. At firft, his vidlories were rapid: he took
Damietta in 1249 5 but the following year he was
defeated and taken prifoner by the Turks, with all
the nobility in his train, and the greateft part of his
army. The fultan fent to him in prifon, to demand
an exorbitant fum for his ranfom; and his anfwer be¬
ing truly noble, deferves to be recorded: “Tell the
“ fultan, that a king of France is not to be ranfomed
“ with money; I will give the fum required for my
“ people, and Damietta for myfelf.” Thefe terms
were accepted, and a peace of 10 years enfued. Upon
his return to France, he diminifhed the taxes, revoked
thofe which the cupidity of the financiers had intro¬
duced ;'iffued feveral falutary edicts; founded feveral
churches and hofpitals;. and effeflually overturned the
ecclefiaftical jurifdi&ion of the court of Rome, by his
pragmatic fanclion in 1269, which eftabliflied the in¬
dependency of the Gallican church. Thirteen years
refidence in his capital indemnified his fubjefts for his
abfence;. but his pious zeal prevented the enjoyment
of this happinefs: he embarked for the fixth crufade
in 1270; and died the fame year, at the fiege of Tunis,
aged 55.
Lewis XI. anno 1461. His oppreffions obliged
his fubjefls to enter into a league againft him, ftyled,
“ Ligue du bieti publiq” in which his brother the duke
of Berri and fome of the principal nobility were con¬
cerned: they folicited fuccours from John duke of Cala¬
bria, who joined them with 500 Swifs (the firft intro¬
duction of Swifs foldiers into the French armies). His-
reign was almoft one continued fcene of civil war; and
it is computed that 4000 of his fubjedts were executed
in public and privately, either for being in arms againft
him, or fufpedted by him. In his laft illnefs, he
drank the warm blood of children, in the vain hope
of reftoring his decayed ftrength. He died in 1483,
aged 60. The polls for letters were eftablilhed in his
reign, owing to hjs eagernefs for news; the firft in-
ftitution of this nature in Europe.
Lewis XII. anno 1492, ftyled the Juft, and the
Father of his people ; memorable for his valour in the
field, and his wifdom in the cabinet. A great general;
but unfortunate towards the end of his reign, when he
did not command his troops in perfon: his orders
tranfmitted from home were mifunderftood, or wilfully
difobeyed; and he had the mortification, before he died,
to fee the total expulfion of the French from the pof-
feffions he had acquired for them by his perfonal bra¬
very. At 53 years of age, he married the princefs
Mary of England, After of Henry VIII. and being
of a delicate conllitution, fell a vi&im (according to
the French hiflorians) to amorous dalliance ; for
he died in about two months after his nuptials, in
1515.
Lewis XIII. anno 1610, increafed the military
reputation of his country, and made confiderable ad¬
ditions to its domains. The beginning of his reign
was occupied in civil wars with his mother and his
Proteftant fubjedls; in which he was excited to conti¬
nue by his famous minifter, cardinal Richlieu, who
attended him to the fiege of Rochelle, the bulwark of
the Huguenot party. This place was reduced by
famine to furrender, in 1628, after a fiege of more
than a year. Upon this, and other occafions, the king
gave proofs of great perfonal bravery. His attach¬
ment to his ally the duke de Nevers, who fucceeded
to the duchy of Mantua, but was refyfed the invefti-
ture by Charles VI. emperor of Germany, involved
him in a war with that prince, the Spaniards, and the
duke of Savoy ; in which Lewis was vi&orious, and
obtained a treaty of peace, by which the duke of
Mantua was guarantied in the poffeffion of hi* domi¬
nions. In 1635, a new war broke out between France
and Spain, and the emperor took part with the latter:
it lafted 13 years againft the emperor, and 25 againft
Spain, with various fuccefs; and the different armies
kept on foot, in the Low Countries, on the frontiers
of France, and in Italy, in the firft years of this war,
paved the way for the fignal fucceffes of Lewis XIV.
the campaigns of thefe armies being a military fchool
of difcipline and experience for the French officers,
befides giving them a knowledge of the countries
which became the feat of war in the next reign.
Lewis XIII. died 1643, aged 41.
Lewis XIV. le Grand, (king at five years of age),,
anno 1643. was at ftyled Dieu-donne, be-
caufe the French confidered him as the gift of heaven,
granted to their prayers after the queen had been
barren 22 years. This princefs (Ann of Auftria)
was declared regent by Lewis XIIL and faw herfelf
under a neceffity to continue the war againft Philip IV.
king of Spain, her brother. The duke d’Enguin was
made general of the French armies; and fo fignal was
the fuccefa of this renowned warrior, (afterwards
prince
Lewis.
LEY [ 4203 ] LIB
j«Lewi« prince of Conde, and known by the flyle of the Great
Mpyaen. Conde,) that his vidories brought on the advantageous
-I-———treaties of Munfter in 1648, between France, the em¬
peror Ferdinand III. and Chriftina queen of Sweden :
the bafisofthe aggrandifement of France in this reign;
the principal events of which, and of the next, are
related under the articles Britain, United Pro¬
vinces, &c. Lewis XIV. died in 1715, aged 77.
Lewis XV. (his great-grandfon) fucceeded in 1715.
He was ftyled, in the courfe of his reign, the <well-be-
loved, which he loft fome years before he died; and was
detefted and defpifed by his fubjeds for his ftiameful
attachment to a young girl, under the title of his
miftrefs, who, by the miniftry of her patron the duke
d’Aiguillon, governed the kingdom, and invaded the
ancient rights and privileges of the people. He died
in 1774, in the 64th year of his age, and 59th of his
reign.
LEYDEN, in Latin Lngdunum Batavorum, one of
the largeft and fineft cities in Holland, abounds with
canals, along which are rows of lofty trees that afford
very pleafant walks. An arm, or fmall branch of the
Rhine, runs through it. Over the canals are 145
bridges, moft of them of ftone or brick. The univer-
fity here is the oldeft in the United Provinces: it has
large privileges; a library well furnifhed, and particu¬
larly rich in manufcripts; a phyfic-garden well ftocked
with all forts of plants, many of which have been
brought from the Cape of Good Hope and the Eaft
. Indies; an anatomy-hall, well provided with flceletons;
and an obfervatory. The profeffors, who are generally
very eminent, read public leftures four times a-week,
for which they take no money ; but about three gui¬
neas are paid for a courfe of private leftures, which
lafts a whole year. The ftudents have no diftinft ha¬
bit, but all wear fwords, though they generally go to
the public and private leftures in their night-gowns
and flippers. The falaries of the profeffors are from
100I. to'200I. a-year: they wear gowns only when
they prefide at public deputations, read public lec¬
tures, or meet in the fenate; and their le&ures are al¬
ways in Latin. The ftudents do not lodge in the
univerfity, but where they pleafe in the town. The
cloth manufa&ure here is much decayed, w'hich for-
I merly flourifhed tofuch a degree, that 100,000 pieces,
it is faid, have fometimes been made in a year. The
city is famous for the long and fevere liege it main¬
tained in 1573 againft the Spaniards. We cannot
help mentioning the reply of that illuftrious magi-
ftrate, Adrian de Verf, when the citizens reprefented
to him the havoc made by the famine during the fiege,
and infilled upon his furrendering: “ Friends, (faid
he), here is my body, divide it among you to fatisfy
your hunger, but banilh all thoughts of furrendering to
the cruel and perfidious Spaniard.” They took his
|| advice, in regard to their not furrendering, and never
would liften to any overtures; but told the Spaniards,
they would hold out as long as they had an arm to eat
and another to fight. There are fome fine churches here,
and many long, broad, handfome ftreets; but the Pa-
pifts, as at Harlem, are more numerous than the Pro-
teftants.
Leyden Phial, a phial coated on the infide and out-
fidewith tinfoil, or other proper conducing fubftance,
and furnilhed with a brafs wire and knob, for giving
the ele&rical Ihock. See Electricity, n° 2^, 38, Leyte
62, 102, &c. H.
LEYTE, one of the Philippine iflands in the Eait Llbatlon‘
Indies, fituated in E. Long. 118. o. N. Lat. 11. o. Its
greateft length is about 40 leaves, and its circumfe¬
rence about 90 or 100. Its foil on the eaft fide is very
fruitful; but there are very high mountains which cut
it almoft through the middle, and ocoafion fo great an
alteration in the air, that when it is winter on the
north-fide, it is fummer on the fouthern part of the
ifland. Thus when the inhabitants of one half of the
year reap, the otheis fow ; and they have two plentiful
harvefts in a year, to which the rivers running down
from the abovementioned mountains contribute not a
little. The ifland contains about 9000 inhabitants,
who pay tribute to the Spaniards in rice, wax, and
quilts. The people have two good cuftoms; the firft,
to entertain each other interchangeably when they tra¬
vel ; the other, never to alter the price of provifions
on account of any fcarcity, and this under fevere pe¬
nalties.
LHUYD, or Lhoyd (Humphrey), a learned an¬
tiquarian of the 16th century, born at Denbigh, who
applied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic; and living moft-
ly within the walls of Denbigh caftle, pradlifed there
as a phyfician; fometimes diverted himfelf with mufic;
and died in 1570, with the charafter of a well-bred
gentleman. He wrote, and tranflated, feveral pieces
relative to hiftory and antiquities; in particular “ The
hiftory of Cambria, now called Wales, from Caradoc
of Langcarvan, &c.” but died before it was finilhed:
however Sir Henry Sidney, lord prefident of Wales,
employed Dr David Powel to finifti it, who publifhed
it in 1584. A new and improved edition of this work
was publifhed in 1774.
LIBANIUS, a famous Greek rhetorician and fo-
phift in the 4th century, was born at Antioch, and
had a great (hare in the friendfhip of Julian the A-
poftate. That prince offered him the dignity of Pra-
fettus Pratorio; but Libanius refufed it, thinking the
name of fophijl, or profejfor of eloquence, much more
honourable. There are ftill extant feveral of his let¬
ters and Greek orations, by which he acquired great
reputation; but his ftyle is fomewhat affeSed and ob-
fcure. He was a pagan. Bafil and Chryfoftom were
his difciples about the year 360. His letters were
publifhed at Amfterdam in 1738; his orations at Ve¬
nice, 1755.
LIBANUS, the name of a chain of mountainsof Tur¬
key in Afia, which lie between Proper Syria and Parle-
ftine, extending, from weft to eaft, from the Mediterra¬
nean Sea as far as Arabia. The fummits of thefe moun¬
tains are fo high, that they are always covered with
fnow ; but below are very pleafant and fruitful valleys.
They were formerly famous for the great number of
cedar-trees growing thereoji; but now there are fcarce
any remaining. Geographers diftinguifh them into
Libanus and Arttilibanus; the latter of which lies on
the fouth fide of the valley, rifing near the ruins of Si-
don, and terminates at others in Arabia, in N. Lat. 34.
They are feparated from each other at an equal diftance
throughout; and form a bafon, or country, called by
the ancients Casio-Syria.
LIBATION, a religious ceremony among the an¬
cient pagans, which confifted in an effufion of liquors
poured;
LIB [ 4204 1 LIB
I ibaw, poured on the head of the viftims prepared for facri-
Libel- fice.
Libations were alfo in ufe among the Hebrews,
who poured an hin of wine on the viftim after it was
killed, and the feveral pieces of the faerifice were laid
on the altar, ready to be confumed in the flames.
LIB AW, a fea-port town of Courland, lying on the
Baltic Sea, confifting entirely of wooden houfes. It
belongs to the duke of Courland, and is lituated in E.
Long. 21. 27. N. Lat. 56. 27.
LIBEL, (libellus famofus), taken in its larged and
moll extenfive fenfe, fignifies any writing, piflure, or
the like, of an immoral or illegal tendency ; but, in
a peculiar fenfe, is ufed to denote a malicious defama¬
tion of any perfon, and efpecially a magiftrate, made
public by either printing, writing, figns or pi&ures,
in order to provoke him to wrath, or expofe him to
public hatred, contempt, and ridicule. The direft
tendency of thefe libels is the breach of the public
peace, by ftirring up the obje&s of them to revenge,
and perhaps to bloodfhed. The communication of a
libel to any one perfon is a publication in the eye of
the law: and therefore the fending an abufive private
letter to a man is as much a libel as if it were openly
printed, for it equally tends to a breach of the peace.
With regard to libels in general, there are, as In
many other cafes, two remedies ; one by indi&ment
and another by adlion. The former for the public of¬
fence ; for every libel has a tendency to break the
peace, or provoke others to break it: which offence
is the fame whether the matter contained be true or
falfe ; and therefore the defendant, on an indiftment
for publifhing a libel, is not allowed to allege the truth
of it by way of juftification. But in the remedy by
a&ion on the cafe, which is to repair the party in
damages for the injury done him, the defendant may,
as for words fpoken, juftify the truth of the fafts, and
fhow that the plaintiff has received no injury at all.
What was faid with regard to words fpoken, will alfo
hold in every particular with regard to libels by wri¬
ting or printing, and the civil aiflions confequent
thereupon : but as to figns or pi&ures, it feems ne-
ceffary always to fhow, by proper innuendo's and a-
verments of the defendant’s meaning, the import and
application of the fcandal, and that fome fpecial
damage has followed; otherwife it cannot appear, that
fuch libel by pi&ure was underftood to be levelled at
the plaintiff, or that it was attended with any a&ion-
able confequences.
In a civil aftion, then, a libel mud appear to be
falfe, as well as fcandalous ; for, if the charge be
true, the plaintiff has received no private injury, and
has no ground to demand a compenfation from him-
felf, whatever offence it may be againft the public
peace: and therefore, upon a civil a6Hon, the truth
of the accufation my be pleaded in bar of the fuit.
But, in a criminal profecution, the tendency which
all libels have to create animofities, and to difturb the
public peace, is the foie confideration of the law.
And therefore, in fuch profecutions, the only points
to be confidered are, firft, the making or publifhing
of the book or writing; and, fecondly, whether the
matter be criminal: and, if both thefe points are a-
gainft the defendant, the offence againft; the public is
complete. The punifhment of fuch libellers, for either
making, repeating, printing, or publifhing the libel, Ltbelta.
is a fine, and fuch corporal punifhment as thecourt in *"
its difcretion fhall inflidt; regarding the quantity of
the offence, and the quality of the offender. By the
law of the twelve tables at Rome, libels, which affec¬
ted the reputation of another, were made a capital of¬
fence : but, before the reign of Auguflus, the pnnifh-
ment became corporal only. Under the emperor Va-
lentinian it was again made capital, not only to write,
but to publifh, or even to omit deftroying them.
Our law, in this and many other refpe&s, corre-
fponds rather with the middle age of Roman jurifpru-
dence, when liberty, learning, and humanity, were
in their full vigour, than with the cruel edi&s that
were eftablifhed in the dark and tyrannical ages of
the ancient decemviri^ or the later emperors.
In this, and other inftances, where blafphemous,
immoral, treafonable, fchifmatical, feditious, or fcan¬
dalous libels are punifhed by the Englifh law, fome
with a greater, others with a lefs degree of feverity ;
the liberty of the prefs, properly underftood, is by
no means infringed or violated. See Liberty of the
Prefs.
LIBELLA, or Libellula, in the hiftory of in-
feds, a genus of four-winged flies, called in Englifh
dragon-flies or adder-flies ; the charaders of which are
thefe : The mouth is furnifhed with jaws: the feelers
are fhorter than the breaft; and the tail of the male
terminates in a kind of hooked forceps. There are 21
fpecies, chiefly diftinguifhed by their colour. They
have all two very large and reticulated eyes, covering
the whole fnrface of the head. They fly very fwiftly ;
and prey upon the wing, clearing the air of innumer¬
able little flies. They are found in Auguft and Sep¬
tember in our fields and gardens, efpecially near places
where there are waters, as they have their origin from
worms living in that element. The great ones ufually
live all their time about waters ; but the fmaller are
common among hedges, and the fmalleft of all fre¬
quent gardens. The fmaller kind often fettle upon
bufhes, or upon the ground; but the large ones are
almoft always upon the wing, fo that it is very'dif-
ficult to take them. Their eyes are beautiful objeds
for the microfcope.
The manner of this infed’s coupling with the female
is a thing that has attraded the obfervation and ad¬
miration of multitudes, as they are frequently feen,
in the hotter months, in that date, flying together
about the edges of waters.'—Mr Homberg of the A*
cademy of Paris has taken a great deal of pains to
inform the world of the whole fecret of this ftrange
coitus, and of feveral other remarkable particulars
regarding the creature. The fpecies in which he ob-
ferved it, is the common libella with a blue body, and
large black fpots on the wings ; and is one of the
middle fize between thelargeft and leaft of thefe crea¬
tures, and is very frequent in moift places in June,
July, and Auguft. When the male of this fpecies
finds the female fitting upon a leaf or ftick, he feizes
her as he flies, taking fail hold of her, with the hooks
at the anus, by the neck, or that part which joins the
head to the breaft, and immediately flies away with
her, holding her fixed by the neck to the end of his
tail. It would not be unnatural, on this occafion, to
imagine that they were one fpecies of animal running
away
Liber
LIB [ 4205 ] LIB
away with another to devour it: but this thought
mutl be of fliort duration, fince the female will be
foon obferved to make no attempts to get away; but,
on the contrary, to contrive, as well as Ihe can, to be
the better carried, and that with lefs trouble to the
male. He does not however carry his female far be¬
fore he fettles himfelf upon fome plant, and raifes
his tail fo that the female may be brought to fit eafily
under him upon the fame plant. As foon as the fe¬
male is thus feated, fire turns up her tail, and brings it
between the legs of the male ; then places it to a cer¬
tain part of the bread of the male, in which are the
organs of generation in that fex. All this while the
male keeps his hold of her neck with his forceps or
hooks. They ufually remain in this pofture about
three minutes; and, after that, the male gently rai-
fing up his bread, they become feparated, and leaving
the hold he had on her neck at the fame time, he flies
away as he pleafes. T h female ufually remains on
the place for half a quarter of an hour, and then flies
away alfo.—Mr Homberg having obferved the coup¬
ling of thefe animals thus far, was determined to exa
mine the organs ufed in it, by diffedtion. His ana¬
tomical obfervations may be feen in Mem. Acad. Pa-
rif. 1699.
LIBER, in vegetables, the bark or rind, princi¬
pally of trees. This is to be conceived as confiding
of a number of cylindric and concentric furfaces wbofe
texture is reticular, and in fome trees plainly extrufible
every way, by reafon that the fibres are foft and
flexible. While in this condition, they are either hol¬
low regular canals, or, if not fo, they have interditial
fpaces which ferve the office of canals. The nutritious
juice which they are continually receiving, remains in
part in them, makes them grow in length and thick-
nefs, and drengthens and brings them clofer together;
and by this means the texture which was before reti¬
cular becomes an affemblage of draight fibres ranged
vertically and parallel to each other ; that is, as they
are thus altered behind one another, they by degrees
become a new fubdance more woody, called blea.
LIBERALIA, in Roman antiquity, the fame
with the Dionyfia of the Greeks. See Dionysia.
LIBERIA, in Roman antiquity, a fedival obferved
on the 16th of the kalends of April, at which time
the youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga
virilis, or habit peculiar to grown men. See the ar¬
ticle Toga.
LIBERTAS, Liberty, in Pagan worfhip, one
of the bleffings deified by the Romans, was reprefented
in the form of a virgin clothed in white, holding a
fceptre in her right hand and a cap in her left. To
this imaginary goddefs they ere&ed temples and altars,
where they offered up petitions for the prefervation of
their liberties.
LIBERTUS, in Roman antiquity, a perfon who
from being a flave had obtained his freedom.—The
difference between the liberti and libertini was this:
the liberti were fuch as had been actually made free
themfelves, and the libertini were the children of fuch
perfons.
LIBERTY, denotes a date of freedom, in contra-
didinftion Xo jlavery or rejlraint; and may be con*
fidered as either natural or civil.
The abfolute rights of man, confidered as a free
agent, endowed with difcernment to know good from
evil, and with power of choofing thofe meafures which '
appear to him to be mod defirable, are ufually fum-
med up in one general appellation, and denominated
the natural liberty of mankind. This natural liberty
conlids properly in a power of afting as one thinks
fit, without any redraint or controul, unlefs by the
law of nature ; being a right inherent in us by birth,
and one of the gifts of God to man at his creation,
when he endued him with the faculty of free-will.
But every man, when he enters into fociety, gives up
a part of his natural liberty, as the price of fo va¬
luable a purchafe; and, in confideration of receiving
the advantages of mutual commerce, obliges himfelf
to conform to thofe laws which the community has
thought proper to edablilh. And this fpecies of le¬
gal obedience and conformity is infinitely more defire-
able than that wild and favage liberty which is facri-
ficed to obtain it. For no man, that confiders a mo¬
ment, would wilh to retain the abfolute and uncon-
trouled power of doing whatever he pjeafes: thecon-
fequence of which is, that every other man would alfo
have the fame power; and then there would be no
fecurity to individuals in any of the enjoyments of
life.
Political therefore, or civil, liberty, which is that
of a member of fociety, is no other than natural li¬
berty fo far redrained by human laws (and no farther)
as is neceffary and expedient for the general advantage
of the public. Hence we may colled, that the law,
which redrains a man from doing mifchief to his fel¬
low citizens, though it diminilhes the natural, in-
creafes the civil liberty of mankind : but every wan¬
ton and caufelefs redraint of the will of the fubjedt,
whether pra&ifed by a monarch, a nobility, or a po¬
pular affembly, is a degree of tyranny. Nay, that
even laws themfelves, whether made with or without
our confent, if they regulate and condrain our condudt
in matters of mere indifference, without any good end
in view, are laws dedru&ive of liberty : whereas, if
any public advantage can arife from obferving -fuch
precepts, the controul of our private inclinations, in
one or two particular points, will conduce to preferve
our general freedom in others of more importance ;
by fupporting that date of fociety, which alone can
fecure our independence. Thus the flatute of king
Edward IV. which forbad the fine gentlemen of thole
times (under the degree of a lord) to wear pikes upon
their flioes or boots of more than two inches in length,
was a law that favoured of oppreffion ; becaufe, how¬
ever ridiculous the falhion then in ufe might appear,
the redraining it by pecuniary penalties could ferve
no purpofe of common utility. But the flatute of
king Charles II. which preferibes a thing feemingly
as indifferent, viz. a drefs for the dead, who were all
ordered to be buried in woollen, is a law confident
with public liberty ; for it encourages the flaple trade,
on which in great meafure depends the univerfal good
of the nation. So that laws, when prudently framed,
are by no means fubverfive, but rather introdu&ive of
liberty ; for (as Mr Locke has well obferved) where
there is no law there is no freedom. But then, on
the other hand, that conditution or frame of govern¬
ment, that fyffem of laws, is alone calculated to main¬
tain civil liberty, which leaves the fubjeil entire ma-
Libert
LIB [ 4206 ] LIB
Ltbety. ftcr 0f his own conduft, except.in thofe points wherc-
■“ in the public good requires fome diredlion or re-
ftraint.
The idea and pra£lice of this political or civil li¬
berty flourifh in their higheft vigour in thefe king¬
doms, where it falls little (hort of perfe&ion, and can
only lie loft or deftroyed by the folly or demerits of
its owner ; the legiflature, and of courfe the laws of
Britain, being peculiarly adapted to the preferva-
tion of this ineftimable bleffing even in the meaneft
fubjeft. Very different from the modern conftitu-
tions of other ftates on the continent of Europe, and
from the genius of the imperial law ; which in gene¬
ral are calculated to veil an arbitrary and defpotic
power, of controuling the a&ions of the fubjedt, in
the prince, or in a few grandees. And this fpirk of
liberty is fo deeply implanted in our conftitution, and
rooted even in our very foil, that a Have or a negro,
the moment he lands in Britain, falls under the pro-
te&ion of the laws, and fo far becomes a freeman ;
though the matter’s right to his fervice may poffibly
ftill continue.
The abfolute rights of every Briton, (which,
taken in a political and extenfive fenfe, are ufually
called their liberties') as they are founded on nature
and reafon, fo they are coeval with our form of go¬
vernment ; though fubjedl at times to fludluate and
change, their eftablifhment (excellent as it is) being
ftill human. At fome times we have feen them de-
preffed by overbearing and tyrannical princes; at
others, fo luxuriant as even to tend to anarchy, a worfe
' ftate than tyranny itfelf, as any government is better
than none at all. But the vigour of our free confti¬
tution has always delivered the nation from thefe em-
baraffments : and, as foon as the convulfions confe-
quent on the ftruggle have been over, the balance of
our rights and liberties has fettled to its proper level;
and their fundamental articles have been from time to
time afferted in parliament, as often as they were
thought to be in danger :
’Blackfl. Firft, by the great charter of liberties, which was
Comment, obtained, fword in hand, from king John, and after¬
wards, with fome alterations, confirmed in parliament
by king Henry III. his fon. Which charter contain¬
ed very few new grants ; but, as Sir Edward Coke ob-
ferves, was for the moft part declaratory of the prin¬
cipal grounds of the fundamental laws of England.
Afterwards, by the ftatute called confirmatio cartarum,
whereby the great charter is direfted to be allowed as
the common law ; all judgments contrary to it are de¬
clared void ; copies of it are ordered to be fent to all
cathedral churches, and read twice a-year to the peo¬
ple ; and fentence of excommunication is direfted to be
as conftantly denounced againft all thofe that by word,
deed, or counfel, ad contrary thereto, or in any de¬
gree infringe it. Next by a multitude of fubfequent
corroborating ftatutes .(Sir Edward Coke reckons
32,) from the firft Edward to Henry IV. Then,
after a long interval, by the petition of right; which
was a parliamentary declaration of the liberties of the
people, affented to by king Charles I. in the begin¬
ning of his reign. Which was clofely followed by the
ftill more ample concefiions made by that unhappy
prince to his parliament, before the fatal rupture be¬
tween them ; and by the many falutary laws, particu¬
larly the habeas corpus ad, palled under Charles II. Liberty;
To thefe fucceeded the bill of rights, or declaration de- r’i4‘)
livered by the lords and commons to the prince and
princefs of Orange 13th February 1688; and after¬
wards enaded in parliament, when they became king
and queen : which declaration concludes in thefe re¬
markable words; “ and they do claim, demand, and
infill upon, all and lingular the premifes, as their un- S
doubted rights and liberties.” And the aft of parlia¬
ment itfelf recognizes “ all and lingular the rights
and liberties afferted and claimed in the faid declara¬
tion to be the true, ancient, and indubitable rights of
the people of this kingdom.’’ Laftly, thefe liberties
were again afferted at the commencement of the pre-
fent century, in the aft of fettlement, whereby the
crown was limited to his prefent majefty’s illuftrious
houfe: and fome new provifions were added, at the
fame fortunate tera, for better fecuring our religion,
laws, and liberties 5 which the ftatute declares to be
“ the birthright of the people of England,” ac¬
cording to the ancient doftrineof the common law.
Thus much for the declaration of our rights and li¬
berties. The rights themfelves, thus defined by thefe
feveral ftatutes, confift in a number of private immu¬
nities ; which will appear, from what has been pre- ]
milled, to be indeed no other, than either that rf-
duum of natural liberty, which is not required by the
laws of fociety to be facrificed to public convenience ;
or elfe thofe civil privileges, which fociety hath enga- i
ged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties fo given
up by individuals. Thefe therefore were formerly, ei¬
ther by inheritance or purchafe, the rights of all
mankind ; but, in moft other countries of the world,
being now more orlefs debafed and deftroyed, they at
prefent may be faid to remain, in a peculiar and -em-
phatical manner, the rights of the people of Bri¬
tain. And thefe may be reduced to three principal
or primary articles; the right of perfonal fecurity, the
right of perfonal liberty, and the right of private pro- . ;
perty : becaufe, as there is no other known method of
compulfion, or of abridging man’s natural free-will,
but by an infringement or diminution of one or other
of thefe important rights, the prefervation of thefe, in¬
violate, may juftly be faid to include the prefervation
of our civil immunities in their largeft and moft exten¬
five fenfe. See the article Rights.
In vain, however, would thefe rights be declared,
afcertained, and protefted by the dead letter of the
laws, if the conftitution had provided no other me¬
thod to fecure their aftual enjoyment. It has there¬
fore eftablifhed certain other auxiliary fubordinate
rights of the fubjeft, which ferve principally as bar¬
riers to proteft and maintain inviolate the three great
and primary rights, of perfonal fecurity, perfonal li¬
berty, and private property. Thefe are,
1. The conftitution, powers, and privileges of par¬
liament ; for which fee Parliament,
2. The limitation of the king’s prerogative, by
bounds fo certain and notorious, that it is impoffible
he fhould exceed them without the confent of the peo¬
ple ; as to which, fee Parliament. The former of
thefe keeps the legiflative power in due health and
vigour, fo as to make it improbable that laws fhould
be enafted deftruftive of general liberty: the latter
is a guard upon the executive power, by reftraining it
from
LIB [ 4207 ] LIB
from a£Ung either beyond or in contradiction to the
laws that are framed and eftablifhed by the other.
3. A third fubordinate right of every Briton is
that of applying to the courts of juftice for redrefs of
injuries. Since the law is, in this realm, the fupreme
arbiter of every man’s life, liberty, and property,
courts of juftice muft at all times be open to the fub-
ject, and the law be duly adminiftered therein. The
emphatical words of magna carta, fpoken in the per-
fon of the king, who in judgment of law (fays Sir
Edward Coke) is ever prefent and repeating them in
all his courts, are thefe; Nulli vendemus, nulli negabi-
mus, aat differemus rettumveljujlitiam ; “ and there¬
fore every fubjedt,” continues the fame learned author,
“ for injury done to him in bonis, iH terris, velper-
fona, by any other fubjedt, be he ecclefiaftical or tem¬
poral, without any exception, may take his remedy by
the courfe of the law, and have juftice and right for
the injury done to him, freely without fale, fully with¬
out any denial, and fpeedily without delay.” It were
endlefs to enumerate all the affirmative adis of parlia¬
ment, wherein juftice is diredted to be done according
to the law of the land: and what that law is, every
fubjedt knows ; or may know if he pleafes : for it de¬
pends not upon the arbitrary wull of any judge; but
is permanent, fixed, and unchangeable, unlefs by au¬
thority of parliament. We (hall however juft mention
a few negative ftatutes, whereby abufes, perverfions,
or delays of juftice, efpecially by the prerogative, are
reftrained. It is ordained by magna carta, that no
freeman fiiall be outlawed, that is, put out of the pro¬
tection and benefit of the laws, but according to the
law of the land. By 2 Ed. III. c. 8. and 11 Ric. II.
c. 10. it is enadted, that no commands or letters ftiall
be fent under the great feal, or the little feal, the fig-
nft, or privy feal, in difturbance of the law; or to di-
fturb or delay common right: and, though fuch com¬
mandments fhould come, the judges (hall not ceafe to
do right : which is alfo made a part of their oath by
ftatute 18 Ed. III. ft. 4. And by 1 W. & M. ft. 2.
c. 2. it is declared, that the pretended power of fuf-
pending or difpenfing with laws, or the execution of
laws, by regal authority without confent of parlia¬
ment, is illegal.
Not only the fubftantial part, or judicial decifions,
of the law, but alfo the formal part, or method of
proceeding,-cannot be altered but by parliament: for,
if once thofe outworks were demolilhed, there would
be an inlet to all manner of innovation in the body of
the law itfelf. The king, it is true, may eredt new
courts of juftice ; but then they muft proceed accord¬
ing to the old eftablilhed forms of the common law.
For which reafon it is declared in the ftatute 16 Car. I.
c. to. upon the diffolution of the court of ftar-chamber,
that neither his majefty, nor his privy-counfel, have
any jurifdidtion, power, or authority by Euglifti bill,
petition, articles^ libel (which were the courfe of pro¬
ceeding in the ftar-chamber, borrowed from the civil
law) or by any other arbitrary way whatfoever, to ex¬
amine, or draw into queftion, determine, or difpofe
of the lands or goods of any fubjedts of this king¬
dom ; but that the fame ought to be tried and deter¬
mined in the ordinary courts of juftice, and by courfe
of law.
4. If there (hould happen any uncommon injury, or
Vol. VI.
infringement of the rights before-mentioned, which
the ordinary courfe of law is too defedtive to reach,
there ftill remains a fourth fubordinate right, apper¬
taining to every individual, namely, the right of pe¬
titioning the king, or either houfe of parliament, for
the redrefs of grievances. In Ruffia we are told,
that the Czar Peter eftablifticd a law, that no fnbjedt
might petition the throne, till he had firft petitioned
two different minifters of ftate. In cafe he obtained
juftice from neither, he might then prefent a third pe¬
tition to the prince ; but upon pain of death, if found
to be in the wrong. The confequence of which was,
that no one dared to offer fuch third petition ; and
grievances feldom falling under the notice of the fove-
reign, he had little opportunity to redrefs them. The
reftridlions, for fome there are, which are laid upon
petitioning in Britain, are of a nature extremely dif¬
ferent ; and while they promote the fpirit of peace,
they are no check upon that of liberty. Care only
muft be taken, left, under the pretence of petitioning,
the fubjedl be guilty of any riot or tumult ; as hap¬
pened in the opening of the memorable parliament in
1640: and, to prevent this, it is provided by the fta¬
tute 13 Car. II. ft. r. c. 5. that no petition to the
king, or either houfe of parliament, for any alteration
in church or ftate, fhall be figned by above 20 per-
fons, unlefs the matter thereof be approved by three
juftices of the peace, or the major part of the grand
jury, in the country; and in London, by the lord
mayor, aldermen, and common-council: nor Ihall any
petition be prefented by more than 10 perfons at a
time. But, under thefe regulations, it is declared by
the ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. that the fubjett
hath a right to petition; and that all commitments
and profecutions for fuch petitioning are illegal.
5. The fifth and laft auxiliary right of the fubjc<ft,
that we (hall at prefent mention, is that of having arms
for their defence, fuitable to their condition and de¬
gree, and fuch as are allowed by law. Which is alfo
declared by the fame ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2.
and is indeed a public allowance, under due reftric-
tions, of the natural right of refiftance and felf-pre-
fervation, when the fan&ions of fociety and laws
are found infufficient to reftrain the violence of op-
preflion.
In thefe feveral articles confifts the rights, or, as
they are frequently termed, the liberties of Britons:
liberties more generally talked of, than thorough¬
ly underftood ; and yet highly neceffary to be perfed-
ly known and confidered by every man of rank or pro¬
perty, left his ignorance of the points whereon they
are founded ftiould hurry him into fadion and^licen-
tioufnefs on the one hand, or a pufillanimous indiffe¬
rence and criminal fubmiflion on the other. And we
have feen that thefe rights confift, primarily, in the
free enjoyment of perfonal fecurity, of perfonal liber¬
ty, and of private property. So long as thefe remain
inviolate, the fubjed is perfedly free ; for every fpe-
cies of compulfive tyranny and oppreflion muft ad in
oppofition to one or other of thefe rights, having no
other objed upon which it can poflibly be employed.
To preferve thefe from violation, it is neceffary that
the conftitution of parliaments be fupported in its full
vigour; and limits, certainly known, be fet to the roya,I
prerogative. And, laftly, to vindicate thefe rights,
23 Y when
LIB [42
when adluallj' violated or attacked, the fubjefts of Bri¬
tain are entitled, in the firft place, to the regular ad-
miniftration and free courfe of jullice in the courts of
law; next, to the right of petitioning the king and
parliament for redrefs of grievances; and laftly, to the
right of haring and ufing arms for felf-prefervation
and defence. And all thefe rights and liberties it is
our birthright to enjoy entire; unlefs where the laws
of our country have laid them under neceflary reftraints.
Reftraints in themfelves fo gentle and moderate, as
%vi!l appear upon farther inquiry, that no man of fenfe
or probity would wifh to fee them flackened. For all
of us have it in our choice to do every thing that a
good man would defire to do; and are reftrained from
nothing, but what would be pernicious either to our-
felves or our fellow-citizens. So that this review of
our fituation may fully juftify the obfervation of a
learned French author, who indeed generally both
thought and wrote in the fpirit of genuine freedom ;
and who hath not fcrupled to profefs, even in the
very bofom of his native country, that the Britiih is
the only nation in the world, where political or civil
liberty is the dlreA end of its conftitution. Recom¬
mending therefore to the Undent in our laws a far¬
ther and more accurate fearch into this extenfive and
important title, we (hall clofe our remarks upon it with
the expiring wifh of the famous father Paul to his
country, “ Esto perpetua !”
Liberty and Necefity. See Metaphysics, n° 78.
—80.
Liberty of the Prefs. The art of printing, foon
after its introdu&ion, was looked upon in England,
as well as in other countries, as merely a matter of
ftate, and fubjeft to the coercion of tlm crown. It was
therefore regulated with us by the king’s proclamations,
prohibitions, charters of privilege and licence, and fi¬
nally by the decrees of the court of ftar-chamber, which
limited the number of printers,and of preifeswhich each
fhould employ, and prohibited new publications unlefs
previoufly approved by proper licenfers. On the de¬
molition of this odious jurifdi&ion in 1641, the long
parliament of Charles I. after their rupture with that
prince, affumed the fame powers as the ftar-chamber
had exercifed with refpedt to the licenfing of books:
and in 1643, 1^+7> I649, and 1652 (Scobell. i. 44,
134. ii. 88, 230.) iflued their ordinances for that
purpofe, founded principally on the ftar-chanxber de¬
cree of 1637. In 1662, was paffed the ftatute 13 &
14 Car II. c. 33. which, with fom.e few alterations,
was copied from the parliamentary ordinances. This
aft expired in 1679; but was revived by ftatute 1
jac. II. c. 17. and continued till 1692. It was then
continued,for two years longer by ftatute 4 W. & M.
c. 24. but though frequent attempts were made by the
government to revive it, in the fubfequent part of that
reign (Com. Journ. 11 Feb. 1694. 26 Nov. 1695.
22 Oft. 1696. 9 Feb. 1697. 31 Jan. 1698.) yet the
parliament refifted it fb ftrongly, that it finally expi¬
red, and the prefs became properly free in 1694 ; and
has continued fo ever fince.
The liberty of the prefs, however, fo eflential to
the nature of a free ftate, confifts not in freedom from
cenfure for any criminal matter that may be publifhed,
but in laying no previous reftraints upon publications.
Every freeman has undoubtedly a right to lay what
08 ] LIB
fentiments he pleafes before the public ; to forbid this, Libet
lifhes what is improper, mifchievous, or illegal*, he Ij,bra’
muft take the confequence of his own temerity *. To
fubjeft the prefs to the reftriftive power of a licenfer Libel.
in the manner abovementioned, is to fubjeft all fiee-
dom of fentiment to the prejudices of one man, and
make him the arbitrary and infallible judge of afl con¬
troverted points in learning, religion, and government.
But to punifh (as the law does at prefent) any dange¬
rous or offenfive writings which, when pubiifhed,
(hall, on a fair and impartial trial, be adjudged of a
pernicious tendency, is necefiary for the prefervation
of peace and good order, of government and religion,
the only folid foundations of civil liberty. Thus the
will of individuals is (till left free; the abufe only of
that free-will is the objeft of legal punifliment. Nei¬
ther is any reftraint hereby laid upon freedom of
thought or inquiry ; liberty of private fentiment is (lill
left; the difleminating or making public of bad fenti¬
ments, deftruftive of the ends of fociety, is the crime
which fociety correfts. A man (fays a fine writer on
this fubjeft) may be allowed to keep poifons in his
clofet, but not publicly to vend them as cordials. And
to this we may add, that the only plaufible argument
heretofore ufed for reftraining the juft freedom of the
prefs, “ that it was neceffary to prevent the daily
abufe of it,” will entirely lofe its force, when it is
(hewn, (by a feafonable exertion of the laws) that the
prefs cannot be abufed to any bad purpofe without
incurring a fuitable puniftiment: whereas, it can ne¬
ver be ufed to any good one when under the con-
troul of an infpeftor. So true will it be found, that
to cenfure the licentioufnefs, is to maintain the liberty
of the prefs.
LIBETHRA, (anc. geog.) the fountain of fong,
was fituated in Magnefia, a diftrift of Macedonia,
annexed to Theffaly; diftinft from the town of Li-
bethra, which ftood on mount of Olympius, where it
verges towards Macedonia: hence the Mufes are
called Libethrides, (Virgil.) Strabo places on He¬
licon, not only Hippocrenc, and the temple of the
Mufes, but alfo the cave of the nymphs Libethrides.
LIBETHRIUS mons, (anc. geog.) a mountain
of Bceotia, diftant from Coronea 40 itadia ; where
ftood the ftatues of the Mufts, and of the nymphs,
furnamed Libethrine. A mountain probably conjoined
with, or at leaft very near to, Helicon.
LIBIT1NA, in Pagan worftiip, the goddefs of fu¬
nerals, is believed by fome to have been the fame with
Proferpine. She had a temple at Rome, in which
every thing proper for funerals was kept; and which
were either bought or borrowed of her priefts, called
dibitinarii, as everyone had occafion.
LIBJ'IA, (anc. geog.), a facerdotal city in the tribe
of Judah, a place of (Length, as appears from Senna¬
cherib’s laying fiege to it, 2 Kings xix. Ifaiah xxxvii.
In Jerome’s time, a village, called Lobna, in the ter¬
ritory of Eleutheropolis.
LIBOURNE, a town of France, in Guienne, and
in Bourdelois. It is a populous trading town, and is
feated on the river Dordogne. W. Long. o. 10. N.
Lat. 44. 55.
LIBRA,' the balance, in aftronomy. See there,
n° 206.
U-
LIB [ 4209 ] LIC
library Libra, in Roman antixuity, a pound weight, alfo
||ll , a coin equal in value to 20 denarii.
afjburrm. LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment deftined for
holding a confiderable number of books placed regu¬
larly on (helves ; or, the books themfelves lodged
in it.
The firft who erefted a library at Athens was the
tyrant Pififtratus, which was tranfported by Xerxes
into Perfia, and afterwards brought back by Seleucus
Nicanor to Athens. Plutarch fays, that under Eu-
menes there was a library at Pergamus that contained
200,000 books. That of Ptolemy Philadelphus, ac¬
cording to A. Gellius, contained 700,000, which were
all burnt by Csefar’s foldiers. Conftantine and his
fucceffors ere&ed a magnificent one at Conftantinople,
which in the eighth century contained 300,000 vo-
| lumes : and among the reft, one in which the Iliad
■ and Odyfiey wrere written in letters of gold, on the
guts of a ferpent: but this library was burnt by order
I of Leo Ifaurus. The molt celebrated libraries of an¬
cient Rome; were the Ulpian and the Palatine, and in
modern Rome, that of the Vatican. The foundation
|| - of the Vatican library was laid by pope Nicholas, in
the year 1450; it was afterwards deftroyed in the
facking of Rome by the conftable of Bourbon, and
reftored by pope Sixtus V. and has been confiderably
enriched with the ruins of that of Heidelberg, plun¬
dered by count Tilly in 1682. One of the moft com¬
plete libraries in Europe, is that erefted by Cofmo de
Medicis; though it is now exceeded by that of the
French king, which was begun by Francis I. aug¬
mented by cardinal Richelieu, and completed by M.
Colbert. The emperor’s library at Vienna, according
toLambecius, confifts of 80,000 volumes, and 15,940
I v curious medals. The Bodleian library at Oxford ex¬
ceeds that of any univerfity in Europe, and even thofe
of any of the fovereigns of Europe, except the empe¬
ror’s and the French king’s, which are each of them
older by 100 years. It was firft; opened in 1602, and
has fince been increafed by a great number of benefac¬
tors : indeed, the Medicean library, that of Beffarion at
Venice, and thofe juft mentioned, exceed it in Greek
manuferipts; but it outdoes them all in Oriental ma-
nuferipts ; and as to printed books, the Ambrofian at
Milan, and that at Wolfembuttle, are two of the moft
famous, and yet both are inferior to the Bodleian. The
Cotton library confifts wholly of manuferipts, parti-
I cularly of fuch as relate to the hiftory and antiquities
of Britain ; which, as they are now bound, make about
1000 volumes.
In Edinburgh there is a good library belonging to
the univerfity, well furniftied with books; which are
kept in good order. There is alfo a noble library
of books and manuferipts belonging to the faculty of
Advocates. See Advocate.
LIBRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent irregu¬
larity of the moon’s motion, whereby (he feems to li-
brate about her axis, fometimes from the eaft to the
weft, and nowand then from the weft to the eaft. See
L ^Astronomy, n° 221.
LIBURNIA (anc. geogr.), a diftrift of Illyricum,
extending towards the Adriatic between Iftria on the
weft, DJmaiia on the eaft, and mount Albius on the
north. Liburni, the people. The apparitors, who
at the command of the magiftrate (ummoned the
people from the country, were cz\\t& Liburni, becaufe Liburnu-
generally men of Liburnia. Liburna, or Liburnica, ll .
(Horace), denoted a kind crlight and (wife (kiffs, ufed Licentute-
by the Liburnians in their fea-rovings or piracies, for
which they were noted. Liburnum (Juvenal), a fpe-
cies of litters, made in form of Liburnian (kids, where¬
in the noblemen of Rome were carried, and where
they fat at their cafe, either reading or writing,
(Juvenal). _ . . ,
LIBURNUS (Polybius), a mountain of Campania.
Alfo a port of Tufcany. Now Livorno, or Leghorn,
E. Long. 11. N. Lat. 43. 30.
LIBYA, in general, according to the Greeks, de¬
noted Africa. An appellation derived from Lub^
“ third,” being a dry and thirfty country.
Libya, in a more reftrained fenfe, was the middle
part of Africa, extending north and weft, (Pliny);
between the Mediterranean to the north, the Atlantic
to the weft, the Ethiopic to the fouth, and Ethiopia
to the eaft; and was two-fold, the Hither or Exterior
Libya', and the Farther or Interior. The former lay
between the Mediterranean on the north, and the
Farther Libya and Ethiopia beyond Egypt on the
fouth, (Ptolemy). The Farther or Interior Lbyia,
was a vaft country, lying between the Hither Libya
on the north, the Atlantic ocean on the weft, the
Ethiopic' on the fouth, and Ethiopia beyond Egypt
on the eaft, (Ptolemy).
Libya, in a ftill more reftrained fenfe, called, for
diftindlion’s fake, Libya Propria, was a northern di-
ftridt of Africa, and a part of the Hither Libya; fitu-
ated between Egypt to the eaft, the Mediterranean to
the north, the Syrtis Major and the Regio Tripoli-
tana to the weft, the Garamantes and Ethiopia be¬
yond Egypt to the fouth. Now the kingdom and defart
of Barca. This Libya was again fubdivided into Libya,
taken in the ftri&eft fenfe of all, and into Marmarica
and Cyrenaica. Libya in the ftriSeft fenfe, otherwife
the Exterior, was the moft eaftern part of Libya Pro¬
pria, next to Egypt, with Marmarica on the weft, the
Mediterranean on the north, and the Nubi, now called
Nubia, to the fouth, (Ptolemy).
LICE. See Pediculus.
Crab-Licz, fo called from their refemblance to
crab-fi(h. They infeft the arm-pits, eye-lids, eye¬
brows, and pudenda of grown perfons. They arc
flattifh, and (lick fo clofe to the fi<in, that they can
fcarce be removed. They are alfo called plaftula,
petohe, pejjfolatce, and, from their often infefting the
pubes, they are called pediculi inguinales. They are
deftroyed either with black foap, mercurial ointments,
oil of lavender, or a folution of (ublimate in rofe-water;
of which laft the proportion may be one drachm of fu*
blimate to a pound of the water.
LICENCE, in law, an authority given to a perfon
to do fome lawful a£t.
Licenser of the Prefi. See Liberty of the Prefs.
LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree
of a licence.—The greateft number of the officers of
juftice in Spain are diftinguifhed by no other title
than that of licentiate. In order to pafs licentiate in
common law, civil law, and phyfic, they muft have
(ludied feven years, and in divinity 10. Among us a
licentiate ufualiy means a phyfician who has a licence
to pra&ife, granted by the college of phyficians.
23 Y 2 LICHEN,
LIC [42
LICHEN, liver wort j a genus of the order of
’ algse, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
There are upwards of 100 fpecies, all natives of Bri¬
tain. The moft: remarkable are,
1. The geographicus; it is frequent in rorks, and
may be readily dillinguifhed at a dillance. The cruft
or ground is of a bright greeniOi-yellovv colour,
fprinkled over with numerous plain black tubercles;
which frequently run into one another, and form liges
refembling the rivers in a map, from which laft cir-
cumftance it takes its name.
2. The calcareous, or black-nobbed dyer’s lichen,
is frequent on calcareous rocks; and hath a hard,
fmooth, white, ftoney, or tartareous cruft, cracked or
teffilated on the furface, with black tubercles. Lille-
nius relates, that this fpecies is ufed in dyeing, in the
fame manner as the tartareus after-mentioned.
3. The ventofus, or red fpangled tartareous lichen,
hath a hard tartareous cruft, cracked and teffelated on
the furface, of a pale-yellow colour when frefh, and a
light olive when dry. The tubercles are of a blood-
red colour at top, their margin and bafe of the fame
colour as the cruft. The texture and appearance of
this, (according to Mr Lightfoot) indicate that it
would anfwer the purpofes of dyeing as well as
fome others of this tribe, if proper experiments were
made.
4. The candelarius, or yellow farinaceous lichen, is
common upon walls, rocks, boards, and old pales.
There are two varieties. The firft has a farinaceous
cruft, of no regular figure, covered with numerous,
fmall, greenifh-yellow, or olive fhields, and grows*
commonly upon old boards. The other has a fmooth,
hard, circular cruft, wrinkled and lobed at the circum¬
ference, which adheres clofely to rocks and (tones. In
the centre are numerous (hields of a deeper yellow or
orange colour, which, as they grow old, fwell in the
middle, and affume the figure of tubercles. The in¬
habitants of Smaland in Sweden ferape this lichen
from the rocks, and mix it with their tallow, to make
golden candles to burn on feftival days.
5. The tartareus, or large yellow-faucer’d dyer’s
lichen, is frequent on rocks, both in the Highlands
and Lowlands of Scotland. The cruft is thick and
tough, either white, or greenifti-white, and has a rough
warted furface. The fhields are yellow or buff-co¬
loured, of various fixes, from that of a pin’s head to
the diameter of a filver penny. Their margins are of
the fame colour as the cruft. This lichen is much
ufed by the Highlanders for dyeing a fine claret or
pompadour colour. For this purpofe, after feraping
it from the rocks, and cleaning it, they deep it in
urine for a quarter of a year. Then taking it out,
they make it into cakes, and hang them up in bags to
dry. Thefe cakes are afterwards pulverifed, and the
powder is ufed to impart the colour with an addition
of alum.
6. Theparellus, or crawfi(h-eye lichen, grows upon
wall and rocks, but is not very common. The crufts
fpread clofely upon the place where they grow, and
cover them to a confiderable extent. They are rough,
tartareous, and afh-coloured, of a tough coriaceous
fubftance. The (hields are numerous and crowded,
having white or afh-coloured, (hallow, plain difes,
'•with obtufe margins. This is ufed by the French for
10 ] LIC
dying a red colour. Lichen,'
7. The faxatiles, or grey-blue pitted lichen, is very
common upon trunks of trees, rocks, tiles, and old
wood. It forms a circle two or three inches diame-i
ter. The upper furface is of a blue-grey and fome-
times of a whitifli a(h-colour, uneven, and full of
numerous fmall pits or cavities ; the tinder-fide is
black, and covered all over, even to the edges, with
(liort fimple hairs or radicles. A variety fometimes
occurs with leaves tinged of a red or purple colour.
Tin's is ufed by finches and other fmall birds in con-
(lru6fing the outfide of their curioufly formed nefts.
8. Tlie omphalodes, or dark-coloured dyers lichen,
is frequent upon rocks. It forms a thick widely ex¬
panded cruft of no regular figure, compofed of nume¬
rous imbricated leaves of abrown ordark-purple colour,
divided'into fmall fegments. The margins of the
(liields are a little crifped and turned inwards, and
their outfide a(h-coloured. This lichen is much ufed
by the Highlanders in dying a reddilh brown colour.
They deep it in urine for a confiderable time, till it
becomes foft and like a pafte; then, forming the
pafte into cakes, they dry them in the fun, and pre-
(erve them for ufe in the manner already related of the
Tartareus.
9. The parietinus, or common yellow wall-lichen, is
very common upon walls, rocks, tiles of houfes, and
trunks of trees. It generally fpreads itfelf in circles
of two or three inches diameter, and is faid to dye a
good yellow or orange colour with alum.
10. The i(landicus,oreatable Iceland lichen, growson
many mountains both of the Highlands and Lowlands
of Scotland. It confifts of nearly ereeft leaves about
two inches high, of a ft iff fubftance when dry, but
foft and pliant when moift, varioufly divided without
order into broad diftant fegments, bifid or trifid at
the extremities. The upper or interior furface of the
leaves is concave, cheftnut-colour, fmooth, and (hining,
but red at the bafe ; the under or exterior furface is
fmooth and whitifti, a little pitted, and fprinkled
with very minute black warts. The margins of the
leaves and all the fegments from bottom to top are
ciliated with fmall, fhort, (tiff, kair-like fpinules, of
a dark cheftnut colour, turning towards the upper
fide. The fhields are very rarely produced. For the
ufes of this as an efculant herb, fee Iceland n° 16.
Made into broth or gruel, it is faid to be very fervice-
able in coughs and eonfumptions ; and, according to
Halier and Scopoli, is much ufed in thefe complaints in
Vienna.
11. The pulmonarius, or lungwort lichen, grows in
(hady woods upon the trunks of old trees. The leaves
are as broad as a man’s hand, of a kind of leather-like
fubftance, hanging loofe from the trunk on which it
grows, and laciniated into wide angular' fegments.
Their natural colour, when fre(h, is green ; but in dry¬
ing, they turn firft to a glaucous and afterwards to a
fufeous colour. It has am aftringent, better tafte ;
and, according to Gmelin, is boiled in ale in Siberia,
inftead of hops. The ancients ufed it in coughs and
afthmas, &c. but it is not ufed in modern pratftice.
12. The calicaris, or beaked lichen, grows fometimes
upon trees but more frequently upon rocks, efpecially
on the fea-coafts, but is not very common. It is
fmooth, gloffy, and whitilk, producing flat or convex
ftiields
LIC [42
ftnelds, of the fame colour as the leaves, very near the
fummits of the fegments, which are acute and rigid,
and, being often refleSed from the perpendicular by
the growth of the fhields, appear from under their
limbs like a hooked beak. This will dye a red colour ;
and promifes, in that intention, to rival the famous
Lichen Rocolla or Argol, which is brought from Canary
Iflands, and fometimes fold at the price of Sol. per
ton.. It was formerly ufed initead of ftarch to make
hair-powder.
13. The prunaftri, or common ragged hoary lichen,
grows upon all forts of trees ; but is generally moll
white and hoary on the floe and old plum trees or
upon old pales. This is the moft variable of the
whole tribe of lichens, appearing different in figure,
magnitude and colour, according to its age, place of
growth, and fex. The young plants are of a glaucous
colour, flightly divided into fmall acute crefted feg¬
ments. As they grow older, they are divided like a
flag’s horn, into more and deeper fegments, fome-
what broad, flat, foft, and pitted on both fides, the
upper furface of a glaucous colour, the under one
white and hoary.-—The male plants, as Linnaeus terms
khem, are fhort, feldom more than an inch high, not
hoary on the under-fide ; and have pale glaucous
fliields fituated at the extremities of the fegments,
{landing on fliort peduncles, which are only fmall (liff
portions of the leaf produced.—The female fpecimens
have numerous farinaceous tubercles both on the edges
of their leaves, and the wrinkles of their furface. —
The pulverized leaves have been ufed as a powder for
the hair, and alfo in dying yarn of a red-colour.
14. The juniperinus, or common yellow tree-lichen,
is common upon the trunks and branches of elms and
many other trees. Linnaeus fays it is very common
upon the jnriper. The Gothland Swedes dye their
yarn of a yellow colour with it, and give it as a fpe-
cific in the jaundice.
15. The caninus, or afh-coloured ground-liverwort,
grows upon the ground among mofs, at the roots of
trees in fhady woods, and is frequent alfo in heaths
and flony places. The leaves are large, gradually
dilated towards the extremities, and divided into
roundiffi elevated lobes. Their upper fide, in dry
weather, is afli-coloured ; in rainy weather, of a dull
fufeous green colour; their under-fide white and
hoary, having many thick downy nerves from which
defeend numerous, Jong, white, pencil-like radicles.
The peltas, or fliields, grow at the extremities of the
elevated lobes, fliaped like the human nail ; of a
roundifti oval form, convex above, and concave be¬
neath ; of a chocolate colour on the upper fide, and
the fame colour with the leaves on the under. There
are two varieties, the one called reddifh, and the other
many-fingered ground-liverwort. The former is more
common than the other. This fpecies has been ren¬
dered famous by the celebrated Dr Mead, whoafferted
that it was an infallible preventative of the dreadful
confequences attending the bite of a mad dog. He
direfted half an ounce of the leaves dried and pulve-
rifed to be mixed with two drachms of powdered
black pepper. This was to be divided into four dofes,
one of which was to be taken by the patient every
morning faking, for four mornings fuccefimly, in half
a pint of warm cow’s milk ; after which he was to
ii ] LIC
ufe the cold bath every morning for a month. — It is
much to be lamented, however, that the fuccefs of
this medicine, or indeed any other recommended for
the fame purpofe, hath not always anfwered the ex¬
pectation. There are inflances where the application
hath not prevented the hydrophobia, and it is even
uncertain whether it has ever been inllrumental in
keeping off that diforder.
16. The aphthofus, or green ground-liverwort
with black warts, grows upon the ground at the roots
of trees in woods, and other Honey and moffy places.
It differs very little from from the foregoing, and ac¬
cording to fome is only a variety of it. Linnaeus in¬
forms us, that the country-people of Upland in Sweden
give an infufion of this lichen in milk to children that
are troubled with the diforder called the thrujh or
aphthee, which induced that ingenious naturalift to be¬
llow upon it the trivial name of aphthofus. The fame
writer alfo tells us, that a deco&ion of it in water
purges upwards and downwards, and will deftroy
worms.
17. The cocciferus, or fcarlet-tipped cup-lichen, is
frequent in moors and heaths. It has in the firfl Hate
a granulated cruft for its ground, which is afterwards
turned into fmall laciniated leaves, green above, and
hoary underneath. The plant affumes a very different
afpect, according to the age, fituation, and other ac¬
cidents of its growth ; but may be in general readily
diflinguifhed by its fruClifications, which are fungous
tubercles of a fine fcarlet colour, placed on the rim of
the cup, or on the top of the ftalk. Thefe tubercles,
fteeped in an alcaline lixivium, are faid to dye a fine
durable red colour.
18. The rangiferinus, or rein-deer lichen, is frequent
in woods, heaths, and mountainous places. Its ge¬
nera! height, when full-grown, is about two inches.
The (talk is hollow, and very much branched from
bottom to top ; the branches are divided and fubdi-
vided, and at laft terminated by two, three, four, or
five very fine, fliort, nodding horns. The axillse of
the branches are often perforated. The whole plant
is of a hoary white or grey colour, covered with
white farinaceous particles, light and brittle when
dry, foft and elaliic when moiil. The fru6lification,s
are very minute, round, fufeous, or reddifh-browa
tubercles, which grow on the very extremities of the
fined branches; but thefe tubercles are very feldom
found. The plant feems to have no foliaettous ground
for the bafe, nor fcarcely any vilible roots.—Linnaeus
tells us, that in Lapland this rrtofs grows fo luxuriant
that it is fometimes found a foot high. There are
many varieties of this fpecies, of which the principal
is the fylvaticus, or brown-tipt rein-deer lichen. The
moft remarkable difference between them is, that the
fylvaticus turns fufeous by age, while the other al¬
ways continues white. For the ufes of thefe fpecies,
fee Lapland.
19. Theplicatus, or officinal flringy lichen, grows
on the branches of old trees, but is not very common.
The ftalks are a foot or more in length, cylindrical,
rigid, and firing-fliaped, very irregularly branched,
the branches entangled together, of a cinereous orafli-
colour, brittle and ftringy if doubled fhort, other-
wife tough and pliant, and hang pendent from the
trees on which they grow. The fhields grow gene-
LIC [42
Lichten- rally at the extremities of the branches, are nearly
be;g flat, or flightly concave, thin, afli-coloured above,
Liciniuf pale-brown underneath, and radiated with fine rigid
 — fibres. As the plant grows old, the branches become
covered with a white, rough, warty cruft; but the
young ones are deftitute of it. It was formerly ufed
in the (hops as an aftringent to flop haemorrhages,
and to cure ruptures ; but is out of the modern prac¬
tice. Linnaeus informs us, that the Laplanders apply
it to their feet to relieve the excoriations occafioned
by much walking.
20. The barbatus, or bearded lichen, grows upon the
branches of old trees in thick woods and pine-forefts.
The ftalks or firings are (lightly branched and pendu¬
lous, from half a foot to two feet in ' length, little
bigger than a taylor’s common fewing thread; cylindri-
caliy jointed towards the bafe; but furrounded every
where elfe with numerous, horizontal, capillary fibres,
either fimple, or flightly branched. Their colour is
a whitifli green. This has an aftringent quality like
the preceding. When fteeped in water, it acquires an
orange colour; and, according to Dillenius, is ufed
in Penfylvania for dying that colour.
2 1. The vulpinus, or gold-wiry lichen, grows upon
the trunks of old trees, but is not very common. It is
produced, in ereft tufts, from half an inch to two
inches in height, of a fine yellow or lemon colour,
which readily difeovers it. The filaments which com-
pofe it are not cylindrical, but a little compreflfed and
uneven on the furface, varioufly branched, the angles
obtufe, and the branches draggling and entangled
one with another. Linnaeus informs us, that the in¬
habitants of Smaland in Sweden dye their yarn of
a yellow colour with this lichen ; and that the Nor¬
wegians deftroy wolves by fluffing dead carcafles
with this rnofs reduced to powder, and mixed with
pounded glafs, and fo expofing them in the winter-
ieafon to be devoured by thofe animals.
L1CHTENBERG, a caftle of France, in Lower
Alface, and the chief place of a county of the fame
name ; feated on a rock, near the mountains Vofges,
and is looked upon as impregnable. E. Long. 7. 35.
N. Lat. 48. 55.
LICHTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, and margravate of Cullembach.
E. Long. 12. o. N. Lat. 50. 26.
LICHTENFELS, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, and biftioprick of Bamberg, feat¬
ed on the river Mayne, in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat.
, 50. 20.
LICHTENSTEIN, a town of Swiflerland, in
Tockerberg, feated on the river Thour. E. Long. 2.
35. N. Lat. 47. 25.
LICHTSTALL, an handfome town of Swifler¬
land, in the county of Bade; feated on the river
Ergetz. in E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat. 47. 40.
LICINIUS Stolo, a famous Roman tribune,
ftyled S/0/0 on account of a law he made, while tri¬
bune, that no Roman citizen fliould poflefs more
than 500 acres of land; alleging, that when they oc¬
cupied more, they could not cultivate it with care, nor
pull up the ufelefs (hoots {Jiolones) that grow from the
roots of trees. He is memorable alfo for enadting, that
one of the confuls (hould always be of a Plebeian fa¬
mily. He lived about 362 B. C,
12 ] LIE
LICOLA, or Lago-di-Licola, a lake in the Licol*
kingdom of Naples, formerly famous for plenty of .II 1
excellent fifli ; but in the year 1538 an explofion of a
volcano changed one part of it into a mountain of
allies, and the other into a morafs. It was anciently
known by the name of the Lucrine-lake.
LlCTORS, in Roman antiquity, twelve officers or
ferjeants, appointed by Romulus the founder of Rome,
to attend him whenever he (hould appear in public ;
each of them bearing a battle-ax (luck in a bundle of
rods, which was then the ufual fymbol of fovereignty
in the petty ftates of Hetruria. It was alfo a part of
their office to be the public executioners in beheading,
fcourging, &c.
LIDD, a town of Kent in England, feated in
Rumney-marfh, and is one of the Cinque-ports. On
the eaft fide of it is a heap of (tones, which they pretend
was the tomb of Crifpin and Crifpianus.
LIDKOPING a town of Weft Gothland in Swe¬
den, feated on the lake Wenar, in E. Long. 13. 40.
N. Lat. 58. 25.
LIECHTENAU, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Franconia and Margravate of Anfpach, fubjedt
to Nurenburg. E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 48. 43.
LIEGE, (Ligeus), in law, is uftd for liege-lord,
and fometimes for liege-man: liege lord is he that ac-
knowledgeth no fuperior, and Uege-man is he who
owneth allegiance to hk liege-lord, 34 & 35 H. VIII.
The king’s fubjedts are called lieges or liege-people, be-
caufe they owe and are bound to pay allegiance to him.
Stat. 8. H. VI. c. 10, 14. H. VIII. c. 2. But in
ancient times, private perlons, as lords of manors, &c.
had their lieges. Skene fays that this word is derived
from the Italian Liga, a bond or league.
Liegb- Poujlie, in Scots law, is oppofed to death¬
bed ; and fignifies a perfon’s enjoying that date of
health Tn which only he can difpofe of his property at
pleafure.
LIEGE, a bifhopric of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia; bounded to the north by Brabant, to the
fouth by Champagne and Luxemberg, to the eaft by
Limburg and Juliers, and to the weft by Brabant,
Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal both in
length and breadth ; the firmer being in fome places
above 90 miles, in others not half fo much ; and the
latter in fome places 45, in others hardly 25. The
air here is very temperate ; and the foil fruitful in
corn, wine, wood, and pafture. Here alfo are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and
(lone, and fome celebrated mineral waters, as thofe
of Spa and Chau-fontaine. The principal rivers are,
the Maes and Sambre. The mannfadlures and com¬
modities of the country, are chiefly beer, arms, nails,
ferge, leather, with the produ&s we have juft men¬
tioned. The ftates of the biftiopric are compofed of
three bodies : the firft is the chapter of Liege ; the
fecond, the nobility of the country ; and the third, the
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
three eftates are feldom called together, except to
raife taxes for the fervice of the province, or upon
fome particular emergency ; but there is a committee
of the ftates, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of x
war daily. They are always about the prince-bifhop,
to make remonftrances, and demand the redrefs of
grievances. The biftlop is fpiritual and temporal lord
of
L I E
of the whole country ; but, as bithop, is fuffragan to
the archbiihop of Cologne. He ftyles hitr.felf by the
grace of God, bijhop and prince of Liege, duke of Bou¬
illon, marquis of Franchimont, count of Looz, Hoorn, &c.
His arms for Liege, are, a pillar argent, on a pede-
ftal of the fame, with a crown oij in a field ruby.
In the matricula he was formerly rated at 50 horfe,
and 170 foot; or 1280 florins monthly, in lieu of
them, but now only at 826. An abatement of one
third has alfo been granted of the ancient aiTeffment
[ 4213 1
L I E
Lieutenant-.
to the chamber-court, which was 360 rix-doilars and the longitude 50 40'.
Englifh traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an in- Lientery
feription in barbarous French, requefting thofe who II
read it to pray for his foul. Near it are kept the_
faddle, fpurs, and knife, that he made ufe of in his
travels. After having feen moft of the cities of any
note in the world, he made choice of this to fpend the
eve of his life in. A little way from the city, on the
other fide the Maes, (lands the epifcopal palace of
Seraing, in which the bifhops generally refide during
the fummer. The latitude of this city is 50° 36'.
624- kruitzers for each term. Here are fcveral col¬
leges which fit at Liege, for the government of the
country, and the decifien of caufes, civil, criminal,
fpiritual and feudal, and of fuch alfo as relate to the
finances. The chapter Confills of 60 perfons, who
muft either prove their nobility for four generations,
both by father and mother, before they can be ad¬
mitted ; or if they cannot do that, muft at lead have
been doftors or licentiates of divinity for feven years,
or, of law, for five years, in fome famous univerfity.
The bifhopric is very populous and extenfive, contain¬
ing 1500 parifhes, in which are 24 walled towns, be-
fides others, 52 baronies, befides counties and feignio-
ries, 17 abbeys for men, who muft be all gentlemen,
and u for ladies, exclufive of others.
Liege, the capital of the bifhopric of the fame
name, (lands upon the Maes, In a fine valley, fur-
rounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial
city, and one of the larged and moft eminent in Europe.
Though it is too miles from the fea by water, the
Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates ;
17 bridges, fome of them very handfome; 154 ftreets,
many of them ftraight and broad ; a fine epifcopal
palace ; a very large (lately cathedral, in which, be-
iides five great filver coffers full of reliques, are feveral
LIENTERY, a flux of the belly, in which the
aliments are difeharged as they are fvvallowed, or very
little altered either in colour or fubftance. See [Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the
place and difeharges the office of a fuperior in his
abfence. Of thefe, fome are civil, as the lords lieu¬
tenants of kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants o:
counties ; and others are military, as the lieutenant-
general, lieutenant-colonel, &c.
Lord Lieutenant c/'/re/rfwi/, is properly a viceroy;
and has all the (late and grandeur of a king of Eng¬
land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has
the power of making war and peace, of bellowing all
the offices under the government, of dubbing knights,
and of pardoning all crimes except high treafon ; he
alfo calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill
can pafs without the royal aflent. He is affifted in-
his government by a privy-council ; and, on his lea¬
ving the kingdom, he appoints the lords of the re¬
gency, who govern in his abfence.
Lord of Counties, are officers, who,
upon any invafion or rebellion, have power to raife
the militia, and to give commiffions to colonels and
other officers, to arm and form them into regiments.
filver (latues of faints, and a St George on horfeback troops, and companies. Under the lords-lieutenants.
of maffy gold, prefented to the cathedral by Charles
the Bold, by way of atonement for ufing the inhabi¬
tants cruelly in the year 1468. Of the other churches,
that of St Paul is the moft remarkable, both for its
llrufture and fine ornaments in painting and marble.
The city is well fortified, and there are alfo two
caftles on the mountain of the Holy Walburg for its
deputy-lieutenants, who have the fame power ;
thefe are chofen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the
principal gentlemen of each county, and prefented to
the king for his approbation.
Lieutenant-Co/owe/. See Colonel.
LiEUTENANT-Gf»er4/. See General.
Liei/tenant, in the land-fervice, is the fecond
defence. Befides a great number of other convents of commiffioned officer in every company of both foot
both fexes, here is a college of Engliffi Jefuits, found
ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of Engliffi
ladies. Indeed, churches, convents, and other reli¬
gious foundations, take up thp greater part of it.
The reader, ^therefore, no doubt, will take it for
granted, that it: is a moft bleffed, holy, and happy
city. But however it may fare with the profane, un¬
hallowed laity, it is certainly the paradife of priefts,
as it is exprefsly called, by way of eminence. It is
divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower;
and the latter again into the illand, and the quarter
beyond the Maes. The houfes are high, and . built
of bluifti marble. In the town and fuburbs ate 12
public places orfquares, tohofpitals, a beguin-houfe,
and two fine keys, planted with feveral rows of trees,
for the burghers to take the air ; but a great part of
that within the walls is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufactures of this city are arms,
nails, leather, ferge, and beef. In St William’s
convent, without.the city, is the tomb of the famous
md horfe, and next to the captain, and who takes the
command upon the death or abfence of the captain.
Lieutenant of Artillery. Each company of ar¬
tillery hath four; 1 firit and 3 fecond lieutenants.
The firft lieutenant has the fame detail of duty with
the captain ; becaufe in his abfenct he commands the
company: he is to fee that the foldiers are clean and
neat; that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are
in good and ferviceable order; and to watch over every
thing elfe which may contribute to their health. He
muft give attention to their being taught the exercife,
fee them pundually paid, their meffes regularly kept,
and to’Vifrt them in the hofpitals when Tick. He muft
affift at all parades, &c. He ought to underftand the
doftrine of projedliles and the fcienceof artillery, with
the various effe&s of gun powder, however managed
or diredled ; to enable him to conftrudl and difpofe
his batteries to the bed advantage.; to plant his can¬
non, mortars, and howitzers, fo as to produce the
greateft annoyance to an. enemy. He is to be well
flcilled:
L I F
Lieutenant,/killed in the att?ck and defence of fortified places; and
T. II. to be converfant in arithmetic, mathematics, mecha-
L^ruls- nics, &c.
Second Lieutenant in the Artillery^ is the fame as
an enlipn in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft
commiifioned officer in the company, and muft affift
the firft lieutenant in the detail of the company’s duty.
His other qualifications Ihould be equal with thofe of
the firft lieutenant.
Lieutenant of a Ship of War, the officer next in
rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is
accordingly charged with the command of the fhip, as
alfo the execution of whatever orders he may have re¬
ceived from the commander relating to the king’s fer-
vice.
The lieutenant who commands the watch at fea,
keeps a lift of all the officers and men thereto belong¬
ing, in order to mufter them when he judges it expe¬
dient, and report to the captain the names of thofe who
are abfent from their duty. During the night-watch,
he occafionally viiits the lower decks, or fends thither
a careful officer, to fee that the proper centinels are at
their duty, and that there is no diforder amongft the
men; no tobacco fmoked between decks, nor any fire
or candles burning there, except the lights which are
in lanthorns, under the care of a proper watch, on par¬
ticular occafions. He is expe&ed to be always upon
deck in his watch, as well to give the neceffary orders
with regard to trimmingthe fails and fuperintending the
navigation, as to prevent any noife or confufion; but
he is never to change the (hip’s courfe without the cap¬
tain’s dire&ions, unlefs to avoid an immediate dan-
ger-
The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to
fee that all the men are prefent at their quarters,
where they have been previoufly ftationed according
to the regulations made by the captain. He orders
and exhorts them every where to perform their duty;
and acquaints the captain at all other times of the mif-
behaviour of any perfon in the (hip, and of whatever
dfe concerns the fervice or difcipline.
The youngeft lieutenant in the (hip, who is alfo
ftyled lieutenant at arms, befides his common duty, is
particularly ordered, by his inftru&ions, to train the
feamen to the ufe of fmall arms, and frequently to ex-
ercife and difcipline them therein. Accordingly his
office in time of battle, is chiefly to dire& and attend
them ; and at all other times to have a due regard to
the prefervation of the fmall arms, that they be not loft
or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good
condition for fervice.
Lieutenant Reformed, he whofe company or troop
is broke or difbanded, but continued in whole or half¬
pay, and dill preferves his right of feniority and rank
in the army.
LIFE, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated
ftate of living creatures, or the time that the union of
their foul and body lafts.
L.\vv.-Rent,\n Scots law. When the ufe and enjoy¬
ment of a fubjedt is given to a perfon during his life,
it is faid to belong to him in life-rent.
LIGAMEN1’, in anatomy, a ftrong compaft fub-
Ilance, ferving to join two bones together.
LIGARIUS (Qujntus), a Roman proconful in
L I G
Africa, 49 B. C. Taking part with Pompey, he was Ligatn
forbid by Julius Cefar to return to Rome: to obtain Liolu>
his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his
defence which has immortalized the memory of the
client with that of his celebrated advocate.
LIGATURE, in forgery, is a cord, band, or firing;
or the binding any part of the body with a cord, band,
fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any other matter.
Ligatures are ufed to extend or replace bones that
are broken or diflocated ; to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations; to tie upon the veins in
phlebotomy, or the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds; to fecure the fplints that are applied to frac¬
tures; to tie up the proceffes of the peritonseum with
the fpermatic veflels in caftration; and laftly, in taking
off warts or other excrefcences by ligature.
LIGHT, in the moft common acceptation of the
word, fignifies that invifible etherial matter which makes
objects perceptible to our fenfe of feeing. Figurative¬
ly, it is alfo ufed for whatever conveys inftru&ion to
our minds, and likewife for that inftru&ion itfelf.
The nature of light hath been a fubjedf of fpecula-Opinions
tion from the earlieft ages of philofophy. Some of °ftVie fir^
thofe firft diftinguiftied by the appellation of philofo- jV
phers even doubted whether obje&s became vifible by ccrnii)g
means of any thing proceeding from them, or from light. U
the eye of the fpe&ator. The fallacy of this notion
muft very foon have been apparent, becaufe, in that h
cafe, we ought to have feen as well in the night as in
the day. The opinion was therefore qualified by Em¬
pedocles and Plato; who maintained, that vifion was
occafioned by particles continually flying off from the
furfaces of bodies which met with others proceeding
from the eye ; but Pythagoras afcribed it folely to
the particles proceeding from the external obje&s and
entering the pupil of the eye. 4
Among the modern philofophers there have been Opinion j
two celebrated opinions, viz. the Cartefian and New- “^es J
Ionian. According to the former, light is an invifible l"artes' §
fluid prefent at all times and in all places, but which
requires to be fet in motion by an ignited or otherwife
properly qualified body in order to make obje&s vi- ^ 'S
iible to us.—The Newtonians maintain, that light is Of Sir i
not a fluid per fe, but confifts of a vaft number of ex- Ifaac New*
ceedingly fmall particles (haken off in all dire&ions1011, i
from the luminous body with inconceivable velocity
by a repulfive power; and which moft probably never
return again to the body from which they were emit¬
ted. Thefe particles are alfo faid to be emitted in
right lines by the body from whence they proceed:
and this re&ilinear dire&ion they preferve until they
arc turned out of their original path by the attra&ion
of fame other body near which they pa’fs, and which
is called inflexion; by palling through a medium of
different denfity, which is called refraction; or by be¬
ing thrown obliquely or dire&ly forward by fome body
which oppofes their paffage, and which is called re- . *,
flettion; or, laftly, till they are totally ftopped by the
fubftance of any body into which they penetrate, and
which is called their extinCIion. A fucceffion of thefe
particles following one another in an exactly ftraight
line is called a ray of light; and this ray, in whatever
manner it hath its diredtion changed, whether by re-
fra&ion, refle&ion, or, infle&ion, always preferves its
re&i-
[ 42I4 ]
I
Iri Light.
>!J jeftions
41 the New
rfi ian doc
»e.
nfwer by
r Mel-
le.
y Mr
'anton.
Sxpcri-
icnts to
ietcrminc
jhc mo-
pentum of
ght.
L I G [ 4215 ] L I G
refti'i'near courfe, neither is it poffible by any art what-
' ever to make it pafs on in the fegment of a circle, el-
lipfis, or other curve.—From fome obfervations on the
eclipfes of Jupiter’s fateliites, and alfo on the aberration
of the fixed ftars, it appears that the particles of light
move at the rate of little lefs than 200,000 miles in a
fecond of time. See Astronomy, n° 126, 127,284.
To this do&rine concerning the nature of light fe-
' veral objeftions have been made; the moft confiderable
'of which is, That in this cafe, as rays of light are con¬
tinually pafiing in different dire&ions from every vi-
fible point, they muft neceffarily interfere with and de-
ftroy each other in fuch a manner as entirely to con¬
found all diftindl perception of objects, if not to de-
ftroy the fenfe of feeing altogether ; not to mention
the continual wafte of fubftance which a conftant emif-
fion of particles muft oceafion in the luminous body,
and which fince the creation ought to have greatly di-
miniftied the fun and ftars, as well as increafed the bulk
of the earth and planets by the vaft quantity of par¬
ticles of light abforbed by them in fuch a long period
of time.
In anfwer to this obje&ion, Mr Melville gives fome
ingenious illuftrations concerning the extreme fubtilty
of light, or the fmallnefs of the particles of which it
confifts, and of which few perfons, even of thofe who
admit the hypothefis, have any idea. He obferves,
that there is probably no phyfical point in the vifible
horifon that does not fend rays to every other point,
unlefs where opaque bodies interpofe. Light, in its
paffagefrom one fyftem to another, often paffes thro*
torrents of light'iffuing from other funs and fyItems,
without ever interfering or being diverted in its courfe,
either by it, or by the particles of that elaftic medium
which fome phasnomena give us reafon to fuppofe
are diffufed through all the mundane fpace. To ac¬
count for this fadt and others fimilar to it, he con¬
cludes, that the particles of which light confifts muft be
incomparably rare, even when they are the moft denfe;
that is,that the femidiameters of the two neareft par¬
ticles, in the fame or in different beams, foon after
their emiffion, are incomparably lefs than their diftance
from one another. This difficulty concerning the non¬
interference of the particles of light is not folved, as
he obferves, by fuppofing with Mr Bofcovich and ci¬
thers, that each particle is endued with an infuperable
impulfive force; becaufe, in that cafe, their fpheres of
impulfion would even be more liable to interfere, and
they would on that account be more likely to difturb
one another.
The difficulty, according to Mr Canton, will nearly
vaniffi, if a very fmall portion of time be allowed be¬
tween the emiffion of every particle and the next that
follows in the fame diredlion. Suppofe, for inftance,
that one lucid point of the fun’s furface emits 150 par¬
ticles in a fecond, which are more than fufficient to
give continual light to the eye without the leaft ap¬
pearance of intermiffion; yet ftill the particles of which
it confifts, will on account of their great velocity be
more than 1000 miles behind each other, and thereby
leave room enough for others to pafs in all diredtions.
In order to determine,whether light really confifted
of particles emitted from the luminous body, or only in
the vibrations of a fubtile fluid, it hath been attempted
to find out its momentum, or the force with which it
Vol. VI.
moves. The firft who fet about this matter with any Light,
tolerable pretenfions to accuracy was M. Mairan. O- ^
thers indeed, particularly Hartfocker and Homberg, By Mr
had pretended, that in certain cafes this momentum was Mairan,
very perceptible; but M. Mairan proved, that the ef¬
fects mentioned by them were owing to currents of
heated air produced by the burning-glaffes ufed in
their experiments, or to fome other caufes overlooked
by the fephilofophers. To decide the matter therefore,
if poffible, he began with trying the effe&s of rays
colie&ed by lenfes of four and fix inches diameter, and
thrown upon the needle of a compafs ; but the refult
was nothing more than fome tremulous motion from
whence he could draw no conclufion. After this, he
and Mr du Fay conftru&ed a kind of mill of copper,
which moved with an exceeding flight impulfe ; but
though they threw upon it the focus of a lens of feven
or eight inches diameter, they were ftill unable to draw
any conclufions from the refult.
M. Mairan afterwards procured a horizontal wheel
of iron three inches in diameter, having fix radii, at
the extremity of each of which was a fmall wing fixed
obliquely. The axis of the wheel, which was alfo of
iron, was fufpended by a magnet. The wheel and the
axis together did not weigh more than 30 grains; but
though a motion was given to this wheel when the fo¬
cus of the burning-glafs was thrown upon the extre¬
mities of the radii, yet it was fo irregular that he could
not but conclude that it was occafioned by the motion
of the heated air. He then intended to have made his
experiment in vacuo, but he concluded that it was un-
neceffary. For, befides the difficulty of making a va¬
cuum, he was perfuaded that there was in our atmo-
fphere a thinner medium which freely penetrates even
glafs itfelf, the exiftence of which he imagined that he
had fufficiently proved in his treatifeon the aurora bo¬
realis. See Aurora Borealis, n°5. ^
Mr Michell fome years ago endeavoured toafcer-gyMr
tain the momentum of light in a manner ftill more ac-Mitchell,
curate. The inftrument he made ufe of for this pur-
pofe confifted of a very thin plate of copper, a little
more than an inch fquare, which was faftened to one
end of a flender harpfichord-wire about ten inches long.
To the middle of this was fixed an agate cap, fuch as
is commonly ufed for fmall mariner’s-compaffes, after
the manner of which it was intended to turn ; and at
the other end of the wire was a middling fized ftiot-
corn, as a counterpoife to the copper plate. The inftru¬
ment had alfo fixed to it in the middle, at right angles
to the length of the wire, and in an horizontal direc¬
tion, a fmall bit of a very flender fewing needle, about
one third, or perhaps half an inch long, which was
made magnetical. In this ftate the whole inftrument
might weigh about 10 grains. It was placed on a very
ftiarp pointed needle, on which the agate cap turned
extremely freely; and to prevent its being difturbed
by any motion of the air, it was included in a box, the
lid and front of which were of glafs. This box was
about 12 inches long, fix or feven inches deep, and
and about as much in width; the needle ftanding up¬
right in the middle. At the time of making the ex¬
periment, the box was placed in fuch a manner that a
line drawn from the fun paffed at right angles to the
length of it; and the inftrument was brought to range
in the fame diredlionwith the box, by means of the
23 Z mag-
L I G [ 42:
Lgiht. magnetical bit of needle abovenoentioned, and a rr.ag-
net properly placed on the outfide, which would re¬
tain it, though with extremely little force, in any fitua-
tion. The rays of the fun were now thrown upon the
copperplate abovementioned from a concave mirror of
about two feet diameter, which, palling through the
front-glafs of the box, were collefted into the focus, of
the mirror upon the copperplate. In confequence of
this the plate began to move, with a flow motion of
about an inch in a fecond of time, till it had moved
through a fpace of about two inches and a half, when
it ft ruck againft the back of the box. The mirror be¬
ing removed, the inftrument returned to its former fi-
tuation by means of the little needle and magnet; and
the rays of the fun being then again thrown upon it,
it again began to move, and ftruck againft the back of
the box as before ; and this was repeated three or four
times with the fame fuccefs.— The inftrument was
then placed the contrary way in the box to that in
which it had been placed before, fo that the end to
which the copper-plate was affixed, and which had lain,
in the former experiment, towards the right hand, now
lay towards the left; and the rays of the fun being
again thrown upon it, it began to move with a flow
motion, and ftruck againft the back of the box as be-
foie; and this was repeated once or twice with the
fame fuccefs. But by this time the copperplate be¬
gan to be fa much altered in its form, by the extreme
heat which it underwent in each experiment, and
which brought it nearly into a ftate of fufion, that
it became very much bent, and the more fo as it had
been unwarily fupported by the middle, half of it ly¬
ing above and half below the wire to which it was fa¬
ttened. By this means it now varied fo much from the
vertical pofuion, that it began to aft in the fame man¬
ner as the fail of a windmill, being impelled by the
ftream of heated air which moved upwards, with a force
fufficient to drive it in oppofition to the impulfe of the
10 rays of light.
U^cotf* *' ^ we *mPute» (fays Dr Prieftley), the motion
elutions. produced in the above experiment to the impulfe of
the rays of light, and fuppofe that the inftrument
weighed ten grains, and acquired a velocity of one inch
in a fecond, we (hall find that the quantity of matter
contained in the rays falling upon the inftrument in
that time amounted to no more than one twelve hun¬
dred millionth part of a grain, the velocity of light ex¬
ceeding the velocity of one inch in a fecond in the
proportion of about 12,000,000,000 to I. Now the
light in the above experiment was collefted from a
furface of about three fquare feet, which reflefting on¬
ly about half what falls upon it, the quantity of matter
contained in the rays of the fun incident upon a fquare
foot and an half of furface in one fecond of time, ought
to be no more than the twelve hundred millionth part
of a grain, or, upon one fquare foot only, the eighteen
hundred millionth part of a grain. But the denfity of
the rays of light at the furface of the fun is greater
than at the earth in the proportion of 45,000 to 1:
there ought, therefore, to iflue from one fquare foot
of the fun’s furface in one fecond of time, in order to
fupply the wafte by light, one forty tboufandth part
of a grain of matter; that is, a little more than two
grains in a day, or about 4,752,000 grains, or 670
pounds avoirdupois nearly, in 6000 years ; a quantity
6 ] L I G
which would have fliortened the fun’s femidiameter no Light.
more than about ten feet, if it was formed of the den-^ ^
fity of water only.” 11 j|
The Newtonians, befides the anfwer juft now given Otyc,,on*
to the moft formidable objeftions of their °PPonents»*
have endeavoured to prove the impoffibility of light be-0p;ni0nj j
ing a vibration in any fluid. Sir Ifaac, in his Princi-Sir Ifaac ,'*'
pia, demonitrates, that no reftilinear motion can be Newton.
propagated among the particles of any fluid unlefs
thefe particles lie in right lines; and he hath alfo ihewn,
that all motion propagated through a fluid diverges
from a reftilinear progrefs into the unmoved (paces.
Hence he concludes, “ a preffure on a fluid medium
(i. e. a motion propagated by fuch a medium beyond
any obftacle, which impedes any part of its motion,)
cannot be propagated in right lines, but will be al¬
ways inflefting and diffufing itfelf every way, to the
quiefeent medium beyond that obftacle. The power
of gravity tends downwards; but the preffure of water
rifing from it, tends every way with an equable force,
and is propagated with equal cafe, and equal ftrength,
in curves, as in ftraight lines. Waves, on the furface of
the water, gliding by the extremes of any very large
obrtacle, infleft and dilate themfelves, ftill diffufing,gra¬
dually, into the quiefeent water beyond that obftacle.
The waves, pulfes, or vibrations of the air, wherein
found confifts, are manifeftly inflefted, though not fo
confiderably as the waves of water; and founds are
propagated with equal cafe, thro’ crooked tubes, and
through ftraight linesi; but light was never known to
move in any curve, nor to infleft itfelf ad umbram.'* It {j||
To this Mr Rowning adds another proof. “ The By Mr ■
Cartefian notion of light, (fays he), was not that itR.owmng.ijjM
is propagated from luminous bodies by the emiffion of
fmall particles, but that it was communicated to the
organ of fight by their prefftire upon the materia fub-
tilis, with which they fuppofed the univerfe to be full.
But, according to this hypothefis, it could never be
dark ; becaufe, when a fluid fuftains any preffure, if
that fluid fills all the (pace it takes up, abfolutely,
without leaving any ptores, which is the cafe of the
fuppofed materia fubtilis, then that preffure mutt ne-
cefiarily be communicated equally and injlantaneoufly
to every part. And therefore, whether the fun were
above or below the horizon, the prjeffure communica¬
ted, and confequentjy the light, would be the fame.
And farther, as the preffure would be inftantaneous, fo
would the light, which is contrary to what is collefted
from the eclipfes bf Jupiter’s fatellites.”
It is obvious, however, that, whatever fide we take
concerning the nature of light, many, indeed almoft
all the circumitances concerning it, are.incomprehen-
fible, and beyond the reach of human underftanding. ,3
Moft of the difeous flowers, by fome power unknown Unaccountr
to us, follow the fun in his courfe. They attend him a!>!e.Pro' 5
to his evening retreat, and meet his rifing luftre in
the morning with the fame unerring law. If a
plant alfo is flint up in a dark room, and a fmall hole
is afterwards opened by which the light of the fun
may enter, the plant will turn towards that hole, and
even alter its own (hape in order to get near it; fo that
though it was ftraight before, it will in time become
crooked, that it may get near the light. It is not the
l>eat, but the light of the fun, which it thus covets ; for,
though a fire be kept in the room, capable of giving
a
L I G [42
rfg Light, a mucl] ftronger heat than the fun, the plant will turn
""'away from the fire in order to enjoy the fun’s light.—
The green colour of plants alfo depends on the fun’s
light being allowed to fhine upon them ; for without
this they are always white.—From this laft circum-
ftance, and likewife the property which the folar light
has of blackening precipitates of filver from the ni-
Q},e. trous acid *, it hath been thought that light either
| (try, contains the pklogijlon in very confiderable quantity, or
“ ■ is itfelf a modification of that unknown fubftance.
But that this cannot be the cafe, we have now a proof
1 little (hort of demonstration, from the laft experiments
0 an o/the0^ concerning the produ&ion of pure de¬
ls Jorifton phlogifticated air from pump-water, by means of the
folar light. If light either were the phlogifton itfelf,
or contained it in very confiderable quantity, it is im-
pofiible the air produced by its means could be pure
and dephlogifticated. See the articles Gas and Air,
in the APPENDIX.—For theproperties of light acting
as the medium of our perceptions by the fenfe of fight,
fee the article Optics.
Light independent of Heat. In general, a very
confiderable degree of heat is requifite to the emiffion
of light from any body ; but there are feveral excep¬
tions to this, efpecially in light proceeding from pu-
trefeent fubftances and phofphorus, together with that
of luminous animals, and other fimilar appearances.
Light proceeding from putrefeent animal and vege¬
table fubftances, as well as from glow-worms, is men¬
tioned by Ariftotle. Thomas Bartholin mentions four
luce am-kinds of luminous infefts, two with wings, and two
. ia/. p. 183, without; but in hot climates travellers fay they are
found in much greater numbers, and of different fpe-
cies. Columna, an induftrious naturalift, obferves,
that their light is not extinguifhed immediately upon
the death of the animal.
I .light from 'phe diftinft account that we meet with of light
1 ,otrld proceeding from putrefeent animal-flefh is that which
f: leVifione, ;s given by Fabricius ab Aquapendente, who fays,
H '• 4S' that when three Roman youths, refiding at Padua,
had bought a lamb, and had eaten part of it on Ea-
fter-day 1592, feveral pieces of the remainder, which
they kept till the day following, ftione like fo many
candles, when they were cafually viewed in the dark.
Part of this luminous flefti was immediately fent to A-
quapendente, who was profelfor of anatomy in that
city. He obferved, that both the lean and the fat of
this meat ftione with a whitilh kind of light, and al¬
ls took notice, that fome pieces of kid’s flefti, which
had happened to have lain in contadf with it, was lu¬
minous, as well as the fingers and other parts of the
bodies of thofe perfons who touched it. Thofe
parts, he obferved, flione the moft which were foft to
the touch, and feemed to be tranfparent in candle¬
light ; but where the flefti was thick and folid, or
where a bone was near the outfide, it did not ftiine.
After this appearance, we find no account of any
other fimilar to it, before that which was obferved by
Bartholin, and of which he gives a very pompous de-
feription in his ingenious treatife already quoted.
This happened at Montpelier in 1641, when a poor
old woman had bought a piece of flefti in the market,
intending to make ufe of it the day following. But
happening not to be able to fleep well that night, and
17 ] L I G
her bed and pantry being in the fame room, fhe obfer- Light.
ved fo much light come from the flefti, as to illuminate ~
all the place where it hung. A part of this luminous
flefti was carried as a curiofity to Henry Bourbon,
duke of Conde, the governor of the place, who
viewed it for feveral hours with the greateft aftonifli-
ment.
This light was obferved to be whitifti ; and not to
cover the whole furface of the flefti, but certain parts
only, as if gems of unequal fplendor had been Mat¬
tered over it. This fldh was kept till it began to
putrify, when the light vaniihed, which, as fome re¬
ligious people fancied, it did in the form of a crofs.
It is natural to expeft, that the almoft univerfal ex¬
perimental philofopher Mr Boyle fliould try the effeft Worh,
of his air-pump upon thefe luminous fubftances. Ac-vol. iii.
cordingly we find that he did not fail to do it; whenp’ ’s6’
he prefently found that the light of rotten wood was
extinguiftied in vacuo, and revived again on the ad-
miffion of the air, even after a long continuance in
vacuo; but the extinguiftiing of this light was not fo
complete immediately upon exhaufting the receiver, as
fome little time afterwards. He could not perceive,
however, that the light of rotten wood was increafed
in condenfed air ; but this, he imagined, might arife
from his not being able to judge very well of the de¬
gree of light, through fo thick and cloudy a glafs-
veffel as he then made ufe of; but we find that the
light of a ftiining fifti, which was put into a conden- Bird's lAJf.
fing engine before the Royal Society, in 1668, was'n 234.
rendered more vivid by that means. The prin¬
cipal of Mr Boyle’s experiments were made in O&o-
ber 1667.
This philofopher attended to a great variety of cir-
cumftances relating to this curious phenomenon. A-
mong other things, he obferved, that change of air
was not neceflary to the maintenance of this light;
for it continued a long time when a piece of the wood
was put into a very fmall glafs hermetically fealed,
and it made no difference when this tube which con¬
tained the wood was put into an exhaufted receiver.
This he alfo obferved with refpedl to a luminous fifti,
which he put into water, and placed in the fame cir-
cumftances. He alfo found, that the light of ftii¬
ning fifties had other properties in common with that
of ftiining wood ; but the latter, he fays, was prefent¬
ly quenched with water, fpirit of wine, a great va¬
riety of faline mixtures, and other fluids. Water,
however, did not quench all the light of fome ftiining
veal, on which he tried it, tho’ fpirit of wine deftroy-
ed its virtue prefently.
Mr Boyle’s obfervation of light proceeding from
flefh-meat was quite cafual. On the 15th of Feb¬
ruary 1662, one of his fervants was greatly alarmed
with the ftiining of fome veal, which had been kept
a few days, but had no bad fmell, and was in a ftate
very proper for ufe. The fervant immediately made
his mafter acquainted with this extraordinary appear¬
ance ; and though he was then in bed, he ordered it
to be immediately brought to him, and he examined ii.
it with the greateft attention. Sufpefting that the 7°*
ftate of the atmofphere had fome ftiare in the produc¬
tion of this phasnomerjon, he takes notice, after de-
feribing the appearance, that the wind was fouth-weft
23 Z 2 and
L I G [ 4218 ] L I G
Light, and bluftering, the air hot for the feafon, the moon
' -was paft its laft quarter, and the mercury in the ba-
is rometer was at 29^ inches.
Light from Mr Boyle was often difappointed in his experiments
Jiihes. on fhining-filhes ; finding, that they did not always
{bine in the very fame circumftances, as far as he could
judge, with others which had fhined before. At one^
time that they failed to Ihine, according to his expec¬
tations, he obferved that the weather was variable,
and not without fome days of froft and fnow. In
general, he made ufe of whitings, finding them the
fitteft for his purpofe. In a difcourfe, however, up¬
on this fubjeft at the Royal Society in 1681, it was
afferted, that, of all fiihy fubllances, the eggs of lob-
fters, after they had been boiled, (hone the brighteft.
Olig. Jacobceus, obferves, that, upon opening a fea-
M. Unfit, polypus, it was fo luminous, as to ftartle feveral per-
vol. v. fons who faw it; and he fays, that the more putrid
p. 382. t}je was# t{,e more luminous it grew. The nails al-
fo and the fingers of the perfons who touched it be¬
came luminous; and the black liquor which iflued from
the animal, and which is its bile, (hone alfo, but with
a very faint light.
Mr Boyle draws a minute comparifon between the
light of burning coals and that of fhining wood or
fi(h, (bowing in what particulars they agree, and in
what they differ. Among other things, he obferves,
that extreme cold extinguilhes the light of (hining
wood, as appeared when a piece of it was put into a
glafs tube, and held in a frigorific mixture. He
alfo found that rotten wood did not wafte itfelf
by (hining, and that the application of a thermometer
17 to it did not difcover the lead degree of heat.
f){ the pho- There is a remarkable (hell-fifh called pholas, which
las, a re- forms for itfelf holes in various kinds of done, See.
luminous ^fiat tll‘s *s lum'nous> was noticed by Pliny ;
filh. wbo obferves, that it (bines in the mouth of the perfon
who eats it, and, if it touch his hands or deaths,
makes them luminous. He alfo fays that the light
depends upon its moidure. The light of this fi(h has
furnilhed matter for various obfervations and experi¬
ments to M. Reaumur, and the Bolognian academi¬
cians, efpecially Beccarius, who took fo much pains
with the fubjedt of phofphoreal light.
M. Reaumur obferves, that, whereas other fifhes
give light when they tend to putrefcence, this is more
luminous in proportion to its being frelh ; that when
they are dried, their light will revive if they be moi-
ftened either with frefh or fait water, but that brandy
immediately extinguifhes it. He endeavoured to make
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fucceeded.
The attention of the Bolognian academicians was
engaged to this fubjedi by M. F. Marfilius, in 1724,
who brought a number of thefe fifhes, and the dones
in which they were inclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe
for their examination.
Beccarius obferved, that though this fifh ceafed to
Orn. Boiioit. fh;nc wjien jt became pUtrid ; yet that, in its mod pu-
vo. 11. 231. t^d ftate, it would (hine, and make the water in
which it was immerfed luminous, when they were
agitated. Galeatius and Montius found, that wine
er vinegar extinguifhed this light: that in common
oil it continued fome days; but in redlified fpirit of
wine, or urine, hardly a minute.
In order to obferve in what manner this light was i
affedled by different degrees of heat, they made ufe —
of a Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water
rendered luminous by thefe fifties increafed in light
till the heat arrived to 45 degrees; but that it then
became fuddenly extinft, and could not be revived.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a folution of fea-
falt increafed the light of the luminous water, a fo¬
lution of nitre did not increafe it quite fo much. Sal
ammoniac diminiftied it a little, oil of tartar /w deli-
quium nearly extinguifhed it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon frefti calcined gypfum, rock
cryftal, cerufs, or fugar, became more luminous. He
alfo tried the effects of it when poured upon various
other fubftances, but there was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, ufing,luminous milk, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguifhed the light, but
that oil of tartar increafed it.
This gentleman had the curiofity to try how dif¬
ferently coloured fubftances were affe&ed by this kind
of light-; and having, for this purpofe, dipped feveral
ribbons in it, the white came out the brighteft, next
to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the other
colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, how¬
ever, any particular colour, but only light that was
perceived in this cafe. He then dipped boards painted
with the different colours, and alfo glafs tubes, filled
with fubftances of different colours, in water rendered
luminous by the fifhes. In both thefe cafes the red '
was hardly vifible, the yellow was the brighteft, and
the violet the dulleft. But on the boards the blue
was nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more
languid ; whereas in the glaffes, the blue was inferior
to the green.
Of all the liquors to which he put the pholadet,
milk was rendered the mod luminous. A (ingle pho¬
las made feven ounces of milk fo luminous, that the
faces of perfons might be diftinguiflred by it, and it
looked as if it was tranfparent.
Air appeared to be neceffary to this light; for
when Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes,
no agitation would make it (hine, unlefs bubbles of
air were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhaufted receiver, the pholas loft
its light, but the water was fometimes made more lu¬
minous ; which they aferibed to the rifing of bubbles
of air through it.
Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many fchemes
to render the light of thefe pholades permanent. For
this purpofe he kneaded the juice into a kind of pafte,
with flour, and found that it would give light when
it was immerfed in warm water; but it anfwered bed
to preferve the fifh in honey. In any other method
of prefervation, the property of becoming luminous
would not continue longer than fix months, but in
honey it had lafted above a year; and then it would,
when plunged in warm water, give as much light as
ever it had done.
Similar, in fome refpe&s, to thofe obfervations on A^a Cxfa%
the light of the pholas, was that which was obferved rM/ia, ;
to proceed from wood which was moift, but not in a voi. v. |
putrid ftate, which was very confpicuous in the dark. P-485- ^
That the fea is fometimes luminous, efpecially when
it is put in motion by the dafhing of oars or the
beat mg
h) Beal’s
L I G [ 4219 ]
,lghf. beating of it ageinfi: a fliip, has been obferved with ance of the fea.
admiration by a great number of perfons. Mr Boyle,
Iht from a^cr rec‘ling aii the circumftances of this appearance,
water. as far as he could colleft them from the accounts of na¬
vigators; as its being extended as far as the eye could
reach, and at other times being vifible only when the wa¬
ter was dafhed againft fome other body ; that, in fome
feas, this phenomenon is accompanied by fome parti¬
cular winds, but not in others; and that fometimes
one part of the fea will be luminous, when another
part, not far from it, will not be fo; concludes with
faying, that he could not help fufpe&ing that thefc
odd phenomena, belonging to great mafles of water,
were in fome meafure owing to fome coftnical law,
L I G
The light was fometimes fo great, Light,
that he could eafily read the title of a book by it, ~
though he was nine or ten feet from the furface of thepat]l2e°
water. Sometimes he could eafily diftinguifli, in thefiourzes’s
wake of the (hip, the particles that were luminous from account of
thofe that were not; and they appeared not to be all*umin0us
of the fame figure. Some of them were like points^ea'watfr*
of light, and others fuch as ftars appear to the naked
eye. Some of them were like globes, of a line or two
in diameter ; and others as big as one’s head. Some¬
times they formed themfelves into fquares of three or
four inches long, and one or two broad. Sometimes
all thefe different figures were vifible at the fame time ;
and fometimes there were what he calls vortices of
or cuftom of the terreftrial globe, or at lead of the light, which at one particular time appeared and
   1 Cr\ » . ^ -v .J ,4 • 1 »» 1 ! Tv (X * a.t ^ C 1 T l. k  
planetary vortex.
Some curious obfervations on the (hining of fome
fifhes, and the pickle in which they were immerfed,
were made by Dr Beal, in May 1665 ; and had they
been properly attended to and purfued, might have
led to the difeovery of the caufe of this appearance.
Having put fome boiled mackerel into water, toge-
I f- TranJ ther with fait and fweet herbs ; when the cook was,
llx- fome time after, ftirring it, in order to take out fome
°* of the fifiies, (he obferved, that, at the firft motion,
the water was very luminous; and that the fi(h (hin¬
ing through the water, added much to the light which
the water yielded. The water was of itfelf thick and
blackifii, rather than of any other colour; and yet it
(hined on being ftirred, and at the fame time the
fifiies appeared more luminous than the water. Where-
ever the drops of this water, after it had been ftirred,
fell to the ground, they (hined ; and the children in
the family diverted themfelves with taking the drops,
which were as broad as a penny, and running with
them about thehoufe. The cook obferved, that, when
(he turned up that fide of the fi(h that was lowed, no
light came from it; and that, when the water had
fettled for fome time, it did not (bine at all. The day
following, the water gave but little light, and only
after a brifk agitation, though the fifhes continued to
(bine as well from the infide as the outfide, and efpe-
I daily about the throat, and fuch places as feemed to
have been a little broken in the boiling.
When, in the light of the fun, he examined, with,
a microfcope, a fmall piece of a fifti which had (hined
very much the night before, he found nothing re¬
markable on its furface, except that he thought he
perceived what he calls a Jieam, rather dark than lu¬
minous, arifing like a very fmall dull from the fifti,
and here and there a very fmall and almoft impercep¬
tible fparkle. Of the fparkles he had no doubt 5 but
he thought it poflible that the (team might be a de¬
ception of the fight, or fome dull in the air.
Finding the fi(h to be quite dry, he moiftened it
with his fpittle; and then obferved that it gave a little
light, though but for a (hort time. The fifh at that
time was not fetid, nor yet infipid to the heft dif-
cerning palate. Two of the fifties he kept two or
three days longer for farther trial : hut, the weather
being very hot, they became fetid; and, contrary to
his expe&ations, there was no more light produced
either by the agitation of the water, or in the fifti.
Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies, in
1704, took particular notice of the luminous appear-
difappeared immediately, like flaflies of lightning.
Nor did only the wake of the (hip produce this
light, but fifties alfo, in fwimming, left fo luminous a
track behind them, that both their fize and fpecies
might be diftinguiftied by it. When he took fome of
the water out of the fea, and ftirred it ever fo little
with his hand, in the dark, he always faw in it an in¬
finite number of bright particles; and he had the fame
appearance whenever he dipped a piece of linen in the
fea, and wrung it in a dark place, even though it was
half dry ; and he obferved, that when the fparkles fell
upon any thing that was folid, it would continue (hining
for fome hours together. 2r
After mentioning feveral circumftances which did His conjec-
not contribute to this appearance, this Father obferves,ture? ctm-
that it depends very much upon the quality, of the ’wa- ^
ter; and he was pretty fure that this light is the
greateft when the water is fatteft, and fulleft of foam.
For in the main fea, he fays, the water is not every¬
where equally pure; and that fometimes, if linen be
dipped in the fea, it is clammy when it is drawn up
again: and he often obferved, that when the wake of
the (hip was the brighteft, the water was the mod fat
and glutinous, and that linen moiftened with it pro¬
duced a great deal of light, if it was ftirred or moved
briflily. Befides, in fome parts of the fea, he faw a
fubftance like faw-duft, fometimes red, and fometimes
yellow;, and when he drew up the water in thofe
places, it was always vifeous and glutinous. The failors
told him, that it was the fpawn of whales ; that there
are great quantities of it in the North; and that fome¬
times, in the night, they appeared all over of a bright
light, without being put in motion by any veftel or fifh
paffing by them.
As a confirmation of this conjedure, that the more
glutinous the fea-water is, the more it is difpofed to
become luminous, he obferves, that one day they took
a fifh which was called a bonite, the infide of the
mouth of which was fo luminous, that, without any
other light, he could read the fame charaders which
he had before read by the light in the wake of the
(hip ; and the mouth of this fifti was full of a vifeous
matter, which, when it was rubbed upon a piece of
wood, made it immediately all over luminous; though,
when the moifture was dried up, the light was extin-
guifhed. iX
The abbe Nollet was much ftruck with the lumi- Abbe No!-
noufnefs of the fea when he was at Venice in 1749; *e£ s
and, after taking a great deal of pains to afeertain the
circumftances of it, concluded that it was occafioned
by
L I G [ 4220 ] L I G
Light, by a {Hining infedt; and having examined the water
■“ very often, he at length did find a fmall infect, which
he particularly defcribes, and to which he attributes
the light. The fame hypothefis had alfo occurred
to M. Vianelli, profefibr of medicine in Chioggia near
Venice; and both he and M. Grizellini, a phyfician in
Venice, have given drawings of the infedlsfrom which
they imagined this light to proceed.
The abbd was the more confirmed in his hypothefis,
by obferving, fome time after, the motion of fome lumi¬
nous particles in the fea. For, going into the water,
and keeping his head juft above the furface, he faw
them dart from the bottom, which was covered with
weeds, to the tpp, in a manner which he thought
very much refembled the motions of infedls; though,
when he endeavoured to catch them, he only found
fome luminous fpots upon his handkerchief, which
were enlarged when he preffed them with his
finger.
Obferva- M. le Roi, making a voyage on the Mediterranean,
tions of M. prefently after the abbe Nollet made his obfervations
le Roi. at Venice, took notice, that, in the day-time, the prow
of the fhip in motion threw up many fmall particles,
Memoires which, falling upon the water, rolled upon the furface
vol ni 144 t^ie ^ea ^or a feconds, before they mixed with
it; and in the night the fame particles, as he con¬
cluded, had the appearance of fire. Taking a quan¬
tity of the water, the fame fmall fparks appeared
whenever it was agitated; but, as was obferved with
refpeci to Dr Beal’s experiment^, every fuccefiive agi¬
tation produced a lefs effeft than the preceding, ex¬
cept after being fuffered to reft a while; for then a
frelh agitation would make it almoft as luminous as
the firft. This water, he obferved, would retain its
property of (hining by agitation a day or two ; but it
difappeared immediately on being fet on the fire, tho’
it was not made to boil.
This gentleman, after giving much attention to this
phasnomenon, concludes, that it is not occafioned by
any (hining inftfts, as the abbe Nollet imagined; efpe-
cially as, after carefully examining fome of the lumi¬
nous points, w'hich he caught upon an handkerchief,
he found them to be round like large pins heads, but
with nothing of the appearance of any animal, though
he viewed them with a microfcope. He alfo found,
that the mixture of a little fpirit of wine with water
juft drawn from the fea, would give the appearance of
a great number of little fparks, which wmuld continue
vilible longer than thofe in the ocean. All the acids,
and various other liquors, produced the fame effedf,
though not quite fo confpicuoufly; but no frefh agi¬
tation would make them luminous again. M. le Roi
is far from afferting that there are no luminous infe&s
in the fea. He even fuppofes that the abbe Nollet
and M. Vianelli had found them. But he was fatif-
fied that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other ac¬
count, though he does not fo much as advance a con-
14 jeflure about what it is.
Experi- M. Ant. Martin made many experiments on the
M^Ant^ whh a view to difeover the caufe of the
Martin. t^ie ^ea‘ thought that he had reafon to
^ conclude, from a great variety of experiments, that all
Abhaiii fea-fi(hes have this property; but that it is not to be
vol. xxiii. found in any that are produced in frefh water. No-
p 125. thing depended upon the colour of the fifties, except
that he thought that the white ones, and efpecially Light
thofe that had white feales, were a little more lumi-   
nous than others. This light, he found, was increafed
by a fmall quantity of fait; and alfo by a fmall degree
of warmth, though a greater degree extinguifhed it. 1
This agrees with another obfervation of his, that it de¬
pends entirely upon a kind of moifture which they
had about them, and which a fmall degree of heat
would expel, when an oilinefs remained which did not
give this light, but would burn in the fire. Light from
the flefli of birds or beads is not fo bright, he fays, as
that which proceeds from filh. Human bodies, he fays,
have fometimes emitted light about the time that they
began to putrefy, and the walls and roof of a place
in which dead bodies had often been expofed, had a
kind of dew or clamminefs upon it, which was fome¬
times luminous ; and he imagined that the lights which
are faid to be feen in burying-grounds may be owing
to this caufe. 1? -
From fome experiments made by Mr Canton, he By Mr !
concludes, that the luminoufnefs of fea-water is owing Canton,i
to the (limy and other putrefeent fubftances it con¬
tains. On the evening of the 14th of June 1768, he
put a fmall frefh whiting into a gallon of fea-water, in
a pan which was about 14 inches in diameter, and
took notice that neither the whiting nor the water,
when agitated, gave any light. A Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer, in the cellar where the pan was placed, flood
at 540. The 15th, at night, that part of the fifti
which was even with the furface of the water was lu¬
minous, but the water itfelf was dark. He drew the
end of a (lick through it, from one fide of the pan to
the other; and the water appeared luminous behind
the flick all the way, but gave light only where it
was difturbed. When all the water was ftirred, the
whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, gi¬
ving a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
pan; and it continued to do fo for fome time after it
was at reft. The water was moft luminous when the
fifh had been in it about 28 hours; but would not give
any light by being ftirred, after it had been in it three ' |j
days.
He then put a gallon of frelh water into one pan,
and an equal quantity of fea-water into another, and
into each pan he put a frefti herring of about three
ounces. The next night the whole furface of the fea-
water was luminous, without being (lirred; but it was
much more fo when it was put in motion ; and the
upper part of the herring, which was confiderably be¬
low the furface of the water, was alfo very bright;
while at the fame time, the frefti water, and the fifh
that was in it, were quite dark. There were feveral
very bright luminous fpots on different parts of the
furface of the fea-water; and the whole, when viewed
by the light of a candle, feemed covered with a
greafy feum. The third night, the light of the fea-
water, while at reft, was very little, if at all, lefs than
before; but when flirred, its light was fo great as to
difeover the time by a watch, and the fifli in it ap¬
peared as a dark fubftance. After this, its light was
evidently decreafing, but was not quite gone before the
7th night. The frefti water and the fifh in it were per-
fe&ly dark during the whole time. The thermometer
was generally above 6o°.
The preceding experiments were made with fea-
water:
L I G
water: but be »ow made ufe of other vVater, Into which
he put common or fea fait, till he found, by an hydro¬
meter, thdt it was of the fame fpecifie gravity with the
fea-water; and, at the fame ^ime, in another gallon of
water, he dilfolved two pounds of fait; and into each
of thefe waters he put a fmall frelh herring. The next
evening the whole furface of the artificial fea-water
was luminous without being ftirred ; but gave much
more light when it was difturhed. It appeared exactly
like the real fea water in the preceding experiment;
its light lafted about the fame time, and went off in
the fame manner: while the other water, which was
almoft as fait as it could be made, never gave any
light. The herring which was taken out of it the
7th night, and wafhed from its fait, was found firm
and fweet; but the other herring was very foft and
putrid, much more fo than that which had been kept
as long in frefh water. If a herring, in warm wea¬
ther, be put into 10 gallons of artificial fea-water, in-
ftead of one, the water, he fays, will Hill become lumi¬
nous, but its light will not be fo ftrong.
It appeared by fome of the firft obfervations on
this fubjeft, that heat extinguifhes the light of putref-
cent fubftances. Mr Canton alfo attended to this cir-
cumftance; and obferves, that though the greateft
fummer heat is well known to promote putrefaftion,
yet 20 degrees more than that of the human blood
feems to hinder it. For potting a fmall piece of a
luminous fifii into a thin glafs ball, be found, that
[ 4221 ]
L I G
fing from putrefa&Ion, muft be admitted as one of the
caufes of this phasnomenon. M. Godehoue has pub- '
lifhed curious obfervations on a kind of fifii, called in
French bonite, already mentioned; and though he has
obferved, and accurately defcribed, feveral of the lumi¬
nous infefls that are found in fea-water, he is, never-
thelefs, of opinion, that the fcintillation and flaming
light of the fea proceed from the oily and greafy fub¬
ftances with which it is impregnated.
The abbe Nollet was long of opinion, that the light
of the fea proceeded from eie&ricity (a); though he
afterwards feemed inclined to think, that this pheno¬
menon was caufed by fmall animals, either by their lu¬
minous afpe£I, or at lead by fome liquor or effluvia
which they emitted. He did not, however, exclude other
caufes; among thefe, the fpawn of fry of fifh deferves
to be noticed. M. Dagelet, failing into the bay of
Antongil, in the ifland of Madagafcar, obferved a pro¬
digious quantity of fry, which covered the furfaee of
the fea above a mile in length, and which he at firft
took for banks of fand on account of their colour ; they
exhaled a difagreeable odour, and the fea had appear¬
ed with uncommon fplendour fome days before. The
fame accurate obferver, perceiving the fea remarkably
luminous in the road of the Cape of Good Hope du-
ring a perfect calm, remarked that the oars of the ca¬
noes produced a whitifh and pearly kind of luftre :
when he took in his hand the water which contained
phofphorus, he difcefned in it, for fome minutes, gl<
Light.
water of the heat of 118 degrees would extinguifli its bules of light as large as the heads of pins. When he
light in lefs than half a minute; but that, on taking
it out of the water, it would begin to recover its light
in about 10 feconds; but it was never afterwards fo
bright as before.
Mr Canton made the fame obfervation that Mr
Ant. Martin had done, viz. that feveral kinds of river
fiih could not be made to give light, in the fame cir-
cumftances in which any fea-fiih became luminous.
He fays, however, that a piece of carp made the water
very luminous, though the outfide, or fcaly part of it,
did not fliine at all.
For the fake of thofe perfons who may cboofe to
repeat his experiments, he obferves, that artificial fea-
water maybe made without the ufe of an hydrometer,
by the proportion of four ounces avoirdupois of fait,
to feven pints of water, wine-meafure.
From undoubted obfervations, however, it appears,
that in many places of the ocean it is covered with lumi¬
nous infefis to a very conliderable extent. Mr Dagelet,
a French aftronomer, who returned from the Terra Au-
ftralis in the year 1 774, brought with him feveral kinds
of worms which (bine in water when it is fet in motion ;
and M. Rigaud, in a paper inferted (if we are not mi-
flaken), in the Journal des Sgavans for the month of
March 1770, affirms, that the luminous furface of the
fea, from the port of Breft to the Antilles, contains
an immenfe quantity of little, round, ftiinir.g poly-
pufes of about a quarter of a line in diameter. Other
learned men, who acknowledge the txiftence of thefe
luminous animals, cannot, however, be perfuaded to
confider them as the caufe of all that light and fcintil¬
lation that appear on the furface of the ocean: they
think that fome fubftance of the phofphorus kind, ari-
prefled thefe globules, they appeared to his touch like
a foft and thin pulp; and fome days after the fea was
covered, near the coafts, with whole banks of thefe little
fiffl in innumerable multitudes. 27
To putrefaftion, alfo, fome are willing to attribute
that luminous appearance which goes by the name of
ignis fatuus, or in common Jinglilh Will ’with a ewifp,
to which the credulous vulgar afcribe very extraordi¬
nary and efpecially mifchievotis powers. This phe¬
nomenon is chiefly vifible in damp places ; and is alfo
faid to be very often ften in burying-grounds, and
near dunghills. Travellers fay, that it is very fre¬
quent near Bologna in Italy, and in feveral parts of
Spain and Ethiopia. The form and fize of it are very
various, and often variable.
It was the opinion of many philofophers, and efpe¬
cially Willoughby and Ray, that the ignis fatuus is
made by finning infefts ; but this opinion was never
well fupported. Sir Ifaac Newton calls it a vapour fhi~
ning‘without heat; and fuppofes that there is the fame
difference between this vapour and flame, that there is
between wood fhining without heat, and burning coals
of fire. That this opinion is juft, and, moreover,
that the light of this vapour fhining without heat is of
the fame nature with light from putrefeent fubftances,
according to the fupporters of the putrefaftive hypo-
thefis, may be concluded from the following circum-
ftances relating to them, as deferibed by Dr Derham
and G. B. Beccari.
The former of thefe gentlemen, having obferved an
ignis fatuus in fome boggy ground, between two rocky
hills, in a dark and calm night, got by degrees within
two or .three yards of it, and thereby had an oppor¬
tunity
(a) This hypothefis was alfo maintained in a treatifc publifhed at Venice in 1746, by an officer in the Auftrian fer-
Vice, under the following title, Dell’ Eletrecifmo.
L I G [ 4222 ] L I G
L'g1*1- tunity of viewing it to the greatefl; advantage. It kept
~~ fkipping about a dead thittle, till a flight motion of
the air, occafioned, as he fuppofed, by his near ap¬
proach to it, made it jump to another place ; and as
he advanced, it kept flying before him. He was fo
near to it, that, had it been the (hining of glow-worms,
he was fatisfied that he could not but have diftinguilh-
ed the feparate lights of which it mud have confilted;
whereas it was one uniform body of light. He there¬
fore thought that it muft be an ignited vapour (a).
M. Beccari made it his bufinefs to inquire concern¬
ing this phenomenon of all his acquaintance who had
opportunities of obferving it, either on the mountains,
or on the plain. He found, that two which appeared
on the plains, one to the north and the other to the
call: of Bologna, were to be feen almoft every dark
night, efpecially the latter; and the light they gave
was equal to that of an ordinary faggot. That to the
eaft of Bologna once appeared to a gentleman of his
acquaintance as he was travelling, and kept him com¬
pany above a mile, conftantly moving before him, and
calling a ftronger light upon the road than the torch
which was carried along with him. All thefe luminous
appearances, he fays, gave light enough to make all
neighbouring obje&s vifible; and they are always ob-
ferved to be in motion, but this motion was various and
uncertain. Sometimes they would rife up, and at
other times fink ; but they commonly kept hovering
about fix feet from the ground. They would alfo dif-
appear of a fudden, and inftantly appear again in fome
other place. They differed both in fize and figure ;
fometimes fpreading pretty wide, and then again con-
tradling themfelves; fometimes breaking into two, and
then joining again ; fometimes floating like waves, and
dropping, as it were, fparks of fire. He was aflured
that there was not a dark night all the year round in
which they did not appear, and that they were obfer-
ved more frequently when the ground was covered
with fnow, than in the hotteft fummer: nor did rain
or fnow in the leaft hinder their appearance; but, on
the contrary, they were obferved more frequently, and
call a ftronger light, in rainy and wet weather; nor
were they much afie&ed by the wind.
The grounds to the eaft of Bologna, where the lar-
geft of thefe appearances was feen, is, he fays, a hard
chalky and clayey foil, which will retain the water a
long time, and afterwards, in hot v/eather, would break
into large cracks ; but on the mountains, where the
ignes fatui were fmaller, the foil was of a loofe fandy
texture, which would not keep the water very long.
According to the bell information he could procure,
thefe lights very much frequent brooks and rivers, be¬
ing often obferved on the banks of them; particularly,
fays he, becaufe the current of air carries them thither
more readily than to any other place.
This gentleman concludes his account of thefe ap¬
pearances with the following curious narrative. An in¬
telligent gentleman travelling in March, between eight
and nine in the evening, in a mountainous road about
ten miles fouth of Bologna, perceived a light which
fhone very ftrongly upon fome ftones that lay on the
banks of the river Rioverde. It feemed to be about
two feet above the Hones, and not far from the water. Light.
In fize and figure it had the appearance of a parallelo-  
piped, fomewhat more than a foot in length, and half a
foot high, the longeft fide being parallel to the hori¬
zon. Its light was fo ftrohg, that he could plainly di-
ftinguifti by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the
water of the river; only iu the caft corner of it the i
light was rather faint, and the fquare figure lefs per-
fe£t, as if it was cut off or darkened by the fegment
of a circle.
His curiofity tempting him to examine this appear- |
ance a little nearer, he advanced gently towards the
place; but was furprifed to find that it changed gra¬
dually from a bright red, firft to a yellowifh, and then
to a pale colour, in proportion as he drew nearer; and
when he came to the place itfelf, it quite vanifh-
ed. Upon this he ftepped back, and not only faw it
again, but found that the farther he went from it, the ..
ftronger and brighter it grew. When he examined the >
place of this luminous appearance, he could not per¬
ceive the leaft frtiell, or any other mark of fire.
This extraordinary account was confirmed to M. j
Beccari by another gentleman who frequently travel¬
led the fame road, and who affured him that he had
feen the very fame light five or fix different times, in
fpring and autumn, and that he had always obferved
it to be of the very fame fhape, and in the fame place;
and he once took particular notice of its coming out
of a neighbouring place, and fettling itfelf in the fi¬
gure above deferibed.
M. Beccari owns himftlf to be greatly at a lofs to
account not only for this very remarkable appearance,
but alfo for the ignes fatui in general. He only fays,
that all perfons who ever faw any of thefe appearances,
agree, that they caft a light quite different from that
of ftiining flies.
Dr Shaw deferibes an ignis fatuus which he faw in
the Holy Land; the circumftances of which are fo re¬
markable, that they well deferve to be recited, efpe¬
cially as fome of them feem to point at the caufe of
the phenomenon. As he and his company were travel¬
ling by night thfough the valleys of Mount Ephraim,
they were attended more than an hour by an ignis fa-
tuns, which was fometimes globular, or in the form of
the flame of a candle ; and which would immediately
afterwards fpread itfelf fo much as to involve the whole
company in a pale inoffenfive light, and then contrafh
itfelf again, and fuddenly difappear. But in lefs than
a minute it would become vifible as before; or, run¬
ning along from one place to another, with a fwift
progreffive motion, would expand itfelf at certain in¬
tervals, over more than two or three acres of the ad¬
jacent mountains. The atmofphere from the begin¬
ning of the evening had been remarkably thick and
hazy, and the dew, as they felt it upon their bridles,
was unufually clammy and unftuous. In the fame kind
of weather, he fays, he has obferved thofe luminous
appearances, which at fea flop about the malls and
yards of fliips, and which the failors call corpufanJet
which is a corruption of the Spamfh Cuerpo fanto.
Alight in fome refpefts ftmilar to thofe abovemen-
tioned has been found to proceed from that celebrated light.”
chemical
(b) Similar in fome refpedts to this light, was one that furrounded the body and the bed of a woman at Milan,
which fled from the hand that approached it, but was at length difperfed by the agitation of the air. jdfta Ctefarienjia,
Vol. III. p. 11.
L I G t 4223 1 L r G
Light, chemical production called pkofphorus, which always
~ tends to decompcfe itfelf, fo as to take fire by the accefs
of air only. Phofphorus, therefore, when it emits
light, is properly a body ignited; though when a very
fmall quantity of it is ufed, as what is left after draw¬
ing it over paper, or what may be diffolved in effential
oil, the heat is not fenfible. But perhaps the matter
which emits the light in what we call putrefcent fub-
Jlances may be iimilar to it, though it be generated by
a different procefs, and burn with a lefs degree of heat.
Putrefeence does not feem to be neceffary to the light
of glow-worms, or of the pholades ; and yet their light
is fufficiently fimilar to that of fhining wood or flefh.
Electric light is unqueftionably fimilar to that of phof¬
phorus, though the fource of it is apparently very dif¬
ferent.
Kunckel formed his phofphorus into a kind of pills
about the fize of peas, which being moiflened a little,
and fcraped in the dark, yielded a very confiderable
light, but not without fmoke. The light was much
more pleafing when eight or ten of thefe pills were put
into a glafs of water ; for being fhaken in the dark,
the whole glafs feemed to be filled with light. Kunc-
kel alfo reduced his phofphorus into the form of lar¬
ger Hones, which being warmed by a perfon’s hand,
and rubbed upon paper, would defcribe letters that
were very legible in the dark.
The greateft variety of experiments with the light
of phofphorus was made by Dr Slare ; who fays, that
the liquid phofphorus (which is nothing more than
the folid phofphorus diffolved in any of the effential
oils) would not hurt even a lady’s hand ; or that, when
the hands or face were waihed with it, it would not
only make them vifible to other perfons in the dark,
but that the light was fo confiderable as to make other
neighbouring objefts vifibie.
When the folid phofphorus is quite immerfed in wa¬
ter, he obferves that it ceafes to fhine; but that if any
part of it chance to emerge, or get into the air, it will
fhine though the glafs be hermetically fealed. In a
large gl^fs he kept it without water for feveral days;
and yet it continued finning, with very little diminu¬
tion of its light or weight. If the letters that were
written with this phofphorus were warmed by the fire,
they prefently became dark lines, which continued up¬
on the paper, like ink. To try how much light was
given by a fmall quantity of this phofphorus, he ob-
ferved that it continued to flame in the open air for
feven or eight days; the light being vifible whenever
he ihut his window.
As air was generally thought to contain the pabu¬
lum of flame, Dr Slare was determined to try this with
refpeft to phofphorus ; and for this purpofe he pla¬
ced a large piece of it in a receiver; but upon exhauft-
ing it, he perceived that it became more luminous,
and that, upon admitting the air, it returned to its for¬
mer ftate. This property of the light of phofphorus,
which is the very reverfe of that of fhining wood and
fifhes, was alfo afcertained by feveral very accurate ex-
perimerits of Mr Haukfbee’s.
Endeavouring to blow the phofphorus into a flame
with a pair of bellows, Dr Slare found that it was pre¬
fently blown out, and that it was a confiderable time
before the light revived again. All liquors would ex-
tinguifh this light when the phofphorus wras put into
Vol. VI.
them; nor would it fhine or burn, though it was even L'.tfi't,
boiled in the molt inflammable liquors, as oil of olives,
fpirit of turpentine, or even fpirit of wine.
In order to keep his phofphorus from confuming,
he ufed to put it in a glafs of water; and fometimes he
has feen it, when thus immerfed in water, make fuch
bright and vigorous corufcations in the air, as, he fays,
would furprile and frighten thofe who are not ufed to
the phaenomenon. This fiery meteor, he fays, is con-
trafted in its'paffage through the water, but expands
as foon as it gets above it. If any perfon would make
this experiment to advantage, he informs them that
the glafs muft be deep and cylindrical, and not above
three quarters filled with water. This effed! he per¬
ceived in warm weather only, and never in cold.
The phofphorus of whioli we have been treating is
prepared from urine; but in fome cafes the fweat, which
is fimilar to urine, has been obferved to be phofpho-
raceous, without any preparation. This once hay-ARa Ca-
pened to a perfon who ufed to eat great quantities of^j1/"*
fait, and who was a little fubjeft to the gout, afterp
fweating with violent exercife. Stripping himfelf in
the dark, his fhirt feemed to be all on fire, which fur-
prifed him very much. Upon examination, red fpots
were found upon his fhirt; and the phyfician who was
prefent perceived an urinous fmell, though it had no¬
thing in it of volatile alkali, but of the muriatic acid;
the fame, he fays, that iffues from cabbage much fait-A]|
ed, and ftrongly fermenting. lights ac-
Theeafieft method of accounting for all thefe kinds counted for
of lights, perhaps, is from eleftricity. If light confiflsfr?m e,cc_
in a certain vibration of the electric fluid, * then it fol-^see Elec-
lows, that in whatever fubftance fuch a vibration takes tricity,
place, there light mull appear, whether in putrefcent n<> 8i, 83.
animal-fubflancea, fea-water, phofphorus, or any thing
elfe. We know that the eledtric matter pervades all
terreftrial fubftances, and is very liable to be fetin mo¬
tion from caufes of which we are ignorant. The ac¬
tion of the air by which putrefa&ion is produced may
be one of thefe caufes; and it can by no means ap¬
pear furprifing that the eleftric matter fhould aft in
the bodies of living animals in fuch a manner as to
produce a permanent light, when we certainly know
it afts in fome of them fo powerfully as to produce a
(hock fimilar to that of a charged vial.—On this fnb-
jefl we fliall only obferve farther, that when this vi¬
bration becomes fo powerful as to penetrate the folid
fubftance of the body itfelf, the luminous body then
becomes tranfparent, as in the milk abovementioned ;
but, when it is only fuperficial, the body, though it
emits light, is itfelf opaque.
ILiGHT-Houfe, in maritime affairs, a building on the
fca-(hore, a promontory, a rock, &c. wherein is kept
a light during the night in order to direft veffels fail¬
ing near the place.
lAGHT-Room, a fmall apartment, inclofed with glafs-
windows, near the magazine of a (hip of war. It is
ufed to contain the lights by which the gunner and his
afliftants are enabled to fill cartridges with powder to
be ready for aflion.
LIGHTER, a large, open, flat-bottomed veffef,
generally managed with oars, and employed to carry
goods to or from a (hip when (he is to be laden or de¬
livered.—There are alfo fome lighters furniftied with
a deck throughout their whole length, in order to con-
24 A tain
L I G [42
Lightning, tain thofe merchandizes which would be damaged by
" "'rainy weather: thefe are ufually called clofe lighters.
LIGHTNING, a bright and vivid fiafh of fire,
fuddenly appearing in the atmofphere, and commonly
difappearing in an inftant, fometimes attended with
, clouds and thunder, and fometimes not.
Different The phenomena of lightning are always furprifing,
appearancesand fometimes very terrible; neither is there any
°f kind of natural appearance in which there is more
diverfity, not two flalhes being ever obferved exactly
fimilar to one another. In a ferene Iky, the lightning,
in this country at leaft, almoft always hath a kind of
indiftinft appearance without any determinate form,
like the fudden illumination of the atmofphere occa-
fioned by firing a quantity of loofe gunpowder; but
when accompanied with thunder, it is well defined,
and hath very often a zig zag form. Sometimes it
makes only one angle, like the letter V, fometimes it
hath feveral branches, and fpmetimes it appears like
the arch of a circle. But the mod formidable and
deftruAive form which lightning is ever known to
aflume is that of balls of fire. The motion of thefe
is very often eafily perceptible to the eye ; but where-
ever they fall, much mifchief is occafioned by their
burfting, which they always do with a fudden explo-
fion, like that of fire-arms. Sometimes they will
quietly run along, or reft for a little upon any thing,
and then break into feveral pieces, each of which will
explode; or the whole ball will burft at once, and
produce its mifchievous effedts only in one place. The
next to this in its deftruAive effe&s is the zig-zag
kind; for that which appears like indiftincl flafties,
whofe form cannot be readily obferved, is feldom or
never known to do hurt.—The colour of the lightning
alfo indicates in fome meafure its power to do mif¬
chief ; the paled and brighteft flafhes being mod de-
druftive ; fuch as are red or of a darker colour, com-
a monly doing lefs damage.
Its fteming A very furprifing property of lightning, the zig-
ftnce15^' Za^ k'nC^ efpecially, when near, is its feeming omni¬
prefence. If two perfons are Handing in a room look¬
ing different ways, and aloud clap of thunder accom¬
panied with zig-zag lightning happens, they will
both diftin&ly fee the flaih, not only by that indi-
ftindt illumination of the atmofphere which is occa¬
fioned by fire of any kind; but the very form of the
lightning itfelf, and every angle it makes in itscourfe,
will be as diftin&ly perceptible, as though they had
looked direAly at the cloud from whence it proceeded.
If a perfon happened at that time to be looking on a
book, or other objeA which he held in his hand, he
would diftin&ly fee the form of the lightning be¬
tween him and the objeA at which he looked. This
property feems peculiar to lightning, and to belong
3 to no other kind of fire whatever.
Remark- The effeAs of lightning are generally confined with-
of'll a fpace! an(l are feldom fimilar to thofe which
jjing® accompany explufions of gun-powder, or of inflam¬
mable air in mines. Inftances of this kind, however,
have occurred; the following is one of the moft re¬
markable of which we have any diftinA account.
“ Auguft 2d 1763, about fix in the evening, there
arofe at Anderlicht, about a league from Brufftls, a
confliA of feveral winds borne upon a thick fog. This
confliA lalted four or five minutes, and was attended
-4 1 L I G
with a frightful hiding noife, which could be compared Idghtnir
to nothing but the yellings of an infinite number of"”'
wild beafts. The cloud then opening, difcbvered a
kind o£ very bright lightning, and in an inftant the
roofs of one fide of the houfes were carried off and
difperfed at a diftance ; above tooo large trees were
broke off, fome near the ground, others near the
top, fome torn up by the roots ; and many both
of the branches and tops carried to the diftance of 60,
100, or 120 paces; whole coppices were laid on one
fide, as corn is by ordinary winds. The glafs of the
windows which was moft expofed was ftiivered to
pieces. A tent in a gentleman’s garden was carried
to the diftance of 4000 paces; and a branch torn from
a large tree, (truck a girl in the forehead as (he was
coming into town, at the diftance of 40 paces from
the trunk of the tree, and killed her on the fpot.”
Thefe terrible effeAs feem to have been owing to
the prodigious agitation in the air, oecafioned by the
emiffion of fuch a vaft quantity of lightning at once;
or perhaps to the agitation of the eleAric fluid itfelf,
which is ftill more dangerous than any concuflion of
the atmofphere; for thunder-ftorms will fometimes
produce moft violent whirlwinds, fuch as are by the
beft philofophers attributed to eleAricity, nay, even
occafion an agitation of the waters of the ocean itfelf,
and all this too- after the thunder and lightning
have ceafed.—Of this we have the following inftances.
“ Great Malvern, OAober 16th 1761. On Wed-
nefday laft, we had the moft violent thunder ever
known in the memory of man. At a quarter paft
four in the afternoon, I was furprifed with a moft
fhocking and difmal noife; 100 forges (the neareft
refemblance I can think of,) were they all at work at
once, could fcarce equal it. I ran to the fore-door,
and cafting my eye upon the fide of the hill about
400 yards to the fouth-weft of my houfe, there ap¬
peared a prodigious fmoak, attended with the fame
violent noife. I ran back into the houfe, and cried
out, a volcano (for fo I thought) had burft out of
the hill ; but I had no fooner got back again, than I
found it had defcended, and was palling on within
about 100 yards of the fouth end of my houfe. It
feemed to rife again in the meadow juft below it; and
continued its progrefs to the eaft, rifing in the fame
manner for four different times, attended with the
fame difmal noife as at firft ; the air being filled with
a naufeous and fulphureous fmell. I faw it gradually
decreafe till quite extinguished in a turnep-field about
a quarter of a mile below my houfe. The turnip-
leaves, with leaves of trees, dirt, (ticks, &c. filled the
air, and flew higher than any of thefe hills. The
thunder ceafed before this happened, and the air foon
afterwards became calm and ferene.”—The vaft co¬
lumn of fmoke mentioned in the above letter was fo
large, that a phyfician of eminence at Worcefter faw it
in its progrefs down the hill, about a mile from Fec-
kenham, which is above 20 miles from Malvern.—In
Auguft 1763, a moft violent ftorm of thunder, rain,
and hail, happened at London, which did damage in
the adjacent country, to the amount of 50,000 1.
Hailftones fell of an immenfe fize, from two to ten
inches circumference ; but the moft furprifing circum-
ftance was the fudden flux and reflux of the tide in
Plymouth pool, exaAly corrsfponding with the like
agi-
L I G [ 4225 ] L I G
|W htning. agitation in the fame place, at the time of the great
earthquake at Lifbon.
Inftances are alfo to be found, where lightning, by
its own proper force, without any afliftance from thofe
lefs common agitations of the atmofphere or eleftric
fluid, hath thrown ftones of immenfe weight to
confiderable diftances; torn up trees by the root, and
broke them in pieces; (battered rocks ; beat down
houfes, and fet them on fire, &c. All thefe, how¬
ever, are to be confidered as the more unfual phseno-
mena of lightning ; its common mode of a£Hon being
entirely fimilar to that of a charged Leyden vial,
where the ele&ric matter difcharges itfelf from a fub-
ftance pofitively eledfrified to one that is negatively fo.
The indentity of eledfric matter and lightning feems
now, indeed, fo well eftabliftied, that there is not the
lead foundation for feeking any other folution of the
phaenomena of lightning, than what may be obtained
by comparing them with thofe of our eledlrical expe¬
riments. The different forms of the flafties are all
exemplified in thofe of eledfrical fparks. Where the
quantity of ele&ricity is fmall, and confequently in¬
capable of ftriking at any confiderable diftance, the
fpark appears ftraight, without any curvature or an¬
gular appearance: but where the eledtricity is very
itrong, and of confequence capable of ftriking an
objedt at a pretty confiderable diftance, it affumes a
crooked or zig-zag form. This is always the cafe
with Mr Nairn’s very powerful machines, the con-
dudtors of which are fix feet in length and one foot
in diameter. Sparks may be taken from them at the
diftance of 16, 17, or even 20 inches; and all of thefe
put on the angular zig-zag form of lightning. The
hefe fparks a
; milarity
1* tween e-
Sric
| irks and
;htning.
irhy it af-
imes a zig-
ig form.
reafon of this appearance, both in thefe fparks and in
the lightning, is, that the more fluid eledlric matter
hath to pafs through the denfer and lefs fluid at¬
mofphere with great rapidity; and in fadt, this is the
way in which all the more fluid fubftancespafs through
thofe that are lefs fo, at leaft when their velocity be¬
comes confiderable.—If “bubbles of air or fleam pafs
very gently up through water, their courfe from the
bottom to the top of the veffel will differ very little,
if at all, from a ftraight line; but when they are im¬
pelled by a confiderable force, as in air blown from a
bellows, or the bubbles of (team which arife in boiling
water, their courfe is then marked by waved and
crooked lines, and the defledfion of the bubbles to
the right or left, will be precifely in proportion to
their afcending velocity, and to the weight of the
water by which they are refifted.
In the cafe of air blown through water, however,
or (team afcending from the bottom of a veffel of
boiling water, though the courfe of the bubbles is
waved and crooked, we never obferve it to be angular
as in lightning. The reafon of this is, that there is
no proportion between the capacity of the air for
yielding to the impetus of lightning, and the velocity
with which the latter is moved. From Mr Robins’s
experiments in gunnery, it appears, that the air can¬
not yield with a velocity much greater than 1200 feet
in a fecond, and that all projedliles moving with a
greater degree of velocity meet with a violent refi¬
nance. But if we fuppofe' lightning to move only
with one half the velocity of light, that is, near
100,000 miles in a fecond, its motion in the fluid at¬
mofphere will meet with a refiftance very little in- Lightning,
ferior to what air would meet with in paffing through ’ '
the moft folid bodies. The fmalleft difference of the
refiftance of the atmofphere on either fide, muft de¬
termine the lightning to that fide ; and in its paflage
to that new place where the refiftance is leaft, it muft
pafs on in a ftraight line, making an angle with its
former courfe, becaufe the atmofphere is altogether
incapable of yielding with fuch rapidity as the eledtric
matter requires, and therefore refifts like a folid rock.
The cafe is otherwife in the former examples : for tho’
a fmall difference in the refiftance forces the bubbles of
air or (team to deviate from fide to fide, yet there
is always a confiderable proportion between the ca¬
pacity of water for yielding, and that force by which,
the bubbles urge it to yield ; fo that though it does
make a refiftance fufficient to prevent the bubbles
from moving in a ftraight line, yet it alfo perceptibly
yields at all times, and therefore the traft of the bub¬
bles is formed by a number of curves and not angles. g
Hence we may underftand the reafon why the zig- Why ftich
zag kind of lightning is fo dangerous, namely, be-^in<1 .
caufe it muft overcome a very violent refiftance of the very "dan-1*
atmofphere; and wherever that refiftance is in thegeroU5,
fmalleft degree leffened, there it will undoubtedly ftrike,
and at a very confiderable diftance too. It is other-
wife with that kind which appears in flafhes of no de¬
terminate form. The ele&ric matter of which thefe
are compofed, is evidently diflipated in the air by fome
conducing fubftances which are prefent there; and
of confequence, though a man, or other conducting
body, happened to be very near fuch a flafti, he would
not be ftruck or materially injured by it, tho’ a zig-zag
flaffi, in fuch circumftances, would have probably dif-
charged its whole force upon him. y
The moft deftruftive kind of lightning, however, as Why i’ght-
we have already obferved, is that which affumes
form of balls. Thefe are produced by an exceeding f“^sof e
great power of electricity gradually accumulated till balls,
the refiftance of the atmofphere is no longer able to
confine it. In general, the lightning breaks out from
the eledtrified cloud by means of the approach of fome
conducing fubftance ; either a cloud, or fome terre-
ftrial fubftance : but the fire-balls feem to be formed,
not becaufe there is any fubftance at hand to attraCt
the eleCtric matter from the cloud, but becaufe the e-
leCtricity is accumulated in fueh quantity that the
cloud itfelf can no longer contain it. Hence fuch balls
fly off (lowly, and have no particular deftination. Their
appearance indicates a prodigious commotion and ac¬
cumulation of eleCtricity in the atmofphere, without a
proportionable difpofition in the earth to receive it.
This difpofition, however, we know is perpetually al¬
tered by a thoufand circumftances, and theplace which
firft becomes moft capable of admitting eleCtricity will
certainly receive a fire-ball. Hence this kind of light¬
ning has been known to move flowly backwards and
forwards in the air for a conliderable fpace of time, and
then fuddenly to fall on one or more houfes, accord¬
ing to their being more or lefs affeCted with an eleCtri¬
city oppofite to that of the ball at the time. It will
alfo run along the ground, break into feveral parts,
and produce feveral explofions at the fame time.
It is very difficult to imitate lightning of this kind
in our eleCtrical experiments. The only cafes in which '
24 A 2 it
L I G [ 4226 ] L I G
Lightning. Jt hath been done in any degree are thofe in which Dr ther impoffible to determine, by means of our fenfes, Lightning.
Prieftley made the cxplofioo of a battery pafs for a con- whether it goes from the earth or comes to it. In
fiderable way over the furface of raw fkfh, water, fa&, there are in this country many thunder-ftorms in
* See Elec- &c *. In thefe cafes, if, while the eleftric flafh pals- which it doth not appear that the lightning touches
r?’ R e(i over the furface of the tkfh, it had been pofiible to any part of the earth, and confequently can neither go
8<s. 4’ ,nterrupt the metallic circuit by taking away the chain, to it nor come out from it. In thefe cafes, it flafhes
the eleftric matter difcharged from the battery would either from an electrified cloud to one endowed with
have been precifely in the fituation of one of the fire- an oppofite eleCtricity, or merely into thofe parts of
balls above-mentioned ; i. e. it would have been at a the atmofphere which are ready to receive it. But if
lofs for a conductor. The negative fide of the battery not only the clouds, but the atmofphere all the waybe-
was the place of its deftination ; but to that it would twixt them and the earth, and likewife for a confide-
not have eafily got, becaufe of the great quantity of rable fpace above the clouds, are eleCtrified one way,
atmofphere which lay in its v/ay, and the incapacity the earth mud-then be druck. The reafon of this will
of the neighbouring bodies to receive it. But if, appear from a confideration of the principles laid down
while the eleCtric matter was thus ftationary for want under the article Electricity, feCt. vi. It there ap-
of a conductor, if any perfon danding near, or touch- pears, that the eleCtric fluid is altogether incapable ei-
ing the negative fide of the battery, prefented a finger ther of accumulation or diminution in quantity in any
to that feemingly inoffenfive luminous body, he would particular part of fpace. What we call electricity is only
indantly be druck very violently ; becaufe a free com- the motion of this fluid made perceptible to our fenfes.
numication being now made by means of his body, the Pofitive eleCtricity is when the current of eleCtric mat-
powers by which the eleCtric fluid is impelled from ter is direCted from the electrified body. Negative
one place to another would indantly urge it upon electricity is when the current is direCted towards it.
him. But if we fuppofe a perfon, who hath no com- Let us now fuppofe, that a pofitively electrified cloud
munication with the battery, to prefent his finger to the is formed over a certain part of the earth’s furface.
fame body, he may perhaps receive a flight fpark from The eleCtric matter flows out from it fird into the at-
it ; but not a fhock of any confequence, becaufe mofphere all round ; and while it is doing fo, the at-
there is not d perfeCt communication by means of mofphere is negatively eleCtrified. In proportion,
his body with the place to which the eleCtric fire is however, as the eleCtric current pervades greater and
8 dedined. greater portions of the atmofpherical fpace, the great-
PhenoTYiena Hence we may account for the feemingly capricious er is the refidance to its motion, till at lad the airbe-
of lightning nature 0f lightning of all kinds, but efpecially of that comes pofitively eleCtrified as well as the cloud, and
accounted which appears in the form of balls. Sometimes then both act together as one body. The furface of
for. it will drike trees, high houfes, deeples, and towers, the earth then begins to be affeCted, and it filently
without touching'cottages, men, or other animals, receives the eleCtric matter by means of the trees, grafs,
who are in the neighbourhood. In fuch cafes, people &c. which grow upon its furface, till at lad it becomes
would be apt to fay that the neighbourhood of thefe pofitively eleCtrified alfo, and begins to fend offa cur-
higher objeCts prefereed the others from the droke; but rent of eleCtricity from the furface downwards. The
with little reafon, fince low houfes, men walking in caufes which at fird produced the electricity of the
the fields, cattle, nay, the furface of the earth itfelf, clouds, (and which are treated of under the article
have all been druck, while high trees and deeples in . Thunder), dill continuing to aCt, the power of the
the neighbourhood have not been touched. In like eleCtric current becomes inconceivably great. The dan-
manner, fire-balls have paffed very near certain per- ger of the thunder-dorm now begins; for an the force
fons without hurting them, while they have, as it of the lightning is direCted to fome place below the
were, gone confiderably out of their way to kill others, furface of the earth, it will certainly dart towards that
The reafon of all this is, that in thunder-dorms there is place, and fhatter every thing to pieces which refills 0
condantly a certain zone of earth confiderably under the its paffage. The benefit of conduQing-rods will now tife of cor
furface, which the lightning defires (if we may ufe the alfo be evident : for we are fure that the eledric mat- dutfing i
expreffion) to drike,becaufe it hath an eleCIricity oppo- ter will in all cafes take the way where it meets withro<is‘ i
fite to that of the lightning itfelf. Thofe objeCIs, there- the lead refiftance; and this is through the fubftance,
fore, which fo*m the mod perfeCt conductors between or rather over the furface, of metals. In fuch a cafe,
the eledrified clouds and that zone of earth, will be therefore, if there happen to be a houfe furniflied with
druck by the lightning, whether they are high or low ; a conductor direCtly below the cloud, and at the fame
and becaufe we know not the conducting quality of time a zone of negatively eleCtrified earth not very far
the different terredrial fubflances, the fuperditious are below the foundation of the houfe, the conductor will
apt to aferibe drokes of lightning to the Divine ven- almod certainly be druck, but the building will be
geance againd particular perfons, whereas it is cer- unhurt. If the houfe wants a conductor, the light-
tain that this fluid, as well as others, aCts according to ning will neverthelefs flvike in the fame place, in order
invariable rules from which it is never known to de- to get at the negatively eleCtrified zone above-men-
part. tioned ; but the building will now be damaged, be-
Lightning, in the time of fevere thunder-dorms, is caufe the materials of it cannot readily conduCl the
fuppofed to proceed from the earth, as well as from eleCtric fluid. 10
the clouds : but this faCt hath never been well afeer- We will now be able to enter into the difpute, Whe- Whether^
tained, and indeed from the nature of the thing it ther the preference is due to knobbed or pointed con-
feems very difficult to be afeertained ; for the motion duCtors for preferving buildings from drokes of light-con(j„f>0*
of the eleCtric fluid is fo very quick, that it is altoge- ning. Ever fince, the difeovery of the identity ofareprefe-
eledricityrable*
L I G [ 4227 I L I G
fotning. ele&ricity and lightning, it hath heen allowed by all
1 parties, that conductors of fome kind are in a manner
effentially neceffary for the fafety of buildings in thofe
countries where thunder-ftorms are very frequent. The
principle on which they a£t hath been already ex¬
plained ; namely, that the ele&ric fluid, when im¬
pelled by any power, always goes to that place where
it meets with the leaft refiftance, as all other fluids
alfo do. As metals, therefore, are found to give
the leaft refiftance to its paffage, it will always choofe
to run along a metalline rod, in preference to a paf¬
fage of any other kind. We muft, however, care¬
fully confider a circumftance which feems to have been
too much overlooked by eleCfricians in their reafon-
ings concerning the effefts of thunder-rods; namely,
That lightning, or eleClricity, never ftrikes a body,
merely for the fake of the body itfelf, but only bc-
caufe by means of that body it can readily arrive at
the place of its deftination. When a quantity of elec¬
tricity is collefted from the earth, by means of an
eleftric machine, a body communicating with the
earth will receive a ftrong fpark from the prime con¬
ductor. The body receives this fpark, not becanfe it
is itfelf capable of containing all the eleCtricity of
the conductor and cylinder, but becaufe the natural
fituation of the fluid being difturbed by the motion of
the machine, a ftream ©f it is fent off from the earth.
The natural powers, therefore, make an effort to fup-
ply what is thus drained off from the earth ; and as
the individual quantity which comes out is moft pro¬
per for fupplying the deficiency, as not being employed
in any natural purpofe, there is always an effort made
for returning it to the earth. No fooner, then, is
a conducting body, communicating with the earth,
prefented to the eleCtrical machine, than the whole
effort of the eleCtricity is direCted againft that body,
not merely becaufe it is a conductor, but becaufe it
leads to the place where the fluid is direCted by the
natural powers by which it is governed, and at which
it would find other means to arrive, though that body
were not to be prefented. That this is the cafe, we
may very eafily fatisfy ourfelves, by prefenting the very
fame conducting fubltance in an infulated ftate to the
prime conductor of the machine; for then we (hall
find, that only a very fimall fpark will be produced,
in like manner, when lightning ftrikes a tree, a houfe,
or a thunder-rod, it is not becaufe thefe objeCts are
high, or in the neighbourhood of the cloud ; but be¬
caufe they communicate with fome place below the
furface of the ground, againft which the impetus of
the lightning is direCted ; and at that place the light¬
ning would certainly arrive, though none of the above-
mentioned objeCts had been interpofed.
The fallacy of that kind of reafoning generally em¬
ployed concerning the ufe of thunder-rods, will now
be fufficiently apparent. Becaufe a point prefented to
an eleCtrified body in our experiments, always draws
off the eleCtricity in a filent manner ; therefore Dr
Franklin and his followers have concluded, that a
pointed conductor will do the fame thing to a thunder¬
cloud, and thus effectually prevent any kind of danger
from a ftroke of lightning. Their reafoning on this fub-
jeCt, they think, is confirmed by the followingfaCt among
many others. “ Dr Franklin’s boufe at Pliiladelphia
was furniflied with a rod extending nine feet above the
top of the chimney. To this rod was connected a Lightning;
wire of the thicknefs of a goofe-quill, which defeended
through the well of the ftair-cafe ; where an interrup¬
tion was made, fo that the ends of the wire, to each
of which a little bell was fixed, were diftant from each
other about fix inches ; an infulated brafs ball hang¬
ing between the two bells. The author was one night
waked by loud cracks, proceeding from his apparatus
in the ftair-cafe. He perceived, that the brafs ball,
inftead of vibrating as ufual between the bells, was
repelled and kept at a diftance from both ; while the
fire fometimes paffed in very large quick cracks di-
reClly from bell to bell; and fometimes in a continued
denfe white ftream, feemingly as large as his finger;
by means of which the whole ftair-cafe was enlightened,
as with fun-fhine, fo that he could fee to pick up &
pin.—From the apparent quantity of eleClric matter
of which the cloud was thus evidently robbed, by
means of the pointed rod (and of which a blunt con¬
ductor would not have deprived it), the author con¬
ceives, that a number of fuch conduftors muft confi-
derably leflen the quantity of eledric fluid contained
in any approaching cloud, before it comes fo near as
to deliver its contents in a general ftroke.”
For this very reafon, Mr Benjamin Wilfon and his
followers, who conftitute the oppofite party, have de¬
termined that the ufe of pointed conductors is utterly
unfafe. They fay, that in violent thunder-ftorms the
whole atmofpbere is full of eleCtricity ; and that at¬
tempts to exhauft the vaft quantity there collected, are
like attempting to clear away an inundation with a
fhovel, or to exhauft the atmofphere with a pair of
bellows. They maintain, that though pointed bodies
will effectually prevent the accumulation of eleCtricity
in any fubftance ; yet if a non-eleCtrified body is iu-
terpofed between a point and the conductor of an
eleCtrical machine, the point will be llruck at the fame
moment with the non-eleCtrified body, and at a much
greater diftance than that at which a knob would be
{truck. They affirm alfo, that, by means of this filent
felicitation of the lightning, inflammable bodies, fucb
as gun-powder, tirtder, and Kunckel’s phofphorus,
may be fet on fire ; and for thefe laft faCts they bring
decifive experiments. From all this, fay they, it is
evident that the ufe of pointed conductors is unfafe.
They folicit a difeharge to the place where they are ;
and as they are unable to conduCt the whole eleCtricity
in the atmofphere, it is impoffible for us to know
whether the difeharge they folicit may not be too great
for our conductor to bear ; and confequently all the
mifehiefs arifing from thunder-ftorras may be expeCted,
with this additional and mortifying circumftance, that
this very conductor hath probably folicited the fatal
ftroke, when without it the cloud might have paffed
harmiefs over our heads without linking at all.
Here the reafoning of both parties is equally wrong.
They both proceed on this erroneous principle, that
in thunder-ftortns. the conductor will always folicit a
difciiarge, or that at fuch times all the elevated objeCts
on the furface of the earth are drawing off the eleCtri¬
city of the atmofphere: but this cannot be the cafe,
unlefs the elyCtricity of the earth and of the atmo¬
fphere is of a different kind. Now, it is demonftrable,
that until this difference between the eleCtricity of the
atmofphere and of the furface of the earth ceafes, there
cannot
L I G [ 4228 ] L I G
.Lightning, cannot be a thunder-ftorm. When the atmofphere
~ begins to be ele&rified either pofitively or negatively,
the earth, by means of the inequalities and moifture of
its furface, but efpecially by the vegetables which
grow upon it, abforbs that elediricity, and quickly be¬
comes electrified in the fame manner with the atmo¬
fphere. This abforption, however, ceafes in a very fliort
time, becaufe it cannot be continued without fetting in
motion the whole of the eledtric matter contained in
the earth itfelf. Alternate zones of pofitive and negative
eledlricity will then begin to take place below the furface
of the earth, for the reafons mentioned under the article
Electricity, feCt- vi. § 9. Between the atmofphere and
one of thefe zones, the ftroke of the lightningalways will
be. Thus, fuppofing the atmofphere is pofitively eleCtrU
fied, the furface of the earth will, by means of trees, &c.
quickly become pofitively eleCtrified alfo; we ihall
fuppofe to the depth of 10 feet. The eleCtricity
cannot penetrate farther on account of the refiftance
of the eleCtric matter in the bowels of the earth. At
the depth of 10 feet from the furface, therefore, a
zone of negatively-eleCtrified earth begins, and to this
zone the eleCtricity of the atmofphere is attracted;
but to this it cannot get, without breaking through
the politively-eleCtrified zone which lies uppermoft,
and ihattering to pieces every bad conductor which
comes in its way. We are very fure, therefore, that
in whatever places the outer-zone of pofitively-eleCtri-
fied earth is thinned, there the lightning will ftrike
whether a conductor happens to be prefent or not. If
there is a conductor, either knobbed or fharp-pointed,
the lightning will indeed infallibly ftrike it: but it
would alfo have ftruck a houfe fituated on that fpot
without any conductor; and though the houfe had not
been there, it would have ftruck the furface of the
ground itfelf.—Again, if we fuppofe the houfe with
its conductor to ftand on a part of the ground where
the pofitively-eleCtrified zone is very thick, the con¬
ductor will neither filently draw off the eleCtricity,
nor will the lightning ftrike it, though perhaps it may
firike a much lower objeCt, or even the furface of the
ground itfelf, at no great diftance; the reafon of
which undoubtedly is, that there the zone of pofi¬
tively-eleCtrified earth is thinner, than where the con¬
ductor was.
We muft alfo obferve, that the Franklinians make
their pointed conductors to be of too great confe-
quence. To the houfes on which they are fixed, no
doubt, their importance is very great: but in exhauft-
ing a thunder-cloud of its eleftiicity, their ufe muft
appear trifling; and to infill on it, ridiculous. Innu¬
merable objeCts, as trees, grafs, &c. are all confpiring
to draw off the eleCtricity, as well as the conductor, if
it could be drawn off; but of effecting this there is an
impofiibility, becaufe they have the fame kind of eleCtri¬
city with the clouds themfelves. The conductor hath not
even the power of attrafting the lightning a few feet
out of the direction which it would choofe of itfelf. Of
this we have a molt remarkable and decifive inftance, in
what happened to the magazine at Purfleet in Effex,
on May 15, 1777. That houfe was furnilhed with a
pointed conductor, railed above the higheft part of
the building; neverthe-lefs, about fix in the evening of
the abovementioned day, a fblh of lightning ftruck
an iron cramp in the corner of the wall, confiderably
lower than the top of the conductor, and only 46 feet Lightning.)
in a Hoping line diftant from the point.—This pro- \
duced a long difpute with Mr Wilfon concerning the
propriety of ufing pointed conductors; and, by the
favour of his majefty, he was enabled to conftruCt a
more magnificent eleCtrical apparatus than any private
perfon could be fuppofed to ereCt at his own expence,
and of which fome account is given under the article
Electricity, n° 78. The only new experiments,
however, which this apparatus produced, were, the
firing of gunpowder by the eleClric aura, as it is called;
and a particularly violent Ihock which a perfon re¬
ceived when he held a fmall pointed wire in his hand,
upon which the conduftor was difcharged. We mull
obferve, that the elcflrified furface of the condudor
was 620 feet; and we can have but little idea of the
ftrength of fparks from a conductor of this magnitude,
fuppofing it properly eleftrified. Six turns of the
wheel made the difcharge felt through the whole body -1
like the ftrong ftiock of a Leyden vial; and nobody
chofe to make the experiment when the conductor had
received a higher charge. A very ftrong ftiock was
felt, as already obferved, when this conductor was dif¬
charged upon a pointed wire held in a perfon’s hand,
even though the wire communicated with the earth;
which was not felt, or but very little, when a knobbed
wire was made ufe of.—To account for this difference
may, perhaps, puzzle eleCtricians; but with regard to
the ufe of blunt or pointed thunder-rods, both experi¬
ments feem quite inconclufive. Though a very great 1 1
quantity of eleClric matter filently drawn off will fire
gunpowder, this only proves that a pointed conduClor
ought not to pafs through a barrel of gunpowder;
and if a perfon holding a pointed wire in his hand re¬
ceived a ftrong fliock from Mr Wilfon’s great con¬
duClor, it can thence only be inferred, that in the time
of thunder nobody ought to hold the conduClor in
their hands; both which precautions common-fenfe
would diClate without any experiment. From the ac¬
cident at Purfleet, however, the difputants on both
fides ought to have feen, that, with regard to light¬
ning, neither points nor knobs can aitraft. Mr Wilfon
furely had no reafon to condemn the pointed conduClor
for foliciting the flafti of lightning, feeing it did not
ftrike the point of the conduClor, but a blunt cramp of
iron ; neither have the Franklinians any reafon to
boaft of its effeCt in Jilcntly drawing off the eleClric
matter, fince all its powers were neither able to pre¬
vent the flafh, nor to turn it 46 feet out of its way.
The matter of faCt is, the lightning was determined
to enter the earth at the place where the board-houfe
Hands, or near it. The conduClor fixed on the houfe
offered the eafieft communication: but 46 feet of air
intervening between the point of the conduClor and
the place of explofion, the refiftance was lefs through
the blunt cramp of iron, and a few bricks moiftened
with rain-water, to the fide of the metalline conduclor,
than through the 46 feet of air to its point; for the
former was the way in which the lightning aCtually
paffed.
Mr Wilfon and his followers feem alfo miftaken in
fuppofing that,a pointed conductor can folicit a
greater difcharge than what would otherwife happen.
Allowing the quantity of eleClricity in the atmo¬
fphere during the time of a thunder-ftorm to be as
great
L I G [ 4229 ] L I G
itiung. great as they pleafe to fuppofe ; neverthclers, it is
impoffible that the air can part with all its ele&ricity
at once, on account of the difficulty with which the
fluid moves in it. A pointed conduftor, therefore, if
it does any thing at all. can only folicit the partial
difcharge which is to be made at any rate; and if none
were to be made though the conduftor was abfent, its
n prefence will not be able to effeft any.
Ma- In a late publication on the fubjeiii of electricity by
lord Mahon, we find a new kind of lightning made
's ^mention of, which he is of opinion may give a fatal
ftroke, even though the main explofion was at a con-
fiderable diftance; a mile, for inftance, or more. This
he calls the eleftrical returning Jlroke; and exemplifies it
in the following manner, from fome experiments made
with a very powerful eledtrical machine, the prime
condu&or of which (fix feet long, by one foot diame-
meter) would generally, when the weather was favour¬
able, ftrike into a brafs ball connedled with the earth,
to the diftance of 18 inches, or more. In the follow¬
ing account this brafs ball, which we {hall call is
fuppofed to be conftantly placed at the Jiriking di-
fiance; fo that the prime conduftor, the inftant that
it becomes fully charged, explodes into it.
Another large conduftor, which we fhall call the
fecond conduftor, is fufpended, in a perfectly infulated
ftate, farther from the prime condu&or than the Jiri¬
king dijlance, but within its elefirical atmofphere;—at
the diftance offix feet, for inftance. A perfon {land¬
ing on an infulating ftool touches this fecond condudor
very lightly with a finger of his right hand; while,
with a finger of his left hand, he communicates with
the earth, by touching very lightly a fecond brafs ball
fixed at the top of a metallic (land, on the floor, and
which we (hall call B.
While the prime condudlor is receiving its eleftricity,
fparks pafs (at leaf! if the diftance between the two
conductors is not too great) from the fecond condudtor
to the infulated perfon’s right hand; while fimilar and
fimultaneous fparks pafs out from the finger of his left
hand into the fecond metallic ball B, communicating
with the earth. Thefe fparks are part of the natural
quantity of eledtric matter belonging to the fecond
condudor, and to the infulated perfon ; driven from
them into the earth, through the ball B, and its {land,,
by the elaftic preffure or adtion of the eledlrical atmo¬
fphere of the prime condudlor. The fecond condudlor
and the infulated perfon are hereby reduced to a ne¬
gative ftate.
At length, however, the prime conduclor; having
acquired its full charge, fuddenly ftrikes into the ball
/}, of the fir ft metallic ftand, placed for that purpofe
at the ftriking diflanee of 17 or 18 inches. The ex¬
plofion being made, and the prime condudlor fuddenly
robbed of its eledlric atmofphere, its preflure or adlion
on the fecond condudlor, and on the infulated perfon,
as fuddenly ceafes; and the latter inftantly feels a fmart
returning frcke, though he has no diredl or vifible
communication (except by the floor) either.with the
ftriking or ftruck body, and is placed at the diftance
oi five or fix feet from both of them. This returning
llroke is evidently occaiioned by thefudden re-entrance
of the eledlric fire naturally belonging to his body and
to the fecond condudlor, which had before been expelled
from them by the adlion of the charged prime condudlor
upon them; and which returns to its former place,I-ightninj*.
the inftant that adlion or elaftic preffure ceafes. The
author (hows, that there can be no reafon to fuppofe
that the eledlrical difcharge from the prime condudlor
Ihould, in this experiment, divide itfelf at the inftant of
the explofion, and go different ways, fo as to ftrike the
fecond condudlor and infulated perfon in this manner,
and at fuch 3 diftance from it.
When the fecond condudlor and the infulatcd
perfon are placed in the denfeft part of the eledlrical
atmofphere of the prime eondudlor, or juft beyond the
ftriking diftance, the effedls are ftill more confiderable;
the returning ftroke being extremely'fevere and pun¬
gent, and appearing confiderably (harper than even the
main ftroke itfelf, received diredlly from the prime con¬
dudlor. This circumftance the author alleges as an
unanfwerable proof that the effedl which he calls the
returning ftroke, was not produced by the main ftroke
being any wife divided at the time of the explofion,
fince no effefi can ever be greater than the caufe by
by which it is immediately produced.—Having taken
the returning ftroke eight or ten times one morning, he
felt a confiderable degree of pain acrofs his cheft during
the whole evening, and a difagreeable fenfation in his
arms and wrifts all the next day.
We come now to the application of this experi¬
ment, and of the dodlrine deduced from it, to what
paffes in natural eleflricity, or during a thunder-ftormj.
in which there is reafon to expedl fimilar effedls, but
on a larger fcale:—a fcale fo large indeed, according
to the author’s reprefentation, that perfons and animals
may be deftroyed, and particular parts of buildings
may be confiderably damaged, by an eledlrical return-
ing ftroke, occafioned even by fome very diftant explo-
fton ixom a thunder cloud;—poffibly at the diftance of
a mile or more.
It is certainly eafy to conceive, that a charged ex-
tenfive thunder-cloud muft be produdlive of effedls fi¬
milar to thofe produced by the author’s prime conduc¬
tor. Like it, while it continues charged, it will, by
the fuperinduced elaftic eledrical prejjure of its atmo¬
fphere—to ufe the author’s own expreflion—drive into
the earth a part of the eledlric fluid naturally belong¬
ing to the bodies which are within the reach of its
'widely extended atmofphere ; and which will therefore
become negatively eledlrical. This portion too of
their eledlric fire, as in the artificial experiments, will,
on the explofion of the cloud, at a diftance, and the
ceffation of its adlion upon them, fuddenly return to
them; fo as to produce an equilibrium, and reftore
them to their natural ftate.
To this theory, the authors of the Monthly ReviewAnr^ret|^
have given the following anfwer: “ We cannot, how-by the Re,
ever, agree with the ingenious author, with refpedl to viewers,
the of the effedls, or of the danger to be ap¬
prehended from the returning ftroke in this cafe; as we
think his eftimate is grounded on an erroneous founda¬
tion,—‘ Since (fays he) the denfity of the eledlrical at¬
mofphere of a thunder-cloud is fo imrnenfe, when compa¬
red to the eledtrical denfity of the eledlrical atmofphere
of any prime condudor, charged by means of any eledlri¬
cal apparatus whatfoever; and fince a returning ftroke,
when produced by the fudden removal of even the weak
elaftic eledlrical preffure of the eledlrical atmofphere of
a charged prime condudor, may be extremely ftrong, as
we
L I G [ 4230 ] L I G
Lightning. We have feen above; it is mathematically evident, that,
when a returningJlroke comes to be produced by the
fudden removal of the very ftrong elaftic eleftrical pref-
fure of the eledfrical atmofphere of a thunder-cloud
powerfully charged; the ftrength of fuch a returning
Jlroke mull be enormous.’
“ If indeed the quantity of eleflric fluid naturally
contained in the body of a man, for inllance, were im-
menfe, or indefinite, the author’s eftimate between the
effe&s producible by a cloud, and thofe caufed by a
prime conduftor, might be admitted. But furely an
cledlrified cloud,—how great foeyer may be its ex¬
tent, and the height of its charge, when compared
with the extent and charge of a prime conduftor—
cannot expel from a man’s body (or any other body)
more than the natural quantity of ele&ricity which it
contains. On the fudden removal, therefore, of the
preflure by which this natural quantity had been ex¬
pelled, in confequence of the explofion of the cloud
into the earth ; m 7nore (at the utmoll) than \\h whole
natural Jlock of ele&ricity can re-enter his body (c).
But we have no reafon to fuppofe that this quantity is
fo great, as that its fudden re-entrance into his body
Ihould deftroy or even injure him.
“ In the experiment above defcribed, the infulated
perfon receives into his body, at (he inftant of the re-
turnmg Jlroke, not only all that portion of his own
natural eleftric-fire which had been expelled from it;
but likewife tranfmits through it, at the fame inftant,
in confequence of his peculiar jituation, all the eledlric
fire of which the large fecond condudlor had been
robbed ; and which mull neceflarily re-pafs through
his body, to arrive at that condu&or. To render the
cafe fomewhat parallel, in natural eleflricity, the man’s
body mull be fo peculiarly circumftanced, fuppofing
him to be in a houfe, that the ele&ric matter which
has been expelled from the houfe into the earth, by
the preflure of an extenfive thunder-cloud, could not
return back into the building, on the explofion of the
cloud at adiftance, without palling through his body:
a cafe not likely to happen, unlefs the houfe were in¬
fulated (like the fecond conductor in the preceding ex¬
periment), and his body became the channel through
which alone the houfe could have its eledric matter
reftored to it: it appears much more probable that
the eledlric matter returns to the houfe through the
fame channels by which it before infenfibly pafied out,
and with equal filence, tho’ more fuddenly.
“In the cafe of a man who is abroad, and in an
t>pen field, during the time of an explofion;—as he is
unconnedled with other mafles of matter aboye him,
no more than the precife quantity of eledlric fire, which
had been before expelled from his body, will fuddenly
return into it at the inftant of a diftant explofion: and
that this quantity is not ufually very large, may be
inferred from many confiderations.
“ When a perfon ftauding on the ground holds al-ightnmf
pair of Mr Canton’s balls in his hand, while a highly
charged thunder-cloud is fufpended over his head; the
angle made by the balls indicates the elettrical Jlate of
that perfou, or the quantity of natural electricity of
which his body is at that time deprived, by the adlion
of the (pqflively) charged cloud hanging over him.
But we have never feen the repulfion of the balls fo
confiderable, as to furnifh any juft apprehenlions that
the return of his natural eledlric matter, however
fudden, could be attended with injury to him: nor
would he be fenfible of any commotion on the balls
fuddenly coming together; tho’ a fpark might un- |
doubtedly be perceived, at that inftant, were he infu¬
lated, and placed in the fame manner with the author
when he tried the above-related experiment.
“ The author neverthelefs obferves, that * there
have been in (lances of perfons who have been killed
by natural eledlricity, having been found with their
Jhoes torn, and with their feet damaged by the eledlri-
cal fire ; but who have not had, over their whole bo¬
dy, any other apparent marks of having been ftruck
with lightning.’ He adds, ‘ if a man walking out
of doors were to be killed by a returning Jlroke, the
eledlrical fire would rufh into that man’s body thro’ his
feet, and his'feet only ; which would not be the cafe,
were he to be killed by any main Jlroke of explofion,
either pofitive or negative.’
“ It would be no difficult talk, we think, to account
for thefe appearances in a different manner ; were all
the circumftances attending the cafe minutely afcer-
tained : but without interrogating the dead on this
fubjedl, we may more fatisfaftorily appeal to the ex¬
perience of the living (d), to fhew, that though the
returning Jlroke mull take place, in all thunder-ftorms,
in fame degree or other ; yet it is not of that alarm¬
ing magnitude which the author afcribes to it. If, J
in any particular thunder-ftorm, a man in the open
fields could be killed, at the inftant of a diftant explo¬
fion, merely by the return of his own eledlric fire,
which had before been driven out of his body ; fure¬
ly numerous obfervations of perfons who had expe¬
rienced the returningfroke, in fighter degrees, would
be familiar; and fcaree a great thunder-ftorm muft have
occurred, in which one perfoh or another muft not, at
the inftant of an explofion, have felt the effedls of the
returning ftroke, in fotne degree or other— from that of
a Vicheni concufian, to that of a flight and almoft im¬
perceptible pulfation. But no obfervations of this
kind are known to us ; nor have we ever heard of
any perfon’s experiencing any kind of eledlrical com¬
motion in a thunder-ftonn, except fuch as have either
been diredlly ftruck, or have happened to be in the
very near neighbourhood of the fpot where the explofion
took place.
“ The author has been aware of this objedlion,
which
(c) “ We fuppofe the perfon not to be fo fituated, that the returning fire of other bodies muft necefianly pafs
through his body.”
(d) “ The author does indeed produce a evidence, in the cafe of a perfon at Vienna, who, he has been credi¬
bly informed, received an eledtrical Ihock, by having held one hand accidentally in contadl with an interruptea me¬
tallic conducing rod, at. the inftant that a thunder-cloud exploded at the diftance, as was conjectured, of above half
an Englifh mile. He likewife obferves, that a ‘ very ftrong, bright, and twdAen Jlroke ’ (or fpark) of electrical fire has
been feen, by feveral eledtricians* to pafs in the interval, or interruption, purpofely left in the condudting rod of a houfe
at the inftant of a diftant explofion; and ‘ when it was fully proved, by the fharp point of the condudtor not being
melted, or even tinged,’ that the condudlor itfelf had not been ftruck.—Thefe obiervations, however, do not by any
means prove the magnitude^ or danger, of the returning ftroke, but merely its exifience; which we do not contdt.”
L I G [4231 ] L I G
jhttiii'g. which he propofes, and endeavours to remove : but his
r anfwer to it amounts to little more than what has been
already quoted from him; that is, to a fimple dlt-
mate of the enormous difference between the ele&rical
denfity, or the elajiic elefiricalprejfurc, of the atmo-
fphere of an extenfive thunder-cloud, and that of a
charged prime conductor. We have already obferved,
that this is not the proper method of eftimating their
different effects, when thefe two caufes, how unequal
foeverin power, are confidered as exerting that power
on bodies containing a limited, and comparatively
/mall, quantity of eleftric matter.
“ We have been induced to difeufs thus fubjeft thus
particularly, with a view to quiet the minds of the ti¬
morous ; as the author’s extenfion of his principles, re-
fpe&ing the returning ftroke in ^yfaWeleCtricity, to
Vvhat paffes in natural cle&ricity, holds out a new,
and, in our opinion, groundlefs fubjedt of terror to
thofe who, in the midft of their apprehenfions, have
hitherto only dreaded the effedls of a thunder-ftorm
when it made near approaches to them ; but who, if
this dodlrine were believed, would never think them-
felves in fecurity while a thunder-cloud appeared in
fight, unlefs theltered in a houfe furnifhed with pro¬
per condudtors :—for we fhould not omit to remark,
that a fubfequent obfervation tends to diminifh their
fears, by fhewing that high and pointed condu&ors
tend to fecure both perfons and buildings, againft the
various effedfs of any returning Jlroke whatever, as well
as of the main Jlroke.
■eftions “ Indeed various parts of this work, befides thofe
con_ immediately appropriated to the fubjedt, tend to
fling prove the utility of high and pointed condudtors, in
•Is. preference to thofe which terminate in a £«//, or rottwrf-
ed end. Towards the end of the performance, the au¬
thor difeuffes this matter very particularly; and enume¬
rates the ‘ necejfary requifites' in eredting them, in
number 11 ; to every one of which, tho’ we have ta¬
ken the liberty to differ from him on another fubjedt,
we readily fubferibe. As this matter is of a popular
nature, and on a fubjedt generally interefting, we fhall
tranferibe this lift; adding a fhort explanation to par¬
ticular articles.—Thefe requifites (fays the author) are
11 in number :
‘ ill, That, the rod be made of fuch fubflan-
ces, as are, in their nature, the bejl condufton of elec¬
tricity.'
‘ 2dly, That the rod be uninterrupted, and perfeflly
continuous.'—This is a very material circumftance.
One entire piece of metal cannot perhaps be had : but
it is not fufficient that the rods, of which the con-
dudtor confifts, be fen/hly in contadt ; they fhould be
preffed into adual contadt by means of nuts and ferews,
with a thin piece of fheet-lead between the fhoulders
of the joints.
‘ 3dly, That it be of a fufficient thicknefs.'—A
copper rod half an inch fquare, or an iron rod one inch
fquare, or one of lead two inches fquare, are thought
fully fufficient by the author.
‘ 4thly, That it be perfedtly connedled with the
common dock.’—That is, it fhould be carried deep
into the earth, which is frequently dry near the fur-
face ; and then continued in a horizontal diredfion, fo
as to have the farther extremity dipped, fhould this be
pradticable, into water, at the diflance of to yards or
more from the foundation.
Voc. VI-
* 5thly, That the upper extremity of the rod be as’dghtning.
acutely pointed as poffihle.’—This termination fhould  
be of copper ; or rather a very fine and exceedingly
acute needle of gold fhould be employed, which will
not materially add to the expence.
‘ 6thly, That it be very finely tapered fo that
the upper extremity may be a cone, the diameter of
the bafe of which may bear an extremely fmall pro¬
portion to its height; for inflance, that of one to
forty.
* 7thly, That it be extremely prominent —that
is, 8, 10, or 15 feet at leaft above the highefl parts
of the building. The author lays great ftrefs on this
circumftance ; in confequence of the law above-men¬
tioned, deduced by him from his experiments, relating
to clediric atmofpheres. According to this law, the
derifity of an tledlric atmofphere (the negative atmo-
fphere, for inftance, of the roof of a houfe, Ac. while
a pof lively charged cloud hangs over it) diminifhes in
the inverfe ratio of the fquare of the diftance from the
furface of the body to which that atmofphere belongs.
Accordingly, if the rod projeft 12 feet into this atmo¬
fphere, it will reach to a part of it four times lefs
denfe than if the rod projected only to half that, di¬
ftance, or fix feet;—and to a part one hundred andforty
four times rarer, than if it projefted only one foot.
* 8thly, That each rod be carried, in the ffiorteft
convenient dire&ion, from the point at its upper end,
to the common itock.’
‘ 9thly, That there be neither large nor prominent
bodies of metal upon the top of the building propofed
to be fecured, but fuch as are conne&ed with the
condu&or, by fome proper metallic communication.”
‘ lothly, That there be a fufficient number of high
and pointed rods.’—On edifices of great importance,
efpecially magazines of gun-powder, the author thinks
thefe ought never to be above 40 or 50 feet afunder.
‘ 1 ithly, That every part of the rods be very fub-
ft antially erefted.*
“ The author declares that he has never been able
to hear of a fngle inftance, nor does he believe that
any can be produced, of an high, tapering, and a-
cutely pointed metallic eondu&or, having ever, in any
country, been ftruck by lightning; if it had ^//the
neceffary requifites abovementioned, efpecially the fc-
cond and fourth.”
On the whole, it feems to be pretty certain, thatufe of con-
both pointed and knobbed metalline conductors dudtors.
have the power of preferving any body placed at a
fmall diftance from them from being ftruck by light¬
ning. This they do, not becaufe they can attratt the
lightning far out of its way, but becaufe the refiftance
to its paffage is always leaft on that fide where they
are; and as pointed condu&ors diminiffi the refiftance
more confiderably than blunt ones, they feem in all
cafes to be preferable.—It appears, however, that a
fingle conduftor, whether blunt or pointed, is not ca¬
pable of fecuring all the parts of a large building from
ftrokes of lightning ; and therefore fevcral of them
will be required for this purpofe: but to what diftance
their influence extends, hath not been determined, nor
does it feem eafily capable of being afeertained.
It now remains only to explain fome of the inore'vyhvi]ieht-
uncommon appearances and eft'e&s of lightning. One ning fome-
of thefe is, that it is frequently obferved to kill al- times kills
ternately : that is, fuppofing a number of people alternately.
24 B Handing
L I G [ 423. ]
Lightning, landing in a line; if the firit perfon was killed, the LIGHTFOOT
fecond perhaps would be fafe; the third would be
killed, and the fourth fafe; the fifth killed, &c.—
Effects of this kind are generally produced by the molt
violent kind of lightning; namely, that which ap¬
pears in the form of balls, and which are frequently
feen to divide themfelves into feveral parts before they
ftrike. If one of thefe parts of a fire-ball (trikes a
man, another will not ftrike the perfon who Hands
immediately clofe to him ; becaufe there is always a
reputfion between bodies eleftrified the fame way.
Now, as all thefe parts into which the ball breaks have
L I G
(John), a very learned Engh'lh L’ght'ft
divine in the 17th century, was educated in Chrift- . It’.1™
church, Cambridge. Sir RowlandCotton, knight,tQokI'lgu ‘Cl>lt>
him into his family as his chaplain, and engaged him
in the ftudy of the Hebrew langnage. He refolved
to travel; but changed his refolution, being impor¬
tuned by the people of Stone in Staffordlhire to be
their minifter. From hence he removed to Hornfey
near London, for the fake of Sion-college library,
where he difcharged the duties of his fundlion, and
profecuted his rabbinical ftudies, till June 1642, when
he retired to London, was chofen minifter of St Bar-
all the fame kind of eleftricity, it is evident that they tholomew’s behind the Exchange, and appointed one
the forr
a crofs.
muft for that reafon repel one another ; and this repul-
iion is fo ftrong, that a man may be interpofed within
the ftroke of two of them, without being hurt by either.
The other effedfc of lightning is mentioned under
,d the article Jerusalem, where thofe who attempted
metimes to rebuild the temple had the marks of croffes im-
larks bo- prelfed upon their garments and bodies. This
may reafonably be thought to arife from the fame
caufe to which the angular appearance of light¬
ning in the air is owing, namely, its violent impetns
and velocity, together with the oppofition of the at-
mofphere. A fmall ftroke of lightning, fometimes
indeed a very confiderable one, cannot always enter
the fubftance of terreftrial bodies, even when it touches
them, for reafons already given. In this cafe it runs
along their furface, and, as in its motion it is perpe¬
tually refilled by the atmofphere, it undoubtedly has
the fame angular motion which we often perceive in
the atmofphere. If in this fituation it happens to
touch the human Hein, or a garment, efpecially of linen,
as being a condu&or, it will undoubtedly leave a mark
upon it ; and this mark being of a zig-zag form, might,
in the above inftance, have been either taken for the
cxaft form of a erofs by the beholders, or have fug-
gefted that idea in relating the ftory to make it ap¬
pear more wonderful.
Thefe obfervations may ferve to give fome idea of
the nature of lightning, and its operations after it ap¬
pears in its proper form and burfts out from the
cloud; but for an account of its original formation,
and of the powers by which the clouds are at firft
elcdfrified, and their electricity kept up notwith-
ftandiog many fucceffive difeharges of lightning, and
the quantity of eleCIric matter continually carried off
by the rain, &c. fee the article Thunder.
of the aflembly of divines in 1643. Auguft 26, 1645,
he preached, before the houfe of commons, a fermon
printed at London the fame year, in which he recom¬
mends to the parliament a Review and Survey of the
tranflation of the bible, and to haften the fettling of
the church. In 1655, he was chofen vice-chancellor of
the univerfity of Cambridge. Fie was collated to a
prebend in the cathedral of Ely by Sir Orlando
Bridgeman., then keeper of the great feal. He pub-
lilhed feveral valuable works, particularly “ The Har¬
mony of the Old, and the Harmony of the New Tef-
tament,’, Ac. He died in 1675, afie^ 74’
LIGNICENSIS terra,, in the materia medica,
the name of a fine yellow bole dug in many parts of
Germany, particularly about Emeric in the circle of
Weftphalia, and ufed in cordial and aftringent com-
pofitions.
LIGNUM coLUBRiNUM. See Ophiorhiza.
LIGULATED, among botanifts, an appellation
given to fuch flofcules as have a ftraight end turned
downwards, with three indentures, bat hot feparated
into fegments.
LIGURIA (anc. geog.), a country of Italy, bound¬
ed on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea, on the
north by the Appennine mountains, on the weft by
part of Tranfalpine Gaul, and on the eaft by Etruria.
There is a great difagreement among authors concern¬
ing the origin of the Ligurians, though moft pro¬
bably they were defeended from the Gauls. Some
carry up their origin as far as the fabulous heroes of
antiquity ; while others trace them from the Ligyes,
a people mentioned by Herodotus as attending Xerxes
in his expeditions againft Greece. Thefe Ligyes are
by fome ancient geographers placed in Colchis ; by
others, in Albania. — According to Diodorus Siculus,
Lightning. Before the difeoveries of the Ligurians led a very wretched life ; their country
Dr Franklin concerning the identity of eleflricity
and lightning, many contrivances were invented in
order to reprefent this terrifying pheenomenon in mi¬
niature : the corufcations of phofpnorus in warm wea¬
ther, the accenfion of the vapour of fpirit of wine
evaporated in a clofe place, &c. were ufed in order to
fupport the hypothefis which at that time prevailed ;
namely, that lightning was formed of fome fulphu-
reous, nitrous, or other combuftible vapours, floating
in long trains in the atmofphere, which by fome un¬
accountable means took fire, and produced all the
deftruftive effe&s of that phenomenon. Thefe repre-
fentations, however, are now [no more exhibited;
and the only true artificial lightning is univerfally ac¬
knowledged to be the difehargeof ele&ric matter from
bodies in which, it is artificially fet in motion by our
machines.
being entirely overgrown with woods, which they
were obliged to pull up by the root, in order to cul¬
tivate their land, which was alfo encumbered with
great Hones, and, being naturally barren, made but
very poor returns for all their labour. They were
much addifted to hunting ; and, by a life of continual
exercife and labour, became fo ftrong, that theweakeft.
Ligurian was generally an overmatch for the ftrongefl
and moft robuft among the Gauls. The women are
faid to have been almoft as ftrong as the men, and to
have borne an equal (hare in all laborious enterprifes.
With all their bravery, however, they were not able
to refill the Roman power ; but were fubdued by that
warlike nation, about 211 B. C.
LIGUSTICUM, lovage ; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are fix fpecies, of which the molt remarkable
are*
L I L [ 42
ftruns, are, the levlfticum or common, and the fcoticum or,
ing' Scots, lovage. The firft is a native of the Apennine
mountains in Italy. It hath a thick-flefhy, deeply-
penetrating perennial root, crowned by very large,
many-parted, radical leaves, with broad lobes, ha¬
ving incifions at top, upright, ftrong, channelled ftalks,
branching fix or feven feet high, and all the branches
terminated by yellow flowers in large umbels. The
fecond is a native of Scotland, and grows near the fea
in various parts of the country. It hath a thickilh,
flefliy, penetrating, perennial root, crowned by large
doubly-trifoliate leaves, with broad, ihort, indented
Jobes, upright, round ftalks, half a yard high ; ter¬
minated by fmall yellow umbels. Both fpecies are
hardy, and eafily propagated by feeds fown in fpring
or autumn.
Medicinal ufes, &c. The root of the firft fpecies
agrees nearly in quality with that of angelica: the
rincipal difference is, that the lovage root hath a
ronger fmell, and a fomewhat lefs/^ungent tafte, ac¬
companied with a more durable fweetnefs, the feeds
being rather warmer than the root; but though cer¬
tainly capable of being applied to ufeful purpofes,
this root is not regarded in the prefent pradtice. The
leaves of the fecond are fometimes eaten raw as a falad,
or boiled as greens, by the inhabitants of the Hebrides.
The root is reckoned a good carminative. They give
an infufion of the leaves in whey to their calves to
purge them.
LIGUSTRUM, privet ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the diandria elafs of plants.
-—There is but one fpecies ; of which there are two
varieties, the deciduous and the evergreen. They
are hardy plants, rifing from 10 to 15 feet high,
adorned with oblong entire leaves, and fpikes of
infundibuliform oblong white flowers fucceeded by
black-berries. They are eafily propagated by feed,
layers, fuckers, or cuttings. They are ufed for ma¬
king hedges. The purple colour upon cards is pre¬
pared from the berries. With the addition of alum,
thefe berries are faid to dye wool and filk of a good
and durable green 5 for which purpofe they mutt be
gathered as foon as they are ripe. The leaves are
bitter and (lightly aftringent. Oxen, goats, and (heep,
eat the plant; horfes refufe it.
LILBURNE (John), an enthufiaftic demagogue,
who was tyrannically puniflied by the ftar-chamber
court, being put in the pillory, whipped, fined and
imprifoned, for importing and publifhing feditious
pamphlets, which he had got printed in Holland ;
they chiefly refle&ed on the church of England
and its biftiops: he fuffered in 1637, and in prifon
was doubly loaded with irons. In 1641, he was re¬
leafed by the long parliament; and from this time,
he had the addrefs to make himfelf formidable to all
parties, by his bold, afpiring genius. He fignalized
himfelf in the parliament army ; and was at one time
the fecret friend and confident of Cromwell, and at
another his avowed enemy and accufer; fo that, in
1650, Cromwell found it to be his intereft to filence
him, by a grant of fome forfeited eftates. But after
this, he grew outrageous againft the proteftor’s go¬
vernment ; became chief of the levellers ; and was
twice tried for high treafon, but acquitted by the
juries. The laft was for returning from exile (having
33 ] L I L
been banifhed by the parliment) without a pafs. He Liliaceous
died in 1657, aged 88. (
LILIACEOUS, in botany, an appellation given
to fuch flowers as referable thofe of the lily.
L1LIUM, the lily; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants.
There are nine fpecies, all of them bulbous-rooted,
herbaceous, (Jpwery perennials, rifing with ere& an¬
nual ftalks three or four feet high, garniftied with
long narrow leaves, and terminated by fine clufters of
large, bell-ftiaped, hexapetalous flowers of exceeding
great beauty, of white, red, fcarlet, orange, purple,
and yellow colours.
Culture. All the fpecies are propagated by fowing
the feeds; and if care is taken to preferve thefe feeds
from good flowers, very beautiful varieties are often
produced. The manner of fowing them is as follows.
Some fquare boxes fliould be procured, about fix
inches deep, with holes bored in the bottoms to let
out the wet: thefe muft be filled with frefh, light,
fandy earth; and the feeds fown upon them pretty
thick in the beginning of Auguft, and covered over
about half an inch deep with light fifted earth of the
fame kind. They (hould then be placed where they
may have the morning fun ; and if the weather proves
dry, they muft be watered at times, and the weeds
carefully picked out. In the month of Odtober the
boxes are to be removed to a place where they may
have as much fun as poffible, and be. fecured from the
north and north-eaft winds. In fpring the young
plants will appear, and the boxes are then to be re¬
moved into their former fituation. In Auguft the
fmalleft roots are to be emptied out of thefe boxes,
and ftrewed over a bed of light earth, and covered
with about half an inch depth of earth of the fame
kind fifted over them. Here they muft be watered,
and (haded at times, and defended from the feverity
of winter by a flight covering of draw or peafe-haulm
in the hardeft weather. In February, the furface of
the bed (hould be cleared, and a little light earth fifted
over it. When the leaves are decayed, the earth
(hould be a little ftirred over the roots, and in the
month of September following fome more earth
fifted on. In the September of the following year,
the roots muft be tranfplanted to the places where
they are to remain, and fet at the diftance of eight
inches ; the roots being placed four inches below the
furface : this {hould be done in moift weathei*. They
will now require the fame care as in the preceding
winters ; and, the fecond year after they are tranf-
planted, the ftrongeft roots will begin to flower. The
fine ones ftiould then be removed at the proper feafon
into flower-beds, and planted at great diftances from
one another that they may flower ftrong.
Medical ufes. The roots of the white lily are emolli¬
ent, maturating, and greatly fuppurative. They are
ufed externally in cataplafms for tliefe purpofes with
fuccefs. The common form of applying them is boiled
and bruifed; but fome prefer the roafting them till
tender, and then beating them to a pafte with oil, in
which form they are faid to be excellent againft burns.
Gerard recommends them internally, againft dropfies.
LILLO (George), an excellent dramatic writer,
born at London in 1693. He was a jeweller by ,pro-
fefiion, and followed his bufinefs for many years in
24 B 2 that
L 1 L [ 4234 ] tit
that neighbourhood with the faired reputation. He
■ wrote feveral dramatic pieces, which with his life
were lately collefted in two volumes 12mo. He died
in 1739.
LILLY (John), a dramatic poet, was born in the
wilds of Kent, about the year 1553* and educated in
Magdalen-college, Oxford, where he took the degree
of bachelor of arts in 1573, and that of mader in
1575. From Oxford he removed to Cambridge ; but
how long he continued there, is uncertain. On his
arrival in London, he became acquainted with fome of
queen Elizabeth’s courtiers, by whom he was careflod,
and admired as a poet and a wit ; and her majefty,
on particular felHvals, honoured his dramatic pieces
with her prefence. His plays are nine in number.
His fird publication, however, printed in 1580, was
a romance called Euphues, which was univerfally read
and admired. This romance, which Blount, the edi¬
tor of fix of his plays, fays introduced a new language,
cfpecially among the ladies, is, according to Berken-
hout, in fadt a mod contemptible piece of affedlation
and nonfenfe: neverthelefs it feems very certain, that
it was in high edimation by the women of falhion
of thofe times, who, we are told by Whalley the
editor’of Ben Jonfon’s works, had all the phrafes by
heart; and thofe who did not fpeak Euphuijm were
as little regarded at court as if they could not fpeak
French. “ He was,” fays Oldys, “ a man of great
“ reading, good memory, ready faculty of applica-
4t tion, and uncommon eloquence ; but he ran into a
“ vad excefs of allufion.” When or where he died,
is not known. Anthony Wood fays he was living in
1597, when hisiaft comedy was publifhed. After at¬
tending the court of queen Elizabeth thirteen years,
notwithdanding his reputation as an author, he was
under a necelfity of petitioning the queen for lome
fmall dipend -to fupport him in his old age. His two
letters or petitions to her majefty, on this fubject, are
preserved in manufeript.
Lilly (William), a noted Eoglilh adrologer,
born in Leicederfhirc in 1602 ; where his father not
being able to give him more learning than common
writing and arithmetick, he refolved to feek his for¬
tune in London. He arrived in 1620, and lived four
years as fervant to a mantua-maker in the parifh of
St Clements Danes; but then moved a dep higher to
the ferviee of Mr Wright, mader of the Salter's com¬
pany, in the Strand, who not being able to write, Lilly
among other offices kept his books. In 1627, when
his mader died, he paid his addrefles to the widow,
whom he married with a fortune of 1000I. Being now
his own mader, he followed the puritanical preachers ;
and, turning bis mind to judicial adrology, became pu¬
pil to one Evans, a prodigate Welch parfon, in that
pretended art. Getting a MS. of the sirs notitia
of Corn. Agrippa, with alterations, lie drank in the
do&rine of the magic circle, and the invocation of Cpi-
vits, with great eagemefs. He was the author of the
Merlhius Anglicus junior; The Supernatural Sight;
and The White King’s Prophecy. In him we have an
indance of the general fuperdition and ignorance that
prevailed in the time t>f the civil war between Char. I.
and his parliament: for the king confulted this adro¬
loger, to know in whatqu irter he diould conceal him-
fclf, if he could efcape from Hampton-court; and
general Fairfax, on the other dde, fent for him to his Filly
army, to afk him if he could tell by his art, whe- li j
ther God was with them and their caufe ? Lilly, who Filye,
made his fortune by favourable prediftions to both
parties, allured the general, that God would be with
him and his army. In 1648, he publidied his Treatife
of the three Suns feen the preceding winter ; and alfo
an adrological judgment upon a eonjun&ion of Saturn
and Mars. This year the council of date gave him in
money 501. and a penfion of tool, per annum, which
he received for two years, and then refigned on fome
difgud. In June 1660, he was taken into cpdody by
order of the parliament, by whom he was examined
concerning the perfon who cut off the head of king
Charles I. The fame year he fued out his pardon un¬
der the great leal of England. The plague raging in
London, he removed with his family to his edate at
Herlham ; and in October 1666, was examined be¬
fore a committee of the houfe of commons concerning
the fire of London, which happened in September
that year. After his retirement to Herlham, he ap¬
plied himfelf to the dudy of phyfic, and, by means of
his friend Mr Alhmole, obtained from archbiftiop Shel¬
don a licence for the practice of it. A little before his
death he adopted for his fon, by the name of Merlin
junior, one Henry Coley, a taylor by trade ; and at
the fame time gave him the imprefiion of his almanac,
after it had been printed for 36 years. He died in
1681, bf a dead palfy. Mr Afhmole fet a monument
over his grave in the church of Walton upon Thames.
Hrs “ Obfervations on the Life and Death of Charles
late king of England,” if we overlook the adrological
nonfenfe, may be read with as much fatisfa&ion as
more celebrated hidories, Lilly being not only very
well informed, but ftri&ly impartial. This work, with
the Lives of Lilly and Alhmole, written by them-
felves, were publidied in one vol 8vo, in 1774, by Mr
Burman.
LILYBJEUM, {anc. geog.), a city of Sicily, fi-
tuated on the mod wederly promontory of the idand
of Sicily, and faid to have been founded by the Car¬
thaginians on their expulfion from Motya by Diony-
fius tyrant of Syracufe. It is remarkable for three
lieges it fudained ; one againd Dionyfius the tyrant,
another againd Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and tlie third
againd the Romans. The two fird failed in their at¬
tempts, but the Romans with great difficulty made
themfelves mailers of it. No remains of this once date-
ly city are now to be feen except fome aquedu&s and
temples; though it was danding in Strabo’s time.
LILYE (William), the grammarian, was born in
the year J478, at Odiham in Hamplhire; and in 1486,
was admitted a femi-commoner pf Magdalen college,
in Oxford. Having taken the degree of bachelor of
arts, he left the nniverfity, and travelled to Jerufalem.
Returning from thence, he continued five years in the
ifland of Rhodes, where be dudied the Greek language,
feveral learned men having retired thither after the ta¬
king of Condantinople. From Rhodes he travelled to
Rome ; where he improved himfelf in the Greek and
Latin languages, under Sulpitius and P. Sabinus. He
then returned to London, where for fome lime he
taught a private grammar-feheo), being the fird per¬
fon who taught Greek in the metropolis. In *510,
when Dr Colei founded St Paul’s fchool, Lilye was ap¬
pointed
L I M [ 4235 ] L I M
i«na. pointed the firft mafter; at which time, it Teems, he was
married and had many children. In this employment
he had laboured 12 years, when, being feized by the
plague, which then raged in London, he died in Fe¬
bruary 1523, and w’as buried in the north yard of St
Paul’s. He had the charafter of an excellent gram¬
marian, and a fuccefsful teacher of the learned lan¬
guages. His principal work is Breviffima injiitutio,
feu ratio grammatices cogmfcendie; Lend.. 1513. Re¬
printed times without number, and commonly called
Lily's grammar. The Englifh rudiments were writ¬
ten by Dr Colet, dean of St Paul’s; and the preface
to the firft edition, by cardinal Wolfey. The Englifh
fyntax was written by Lilye ; alfo the rules for the
genders of nouns, beginning with Propria que mart-
bus; and thofe for the preterperfe£t tenles and lupines,
beginning with Sis in prxfenti. The Latin fyntax was
chiefly the work of Erafmus. See Ward’s preface to
his edition of Lily’s Grammar, 1732.
LIMA, a city of South America, in Peru, of which
it is capital, with an arch hi (hop’s fee, and an univer-
fity. It gives its name to the principal audience of
Peru; and is furrounded with brick walls, fortified with
feveral ramparts and baftions, eight yards high. The
ftreets are handfome, and as ftraight as a line; but the
houfes are generally only one ftory high, on account
of the earthquakes. However, they are pretty enough,
and well adorned, having long galleries on the front.
One part of the roofs are covered with coarfe linen
cloth, and the others only with reeds, which is not in¬
convenient, becaufe it never rains here ; however, the
richeft inhabitants cover theirs with fine mats, or beau¬
tiful cotton-cloths. There are trees planted all round
their houfes, to keep off the heat of the fun. What
the houfes want in height they have in length and
depth ; for fome of them are 200 feet long, and pro¬
port ionably broad, fo that they have 10 or 12 large
apartments on the ground-floor. The royal fquare is
very handfome, and in the middle there is a fountain of
bronze, adorned with the image of fame, which fpouts
out water. On theeaft and weft (ides are the publicftnic-
tures, which are well built. The river which crofles
Lima forms canals or ftreams which run to moft of the
houfes, and ferve to water their gardens, as well as for
other ufes. All the churches and convents are ex¬
tremely rich ; and many images of the faints are of
irafiy gold, adorned with jewels. This city is four
miles in length, and two in breadth, and is divided into
eight parifttes ; and yet it contains but 28,000 inha¬
bitants, whereof pooo are Spaniards. They make ufe
of mules to draw their coaches with, and of thefe there
are about 5000. It is the feat of the viceroy; and
contains feveral courts, as that of the viceroy', of the
archbiftiop, of the inquifition, of the crufado, and of
the wills. Earthquakes are here very frequent; fome
of which have done this city a great deal of damage,
particularly that in 1746,.whereby it was almoft de-
ftroyed: were it not for this, it would be a perfect
paradife; there being plen ty of corn, wine, oil, fugar,
fruits, and flax. The inhabitants are fo rich, that when
the viceroy, who was duke of Palata, and fent from
Spain to Peru in 1672, made his public entrance in¬
to this city, the inhabitants paved the ftreets he was
to pafs through with ingots of fiiver. The inhabitants
of Lima are very debauched, but at the fame time ex¬
tremely fuperftitious, and they have a ftrong belief in
the power of charms. About a fourth part of the city .
are monks and nuns, who are not a jot more chafte LllTlhort:l1-
than the reft; and if any one happens to rival a monk,
he is in danger of his life, for they always carry a dag¬
ger under their frocks. The nuns are fnch libertines,
that it is hard to find any free from the French dif-
eafe, of which they fometimes die for want of good
phyficians. The greateft Tinners think they atone for
all their faults by hearing a mafs, and killing the robe
of St Francis or St Dommic, and then they return to
their former pra&ices. It is feated on a large, pka-
fant, fertile plain, on a fmall river, near the fea. W.
Long. 68. 45. S. Lat. 12. 15.
LIMAX, the Slug, or Naked Snail; a genus of
infefis, belonging to the order of vermes mollufca; the
charadiers of which are thefe: The body is oblong,
fitted for crawling, with a kind of raufcular coat on the
upper part; and the belly is plain: they have a round-
i(h hole in the fide, near the neck, which ferves for the
purpofe of genitals, and for voiding their excrements.
They have likewife four tentacula, or horns, fituated
above the mouth, which they extend or retradl at plea-
fure. There are eight fpecies, diftinguifhed entirely by
their colour; as the bl»ck fiug, the white flug, the
reddifh flug, the a!h-coloured flug, &c. The lalt of
thefe, the agreftis or field-flug, is very common in
gardens, and deftruftive to plants. They are fome¬
times fwallow'ed by confumptive perfons, to whom
they are thought to be of fervice. Snails are faid to be
hermaphrodites, and mutually to impregnate each other.
See Reproduction.
LIMB, in genera], denotes the border or edge of
a thing; thus we fay, the limb of a quadrant, of the
fun, of a leaf, &c.
Limb, in anatomy, an appellation given to the ex¬
tremities of the body, as to the arms and legs.
Limb, Limbus, in the church of Rome, is ufed in
two different fenfes. 1. The limb of the patriarchs is
faid to be the place where the patriarchs waited the re¬
demption of mankind: in this place they fuppofe our
Saviour’s foul continued from the time of his death to
his refurredhion. 2. The limb of infants dying with¬
out baptifm, is a place fuppofed to be diHindi both from
heaven and hell; fince, (ay they, children dying inno¬
cent of any atlual fin, do not deferve hell ; and, by
reafon of their original fin, cannot be admitted into
heaven.
LIMBORCH (Philip), a learned writer among the
remonftrants, born at Amfterdam in 1633. After ha¬
ving made great proficiency in his Audits, he was, in
1655, admitted to preach in public, which he did firft
at Harlem. His fermons had in them no afFt died elo¬
quence; but were folid, methodical, and edifying. He
was chofen minifter of Goudja ; from whence he was
called to Amfterdam, where he had the profefforfliip
of divinity, in which he acquitted himfelf with great
reputation till his death, which happened in the 1712.
He had an admirable genius, and a tenacious memory.
He had many friends of diftindlion in foreign parts as
well as in his own country. Some of his letters to Mr
Locke are printed with thofe of that celebrated author.
He had all the qualifications fuitable to the charadter
of a fincere divine, lived an example of every virtue,
and preferved the vigour of his body and mind to a
eon-
L I M [ 4236 ] L I M
Limburgh confiderable age. He wrote many works, which are may be faid to be the limit of its circumfcribed and LimRlrrjj
J, efteemed ; the principal of which are, Arnica col-
Limit‘ latio de veritate religionis GhriJUana cum erudito yu-
dceo, in izmo, 2. A complete body of Divinity, ac¬
cording to the opinions and doftrines of the remon-
ftrants. 3. A hiftory of the Inquifition ; which has
been tranflated into Englifh by Dr Samuel Chandler.
Dimborch alfo publifhed the works of the famous E-
pifcopius, who was his great-uncle by the mother’s
tide.
LIMBURGH duchy, a province of the Auftrian
Netherlands, bounded by the duchy of Juliers on the
north and eaft, by Luxemburgh on the fouth, and by
the bifhopric of Liege on the weft. It is about 30
miles in length, and 25 in breadth; and confifts of good
arable and pafture land, with plenty of wood, and fome
iron mints.
Limburgh, the capital city of the duchy of Lim¬
burgh, in the Auftrian Netherlands', is feated on a fteep
rock near the river Veffe. This town is fmall, but plea-
fantly feated on a hill, with ftiady woods; and confifts
chiefly of one broad ftreet, not very well built. It is
ftrong by fituation, and almoft inacceffible; however, it
was taken by the French in 1675, an<^ ^>7 the confe¬
derates under the the duke of Marlborough in 1603,
for the houfe of Auftria, to whom it remains by the
treaties of Raftadt and Baden, after having been dif-
mantled. It is famous for its cheefe, which is exceed¬
ing good. E. Long. 6. 8. N. Lat. 50. 40.
LIME. See Quicklime.
LIMERICK, a county of Ireland in the province
of Munfter, is bounded on the eaft by Tipperary, on
the weft by Kerry, on the north by the river Shan¬
non, and on the fouth by Cork. It is 48 miles in
length, and 27 in breadth; being a fertile country and
well inhabited, but has few good towns: the weft parts
arc mountainous, and the reft plain; and it is divided
into nine baronies.
Limerick, or Lough-Meath, a market-town, a bo-
borough, and a biftiop’s fee, now the metropolis of the
province of Munfter. It is an elegant, rich, populous
city, and of Angular ftrength, feated partly on an ifland
of the river Shannon, and is counted two towns 5 in
the upper (lands the caftle and cathedral. It has two
handfcme bridges of ftone, as alfo bulwarks and little
drawbridges, the one leading to the weft and the other
to the eaft ; to this the lower town is joined, and is
ftrengtbened with a wall, a caftle, and a fore-gate, at
the entrance into it. It was befieged by king Wil¬
liam III. in the year 16905 and though there was no
army to affift it, the king was obliged to raife the
fiege. In the year-1691, it was again befieged by the
Englifh and Dutch on the 21ft of September; and it
was obliged to forrender on the 13th of Oftober fol¬
lowing, not without the lofs of abundance of men :
however, the garrifon had very honourable and advan¬
tageous conditions, being permitted to retire where
they thought fit, and the Roman-catholics by thefe ar¬
ticles were to be tolerated in the free exercife of their
religion. W. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 52. 35'.
LIMINGTON, a town of Hampfhire in England.
See Lymington.
LIMIT, in a reilrained fenfe, is ufed by mathema¬
ticians for a determined quantity to which a variable
one continually approaches ; in which fenfe, the circle
/
infcribed polygons. In algebra, the term limit is ap- It
plied to two quantities, one of which is greater and the IilmPur2;
other lefs than another quantity ; and in this fenfe it
is ufed in fpeaking of the limits of equations, whereby
their folution is much facilitated.
LIMNING, the art of painting in water-colours,
in contradiftindlion to painting which is done in oil-
colours.
Limning is much the more ancient kind of paint¬
ing. Till a Flemifh painter, one John van Eyck, bet¬
ter known by the name of John of Bruges, found out
the art of painting in oil, the painters all painted in
water, and in frefco, both on their walls, on wooden
boards, and elfewhere. When they made ufe of
boards, they ufually glued a fine linen cloth over them,
to prevent their opening ; then laid on a ground of
white; laftly, they mixed up their colours with water
and fize, or with water and yolks of eggs, well beaten
with the branches of a fig-tree, the juice whereof thus
mixed with the eggs ; and with this mixture they
painted their pieces.
In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the white made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco.
The azure and ultramarine muft always be mixed with ' 3a
fize or gum ; but there are always applied two layers
of hot fize before the fize-colours are laid on : the co¬
lours are all ground in water each by itfelf; and, as
they are required in working, are diluted with fize-wa- M
ter. When the piece is finilhed, they go over it with
the white of an egg well beaten; and then with var-
nifh, if required.
To limn, or draw a face in colours: Having all the
materials in readinefs, lay the prepared colour on the - j
card even and thin, free from hairs and fpots over the
place where the pi&ure is to be. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due pofition, begin the
work, which is to be done at three fittings. At the
firft you are only to dead-colour the face, which will
require about two hours. At the fecond fitting, go
over the work more curioufly, adding its particular
graces or deformities. At the third fitting, finifhthe
whole ; carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfefl, as the caft of the eyes, moles,
fears, geftures, and the like.
LIMOGES, an ancient and eonfiderable town of
France, in the province of Guienne, and capital of
Limofin, with a bifhop’s fee. It is a trading place,
and its horfes are in great efteem. It is feated on the
river Vienne, in E. Long. 1. 22. N. Lat. 42. 48.
LIMOSIN, a province of France, bounded on the
north by La Marche, on the eaft by Auvergne, on the
fouth by Quercy, and on the weft by Perigord and
Angoumois. It is divided into the Upper and Lower;
the former of which is very cold, but the latter more
temperate. It is covered with forefts of chefnut-trees;
and contains mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron; but
the principal trade confifts in cattle and horfes.
LIMPET. See Patella.
LIMPURG, a barony of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, included almoft entirely within Suabia,
and feated to the fouth of Hall in Suabia. It is a-
bout 15 miles long, and eight broad. Gaildorf and
Shonburg, near which is the caftle of Liippurg, are
the principal places.
Lim-
LIN [ 4237 ] LIN
inpiirjj, Limpurg, a town of Germany, in the deflorate
f nacie- of Triers or Treves, and in Wetteravia, formerly free
and imperial, but now fubjeft to the deflorate of
Treves. It is feated on.the river Lhon. E. Long. 8.
I : 13. N. Lat. 50.18.
LINARIA, in ornithology. See Fp.ingilla.
LINACRE (Thomas), phyfician, was born at
Canterbury -about the year 1460, and there educated
a under the learned William Selling : thence he removed
to Oxford, and in 1484 was chofen fellow of All-
Souls college. Tilly, alias Selling, his former in-
ftruflor, being at this time appointed ambaffador from
king Henry VII. to the court of Rome, Mr L;nacre
accompanied him to Italy, where he attained the
highdl degree of perfeftion in the Greek and Latin
languages. At Rome, he applied himfelf particularly
to the ftudy of Ariftotle and Galen, in the original.
On his return to Oxford, he was incorporated doflor
of phylic, and chofen public profefibr in that faculty.
Rut he had not been long in England, before he was
commanded to court by king Henry VII. to attend.the
young prince Arthur as his tutor and phyfician. He
was afterwards appointed phyfician to the king, and,
I after his death, to his fucceffor Henry VIII.
Dr Linacre founded two medical leflures at Ox¬
ford, and one at Cambridge; but that which moft ef-
II feflually immorr*lized his name among the faculty, is
his being the firlt founder of the college of phyficians
in London. He beheld with vexation the wretched
Hate of phyfic in thofe times; and, by an application
i > to cardinal Wolfey, obtained a patent in 1518, by
which the phyficians of London were incorporated.
The intention of this corporation was to prevent illi¬
terate and ignorant medicafters from praflifingthe art
of healing. Doftor Linacre was the firft prefident, and
held the office as long as he lived. Their meetings
were in his own houfe in Knight-rider ftreet, which
houfe he bequeathed to the college. But our dodlor,
when he was about the age of yoj-took it into his
head to fludy divinity entered into orders; and'was
collated, in 1509, to the re£lory of Merfham. In the
fame year he was inftalled prebendary of Wells, in
1518 prebendary of York, and in the following year
was admitted precentor of that cathedral. This, we
are told; he refigned for other preferments. He died
of the ftone in the bladder in Odober 1524, aged 64;
and was buried in St Paul’s. Thirty-three years after
his death, dodlor John Caius caufed a monument to
be ere&ed to his memory, with a Latin infeription,
which contains the outlines of his life and chara&er.
He was a man of great natural fagacity, a fkilful phy¬
fician, a profound grammarian, and one of the befl
Greek and Latin fcholars of his time. Erafmus in
his epiftles fpeaks highly of the dodor’s tranflations
from Galen, preferring them even to the original
U Greek. His works are, 1. De emendata ftruttura
Latini fenuonis, libri fex; London, printed by Pyn-
fon, 15,24, 8vo. and by Stephens, 1527, 1532. 2. The
rudiments of grammar, for the ufe of the princefs
Mary, printed by Pynfon. Buchanan tranfiated it
into Latin ; Paris, 1536. He likewife tranflated in¬
to very elegant Latin, feveral of Galen’s works, which
were printed chiefly abroad at different times. Alfo
Procli Diadochi fphitra, tranflated from the Greek ;
Yenet. 1499, 1500,
LINCOLN, a city of England, and capital of a Lincoin,
county of the fame name, Hands on the fide of a hill, ^
at the bottom of which runs the river Withum. The
old Lindam of the Britons, which flood on the top of
the hill, as appears from the veftiges of a rampart, and
deep ditches flill remaining, was taken and demolifhed
by the Saxons; who built a town upon the fouth fide
of the hill down to the river-fide, which was feveral
times taken by the Danes, and as often retaken by
the Saxons. In Edward the Confeflbr’s time, it ap¬
pears, from Doomfday-book, to have been a very
confiderable place ; and in the time of the Normans,
Malmfbtiry fays, it was one of the moft populous ci¬
ties in England. William I. built a caftle upon the
fummit of the hill above the town. The diocefe, tho’
the bifhopric of Ely was taken out of it by Hen¬
ry II. and thofe of Peterborough and Oxford by Hen¬
ry VIII. is ftill vaftly large, containing the counties
of Leicefter, Huntingdon, Bedford, and part of
Bucks, making 1255 parilhes. Though the other
churches are mean, the cathedral, or minder, is a
moft magnificent piece of Gothic architedlure. Here
is a prodigious large bell, called Tom of Lincoln, which
is near five ton in weight, and 23 feet in compafs.
The hill on which the church (lands is fo high, and the
church itfelf fo lofty, that it may be feen 50 miles to
the north, and 30 to the fouth. Befides other tombs,
it contains one of brafs, in which are the entrails of
queen Eleanor, wife to Edward I. It is faid there
were anciently 52 churches, which are now reduced
to 13, Such is the magnificence and elevation of the
cathedral, that the monks thought the fight of it muft:
be very mortifying to the devil; whence it came to be
faid of one who was difpleafed, that he looked like the
devil over Lincoln- The declivity on which the city
is built being deep, the communication betwixt the
upper and lower town is very troublefome, and coaches
and horfes are obliged to make a compafs. The little
river Witham runs through the town ; and on the weft;
fide forms a large pool, called, from the number of
fwansupen it, fwan-pool, which has a communication
with the Trent by a canal, called the fofs-dyke. In the
upper town, many gentlemen, befides the prebenda¬
ries and others of the clergy, have handfome houfes of
modern archite&ure. .There are four charity-fchocis,
in each of which 30 poor children are taught by cler¬
gymens widows. It is governed by a mayor, 12 al¬
dermen who are juftices of the peace, two (heriffs, a
recorder, four chamberlains, a fword-bearer, fourco-
roners, and above 40 common-council; and has a vif-
contial jurifdidlion 20 miles round, a privilege which
no other city in England can boaft of. The country
round is very fertile and pleafant, and the trad called
Lincoln heath extends above 50 miles. On the down,
towards Bofton, are fometimes feen thofe rare birds
called bujlards. Here are frequent horfe-races, mar¬
kets on Tuefday and Friday, fairs firft Tuefday in A-
pril, June 24, firft Friday in September, and Novem¬
ber 17. It has given the title of earl to the family of
Clinton, ever fince the reign-of queen Elizabeth. W.
Long. 27. 1. . N. Lat. 53. 16.
Lincolnshire, a maritime county of England,
having the German ocean on the eaft, Northampton-
(hire on the fouth, from which it is feparated by the
river Welland, as it is on the weft from Yorkftiire by.
the, .
LIN [ 4238 ] LIN
Lincoln, the Humber: it has alfo on the weft, part of Notting-
Lindfey. }iamfl1;re> Leicefterfhire, and Rutlandfhire. Its great-
eft length is above 60 miles, and its greateft breadth
about 40, making upwards of 180 miles in circumfe¬
rence, containing 2162 fquare miles; or, according
to others, 1,740,000 acres, 30 hundreds or wapen¬
takes, 688 parifhes, one city, five parliamentary bo¬
roughs, 34 other market-towns, and about 254,540
inhabitants. The names of the three grand divifions
are Holland, Keftevan,and Lindfey; the laft of which
is by much the largeft. The foil of Holland being
marfhy, the air is moift and foggy, and therefore un-
wholefome. Keftevan has a drier and more fruitful
foil, and confequently a better air. Of the third di-
vifion, Lindfey, the air is reckoned good and whole-
fome. There are many large rivers in the county, as
the Nen, Welland, Gnafti, Witham, Bane, Trent,
Dun, and Ankara, all abounding with fifh. In the
Fens are very rich paftures ; fo that their cattle are the
largeft in England, unlefs, perhaps, we ftiould except
thofe of Somerfetfhire.: and at certain feafons the
numbers of fowl are amazing, efpecially of ducks; fo
that Cambden fays, they could, in his time, about
Crowl “ catch moo at once in Auguft with a Angle
net; and they called the pools where they catched
them, their corn-fields, no corn then growing within
five miles of the place : that of thefe fowls there were
fome forts not only very rare, but extremely delicate,
as the puittes, knotts, and goodwitts; fo that the
niceft palates and richeft purfes greatly-coveted them.”
The knotts are faid to be fo called, from their having
been firft brought from Denmark for the ufe of king
Canute. The dotterel is fo called becaufe it is a very
fimple bird, and mimicks all the motions of the fowl¬
er, till it is eafily caught by candle-light. They have
all the common fruits, and fome of them in greater
perfection than in other farts of England. Their
hares and their hounds are faid to be exceeding fwift.
The fens feem to have been over-run with wood an¬
ciently, for trunks of trees are ftill found in them.
The churches in Lincolnftiire are faid to be very fine,
but the houfes indifferent. There is a homely pro¬
verb, which fays, that its hogs fit—t foap, and its
cows fire; becaufe the poor people wafh their clothes
with hogs dung, and, from the fcarcity of other fuel,
burn dried cow-dung. It is entirely in the diocefe of
Lincoln; and fends 12 members to parliament, viz. two
knights for the (hire, two citizens for Lincoln, two
burgeffes for Bofton, two for Great Grimftiy, two for
Stamford, and two for Grantham.
LINDSEY (Sir David), a celebrated Scots poet,
was defcended of an ancient family, and born in the
reign of king James IV. at his father’s feat called the
Mount, near Coupar in Fifeftiire. He was educated
at the univerfity of St Andrews ; and, after making
the tour of Europe, returned to Scotland in the year
1514. Soon after his arrival, he was appointed gen¬
tleman of the bed-chamber to the king, and tutor to
the young prince, afterwards James V. From the
verfes prefixed to his dream, we learn that he enjoyed
feveral Other honourable employments at court: but,
in 1533, he was deprived of all his places, except that
of Lion king at arms, which he held to the time of
his death. His difgrace was mod probably owing to
his inve&ives againft the clergy, which are frequent in
all his writings. After the deceafe of king James V. Lindfey
Sir David became a favourite of the earl of Arran, re- j! i
gent of Scotland; but the abbot of Paifley-did not Lin;'
fuffer him to continue long in favour with the earl. He
then retired to his paternal eftate, and fpent the re¬
mainder of his days in rural tranquillity. He died in
the year 1553. His poetical talents, confidering the
age in which he wrote, were not contemptible; but
he treats the Romifti clergy with great feverity, and
writes with fome humour: but, whatever merit might
be formerly attributed to him, he takes fuch licentious
liberties with words, ftretching, or carving them for
meafure or rhime, that the Scots have a proverb, when
they hear an unufual exprefilon, that, There is nae
ftc a word in a' Davie Lindfay. Mackenzie tells us,
that his comedies were fo facetious, that they afford¬
ed abundance of mirth. Some fragments of thefe co¬
medies are ftill preferved in manufcript. He is faid
to have alfo written feveral tragedies, and to have firft
introduced dramatic poetry into Scotland. One of his
comedies was played in 1515. Mackenzie fays, he
underftood nothing of the rules of the theatre. He
was cotemporary with John Heywood, the firft Eng-
li(h dramatic poet. His poems are printed in one
final! volume; and fragments of his plays, in manu¬
fcript, are in Mr William Carmichael’s colle&ion.
LINDSEY, the third and largcft divifion of the
county of Lincolnfhire in England. On the eaft and
north it is walked by the fea, into which it runs out
with a large front; on the weft it has Yorkfhire, and
Nottinghamftiire, from which it is parted by the ri¬
vers Trent and Dun ; on the fouth it has Keftevan,
from which it is feparated by the river Witham, and
the Fofs- dyke, which is feven miles long, and was cut by
Henry I. between the Witham and the Trent, for the
convenience of carriage in thofe parts. It had its
name from Lincoln, the capital of the county, which
(lands in it, and by the Romans called Linduni, by
the Britons Z/tfr/twY, by the Saxons Z/Wu-cc/Zy/ze, pro- !
bably from its fituation on a hill, and the lakes or
woods that were anciently thereabouts ; but the Nor¬
mans called it Nichol. It gives title of earl and mar-
q\iis to the duke of Ancafter.
LINDUS, (auc. geog.), a town of Rhodes, fitua-
ted on an eminence, on the fouth-eaft fide of the
ifland; with a temple of Minerva firnamed Lindia,
built by Danaus, Herodotus, and Strabo; in which
the feventh Olympionic ode of Pindar was written in
letters of gold. The town was built by Tlepolemus
the fon of Hercules, according to Diodorus Siculus ;
by one of the Heliades, grandfons of the Sun, named
Lindus, according to Strabo. It was the native place
of Cleobulus, one of the wife men. It is ftill extant,
and called Lindo.
LINE, in geometry, a quantity extended in length
only, without any breadth or tbicknefs. It is formed
by the flux or motion o£_a point. See Fluxions,
and Geometry.
Line, in the art of war, is underftood of the dif-
pofition of an army ranged in order of battle with
the front extended as far as may be, that it may not
be flanked.
Line of Battle, is alfo underftood of a difpofition
of the fleet in the day of engagement; on which occa-
fion the veflels are ufually drawn up as much as poffible
ia
LIN [ 4239 ] LIN
in a ftraight line, as well to gain and keep the advan¬
tage of the wind as to run the fame board. See Na¬
val Tactics.
Horizontal Line, in geography and aftronomy, a
line drawn parallel to the horizon of any part of the
earth.
Equinottial Line, in geography, is a great circle
on the earth’s furface, exa&ly at the diftance of 90°
from each of the poles, and of confequence bife&ing
the earth in that part. From this imaginary line, the
degrees of longitude and latitude are counted.—In a-
ftronomy, the equinoctial line is that circle which the
fun feems to defcribe round the earth on the days of
the equinox in March and September. See Astrono¬
my ; and Geography, n° 28.
Meridian Line, is an imaginary circle drawn thro’
the two poles oLthe earth and any part of its furface.
See Geography, n° 29.
Ship of the Line, a veffel large enough to be
drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a fea-
fight.
Line, in genealogy, a feries or fucceflion of rela¬
tions in various degrees, all defcending fromjke fame
common father. See Descent.
Line, alfo denotes a French meafure containing
the 12 th part of an inch or the 144th part of a foot.
Geometricians conceive the line Subdivided into fix
points. The French line anfwers to the Englilh
barley-corn.
Fifhing Line. See Fishing Line.
Lines, in heraldry, the figures ufed in armories to
divide the fhield into different parts, and to compofe
different figures. Thefe lines, according to their dif¬
ferent forms and names, give denomination to the pie¬
ces or figures which they form, except the Itraight or
plain lines.
L1NEA alba, in anatomy, the concourfe of the
tendons of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the
abdomen ; dividing the abdomen in two, in the middle.
It is called lima, line, as being ftraight; and alia, from
its colour, which is white.—The linea alba receives a
twig of a nerve from the intercoftals in each df its di-
gitations or indentings, which are vifible to the eye,
in lean perfons efpecially.
LINEAMENT, among painters, is ufed for the
outlines of a face.
LINEAR numbers, in mathematics, fuch as have
relation to length only ; fuch is a number which repre-
fents one fide of a plain figure. If the plain figure be a
fquare, the linear figure is called a root.
Linear Problem; that which may be folved geo¬
metrically by the interfeftion of two right lines.
This is called a fmple problem, and is capable but of
one folution.
LINEN, in commerce, a well-known kind of
cloth chiefly made of flax. The linen manufa&ure
was probably introduced into Britain with the firft fet-
tlements of the Romans. The flax was certainly firft
planted by that nation in the Britifh foil. The plant
itfelf indeed appears to have been originally a native of
the eaft. The woollen drapery would naturally be prior
in its origin to the.linen ; and the fibrous plants from
which the threads of the latter are produced, feems to
have been firft noticed and worked by the inhabitants
of Egypt. In Egypt, indeed, the linen manufadiure
Vol. VI.
appears to have been very early ; for even in Jofeph’s I
time it had rifen to a confiderable height. From the '
Egyptians the knowledge ^f it proceeded probably to
the Greeks, and from them to the Romans. Even at
this day the flax is imported among us from the Ea-
ftern nations ; the weltern kind being merely a dege¬
nerate fpecies of it.
In order to fucceed in the linen manufa&ure, one
fet of people fhould be confined to the ploughing and
preparing the foil, lowing and covering the feed, to
the weeding, pulling, rippling, and taking care of
the new feed, and watering and drcfling the flax till
it is lodged at home : others fhould be concerned in
the drying, breaking, fcutching, and heckling the
flax, to fit it for the fpinners; and others in fpinning
and reeling it, to fit it for the weaver: others fhould
be concerned in taking due care of the weaving,
bleaching, beetling, and finifhing the cloth for the
market. It is reafonable to believe, that if thef?- fe-
veral branches of the manufa&ure were carried on by
diftinA dealers in Scotland and Ireland, where our
home-made linens are manufa&ured, the feveral parts
would be better executed, and the whole would be
afforded cheaper, and with greater profit.
Staining ^TLinen. Linen receives a black colour
with much more difficulty than woollen or cotton. The
black ftruck on linen with common vitriol and galls, or
logwood, is very perifhable, and foon wafhes put. In-
ftead of the vitriol, a folution of iron in four ftrong-beer
is tobemadeufe of. This is well known to all the calico-
printers; and by the ufe of this, which they call their
iron liquor, and madder-root, are the blacks and pur¬
ples made which we fee on the common printed linens.
The method of making this iron-liquor is as follows:
A quantity of iron is put into the four ftrong-beer;
and, to promote the diffolution of the metal, the whole
is occafionally well ftirred, the liquor occafionally
drawn off, and the ruftbeat from the iron, after which
the liquor is poured on again. A length of time is
required to make the impregnation perfeft ; the folu¬
tion being reckoned unfit for ufe till it has flood at
leaft a twelvemonth. This folution ftains the linen
of a yellowy and different fhades of buff colour; and
is the only known fubftance by which thefe colours
can be fixed on linen. The cloth ftained deep with
the iron liquor, and afterwards boiled with madder*
without any other addition, becomes of the dark co¬
lour which we fee on printed linens and cottons; -which,
if not a perfect black, has a very near refemblance to
it. Others are ftained paler with the fame liquor di¬
luted with water, and come out purple.
Linen may alfo be ftained of a durable purple by
means of folution of gold in aqua regia. The foluticn
for this purpofe fhould be as fully fatnrated as poffible ;
it fhould be diluted with three times its quantity of
water; and if the colour is required deep, the piece,
when' dry, muft be repeatedly moiftened with it. The
colour does not take place till a confiderable time,
fometimes feveral days, after the liquor has been ap¬
plied ; to haften its appearance, the fubjedt fhould be
expofed to the fun and free air, and occafionaljy re¬
moved to a moift place, or moiftened with water.—
When folution of gold in aqua regia is foaked up in
linen cloths, the metal may be recovered by drying
and burning them.
24 C The
LIN '[ 4240 ] LIN
Linen. The anacardi’utn nut, which comes from the Eaft-
Indies, is remarkable for its property of ftaining linen
of a deep black colour, which cannot be wafhed out
either with foap or alkaline ley. The ftain is at firft
of a reddilh-brown, but afterwards turns to a deep
black on expofure to the air. The cafhew-nut, called
the anacardium of_the Weft-Indies•, differs from the
oriental anacardium, in its colouring quality. The
juice of this nut is much paler than the other, and
It a! ns linen or cotton only of a browniffi colour; which
indeed is very durable, but does not at all change towards
blacknefs. — There are, however, trees, natives of our
own,colonies, which appear to contain juices of the
fame nature with thofe of India. Of this kind arefeveral,
and perhaps the greater number, of the fpecies of the
f See Waus. toxicodendron or poifon-tree f. Mr Catefhy, in his hi-
ftory of Carolina, defcribes one called there the poifon-
ajh, from whofe trunk flows a liquid as black as ink,
and fuppofed to be poifonous; which reputed poifonous
quality has hitherto prevented the inhabitants from
collefting or attempting to make any ufe of it. In
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for the year 1755, the
abbc Mazeas gives an account of three forts of the
toxicodendron raifed in a botanic garden in France,
containing in their leaves a milky juice, which in dry¬
ing became quite black, and communicated the fame
Colour to the linen on which it was dropped. The
linen thus ftained was boiled with foap, and came out
without the leaft diminution of colour; nor did a
ftrong ley of wood-afhes make any change in it. Se¬
veral of thefe trees have been planted in the open
ground in England, and fome ftill remain in the biihop
of London’s garden at Fulham.
That fpecies called by Mr Miller the true lac tree,
was found by Dr Lewis to have properties of a fimilar
kind. It contains in its bark, and the pedicles and
ribs of the leaves, a juice fomewhat milky, which foon
changed in the air to a reddifn-brown, and in two or
three hours to a deep blackifh or brownilh-black co¬
lour: wherever the bark was cut or wounded, the in-
cifion became blackifh ; and on feveral parts of the
leaves the juice had fpontaneoufly exfuded, and ftained
them of tire fame colour. This juice, dropped on linen,
gave at firft little or no colour, looking only like a
fpot of oil; but, by degrees, the. part moiftencd with
it darkened in the fame manner as the juice itfelf.
On waffling and boiling the linen with foap, the
ftain not only was not difeharged, but feemed to
have its blacknefs rather improved ; as if a brown
matter, with which the black was manifeftly debafed,
had been in part wafhed out, and left the black more
pure. ... t
As the milky juices of fome of our common plants
turn dark-coloured or blackifh in drying, the doftor
was induced to try the effedts of feverai of them on
Linen. The milks of wild-poppies, garden-poppies,
dandelion, hawk-weed, and fow-thiftie, gave brown or
ferownifh-red ftains, which were difeharged by walking
with foap; the milks of the fig-tree, of lettuces, and
<if different kinds of fpurges, gave no colour at all.
The colourlefs juice which iffues from hop-ltalks when
cut, ftains linen of a pale-reddifn or brownifh-red, ex¬
tremely durable; the colour was deepened by repeated
applications of the juice, hut it never made any ap¬
proach to blacknefs. The juice of floes gave likewife
a pale-brownifh ftain, which, by repeated walkings
with foap, and being wetted with ftrong folution of
alkaline fait, was darkened to a deeper brown : on 1
baking the floes, their juice turns red; and the red ftain
which it then imparts to linen is, on wafhing with
foap, changed to a pale-blueifh, which alfo proves du-«
rable. Thefe colours could not be deepened by re¬
peated applications of the juice. The floes were tried
in different ftates of maturity, from the beginning of
September to the middle of December, and the event
was always nearly the fame.
In the fifth volume of Linnaeus's Amxnitates Acade¬
mics, mention is made of a black colour obtained from
two plants which grow fpontaneoufly in Britain; the
one is the attxa fpicata, herb-chrillopher, or bane-
berries ; the other the enica baccifera nigra, black-
berried heath, crow-berries, or crake-berries. The
juice of the bane-berries boiled with alum, is faid to
yield a black ink ; and the heath-berries, boiled alfo
with alum, to dye linen of a purplifh black.
Linen flowered with Gold-leaf Dr Lewis informs
us of a new manufacture eftabliftied in London forem-
bellifhing linen with flowers and ornaments of gold-leaf.
The linen, he fays, looks whiter than moll of the printed
linens; the gold is extremely beautiful, and bears wafh-
ing well. The doCtor informs us, that he had feen a
piece which he was credibly informed had been wafhed
three or four times, with only the fame precautions
which are ufed for the finer printed linens; and on which
the gold continued entire, and of great beauty.—Con¬
cerning the procefs ufed in this manufacture, he gives
Us no particulars.
Foflile Linen, is a kind of amianthus, which con-
fifts of flexible, parallel, foft fibres, and which has
been celebrated for the ufes to which it has been ap¬
plied, of being woven, and forming an incombuflible
cloth. Paper alfo, and wicks for lamps, have been made
of it. See Amianthus and Asbestos.
LING, in zoology. See Gadus.
LINGEN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and capital of a county of
the fame name. It belongs to the king ofPruffia;
and is fituated on the river Embs, in E. Long. 7. 30.
N. Lat. 52. 32.
LINGELBACH (John), an excellent painter,
born at Frankfort on the Maine in 1625. He firft
learned the art in Holland, but perfected himfelf at
Rome; where he ftudied till he was 25 years of age,
when he fettled at Amfterdam. His ufual fubjeCts
are fairs, mountebanks, fea-pieces, and landfcapes,
which he compofed and executed exceeding well: his
landfcapes are enriched with antiquities, animals, and
elegant figures ; his fea-fights are full of expreffion,
exciting pity and terror, and all his objeCts are well
defigned. He had an uncommon readinefs in paint-
ing figures and animals, on which account he was
employed by feveral eminent artifts to adorn their
landfcapes with fitch objeCts; and whatever he in-
ferted in the works of other mafters, were always
well-adapted, and produced an agreeable effeCt. He
died in 1687.
LINIMENT, in pharmacy, a compofition of a
conliftence fomewhat thicker than an unguent, and
thicker than an oil ufed for anointing different parts
of the body in various intentions. The materials
proper
II /
LIN' [ 4241 ] LIN
minlith-. proper for compofing liniments are, fats, oils, ba!-
iiH)wiTiiie, farns, and whatever enters the compofition of unguents
t1™*1'5, and plafters.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West Lothian, a
fmall county of Scotland, not exceeding 14 miles in
length and 13 in breadth, is bounded on the north
by part of Stirlingfhire and the river FoVth, by part
of Clydefdale on the welt, and on the fouth and welt
by Mid-Lothian, from which it is divided by the ri¬
vers Breich and Almond. The country is pleafant
| " and fertile, abounding with corn and pallurage. Here
is found plenty of coal, limeftone, and lead ore ; nay,
in the reign of James VI. it produced a rich mine of
fiiver. The chief town, Linlithgow, from which it
Bprrows the name, is a royal borough and feat of a
prefbytery, Handing on the fide of a fmall lake, about
18 miles from Edinburgh: it confitts of one open
ftreet, from whence lanes are detached on both fides;
the houfes are built of Hone, tolerably neat and com¬
modious ; and the place is adorned with fome ftately
public edifices. On the fide of the lake Hands a royal
palace, magnificently built of hewn Hone, begun by
king James V. and perfe&ed by his grandfon. With¬
in the inner court, which is larger than that of Ha¬
milton, there is an artificial fountain, adorned with
Hatues and water-works ; and at each corner of the
fquare a tower, with a range of fine apartments.
Hard by the palace is the church of St Michael, a
noble flrudture, with a very high Heeple. The in¬
habitants carry on a great manufafture of linen, and
bleach it with the water of this lake, which is noted
for its whitening quality : they likewife enjoy a tole¬
rable (hare of trade, by means of a good harbour on
the Forth, where they have built a cuflom-houfe, and
magazines or ware-houfes for the ufe of the merchants.
Hard by this harbour Hands the cafile of Blacknefs,
belonging to the crown, formerly ufed as a Hate pri-
fon, but now quite ruinous. The chiefs of the Li-
vingHone family were earls of Linlithgow and Ca¬
lendar, hereditary keepers of the palace in this town,
and hereditary conflables of Blackhefs caHlc. The
laH of thefe noblemen forfeited his efiate and ho¬
nours, by engaging in the rebellion of the year 1715.
LINNjEUS (Sir Charles), a celebrated botaniH
and natural hifiorian, was born on May 24. 1707,
O. S. in a village called Roefhultt in Smaland, where
his father, Nicolas Linnaeus, was then vicar, but af¬
terwards preferred to the curacy of Stenbrohult. On
the farm where Linnaeus was born, there yet Hands a
large lime-tree, from which his anceHors took the
furnames of Ti Hander, Lindelius, and Linn ecus. Of
fuch furnames,- derived from fome natural objedf, there
are many other inHances in Sweden, which feem to
evince, at leaH, that the tafie for natural knowledge
is of a very ancient Handing in that country. Charles’s
father, who was a great florifi, regaled his wife, du¬
ring her pregnancy with this her firfl fon, with the
choiceH flowers ; with which he alfo often beHrewed
the child’s cradle, and prefented him with flowers in-
flead of the ufual toys. As foon as little Linne was
able to run after his father, he made gardening his
chief amufement. He foon knew garden-plants, and
then began to gather fuch as grew wild in his neigh¬
bourhood ; for which he found yet better opportunity
at Wexioe, whither he was, in 1717, fent to fchool.
In 1727, Linnaeus went to the academy at Lund, Linnaeus,
where the celebrated Kilian Stobasus favoured his ge-
nius for natural knowledge with his patronage. Even
at his native farm he had already hunted after infefls;
neither did he lofe that tafle, though he was at Lund
once flung by the furia infernalis, and had very ;ia- ,
rowly efcaped with life. From Lund he, in 1728,
proceeded to the univerfity at Upfal, always purfuing
his favourite fludies; but found himfelf, within lefs
than a year, involved in debts for board and cloath-
ing, without profpeft of being extricated by any re¬
mittances from his indigent parents. Olof Cclfius,
the excellent author of the Hicro-botanicum, happen¬
ing once to find him in the botanical garden, bulled
with defcribing plants, and being furprized to hear
.him name them all, took a liking to him, and received
him to his houfe, his table, and his library. By this
and fome other unexpefted and fortunate incidents, our
Linnaeus was enabled to purfue his Hudies, notwith-
flanding the original lownefs of his finances. So
early as the 25th year of his age, he planned a con-
fiderable part of his fyflem of botany. He wms after-
wmrds.patronized by Rudbeck junior ; who being then
old, entrufled Linnaeus with reading the botanical
le£tures in his place, which he did with great zeal and
fuccefs. Irr-iyjz, Linnaeus at the expence of the
Society of Sciences at Upfal, made a fcientific tour to
Lapland, where he encountered hunger and cold, with
a variety of dangers and hardfliips. The plants which
he found in this tour, he, in the fame year, exhibited
in the memoirs of the fociety, clafltd-according to his
own fyflem. During this tour, he had opportunities
for cultivating the art ofafiaying minerals; on which
art, and on mineralogy, he, after his return, read
leftures at Upfal. For the fame fcientific purpofes
he alfo made journeys to the principal Swedifh mines,
during which he was greatly afiifled by the liberality
of Mr de Reuterholrn ; and, after having thus enlarged
his acquaintance with the Hate of his own native coun¬
try, he, in 1735, with a very (lender fupport, began
his travels into foreign countries.
He vifited Hamburgh, Amflerdam, and the uni¬
verfity of Harderwyck, where he was created a do&or
in phyfic ; and then haflened to Boerhaave at Leyden,
who valued and recommended him to Mr Clifford,
whofe natural colledlions at Hatecamp Linnaeus was
to defcribe. At Gronovius’s perfuafion, he, in 1736,
publiflied the original edition of his Syflem of Nature
in Holland ; and, after this, many other of his works
in the fame country. In the mean time Linnaeus came
over to England. His Syflem of Botany was firft
adopted by Gronovius, in his Virginian Flora? and
his names of plants by Van Royen, in his Prodromus:
yet, though he lived very happy in Holland, and had
the mofl advantageous offers made him there, he left
that country and went to France, where he entered
into the moff intimate friendfhip with M. Bernard
Juflieu. In 1738 he returned to Stockholm, where
he began with pra&ifing phyfic, and was appointed
profeffor of mineralogy, and phyfician to the admiralty.
In 1739, he married the provincial phyfician Moraeus’s
daughter, to whom he had been betrothed before his
departure from Sweden. His fpirit and zeal were now.
encouraged by a variety of rewards. The Royal
Academy of Sciences, eflablifhed in the fame year at
24 C 2 Stock-
L I N
Linnsus. Stockholm, chofe him their firil fpeakei
public expence he made tours into feveral provinces of
the kingdom, in order to explore their refpedtive pro-
dnftions. In 1741, after profeffor Roberg’s death,
he fucceeded to the chair of phyfic at Upfal; and as
he had the celebrated M. de Rofenftein for his col¬
league in that profeffion, the faculty of phyfic became
uncommonly flourilhing in that univerfity. The bo¬
tanical garden of Upfal, which had been long ago
founded by Rudbeck the elder, but deftroyed by a fire
in 1702, and, afterwards negle&ed, was now foon re-
ftored by Linnaeus, and in three years brought to a
degree of perfe&ion equal at leaft to that of any other
botanical garden whatever.
In the new green houfe, a particular room was de-
, figned for a colle&ion of natural cnriofities, which
was partly furnilhed by the court and wealthy indivi¬
duals. Nor were the other branches of phyfic left
unimproved by Linnaeus. His delivery in his ledtures
was exceedingly fprightly, and animated by a native
eloquence peculiar to him ; as he held them not mere¬
ly for the fake of money, but infpired with a lively
affeftion for their fubje&s. While his health and fpi-
rits remained, his fchool was always more crowded
than that of any other profeflbr ; and on his botanical
excurfions, he was furrounded by dill greater num¬
bers of pupils. There is hardly a profeffor who can
produce fo many difciples, who, chiefly at his per-
fuafion, have, for the enlargement of his favourite
ftudy, undertaken voyages and travels to the remoteft
parts of the globe. The celebrated names of Kalm,
Haffelquift, Ternftroem, Toren, Ofbeck, Rolander,
Locffling, Berlin, Forflial, Solander, Thunberg, Sparr-
man, Rothman, with many others, fuch as Clas Al-
ftroemer, Ksehler, &c. who, in the purfuit of natural
fcience, travelled through many countries of Europe,
will ever do credit to Linnaeus’s memory. He kept
up a moft extenfive correfpondence; every one drove
to give him an early account of any new difcovery
made, and increafe his colledlions, to which even many
fovereign princes contributed. He was highly di-
ffinguifhed and favoured by the late king, the queen
dowager, and the prefent king of Sweden, who often
honoured him with their vifits. No fydem or'method
of botany has ever yet been more generally adopted
than his. Some noblemen of the fird didindlion
caufed a medal to be druck to his honour; and the
late excellent count Teffin, who had ever been his
chief patron, honoured him with another. In 1747,
he had the title of phyjician to the king conferred on
him: in 1753, he received the honour of knighthood
of the polar dar; and, in 1757, he was ennobled.
In 1776,'the prefent king of Sweden accepted his
refignation of his place, and conferred on him a double
penfion, with a noble donation of two farms for him-
felf and his children.—He did not live long after this
period; dying in January 1778, aged 70 years and
8 months.
As to the private and perfonal charafler of this H-
kidrious philofopher : His flature was diminutive and
puny; his head large, and its hinder part very high ;
his look was ardent, piercing, and apt to daunt the
beholder; his ear not fenfible to mufic; his temper
quick, but eafily appeafed ; his memory good, though,
in the latter period of his life, fometimea liable., to
[ 4242 ] LIN
At the fail him ; his knowledge of languages confined, yet
no interefting difcovery remained unknown to him.
Infummer, he ufed to fleep from ten to three o’clock;
in winter, from nine to fix ; and inftantly to ceafe his
labours when he found himfelf not well difpofed for
them Both in his yo'unger years, and in the de¬
cline of life, he was afflidted with various corporeal in¬
firmities ; and the difordcr of which he died, an ulce¬
ration of the urinary bladder, was long and painful.
The feverity, however, even of his laft illnefs did not
interrupt the ardour of his fcientifical purfuits. And,
to the fruits of his labours which the world already
enjoy, future additions ftill remain to be made. Be¬
fore his death he had finiflied the greateft part of the
Mantiffa Tertia. And, we are told, that his Jon, who
has already given feveral fpecimens of his tafte for bo¬
tany, and other branches of natural hiftory, labours
hard in compleating this work. After this, we are
informed, that he intends to publilh a large colledtion
of plants which his father had lately received from the
Cape of Good Hope, from Mutis in Mexico, from
Koenig in India, and feveral other places. Thefe,
added to the ineftimable works which he has already
publifhed, will be the moft lafting monuments of a
man, who, in the eyes of pofterity, muft be confidered
not only as a glory to his country, but as an orna¬
ment to the age in which he lived.
His cotemporaries, however, and furviving friends,
have not been negledful in paying due marks of re-
fpedl to his memory. At Upfal, a general mourning
took place on the death of the man whofeinduftry and
genius had promoted the intereft, and exalted the re¬
putation, of that feminary of literature to the higeft
pitch. His funeral proceffion was attended by the
whole univerfity, as well profeffors as ftudents ; and
the pall was fupported by 16 do&ors of medicine, all
of whom were his own pupils. The Swedilh monarch
alfo ordered a medal to be ftruck to his honour;
of which one fide exhibits Linnaeus’s bull and name ;
and the other, Cybele in a dejedted attitude, holding
in her left hand a key, and furrounded with animals
and growing plants, with the legend, Deam luflus
augit amijfi; and beneath, Poji obitum, Up [alia, d, x.
Jan. mdcclxxviii. Rege jubente. But an honour
never yet conferred on any other learned man in fo
high a degree, was ftill referved to Linnaeus’s memory
by his king, who, in his fpeech from the throne, to
the late affembly of the Hates of the kingdom, la¬
mented Sweden’s lofs by the death of Linnaeus. Nor
muft we omit mentioning, that, at Edinburgh, Dr
Hope, profeffor of botany, on opening his courfe of
ledhires for the enfuing fummer, delivered a difcourfe
in honour of this great mafter of the fcience which he
has there cultivated with fo much afiiduity and fuccefs;
and, at the fame time, in prefence of the ftudents,
he laid the foundation-ftone of a monument (which
has fince been erefled) to his memory, in the bota¬
nical garden at that place. While this monument
cannot fail to fuggeft the merits of Linnaeus to the ftu¬
dents, it will alfo be a mark of refpedl to his memory
from one of his greateft and moft fincere admirers.
LINNET, in ornithology. See Fringilla.—It
is remarkable of this bird, that when it builds in
hedges, and when in furze-bufhes on heaths, in both
which places the nefts are very common, they are
made.
LIN [ 424? ] LIN
SssjMnfeed made of very different materials. When they build in
i It hedges, they ufe the flender filaments of the roots of
if——trees, and the down of feathers and thiflles; but
when they build on heaths they ufe mofs, principally
for the outer part, finifhing it within with fuch things
as the place will afford. Thefe birds will have young
ones three or four times a-year, efpecially if they are
taken away before they are able to leave the nefts.
I When linnets are to be taught to whiffle tunes, or
to imitate the notes of any other bird, they muff be
taken from the old one when they are not above four
days old; for at this time they have no idea of the
note of the old ones, and will be readily taught to
modulate their voice like any thing that is moft fami-
I . liar to their ears, and within the compafs of their
throats. More care is required in feeding them when
taken thus young, than when they are left in the nefl
till nearly fledged ; but they will be reared very well
upon a food half bread and half rapefeed boiled and
bruifed : this muff be given them feveral times a-day.
It mult be made frefh every day, and given them fuf-
ficiently moift, but not in the extreme. If it be in
the leaft four, it gripes and kills them ; and if too fluff,
it is as mifchievous by binding them up.—They muff
I be hung up as foon as taken from the neft, under the
I bird whofe note they are intended to learn; or, if
they are to be taught to whiffle tunes, it muff be done
by giving them leffons at the time of feeding; for
they will profit more, while young, in a few days,
I than in a long time afterwards, and will take in the
whole method of their notes before they are able to
I crack hard feeds/ Some have attempted to learn
them to fpeak in the manner of the parrot or other
birds ; and they will arrive at fome fort of perfection
in it, with great pains.
LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum^—Lintfeed
bruifed and fteeped in water gives it very foon a thick
mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of its
B ! emollient virtue to it. See Linum.
LINT. See Flax, Linen, and Linum.
Lint, in furgery, is the fcrapings pf fine linen,
ufed by furgeons in dreffing wounds. It is made in¬
to various forms, which acquire different names accor¬
ding to the difference of their figures.—Lint made up
in an oval or orbicular form is called a pledgit; if in
a cylindrical form, or in fhape of a date, or olive-
ftone, it is called a dojfd.
Thefe different forms of lint are required for many
purpofes; as, 1. To flop blood in frefh wounds, by fill¬
ing them up with dry lint before the application of a
bandage: though, if fcraped lint be not at hand, a
piece of fine linen may be torn into fmall rags, and applied
in the fame manner. In every large hjemorrhages the
lint or rags fhould be firft dipped in fome ftyptic
liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine ; or fprinkled
with fome ftyptic powder. 2. To agglutinate or heal
wounds; to which end lint is very ferviceable, if
fpread with fome digeftive ointment, balfam, or vul¬
nerary liquor. 3. In drying up wounds and ulcers,
and forwarding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In
I keeping the lips of wounds at a proper diftance*
that they may not haftily unite before the bottom is
well digefted and healed. 5. They are highly ne-
ceffary to preferve wounds from the injuries of the air.
<—Surgeons of former ages formed compreffes of
fponge, wool, feathers, or cotton ; linen being fcarce: Lintftock
but lint is far preferable to all thefe, and is at prefect . H
univerfally ufed. inum-
LINTSTOCK, in military affairs, a wooden ftaff
about three feet long, having a fharp point in one
end, and a fort of fork or crotch on the other; the
latter of which ferves to contain a lighted match, and
by the former the lintftock is occafionally ftuck in the
ground, or in the deck of a (hip during an engage¬
ment. It is very frequently ufed in fmall veffels,
where there is commonly one fixed between every two
guns, by which the match is always kept dry, and
ready for firing.
LINTZ, a very handfome town of Germany, and
capital of Upper Auftria, with two fortified caftles ;
the one upon a hill, the other below it. Here is a
hall in which the ftates affemble, a bridge over the
Danube, a manufaflure of gunpowder, and feveral
other articles. It was taken by the French in j 741,
but the Auftrians retook it in the following year. E.
Lofig. 14. 33. N. Lat. 48. 16.
Lintz, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, and ele&orate of Cologne, fubjeft to
that ele&or. It is feated on the river Rhine, in E.
Long. 7. 1. N. Lat. 50. 31.
LINUM, flax; a genus of thepentagyniaorder,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The ufitatifiimum, or common annual
flax, hath a taper fibrous root; upright, flender, un¬
branched (talks, two feet and a half high; garniftied
with narrow, fpear-fhaped, alternate grey-coloured
leaves; .and the (talks divided into footftalks at top,
terminated by fmall blue crenated flowers in June and
July; fucceeded by large round capfules of ten cells,
containing each one feed. 2. The perenne, or peren¬
nial Siberian flax, hath a fibrous perennial root, fend¬
ing up feveral upright, ftrong, annual (talks, branch¬
ing four or five feet high ; garniflied with fmall, nar¬
row, fpear-ftiaped, alternate leaves of a dark-green
colour; and terminated by umbellate clufters of large
blue flowers in June, fucceeded by feeds in autumn.
There are 20 other fpecies of linum, but thefe are the
moft remarkable.
Culture. The firft fpecies is cultivated in the fields
according to the directions given under the article
Flax. The fecond fort is railed from feed in a
bed or border of common garden-earth, in (hallow
drills fix inches afunder ; and when the plants are
two or three inches high, thin them to the fame
diftance; and in autumn plant them out where they
are wanted.
Ufes. The firft fpecies may juftly be looked upon
as one of the moft valuable of the whole vegetable
kingdom ; as from the bark of its (talks is manufac¬
tured the lint or flax for making all forts of linen-
cloth ; from the rags of the linen is made paper ; and
from the feeds is expreffed the lintfeed oil fo ufeful in
painting and other trades. The feeds themfelves are
efteemed an excellent emollient and anodyne : they are
ufed externally in cataplafms, to affwage the pain of in¬
flamed tumours : internally, a flight infufion of lin-
feed, by way of tea, is recommended in coughs as an
excellent pedoral, and of great fervice in pleurifies,
nephritic complaints, and fuppreflions of urine.
LINUS, in claffic hiftory, a native of Colchis,
co-
LIP [42
I.ion cotemporary with Orpheus, and one of the moft an-
II , cient poets and muficians of Greece. It is impoflible,
at this diftance of time, to difcover whether Linus
was the difciple of Orpheus, or Orpheus of Linus.
The majority, however, feem to decide this queftion
in favour of Linus. According to archbifhop Ulher,
he flourifhed about 1280 B. C. and he is mentioned by
Eufebius among the poets who wrote before the time
of Mofes. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from Dionyfius of
Mitylene, the hiftorian, who was cotemporary with Ci¬
cero, that Linus was the firft among the Greeks who in¬
vented verfes and mufic, as Cadmus firft taught them
the ufe of letters. The fame writer likewife attributes
to him an account of the exploits of the firft Bac¬
chus, and a treatife upon Greek mythology, written
in Pelafgian chara&ers, which were alfo thofe ufed by
Orpheus, and by Pronapides the preceptor of Homer.
Diodorus fays that he added the firing lichanos to the
Mercurian lyre; and afcribes to him the invention of
rythm and melody; which Suidas, who regards him
as the moft ancient of lyric poets, confirms. Mr
Marpurg tells us, that Linus invented cat-gut firings
for the ufe of the lyre, which, before his time, was
only ftruhg with thongs of leather, or with different
threads of flax ftrung together. He is faid by many
writers to have had feveral difciples of great renown;
among whom were Hercules, Thamyris, and, accord¬
ing to fome, Orpheus—Hercules, fays Diodorus, in
learning from Linus to play upon the lyre, being ex¬
tremely dull and obftinate, provoked his mafter to
ftrike him ; which fo enraged the young hero, that,
inftantly feizing the lyre of the mufician, he beat out
his brains with his own inftrument.
LION, in zoology. See Felis.
LIONCELLES, in heraldry, a term ufed for fe¬
veral lions borne in the fame coat of arms.
LIP, in anatomy. See there, n° 366. c.
Hare-^w, a diforder in which the upper lip is in a
manner flit or divided, fo as to refemble the uppper
lip of a hare, whence the name. See Surgery.
LIPARA (anc. geogr.), the principal of the
iflands called JEolia, fituated between Sicily and Italy,
with a cognominal town, fo powerful as to have a
fleet, and the other iflands in fubjedlion to it. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, it was famous for excel¬
lent harbours and medicinal waters. He informs us
alfo, that it fuddenly emerged from the fea about the
time of Hannibal’s death. The name is Punic, ac¬
cording to Bochart; and given it, becaufe, being a
volcano, it fhone in the night. It is now called Li-
pari, and gives name to nine others in its neighbour¬
hood ; viz. Stromboli, Pare, Rotto, Panaria, Saline,
Volcano, Fenicufa, Alicor, and Uftica. Thefe are
called, in general, the Lipari Ijlands, Some of thefe
are aClive volcanoes at prefent, though Lipari is not.
It is about 15 miles in circumference; and abounds in
corn, figs, and grapes; bitumen, fulphur, alum, and
mineral waters.
LIPARI, an ancient and very ftrong town, and
capital of an ifland of the fame name in the Medi¬
terranean, with a bifhop’s fee. It was ruined by
Barbarofla in 1544, who carried away all the in¬
habitants into flavery, and deraolifhed the place; but
it was rebuilt by Charles V. E. Lon. 15. 30. N. Lat.
38- 35-
44 ] L I R
LIPOTHYMIA, fainting, may arife from feve¬
ral caufes; as too violent exercife, fuppreffion of the
menfes or other accuftomed evacuations, &c. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
LIPPA, a town of Hungary, with a caftle. It
was taken by the Turks in 1552 ; by the imperialifts
in 1688; and by the Turks again in 1691; who aban¬
doned it in 1665, after having demolifhed the fortifi¬
cations. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Lon. 21.55.
N. Lat. 36. 5.
LIPPE, the capital of a country of the fame name
in Germany, and the circle of Wellphalia. It is feated
on a river of the fame name, and was formerly the re-
lidence of the principal branch of the houfe of Lippe.
It is now in the pofleffion of the king of Pruffia, aml_
carries on a good trade in preparing timber for build¬
ing veflels on the Rhine, with which it has a commu¬
nication by the river Lippe. The country round it
is unwholefome and marmy. E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat.
51- 43-
LIPSIUS (Judos), a learned critic, was born at
Ifch, a fmall village near Bruflcls, in 1547. After
having diftinguiflied himfelf in polite literature, he
became fecretary to cardinal de Granvellan at Rome,
where the beft libraries were open to him ; and he
fpent much labour in collating the MSS. of ancient au¬
thors. He lived 13 years at Leyden; during which
he compofed and publifhed what he efteems his beft
works ; but fettled at Louvain, where he taught po¬
lite literature with great reputation. He was re¬
markable for unfteadinefs in religion, flu&uating
often between the Proteftants and -Papifts ; hut he
became finally a bigotted catholic. He died at
Louvain in 1606; and his works are colledled in fix
vols folio.
LIQUIDAMBER, sweet-gum-tree; a genus
of the polyandria order, belonging to the monoecia.
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies, both of them
beautiful deciduous trees, growing 30 or 40 feet high,
forming fine pyramidal heads; adorned with large an¬
gular and oblong leaves, and monoecious, apetalous,
faffron-coloured flowers ; and producing a liquid,
tranfparent, gummy fubftance, of great fragrance.
They may be propagated either by feed or layers in
the full ground. The feeds mu ft be procured from
America, where thefe trees are natives.
LIQUOR, a name for any fluid fubftance of the
aqueous or fpirituous kind.
Liquor of Flints. See Chemistry, n° 338.
Smoking Liquor of Libavius. See Chemistry,
n° 247.
Mineral Anodyne Liquor of Hoffman. This is a
compofition of highly rectified fpirit of wine, vitriolic
ether, and a little of the dulcified oil of vitriol. It is
made by mixing an ounce of the fpirit of wine, which
rifes firft in the diftillation of ether, with as much of
the liquor which is to be diftilled, and afterwards by
diflblving in the mixture which rifes next, and which
contains the ether, 12 drops of the oil which rifes after
the ether has paffed. This has the fame virtues with
the ether, and is now generally difufed, the pure ether
being fubftituted in its place.
LIQUORICE. See Glycyrrhiza.
LIRIODENDRON, the tulip-tree; a genus of
the polygynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs
of
LIS [ 4245 ] LIS
.rafcfbon. of plants.—There is but one fpecies, viz. the tulipifera,
 a native of America. This rifes with a large upright
trunk, branching 40 or 50 feet high, having large lo-
. bated alternate leaves, of three lobes, the middle one
truncated, thofe of the fides rounded; and from the
ends of the branches bell-fiiaped flowers, compofed of
fix petals in a double feries, fpotted with green, red,
white, and yellow, appearing in July, and fucceeded
by large conic fruit, not ripening in this country. In
the countries of North America where they are na¬
tives, thefe trees are known by the name of poplar,
and grow to a great fize. Mr Catefby tells us, that in
Carolina fome are met with of 30 feet in circumference,
with irregular and unequal boughs, which diftinguifli
them at a diftance, even when they are ftripped of their
leaves. Their timber is of great ufe, particularly for
making the boats called periaugues.
LISBON, the capital of the kingdom of Portugal,
fituated in the province of Eftremadura, on the banks
of the river Tagus, in W. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 38. 25'.
I It wasanciently called Oliftpo, Oliftppu, and Ulyjjlpo, which
J are fuppofed to be derived from the Phenician Ulis-
ubbo, or Olijippo, fignifying, in that tongue, a pleafant
bay, fuch as that on which this city (lands. It firft became
confiderabt^ in the reign of king Emanuel; from that
|1 time it hath been the capital of the kingdom, the refi-
dence of its monarchs,the feat of the chief tribunals, and
offices of the metropolitan, a noble univerfity, and the
receptacle of the richeft merchandize of the Eaft and
II Well Indies. Its air is excellent; being refrefhed by the
delightful fea-breezes, and thofe of the Tagus. The
city extends for about two miles along the Tagus;
but its breadth is inconfiderable. Like old Rome, it
(lands on feven hills: but the (Ireets in general are
narrow and dirty, and fome of them are very deep;
| - neither are they lighted at night. The churches, in
general, are very fine ; but the magnificence of the
chapel-royal is amazing. Here is one of the fined
I I harbours in the world ; and there were a great number
not only of fine churches and convents here, but alfo
of other public buildings, and particularly of royal pa¬
laces, and others belonging to the grandees; but the
greated part of them, and of the city, were dedroyed
by a mod dreadful earthquake, on Nov. 1, 1755, from
which it will require a long time to recover. The
inhabitants, before the earthquake, did not at mod
exceed 150,000. The government of it is lodged in
a council, confiding of aprefident, fix counfellors, and
other inferior officers. The harbour has water enough
for the larged (hips, and room enough for 10,000 fail
without being crowded. For its fecurity, there is a
fort at the mouth of the river, on each fide, and a bar
that runs acrofs it, and is very dangerous to pafs with¬
out pilots. Higher up, at a place where the river is
1 confiderably contradted, there is a fort called Torre de
Kpl Belem, or the To<wer of Belem, under wliofe guns all
(hips mud pafs in their way to the city; and on the
other fide are feveral more forts. Before the earth¬
quake, mod of the private houfes were old and un-
fightly, with lattice-windows; and the number of con¬
vents and colleges amounted to 50, namely, 32 for
monks, and 18 for nuns. The king’s principal palace
dands on the river, and is large and commodious. Of
the hofpitals, that called the Great is obliged to re¬
ceive all perfons, of what degree, nation, or religion
foever, without exception. At the village of Belem, I.ifburn
near Liffion, is a noble hofpital for decayed gentlemen 1,1
who have ferved the king, and have not wherewithal
to maintain themfelves. That called the houfe of mercy ^
is alfo a noble charity. In the centre of the city,
upon one of the highed hills, is the caflle, which com¬
mands the whole, being large and’ancient, and having
always a garrifon of four regiments of foot. The
cathedral is a va(t edifice of the Gothic kind, but
heavy and cltimfy: it contains, ho,wever, great riches,
and-is finely adorned within. The fquare called fto/lo is
large, and furrounded with magnificent buildings.
The whole city is under the eccltfiaftical junfdiction
of the patriarch, who was appointed in the year 1717.
Here is alfo an archbifliop, who has, or at lead had
before the erection of the patriarchate, a revenue of
40,000 crufadoes, or 60001. The univerfity, which
was removed for fome time to Coimbra, but afterwards
reftored to its ancient feat, makes a confiderable figure,
though much inferior to that of Coimbra.
LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Antrim and province of UHler. It was burnt down
about 40 years ago ; but is now rebuilt in a neat and
handfome manner, and has a large linen manufa&ory.
It is feated on the river Laggan, in W. Long. 6. 20.
N. Lat. 54. 31.
LISlEUX, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Normandy, with a biffiop's fee. The churches and
religious houfes, and the bifliop’s palace, are all very
handfome ftru&ures. It is a trading place; and is feat¬
ed at the confluence of the rivers Arbeck and Gaffi, in
E Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 49. 11.
LISLE, a large, rich, handfome, and ftrong town
of French Flanders, of which it is the capital, with a
(trong caftle, and a citadel built by Vauban, and faid
to be the fined in Europe, as well as the beft fortified.
The large fquare, and the public buildings, are very
handfome; and they have manufactures of filks, cam¬
brics, and camblets, as well as other (luffs, which
have been brought to great perfection. It was ta¬
ken by the duke of Marlborough, after three months
fiege and the lofs of many thoufands of men, in 1708;
but reftored to the French by the treaty of Utrecht,
in confideration of their demolifhing the fortifications
of Dunkirk. It is feated on the river Duele, 14 miles
weft of Tournay, 32 fouth-weft of Ghent, 37 north-
weft of Mons, and 130 north of Paris. E. Long. 3. 9.
N. Lat. 50. 38.
LISLE (Claudius de), a learned hiftoriographer,
born at Vancouleurs, in 1644. He ftudied among the
Jefuits at Pontamouffon; took his degrees in law, and
afterwards applied himfelf intirely to the ftudy of hi-
(lory and geography; and to perfect himfelf in thofe
fciences went to Paris, where the principal lords of the
court became his fcholars, and among the reft the duke
of Orleans, afterwards regent of the kingdom. He
wrote, 1. An hiftorical account of the kingdom of
Siam. 2. A genealogical and hiftorical Atlas. 3. An
abridgment of univerfal hiftory. He died at Paris, in
1720.
Lisle (William de), fon of the former, and the
mod learned geographer France has produced, was
born at Paris in 1675. He became firft geographer
to the king, royal cenfor, and member of the academy
of fciences. He died in 1726. He publiffied a great
number
LIS [ 4246 1 LIS
Lifle number of excellent maps, and wrote many pieces in
the memoirs of the academy of fciences*
1 Lisle (Sir John), a brave loyalifl in the time of
the civil wars, was the fon of a bookfeller in London,
and received his education in the Netherlands. He
fignalized himfelf upon many occafions in the civil war,
particularly in the laft battle of Newbury; where, in
the dulk of the evening, he led his men to the charge in
his (hirt, that his perfon might be more conl'picuous.
The king, who was an eye-witnefs of his bravery,
knighted him in the field of battle. In 1648, he rofe
for his majefty in Effex; and was one of the royalifts
who fo obftinately defended Colchefter, and who died
for their defence of it. This brave man having ten¬
derly embraced the corps of Sir Charles Lucas, his
departed friend, immediately prefented himfelf to the
foldiers who flood ready for his execution. Thinking
that they flood at too great a diftance, he defired them
to come nearer: one of them faid, “ I warrant you,
Sir, we (hall hit you.” He replied, with a fmile,
“ Friends, I have been nearer you when you have miffed
me.” He was executed Augutl 28th 1648.
LISMORE, one of the Weflern iflands of Scot¬
land, feated at the mouth of the bay of Lochyol in
Argylefhire. It is eight miles long, and two .broad;
and the foil is pretty fertile. It was formerly the re-
fidence of the bifhops of Argyle.
LISSA, an ifland in the Gulph of Venice, on the
coaft of Dalmatia, belonging to the Venetians, where
they have a fifhery of fardines and anchovies. It pro¬
duces excellent wine, and is 70 miles weft of Ragufa.
E. Long. 17. o. N. Lat. 43. 22.
Lissa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Pof-
na, of which it is the capital. E. Long. 16. o. N.
Lat. 32. 15.
Lissa, a village of Silefia, 16 miles from Breflau,
remarkable for a battle fought between the Pruflians
and the Auftrians on the 15th of December 1757,
when the latter were entirely defeated.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth or fluff;
ferving not only to (hew their quality, but to preferve
them from being torn in the operations of fulling, dye¬
ing, &c—Lift is ufed on various occafions; but chiefly
by gardeners for fecuring their wall-trees.
List, in architedlure,a little fquare moulding,other-
wife called a fillet, liflel. See. See Plate XXIX. fig. 1.
List, is alfo ufed, to fignify the inclofed field or
ground wherein the ancient knights held their jufts
and combats. It was fo called, as being hemmed
round with pales, barriers, or flakes, as with a lift.
Some of thefe were double, one for each cavalier; which
kept them apart, fo that they could not come nearer
each other than a fpear’s length. See Just, Tour¬
nament, Duel, &c.
Civil List, in the Britifh polity. The expences
defrayed by the civil lift are thofe that in any fhape re¬
late to civil government; as, the expences of the houfe-
hold; all falaries to officers of date, to the judges, and
every one of the king’s fervants; the appointments to
foreign ambaffadors ; the maintenance of the queen and
royal family; the ki*g’s private expences, or privy-
purfe ; and other very numerous outgoings, as fecret*
fervice money, penfions, and other bounties : which
fometimes have fo far exceeded the revenues appointed
for that purpofe, that application has been made to
parliament to difeharge the debts contra&ed on the ci- Lift,
vil lilt; as particularly in 1724, when one million was — j
granted for that purpofe by the ftatue 11 Geo. I. c. 17.
and in 1769, when half a million was appropriated to
the like ufes by the ftatute 9 Geo. III. c. 34.
The civil lift is indeed properly the whole of the^/arfy?.
king’s revenue in his own diftindt capacity; the rt?LComment'lm
being rather the revenue of the public#or its creditors,
though collefted and diftributed again in the name
and by the officers of the crown : it now Handing in ? |
the fame place, as the hereditary income did formerly;
and as that has gradually diminifhed, the parliamen¬
tary appointments have increafed. The whole revenue
of queen Elizabeth did not amount to more than
6oo,oool. a-year: that of king Char. I. was 800,oool.
and the revenue voted for king Charles II. was
1,200,oool. though complaints were made (in the firll
years at lead), that it did not amount to fo much. But
it muft be obferved, that under thefe fums were inclu¬
ded all manner of public expences; among which Lord
Clarendon, in his ipeech to the parliament, computed,
that the charge of the navy and land-forces amounted
annually to 800,oool. which was ten times more than
before the former troubles. The fame revenue, fubje£t
to the fame charges, was fettled on king James II.:
but by the increafe of trade, and more frugal manage¬
ment, it amounted on an average to 1,500,000!. per
an?jum, (befides other additional cuftoms, granted by
parliament, which produced an annual revenue of
400,000!.) out of which his fleet and army were main¬
tained at the yearly expence of 1,100,0001. After
the revolution, when the parliament took into its own
hands the annual fnpport of the forces both maritime
and military, a civil-lift revenue was fettled on the new
king and queen, Amounting, with the hereditary du¬
ties, to 700,000!. per annum; and the fame was con¬
tinued to queen Anne and king George I. That of
king Geo. 11. was nominally augmented to 800,000* 1. * See Revt
and in fact was coniiderably more: but that of hisBW’ *1
prefent majefty is exprefsly limited to that fum; tho’
100,0001. has been fince added. And upon the whole,
it is doubtlefs much better for the crown, and alfo for
the people, to have the revenue fettled upon the mo¬
dern footing rather than the ancient. For the crown;
becaufe it is more certain, and collefted with greater
eafe: for the people ; becaufe they are now delivered
from the feodal hardlhips, and other odious branches
of the prerogative. And though complaints have fome¬
times been made of the increafe of the civil lift, yet if
we confider the fums that have been formerly granted,
the limited extent under which it is now eftablifhed,
the revenues and prerogatives given up in lieu of it by
the crown, the numerous branches of the prefent royal
family, and (above all) the diminution of the value of ,j L
money compared with what it was worth in the lad ii
century, we muft acknowledge thefe complaints to be
void of any rational foundation; and that it is impof-
fible to fupport that dignity, which a king of Great |
Britain fliould maintain, with an income in any degree
lefs than what is now eftablifhed by parliament. See
Revenue.
To List, or Enlijl, Soldiers, to retain and enroll men
as foldiers, either as volunteers, or by a kind of compul-
fion. Perfons lifted muft be carried within four days, !
but not foonerthan zqhours after, before the next juftice
pf i
P t L f 4:
or peace of any county, riding, city, or place, or chief
magiitrate of any city or town corporate (not being
' an officer in the army) ; and if before fuch juft ice or
magiftrate they diffent from fuch enlifting, and return
the enlifting-money, andalfo 20 (hillings in lieu of all
charges expended on them, they are to be difehar-
ged. But perfons refufing or neglecting to return and
pay fuch money within 24 hours, ffiall be deemed as
duly lifted, as if they had affented thereto before the
proper magiftrate ; and they ffiall, in that cafe, be
obliged to take the oath, or, upon refufal, they ftiall
be confined by the officer who lifted them till they do
take it.
LISTER (Dr Martin), an eminent Engliffi phy-
fician and naturalift, was born in 1638, and educated
at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into France ;
and at his return pra&ifed phyfic at York, and after¬
wards at London. In 1683, he was created doCtor of
phyfic, and became fellow of the college of phyficians
in London. In 1698, he attended the earl of Port¬
land in his embaffy from king William III. to the
court of France; of which journey he publiffied an ac¬
count at his return, and was afterwards phyfician to
queen Anne. He alfo publiffied, 1. Hijioria anbna-
lium Anglia, quarto. 2. Conchyliorum fynopfis, folio.
3. Cochlearum h limachum exercitatio anatomica, 4 vols
8vo. 4. Many pieces in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions ; and other works.
LITANY, a folemn form of fupplication to God,
in which the prieft utters fome things fit to be prayed
for, and the people join in their interceffion, faying,
we befcech thee to hear us, good Lord, 8cc. The word
comes from the Greek Afaiua, “ fupplication s” of
Mlavwa, «< J befeech.’’
At firft the ufe of litanies was not fixed to any fla-
ted time, but were only employed as exigencies re¬
quired. They were obferved, in imitation of the Ni-
nevites, with ardent fupplications and fallings, to
avert the threatening judgments of fire, earthquakes,
inundations, or hoftile invafions. About the year
.400, litanies began to be ufed in proceffions, the peo¬
ple walking barefoot, and repeating them with great
devotion ; and it is pretended, that by this means, fe-
veral countries were delivered from great calamities.
The days on which thefe were ufed, were called roga¬
tion days : thefe were appointed by the canons of dif¬
ferent councils, till it was decreed by the council of
loledo, that they ffiould be ufed every month through¬
out the year; and thus by degrees they came to be
ufed weekly on Wednefdays and Fridays, the ancient
ftationary days for falling. To thefe days the rubric
of our church has added Sundays, as being the great-
eft days for aflembling at divine fervice. Before the
laft review of the common prayer, the litany was a di-
ftina fervice by itfelf, and ufed fome time after the
morning prayer was over; at prefent it is made one
office with the morning-fervice, being ordered to be
read after the third collect for grace, inftead of the
interceffional prayers in the daily fervice.
LITCHFIELD, a city of Staffordffiire, in Eng¬
land, fiiuated inW. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat. 52. 43. It
Hands low, about three miles from the Trent. Its
ancient name is faid to have been Licidfeld, fignify-
ing a field of carcaffes, from a great number of Chri-
ftians having, as it is pretended, fuffered martvrdom
Voi,. VI.
;47 J I. I T
here in the perfecution under Dioclefian. Though the Literary
bilhop has his fee here, yet he is denominated of Litch- . Jt
field and Coventry. It is divided into two parts by a U 1^ow*
rivulet and a kind of (hallow lake, over which are two
caufeways, with (luices. It is a long ftraggling place;
but has fome very handfome houfes, and well-paved
clean ftreets. That part on the fouth fide of the ri¬
vulet is called the city, and the other the clofe, becaufe
it is enclofed with a wall and a deep dry ditch. The
city- is much the largeft, and contains feveral public
ftru&ures. The cathedral is a very magnificent ftruc-
ture. Its front, or portico, is hardly to be parallelled
in England; and it has three fpires exceeding lofty.
The town is a great thoroughfare to the north-weft
counties; and is governed by two bailiffs, 24 bur-
geffes, a recorder, a (heriff, a fteward and other offi¬
cers.
LITERARY, any thing belonging to Litera¬
ture.
Literary Property, or Copy-Right. See Copy-
Right.
LITERATURE, learning, ox Skill in Letters.
LITHANFHRAX, ox Piy-Coal, is a black or
brown, laminated, bituminous fubllance; not very ea-
fily inflammable, but, when once inflamed, burns long¬
er and more intenfely than any other fubftance. Of
this fubftance three kinds are diftinguiffied by authors.
The refiduum of the firft after combuftion is black ;
the refiduum of the fecond is fpongy, and like pounce
(lone ; and the refiduum of the third is whitiffi affies.
Some foffil coal, by long expofure to air, falls into a
greyifh powder, from which alum may be extradted.
Foffil coal by diftillation yields, x. a phlegm or wa¬
ter; 2. a very acid liquor; 3. a thin oil like naph¬
tha ; 4. a thicker oil, refembling petroleum, which
falls to the bottom of the former, and which rifes with
a violent fire ; 5. an acid concrete fait; 6. an unin¬
flammable earth remains in the retort. Thefe confti-
tuent parts of foffil-coal are very fimilar to thofe of
amber and other bitumens. For the exciting of in-
tenfe heats, as of furnaces for fmelting iron-ore, and
for operations where the acid and oily vapours would
be detrimental, as the drying of malt, foffil coals are
previoufly charred, or reduced to coaks ; that is, they
are made to undergo an operation fimilar to that by
which charcoal is made. By this operation coals are
deprived of their phlegm, their acid liquor, and of
greateft part of their fluid oil. Coaks therefore con-
iift of the two moft fixed conftituent parts, the heavy
oil and the earth, together with the acid concrete
fait, which though volatile is detained by the oil and
earth.
LITHARGE, is a kind of refufe of lead, and is
no other than that metal in an incipient (late of vitri¬
fication either alone, or with a mixture of copper. See
Chemistry, n° 403.
L1THGOW (William), a Scotfman, whofe fuf-
ferings by imprifonment and torture at Malaga, and
whofe travels, on foot, over Europe, Afia, and Afri¬
ca, feem to raife him almoft to the rank of a mar¬
tyr and a hero, publiffied an account of his pe¬
regrinations and adventures. Though the author
deals much in the marvellous, the horrid account of
the ftrange cruelties of which, he tells us, he was the
fubjeft, have, however, an air of truth. Soon after
24 D his
LIT [ 4248 ] LIT
England, from Malaga, he was carried markable ones are the officinale or common gromweTl, Lithotomy
Lithgow his arrival
Lithofper t0 Theobald’s on a feather-bed, that king James might
be an eye-witnefs of his martyred afiaiotny,by which
he means his wretched body, mangled and reduced to
a Ikeleton. The whole court crowded to fee him ; and
his majefty ordered him to be taken care of, and he
was twice fent to Bath at his expence. By the king’s
command, he applied to Gondamor, the Spanilh am-
baffador, for the recovery of the money and other
things of value which the governor of Malaga had
and the arvenfe or baftard alkanet. Both~thefe
natives of Britain ; the former growing in dry gra¬
velly foil, the latter in corn-fields.— The feeds of the
firft are reputed to be of fervice in calculous cafes. Dr
Grew fays, that they have fo much earth in their com-
pofition, that they effervefce with acids ; but if this
is the cafe, it muft be attributed rather to an alkaline
than an earthy quality.
LITHOTOMY, in furgery, the operation of cut-
taken from him, and for 1000 pounds for his fupport. ting for the done. See Surgery.
tt   ;r 1 _ r..n  _ j    - t t’T'ljtt a xtt a . r
He was promifed a full reparation for the damage he
had fuftained; but the perfidious minifter never per¬
formed his promife. When he was upon the point
of leaving England, Lithgow upbraided him with the
breach of his word in the prefence-chamber, before
feveral gentlemen of the court. This occafioned their
fighting upon the fpot; and the ambaffador, as the
traveller oddly expreffes it, had his fiftula (with
LITHUANIA, an extenfive province of Poland.
By the natives it is called Letiva, and has Great Po¬
land and Ruffia on the weft ; part of Mufcovy on the
call; Livonia, the Baltic fea, and part of Mufcovy, on
the north; Red Ruffia, Volhinia, and Padolia, on the
fouth ; and the Ukraine on the fouth-eaft. Its length
is faid to be about 360, and its breadth 340 miles;
but it is much indented both ways. Lithuania was
which diforder he was afflidled) contrabanded with anciently over-run with wood; and there are ftill many
his fill. The unfortunate Lithgow, who was gene¬
rally condemned for his fpirited behaviour, was fent
to the Marfhalfea, wnere he continued a prifoner
nine months. At the conclufion of the oftavo edi¬
tion of his Travels he informs us, that, in his three
forefts in it, which yield a great deal of honey,
pitch, tar, and timber ; and abound with wild boars,
buffalos, elks, wild horfes, wild affes, uri, and wood¬
cocks. The lakes are alfo numerous, and well-flored
with fifh : but the air, by reafon of thgfe forefts and
voyages, “ his painful feet have traced over (befides lakes, is faid to be thick and foggy. The country
paffages of feas and rivers) 36,000 and odd miles, produces a great deal of buck-wheat and other corn,
which draweth near to twice the circumference of the paftures are luxuriant, and the flocks and herds nu-
the whole earth.” Here the marvellous feems to
rife to the incredible; and to fet him, in point of ve¬
racity, below Coryat, whom it is neverthelefs certain
. that he far outwalked. His defcription of Ireland is
whimfical and curious. This, together witn the nar¬
rative of his fufferings, is reprinted in Morgan’s Pbce-
nix Britannicus.
LITHIASIS, or Stone. See Index fubjoin-
ed to) Medicine.
LITHONTRIPTICUS, from >.<9©-, « a ftone,”
and Qgvxh, “ to break an epithet for medicines
that are faid to break the ftone in the bladder. Tho’
the different ftones that are generated in the human
bladder require different folvents when out of the bo¬
dy ; and though art hath not yet afforded a medicine
which, when injected into the bladder, will, without
injury thereto, diffolve the ftone therein lodged ; it
cannot thence be concluded, that there are no lithon-
triptic medicines. It may be here obferved, that one
folvent affedts one fubjedt, but hath no effedt one ano¬
ther ; fo a folvent may yet be met with that will de-
ftroy the ftone, and not hurt the human body. 'Hie
water into which the boiled white of egg diffoives will
liquefy myrrh, but may be put into the human eye
without caufing any uneafinefs.
Soap ley taken at firft in fmall dofes in broth that is
freed from all its fat, fucceeds in moft cafes which re¬
quire an alkaline folvent. The patient may being
with 20 drops, and gradually increafe the dofe as he
is able ; and by repeating it three times a-day for fix,
eight, or twelve months, the wifhed for effedls often
follow.
LITHGPHYTA, the name of Linnaeus’s third
order of vermes. See Zoology.
LITHOSPERMUM, gromwell ; a genus of the
merous : fo that, notwithftanding agriculture is much
neglcdled, provifions are exceeding cheap, but money
fo fcarce, that ten per cent is the common intereft. The
principal nobility have large eftates, and live in great
pomp and fplendor, generally retaining fome hundreds
of thofe that are poor, in quality of domeftics. The
eftabliffied religion is Popery ; but Lutherans, Calvi-
nifts, Jews, Turks, Greeks, and Socinians, are very
numerous. Lithuania was governed by its own dukes
till it was united to Poland, towards the end of the
14th century, when the great duke Jagello married
Hedwig, the dowager of Lewis king of Poland and
Hungary. It had even dukes after that, but they
were fubordinate to the king ; and at this day, tho’
one diet ferves for both countries, yet each has its
peculiar laws, cuftoms, dialed, and privileges. In a
diet held at Lublin in 1569, it was more clofely uni¬
ted to Poland than it had been before; and it was en¬
abled, that both countries, for the future, fliould form
but one ftate under the fame prince. As to their
courts of juftice, the tenth part of what is adjudged
in all real a&ions goes always to the judge’s box, and
is immediately paid in court; and in perfonal adions
he claims half the damages given. A nobleman is
only fined for murder, as in Poland. The common peo¬
ple here, excepting the burghers in the royal towns,
and the Germans, are Haves; and, in many places,
the ignorant vulgar ftill retain fome remains of idola¬
try. The poor people have only Mondays to them-
felves; and if their lords have occafion for them even
on that day, the peafant muft; work for himfelf on
Sunday. If any of them is condemned to death by
his lord, he muft execute himfelf, or fuffer greater
cruelty. The dialed is a language of the Sclavonic ;
and they fpeak here, as in Poland, a barbarous kind
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafsof of Latin. Lithuania is divided into nine palatinates-
plants. There are feveral fpecies; but the only re- Another divifion is into Lithuania properly fo call¬
ed.
LIT [ 4249 ] L I V
!. I-Uotes ed, and Lithuanian RufTia. Some alfo comprehend
, t under it Samogitia and Courland, which is a fief of
^ittleton- Poland.
LITOTES. See Oratory, n° 55.
LITTER, a parcel of dry old draw put on the
floor of a horfe’s (tall for him to lie down and reft up¬
on. When a horfe comes tired into a ftahle, frefh litter
has the virtue of making him ftale immediately. This
is known to be a very great advantage to a horfe in a
tired ftate ; and when the litter is old and dirty, it ne¬
ver has any fuch effedt upon him. If the owners knew
how refrelhing it is for a horfe to difcharge his urine
on his return from labour, they would be more care¬
ful of giving them all means and occafions of it than
they do. This ftaling after fatigue prevents thofe ob-
ftrudlions in the neck of the bladder or urinary pafl'a-
ges which horfes are too fubjedl to. The bladder be¬
ing often inflamed by the long retention of the heated
urine in it, the creature is thus in danger of perifhing.
LITTLE (William), an ancient Englilh hiftorian,
known alfo by the name of Gulielmus Neubrigenjis%
was born at Bridlington in the county of York, in the
year 1136; and educated in the abbey of Newborough
in the fame county, where he became a monk. In
his advanced years, he compofed a hiftory of England,
in five books, from the Norman conqueft to A. D.
1197; which for veracity, regularity of difpofition,
and purity of language, is one of the xnoft valuable
produdlions of this period.
LITTLETON (Sir Thomas), judge of the Com¬
mon-pleas, was the eldeft fon of Thomas Weftcote,
efq. of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth, foie
heirefs of Thomas Littleton of Frankley in Wor-
cefterlhire, at whofe requeft he took the name and
arms of that family. He was educated at one of our
univerfities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he re¬
moved to the Inner Temple, where he became one of
the readers ; and was afterwards, by Henry VI. made
fteward or judge of the court of the palace, or mar-
ftialfea of the king’s houfehold. In 1455, the thirty-
third of that reign, he was appointed king’s ferjeant,
and rode the northern circuit as judge of affize. In
1462, the fecond of Edward IV. he obtained a par¬
don from the crown; and, in 1466, was appointed
one of the judges of the common-plea, and rode the
Northamptonlhire circuit. In the year 1475 he was,
with many of the firft nobility, created knight of the
Bath. He died in 1481 ; and was buried in the ca¬
thedral church of Worcefter, where a marble tomb,
with his ftatue upon it, was erefted to his memo¬
ry. As to his chara&er as a lawyer, it is fufficient
to inform the reader that he was the author of the
Treatife upon Tenures, on which Sir Edward Coke
wrote a comment, well known by the title of Coke
upon Littleton.
Littleton (Adam), defeended from an ancient
family in Shroplhire, was born in 1627. educated at
Weftminfter-Cchoo], and went to Oxford a Undent of
-Chrift-church, whence he was eje&ed by the parlia¬
ment vifitors in 1648. Soon after, he became ulher
of Weftmintter-fchool, and in 1658 was made fecond
mafter of Weftminfter-fchool. After the reftoration
he taught a fchool at Chelfea in Middlefex, of which
church he was admitted reftor in the year 1664. In
1.670 he accumulated the degrees in divinity, being
then chaplain in ordinary to his majefty. In 1674
became prebendary of Weftminfter, of which church . ii
he was afterward fub-deap. Belide he well-known ‘1VJ ia'
Latin and Englijh dictionary, he publilhcd feveral
other works. He died in 1694, and was interred
at Chelfea. He was an univerfal fcholar; and ex¬
tremely charitable, humane, and eafy of accefs.
LITURGY, a name given to thofe fet forms of
prayer which have been generally ufed in the Chriftian
church. Of thefe there are not a few aferibed to the
apoftles and fathers, but they are almoft univerfally
believed to be fpurious. The word comes from the
Greek ^urvpyicc, fervice, or public miniftry.
The liturgy of the church of England was com
pofed in the year 1547, fince which time it has
undergone feveral alterations: the laft of which was in
the year 1661, and of this liturgy Dr Comber gives
the following chara&er. “ No church was ever oleT-
“ fed with fo comprehenfive, fo exadl, and fo inoffen-
“ five a liturgy as ours: which is fo judicioufly cou-
“ trived, that the whole may exercife at once their
“ knowledge and devotion ; and yet fo plain, that
“ the moft ignorant may pray with underftanding ;
“ fo full, that nothing is omitted, which ought to be
“ afked in public ; and fo particular, that it com-
“ prifeth moft things which we would afk in private ;
“ and yet fo fhort, as not to tire any that have true
“ devotion. Its dodtrine is pure and primitive ; its
“ ceremonies fo few and innocent, that moft of the
“ Chriftian world agree in them : its method is exadt
“ and natural; its language fignificant and perfpi-
“ cuous, moft. of the words and phrafes being taken
“ out of the holy feripture, and the reft are the ex-
“ preflions of the firft and pureft ages.”—And in the
opinion of the moft impartial and excellent Grotius,
(who was no member of, nor had any obligation to,
this church) “ the Englilh liturgy comes fo near the
“ primitive pattern, that none of the reformed churches
“ can compare with it.” Again, he fays, “ In the
“ prayers, a fcholar can difeern clofe logic, pleafing
“ rhetoric, pure divinity, and the very marrow of the
“ ancient dodlrine and difeipline; and yet all made fo
“ familiar, that the unlearned may fafely fay Amen.”
LITUUS, in Roman antiquity, a Ihort, ftraight
rod, only bending a little at one end, ufed by the au¬
gurs. See Augur.
LIVADIA, anciently Achaia and Hellas, or Greece
properly fo called ; a province of Turky in Europe,
bounded on the north by Epirus and Theffaly, from
which it is feparated by mount Oeta, now Banina, and
by the Euripus, now the ftrait of Negropont; on the
eaft, by the Archipelago ; on the fouth, by the gulf of
Engia or Egina, the ifthmus of Corinth, and the
gulf of Lepanto ; and on the weft, by the Ionian fea
and part of Epirus. Its extent is about 130 miles
from north-weft to fouth-eaft ; but its greateft breadth
is not above 36 miles. It is in general a mountainous
country; but neither unpleafant nor unfruitful. 'The
principal mountains are, mount Oeta in Bseotia, where
is the famous pafs of Thermopylae, not above 25 feet
broad; andParnaflus, Helicon,and Cythasron inPhocii,
which were facred to Apollo and the mufes, and con-
fequently much celebrated by the poets. The rivers
of moft note are, the Sionapro, anciently the Achelous,
the Cephiflus, the Ifmenus, and the Afopus. The
24 D 2 province
L I V [ 4250 ] L I V
L'yaJia, province is at prefent divided into Livadia proper, alkali in two very different manners.
Liver. Stramulippa, and the duchy of Athens. The prin- The author has given to this combination the name
cipal places are, Lepanto, anciently Naupa&ns ; Liva- of liver of arfenic, to diftinguifh it from the neutral
dia, anciently Libadia or Lebadia ; the celebrated city arfenical fait, and in imitation of the name of the //-
of Athens, now Setines; Thebes, now Stibes ; Lep- ver offulphur, given to the combination of the hxed
ilna, anciently Eleufis; Caftri, formely Delphi; and alkali with fulphur.
Megara. of Sulphur. See Chemistry, n°32i.
Livadia, an ancient town of Turky in Europe, LivER-^Tsr/, in botany. See Lichen.
and capital of a province of the fame name in Greece. LIVERPOOL, Litherpool, orZ/V/co/, aflourifh-
It is a large and populous place, feated on the gulf of ing maritime town of Lancafhire, in England, fituated
Lepanto, about 25 miles from the city of that name, at the mouth of the river Merfee, which abounds with
It has now a confiderable trade in woollen fluffs and falmon, cod-fifh, turbot, plaife, fmelts, and flounders,
rice. Anciently it was celebrated for the oracle of and at high-water is above two miles over. The town
Trophonius, which was in a cavern in a hill above the was incorporated by king John ; and is governed by a
town. E. Long. 23. 29. N. Lai. 38. 40. mayor, recorder, aldermen without limitation, 40 com-
LIVER, in anatomy. See there, n° 357.—Plato, mon council-men, and burgeffes, the number of whom
and other of the ancients, fix the principle of love in exceeds 1500. The freemen of Liverpool have the
the liver ; whence the Latin proverb, Cogit amare fame privileges at Briftol in England, and at Water-
jecur: and in this fenfe Horace frequently ufes the ford and Wexford in Ireland. The town is well-built,
word, as when he fays, Si torret e jecur quxris Idoneum. and very populous; and in commerce rivals, if it does
—The Greeks, from its concave figure, called it not exceed, that of Briftol. It lies in a centrical fitua-
vaulted, fufpended; the Latins call it jecur, q. d. tion between the coaft of Wales, Ireland, Scotland,
juxta cor, as being near the heart. The French call and the Ifle of Man; befides its (landing very conve-
it foye, from foyer, focus, or fire-place; agreeable to nient for an inland trade with Chefhire, Staffordfliire,
the doftrine of the ancients, who believed the blood to and other parts of the north of England. Befides the
be boiled and prepared in it.—Erafiftratus, at firft, Merfee, there is the fouth channel, or river Weaver,
called it parenchyma, i. e. effufton, or mafs of blood: which is navigable, and chiefly ufed for the inland con-
and Hippocrates, by way of eminence, frequently veyance of Chefhire cheefe and reck-fait. This kind
calls it the hypochondrium. of fait is dug in Lancafhire and Chefhire, and from
Liver of Antimony. See Chemistry, n° 459. thence fent all over England. When boiled in fea-wa-
Liver of Arfenic, is a combination of white arfenic ter and evaporated,a very ftrong fait is produced, which
with liquid fixed vegetable alkali, or by the humid may be ufed in curing herrings. W. Long. 2. 30. N.
way. Arfenic has in general a ftrong difpofition to Lat. 53. 45.
unite with alkalis. Mr Macquer, in his Memoirs upon LIVERY, in matters of drefs and equipage, a cer-
Arfenic, mentions a fingular kind of neutral fait, which tain colour and form of drefs, by which noblemen and
refults from the union of arfenic with the alkaline bafis gentlemen choofe to diftinguifh their fervants.
of nitre, when nitre is decompofed, and its acid is dif- Livery of Seifn, in law, fignifies delivering the
engaged in clofe veffels. by means of arfenic. To this poffeflion of lands, &c. to him who has a right to them.
^ See fait he has given the name of neutral arfenical fait *. LIVERYMEN of London, are a number of men
mijiry, The liver of arfenic mentioned alfo by that chemift, chofen from among the freemen of each company. Out
although compofed, like the neutral arfenical fait, of of this body the common-council, fheriff, and other
arfenic and fixed alkali, is neverthelefs very different fuperior officers for the government of the city, are
from that fait. ele&ed; and they alone have the privilege of giving
The operation for making liver of arfenic is eafyand- their votes for members of parliament, from which the
Ample. To ftrong and concentrated liquid fixed alkali, reft of the citizens are excluded.
previoufly heated, fine powder of white arfenic muft LJVONIA, a large province of the Ruffian em-
be added. This arfenic eafily difappears and diffolves, pire, with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the
and as much of it is to be added till the alkali is fatu- north by the gulph of Finland, on the weft by that
rated, or has loft its alkaline properties, although it is of Riga, on the fouth by Courland, and on the eaft,
ftill capable of diffolving more arfenic fuperabundantly. partly by PIefcow, and partly by Novogorod. It is
While the alkali diffolves the arfenic in this operation, about 250 miles from north to fouth, and 150 from
it acquires a brownifh colour, and a fingular and dif- from eaft to weft. The land is fo fertile in corn, that
agreeable fmell; which, however, is not the fmell of it is called the granary of the North ; and would pro-
pure arfenic heated and volatilized. Laftly, this mix- duce a great deal more, if it was not fo full of lakes,
ture becomes more and more thick, and at length of The fifh that abound here are falmons, carps, pikes, flat
a gluey confidence. This matter is not cryftallizable fifh, and many others. In the forefts there are wolves,
as the neutral arfenical fait is. It is eafily decompofed bears, elks, rein-deer, flags, and hares. The domeftic
by the aftion of fire, which feparates the arfenic. animals are very numerous; but the (beep bear very
This does not happen to the arfenical fait. Any bad wool. Here are a great number of forefts, which
pure acid is capable of feparating arfenic from the li- confift of birch-trees, pines, and oaks ; and all the
ver of arfenic, in the fame manner as they feparate houfes of the inhabitants are built with wood. The
fulphur from liver of fulphur: whereas the neutral merchandizes which they fend abroad are flax, hemp,
arfenical fait cannot be decompofed but by means of honey, wax, leather, (kins, and potafhes. The Swedes
the united affinities of acids and metallic fubftances. were formerly poffeffed of this province, but were
Thus we fee that arfenic may be combined with fixed obliged to abandon it to the Ruffians after the battle
of
L O A [ 4251 j L G A
vonka of Pultowa ; and it was ceded to them by the peace of
1 II the North, concluded in 1722, which was confirmed
'oan{*a' by another treaty in 1742. It is divided into two pro¬
vinces, viz. Letonia and Eftonia; and two iflands call¬
ed Oe/e/and Dagho, which are again fubdivided into
feveral diftrifts.
LIVONICA terra, a kind of fine bole ufed in
the (hops of Germany and Italy. It is found in Li¬
vonia, from whence it takes its name, and alfo in fome
other parts of the world. It is generally brought to
us in little cakes, fealed with the impreffion of a church
and an efcutcheon, with two crofs keys.
LIVRE, a French money of account, containing
20 fpls. See Money-TaW?.
L^XIVIOUS, an appellation given to falls obtained
from burnt vegetables by pouring water on their aflies.
LIXIVIUM, in pharmacy, &c. a ley obtained by
pouring fome liquor upon the afhes of plants; which
is more or lefs powerful, as it has imbibed the fixed
falls contained in the allies.
LIZARD, in zoology. See Lacerta.
Lizard, in geography, a cape or promontory of
Cornwall, fituated according to the molt common com¬
putation, in W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 49. 50.
LLOYD (Nicholas), a learned Englilh writer in
the 17th century, was born in Flintlhire in England,
and educated at Wadham college, Oxford. He was
redlor of Newington St Mary near Lambeth, in Surry,
till his death, which happened in 1680. His Diftio-
narium Hijloricum is a valuable work, to which Hoff¬
man and Moreri are greatly indebted.
Lloyd (William), a moft learned Englilh writer
and bilhop, was born in Berkfhire in England, in 1627.
He was educated under his father, redlor of Sonning,
and vicar of Tyle-hurll in Berklhire* then went to
Oxford, and took orders. In 1660, he was made pre¬
bendary of Rippon; and in 1666, chaplain to the king.
In J 667, he took the degree of do&or of divinity ; in
1672, he was inftalled dean of Bangor; and in 1680,
was confecrated bilhop of St Afaph. He was one of
the fix bilhops who, with arc(ibilhop Sancroft, were
committed prifoners to the tower of London, for fub-
fcribing a petition to the king againft diftributing and
publilhing his declaration for liberty of confcience.
Soon after the revolution he was made almoner to king
William and queen Mary: in 1692, he was tranllated
tothebilhopric of Litchfield andCoventry; and in 1699,
to the fee of Worcefter, where he fat till his death,
which happened in 1717, the 95ft year of his age. Dr
Burnet gives him an exalted charadter, and his works
are highly efteemed.
LOACH, in ichthyology. See Cobitis.
LOADSTONE. See Magnet.
LOAMS, in natural hitlory, are defined to be earths
compofed of diffimilar particles, ftiff, denfe, hard, and
rough to the touch; not eafily broke while moift, rea¬
dily diffufible in water, and compofed of fand and a
tough vifcid clay. Of thefe loams fome are whitilh and
Others brown or yellow.
LOAN, any thing given to another, on condition
of return or repayment.
Public Loans. See Funds, and National Debt.
LOANDA, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is an illand about 15 miles in length,
and three in breadth; remarkable chiefly for the capi¬
tal of Angola fituated upon it, in E. Long. 12. 25.
S. Lat 8. 45. This town was built by the Portuguefe
in 1578, under the direftion of the firll Portuguefe
governor in thefe parts. It is large, populous, and
pieafantly feated on the declivity of a hill near the
fea-coaft, and facing the fouth-weft. The ifland is
fupplied with frefh water from wells dug in it; and
which are not funk below the depth of three feet when
they are filled with excellent water. It is remarkable,
however, that the water of thefe wells continues good
only during the time of high-tide; for, as that finks,
the water becomes more and more brackifh, till at la 11
it is quite fait, almoft as much as the fea itfelf. On
the coaft of this ifland are fifhed the zimbis, or fhells
ufed in feveral parts of Africa, inftead of money ; and
with thefe ftiells, inftead of coin, is carried on a great
part of the traffic of this country.
LOANGO, a kingdojn of Africa, extending itfelf
about 180 geographical miles in length from fouth to
north; that is, from cape St Catherine under the fe-
cond degree of fouth latitude, to a fmall river called
Lovanda Louifia, on the 5th degree of the fame. From
weft to eaft it extends from Cape Negro on the coaft
of Ethiopia towards the Buchumalean mountains, fo
called on account of their vaft quantity of ivory and
great droves of elephants, about 300 miles. It is di¬
vided into four principal provinces, viz. thofe of Lo-
vangiri, Loango-mongo, Chilongo, and Piri.
The inhabitants are very black, well-fhaped, and
of a mild temper. The men wear long petticoats, from
the wailt downwards; and have round their waift a
piece of cloth, half an ell or a quarter broad, over
which they wear the (kin of a leopard, or fome other
wild beaft, hanging before them like an apron. On
their head they wear a cap made of grafs, and quilt¬
ed, with a feather a-top of it; and on their fhoulder,
or in their hand, they carry a buffalo’s tail, or drive
away the mu/kettos. The womens petticoats are
made only of ftraw, about an ell fquare, with which
they cover their privities, but leave the greateft part
of their thighs and buttocks bare : the reft of their
body is quite bare, except that on their legs they wear
little firings of beads made of ftiells, and fmall brace-
letsof ivory on their arms. They anoint themfelves with
palm-oil, mixed with a kind of red wood reduced to
powder.
This country abounds with poultry, oxen, cows,
flieep, goats, elephants, tigers, leopards, civet-cats,
and other animals; fo that here are great quantities
of elephants teeth, and fine furs, to be traded for.
The capital city, where the king refides, is called
Loango, or Banza-Loangeri, and, in the language of
the negroes, Boaric. This city is fituated in 40 S.
Lat. and a half, a league and a half from the fea-
coaft. It is a pretty large city, lhaded and adorned
with bananas, palm, and other trees. The king, who
refides in a large palace in the middle of it, has about
1500 concubines. If any of them is furprifed in adul¬
tery, ftie and her paramour are inftantly conveyed to
the top of a very high hill, whence they are huried
down headlong from the fteepeft place.
Every man marries as many wives here as pleafes,
who are obliged to get their hufbands livelihood, as
is the pra&ice all along the African coaft inhabited by
blacks. The women therefore cultivate the land, fow
and:
LOG [ 4252 ] LOG
■Lobe and reap, while the lazy hufbands loiter away their
I ocbaber t*me ^'ene^s•
'°cu er' The king’s revenue confifts in elephants teeth, cop¬
per, and a kind of petticoats made of palm-tree leaves,
and called lavogus : he has whole ftore-houfes full of
thefe lavogus ; but his greateft riches confift in flaves
of both fexes.
LOBE, in anatomy, any flefliy protuberant part, as
the lobes of the lungs, the lobes of the ears, &c.
LOBELIA, cardinal-flower ; a genus of the
monogamia order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants. There is a great number of fpecies, but only
four of them are cultivated in our gardens; two of which
are hardy herbaceous plants for the open ground, and
two (hrubby plants for the (love. They are all fibrous
rooted perennials, rifing with ereft ftalks from two to
five or fix feet high, ornamented with oblong, oval,
fpear-fhaped, Ample leaves ; and fpikes of beautiful
monopetalous, fomewhat ringent, five-parted flowers,
of fcarlet, blue, and violet colours. They are eafily
propagated by feeds, offsets, and cuttings of their
Italks. The tender kinds require the common treat¬
ment of other exotics. They are natives of America;
from which their feeds muft be procured.
LOBINEAU (Guy Alexis), a Benediftine monk,
born at Rennes in 1666, fpent his whole life in the
Jludy of hiflory, and the writing of feveral works; the
principal of which are, The hiftory of Britany, 2 vols
folio; and A continuation of Felibien’s hiftory of Paris,
,9 vols folio. He died in (727.
LOBO (Rodriguez Francis), a celebrated Portu-
guefe poet, was born at Leiria, a fmall town of Eftra-
madura. He wrote an heroic poem, fome eclogues,
and a piece entitled which is the favourite
comedy of the Portuguefe. His works were colledled
and printed together in Portuguefe in 1721, in folio.
He flourifhed about 1610.
Lobo (Jerome), a famous Portuguefe Jefuit, bom
at Lifbon, went into Ethiopia, and dwelt there for a
long time. At his return he was made re&or of the
college of Coimbra, where he died in 1678. He wrote
An hiftorieal account of Abyffinia, which is by fome
eileemed a very accurate performance.
LOBSTER, in zoology, a fpecies of cancer. See
Cancer.
LOCAL, in law, fomething fixed to the freehold,
or tied to a certain place : thus, real adtions are local,
fince they muft be brought in the country where they
lie ; and local cuttoms are thofe peculiar to certain
countries and places.
Local Medicines, thofe deftined to aft upon par¬
ticular parts; as fomentations, epithems, veficato-
ries, &c.
LOCARNO, a town of Swifierland, capital of a
bailiwick of the fame name, feated at the north end
of the lake Maggiore, near the river Magie. It car¬
ries on a great trade ; and the country abounds in
paftures, wine, and fruits. E. Long. 8.41. N. Lat.
46. 6.
LOCATELLUS’s Balsam. See Pharmacy,
n° 890.
LOCHABER, a diftrift of the Ihire of Invernefs
in Scotland. It is bounded on the north by Bade-
noch, by Athol on the call, by Lorn and Braidalbin
on the fouth, and by a mountainous ridge on the weft
towards the fea-(hore. It derives its name from the Loduber
lake, orloch, Aber; and extends about 20 miles from | |
eaft to weft, and 30 from north to fouth. The coun- Loclce-
try is barren, bleak, mountainous, and rugged. In
one of the moft barren parts of this country, near the
mouth of the river Aber, in the centre between the
Weft and North Highlands, Hands Fort-William,
with the town of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable
arm of the fea, not far from the foot of a very high
mountain, called Benevis. The town, defigned as a
futlery for the garrifon, was erefted into a borough ;
and the fort itfelf was defigned as a check upon the
clan Cameron, who had been guilty of depredations
and other irregularities. It is inhabited moftly by
the Macdonalds, Camerons, and Mackintolhes ; who
are not the moft civilized people in Scotland, though
their chiefs are generally perfons of education, ho¬
nour, and hofpitality. Macdonald of Glengary, dc-
fcended in a ftraight line from Donald of the Ifles, ;|
pofleffed a feat or caftle in this diftrift, which was
burned to the ground, and deftroyed in the year 1715,
in confequence of his declaring for the pretender. The
elegant houfe and gardens belonging to Cameron of
Lochiel underwent the fame fate, for the fame reafon, I
after the extinftion of the rebellion in the year 1746.
The cadets of thefe families, which have formed a
kind of inferior gentry, are lazy, indigent, and un¬
cleanly ; proud, ferocious, and vindiftive. The com¬
mon people, though celebrated for their bravery, fi¬
delity, and attachment to their chiefs, are counted If
very favage, and much addifted to rapine. They I;
fpeak the Erfe language, and conform to the cuftoms
we have defcribed as peculiar to the Highlanders.
They pay very little attention to any fort of com- jl
merce, but that which confifls in the fale of their
black cattle, and lead a fort of vagrant life among
the hills; hunting, fowling, and fifhing, as the fea-
fons permit, and as their occafions require. They
delight in arms, which they learn to handle from their
infancy ; fubmit patiently to difcipline in the charafter
of foldiers ; and never fail to fignalize themfelves in
the field by their fobriety, as well as their valour.
While they remain in their oWn country, nothing can
be more penurious, mean, fordid, and uncomfortable, I
than the way of life to which thefe poor people are
inured, whether we confider their drefs, diet, or lodg- I
ing. In point of provifion, they are fo improvident,
or ill fupplied, that, before the winter is over, whole j
families are in danger of ftarving. In this emergency, |
they bleed their miferable cattle, already reduced to
fkin and bone, and eat the blood boiled with oatmeal.
This evacuation, added to their former weaknefs, en- 1
feebles the cows to fuch a degree, that, when they lie
down, they cannot rife again without afiiftance.
LOCHIA, in midwifery, a flux from the uterus
confequent to delivery. See Midwifery.
LOCK, a well-known inftrument tifed for faften- |
ing doors, chefts, &c. generally opened by a key.
LOCKE (John), a moft eminent Englifli philofo-
pher and writer in the latter end of the 17th century, was
fonofMrJohn Locke of Pensford in Somerfetlhire, and |
born at Wrington near Briftol in 1632. He was fent to ||
Chrift-church in Oxford ; but was highly difiatisfied
with the common courfe of ftudies then purfued in the ||
univerfity, where nothing was taught but the Ariftp-
telian
LOG [4:
telian p'nilofophy ; and bad a great averfion to tbe
dlfputes of tbe fchools then in ufe. The firft books
which gave him a reliih for philofophy, were the wri¬
tings of Des Cartes : for though he did not always
approve of his notions, yet lie thought he wrote with
great perfpicuity. He applied himfelf with vigour
to his ftudies, particularly to p’nyfic, in which he
gained a confidcrable knowledge, though he never
pra&ifed it. In 1694, he went to Germany as fe-
cretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the Eng-
lifh court to the eledtor of Brandenburg and feme
other German princes. In lefs than a year, he
returned to England ; where, among other ftudies,
he applied himfelf to that of natural philofophy,
as appears from a regifter of the changes of the
air, which he kept at Oxford from June 24. 1666,
to March 28. 1667. There he became acquaint¬
ed with the lord Aihley, afterwards earl of Shaf-
teibury, who introduced him into the converfation of
fodne of the moft eminent perfons of that time. In
1670, he began to form the plan of^his Effay on Human
Underjlanding; but his employments and avocations
prevented him from finifhing it then. About this
time he became a member of the Royal Society. In
1672, his patron, now earl of Shaftefbury, and lord
chancellor of England, appointed him fecretary of the
prefentations, which place he held till the earl refigned
the great feal. In 1673, was made fecretary to a
commiffion of trade, worth 5001. a-year; but that
commiffion was diflblved in 1674. The earl of Shaftef¬
bury being reftored to favour, and made prefident of
the council in 1679, ^ent f°r Locke to London :
but that nobleman did not continue long in his poft,
being fent prifoner to the tower; and after his dif-
charge, retired to Holland in 1682.
Mr Locke followed his patron thither. He had not
been abfent from England a year, when he was ac-
cufed at court of having written certain trafts againft
tlie government, which were afterward difeovered to be
written by another perfon ; and in November 1684,
he was deprived of his place of Undent in Chrift-
church. In 1685, the Englifti envoy at the Hague
demanded him and 83 other perfons to be delivered up
by the States General: upon which he lay concealed
till the year following ; and during this time formed a
weekly aflembly with Mr Limborch, Mr Le Clerc,
and other learned men at Amftetdam. In 1689, he
returned to England in the fleet which conveyed the
princefs of Orange; and endeavoured to procure his
reftoration to his place of ftudent of Chrift-church,
that it might appear from thence that he had been
unjuftly deprived of it: but when he found the col¬
lege would admit him only as a fupernumerary ftudent,
he defifted from his claim.
Being efteemed a fufferer for revolution-principles,
he might eafily have obtained a more profitable poft;
but he contented himfelf with that of commiffioner of
appeals, worth 200I. a-year, which was procured for
him by the Lord Mordaunt, afterwards earl of Mon¬
mouth, and next of Peterborough. About the fame
time he was offered to go abroad in a public charac¬
ter ; and it was left to his choice, whether he would
be envoy at the court of tbe emperor, that of the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg, or any other where he thought
the air moft fuitable to him : but he waved all thefe,
53 ] LOG
on account of the infirm ftate of his health ; which dil- I.ocke,
pofed him gladly to accept another offer that was made ^ockcd-
by Sir Francis Mafham and his lady, of an apartment
in their country-feat at Oates in Efftx, about 25 miles
from London.
This place proved fo agreeable to him in every re-
fpeft, that it is no wonder he fpent the greateft part
of the remainder of his life at it. The air reftortd
him almoft to a miracle, in a few hours after his return
at any time from the town, quite fpent and unable to
fupport himfelf. Befides this happinefs here, he
found in lady Maftiam a friend and companion exadfly
to his heart’s wilh ; a lady of a contemplative and
ftudious complexion, and particularly inured, from hec
infancy, to deep and refined fpecnlations in theology,
metaphyfics, and morality. In this family Mr Locke
lived with as much eafe as if the whole houfe had been
his own : and he had the additional fatisfaflion of feeing
this lady breed up her only fon exa&Iy upon the plan
which he had laid down for the heft method of educa¬
tion ; the fuccefs of which was fuch as feemed to give a
fan&ion to hisjudgment in the choice of that method. In
effed, it is to the advantage of this fituation, that he
derived fo much ftrength, as to continue exerting thofe
talents which the earl of Shafttftmry had obferved
to be in him for political fubje&s. Hence we find
him writing in defence of the Revolution in one piece;
and confidering the great national concern at that
time, the ill ftate of the filver-coin, and propofing re¬
medies for it, in others. Hence he was made a com-
miflioner of trade and plantations in 1695, which en¬
gaged him in the immediate bufinefs of the ftate; and
with regard to the church, he publiftied a treatife the
fame year, to promote the fcheme which king William
had much at heart, of a comprehenfion with the dif-
fenters. This, however, drew him into-one contro-
verfy; which was fcarcely ended, when he entered into
another in defence of his eftay, which held till 1698
foon after which the afthma, his conftitutional dif-
order, increafing with his years, began to fubdue him ;
and he became fo infirm, that in 1700 he refigned his
feat at the board of trade, becaufe he could no longer
bear the air of London fufficient for a regular attend¬
ance upon it. After this refignation, he continued
altogether at Oates; in which retirement he employed
the remaining laft years of his life entirely in the ftu-
dy of the holy Scriptures*
He died in 1704, aged 73. His writings will im¬
mortalize his name. The earl of Shaftelbury, author
of the Charafieriftics, though in one place he fpeaks of
Mr Locke’s philofophy with feverity; yet obferves,
concerning his Ejf'ay on the Human Underjlandinp,
in general, “ that it may qualify men as well for bufi-
“ nefs and the world, a& for the feiencts and the uni-
“ verfity.” Whoever is acquainted with the barba¬
rous ftate of the philofophy of the human mind, when
Mr Locke undertook to pave the way to a clear notion
of knowledge, and the proper methods of purfuing
and advancing it, will be furprifed at this great man’s
abilities; and plainly difeover how much we are be¬
holden to him for any confiderable improvements that
have been made fince. His Difcourfes on Government,
Letters on Toleration, and his Commentaries on fame
of St Paul's efjlles, are juftly held in the higheft
efteem.
LOCKED
LOG [ 4254 ] LOG
Locked LOCKED Jaw. See (the Index fubjoined to)
II Medicine.
Locuft' LOCKMAN, an officer in the Ifle of Man, who
executes the orders of government, much like our un¬
de r-fheriff.
Lockman, an eaftern philofopher. See Lokman.
LOCUS geometricus, denotes a line by which a
local or indeterminate problem is folved.
A locus is a line, any point of which may equally
folve an indeterminate problem. Thus, if a right line
fuffice for the conftrudlion of the equation, it is called
locus ad reftum ; if a circle, locus ad circulum ; if a
parabola, locus ad parabolam ; if an ellipfis, locus ad
ellipfin: and fo of the reft of the conic fedfions.
LOCULAMENTA, and Loculi, in botany ;
cells or pockets: The internal divifions of a capfule,
or other dry feed-vefTel, fo termed.—Thefe cells con¬
tain or inclofe the feeds; and are different in number in
different plants.
The term loculus is alfo fometimes ufed to ex-
prefs the minute divifions in fome fpecies of antheree,
which contain the fine impalpable powder fuppofed by
the fexualifts to be the principal agent in the genera¬
tion of plants.
LOCUST, in zoology. See Gryllus, and Plate
CXL.
The annals of moft of the warm countries are filled
with accounts of the devaftations produced by the lo-
cufts, who fometimes make their appearance in clouds
of two or three miles in length, and feveral yards deep.
They feldom vifit Europe in fuch fwarms as formerly;
yet in the warmer parts of it are ftill formidable.—
Thofe which have at uncertain intervals vifited Europe
in our memory, are fuppofed to have come from Africa,
and are of that fpecies called the great brown locujl.
This infedt is about three inches long, and has two
horns or feelers an inch in length. The head and
horns are of a brownifh colour ; it is blue about the
mouth, as alfo on the infide of the larger legs. The
fhield which covers the back is greenifh ; and the
upper-fide of the body brown, fpotted black, and the
under-fide purple. The upper-wings are brown, with
fmall duficy fpots, and one larger fpot at the tips. The
under wings are more tranfparent, and of a light brown
tindtured with green, but there is a dark cloud of fpots
near the tips.
Thefe infedts are bred in the warm parts of Afia
and Africa, from whence they have often taken their
flight into Europe, where they committed terrible de¬
vaftations. They multiply fafter than any other ani¬
mal in the creation, and are truely terrible in the
countries where they breed. Some of them were feen
in different parts of Britain in the year 1748, and
great mifehiefs were apprehended: but happily for us,
the coldnefs of our climate, and the humidity of our
foil, are very unfavourable to their produdfion; fo that,
as they are only animals of a year’s continuance, they
all perifh without leaving a young generation to fuc-
ceed them.
When the locufts take the field, as we are affured,
they have a leader at their head, whofe flight they
obferve, and pay a ftridt regard to all his motions.
They appear at a diftance like a black cloud, which,
as it approaches, gathers upon the horizon, and almoft
hides the light of day. It often happens, that the
hufbandman fees this imminent calamity pafs away Locuft.
without doing him anymifehief; and the whole fwarm———
proceeds onward to fettle upon fome lefs fortunate
country. In thofe places, however, where they a-
light, they deftroy every green thing, ftripping the
trees of their leaves, as well as devouring the corn and
grafs. In the tropical climates they are not fo perni¬
cious as in the more fouthern parts of Europe. In the
fir ft, the power of vegetation is fo ftrong, that an in¬
terval of three or four days repairs the damage; but
in Europe this cannot be done till next year. Befides,
in their long flights to this part of the world, they
are famifhed by the length of their journey, and are
therefore more voracious wherever they happen to
fettle. But as much damage is occafioned by what
they deftroy, as by what they devour. Their bite is
thought to contaminate the plant, and either to de¬
ftroy or greatly to weaken its vegetation. To ufe 1
the expreflion of the hufbandmen, they burn whatever |
they touch, and leave the marks of their devaftation
for three or four years enfuing. When dead, they
infedl the air in fuch a manner that the ftench is in- j 1
fupportable.—Orofius tells us, that, in the year of the ,1
world 3800, Africa was infefted with a multitude of j I
locufts. After having eaten up every thing that was j I
green, they flew off and were drowned in the fea;
where they caufed fuch a ftench as could not have
been equalled by the putrefying carcafes of 100,000
men. ; |
In the year 1650, a cloud of locufts was feen to
enter Ruffia in three different places; and from thence
they fpread themfelves over Poland and Lithuania in
fuch aftonifhing multitudes, that the air was darken¬
ed and the earth covered with their numbers. In
fome places, they were feen lying dead, heaped upon
each other to the depth of four feet; in others, they
covered the furface like a black cloth ; the trees bent
with their weight, and the damage which the country
fuftained exceeded computation.
In Barbary, their numbers are formidable, and their ] f
vifits frequent. Dr Shaw was a witnefs of their de¬
vaftations in that country in 1724. Their firrt ap- j
pearance was in the latter end of March, when the
wind had been foutherly for fome time. In the begin¬
ning of April, their numbers were fo vaftly increafed,
that, in the heat of the day, they formed themfelves
into large fwarms that appeared like clouds, and
darkened the fun. In the middle of May they began
to difappear, retiring into the plains to depofit their
eggs. In June the young brood began to make their
appearance, forming many compadt bodies of feveral ;i
hundred yards fquare ; which afterwards marching
forward, climbed the trees, walls, and houfes, eating
every thing that was green in their way. The inha- ;I
bitants, to ftop their progrefs, laid trenches all over their j
fields and gardens, which they filled with water.
Some placed large quantities of heath, ftubble, and
fuch like combuftible matter, in rows, and fet them on
fire on the approach of the locufts. But all this was
to no purpofe ; for the trenches were quickly filled '
up, and the fires put out by the great numbers of
fwarms that fucceeded each other. A day or two after
one of thefe was in motion, others that were juft hatched
came to glean after them, gnawing off the young
branches, and'the very bark of the trees. Having ;
lived l
LOG f 4255 ] LOG
Locuft lived near a month in this manner, they arrived at their
II full growth, and threw off their worm-like Hate, by
L°g' calling their (kins. To prepare themfelves for this
change, they fixed their hinder part to fome buftr or
Stwig, or corner of a ftone, when immediately, by an
undulating motion ufed on this occafion, their heads
would firll appear, and foon after the rdt of their bo¬
dies. The whole transformation was performed in
feven or eight minutes time, after which they remained
for a little while in a languiihing condition ; but as
foon as the fun and air had hardened their wings, and
dried up the moifture that remained after calling off
1 their former Houghs, they returned to their former
greedinefs, wiih an addition both of ftrength and agi¬
lity. But they did not long continue in this Hate
before they were entirely difperfed. After laying their
eggs, they dire&ed their courfe northward, and pro¬
bably perilhed in the fea.
It would be endlefs to recount all the mifchiefs
which thefe locufts have at different times occafioned ;
but what induces them to take fuph diftant flights as
they are known to do, feems not eafily difcovered.
Moft probably, by reafon of very dry feafons in the
internal parts of Africa, they are propagated in fuch
numbers, that the vegetables of the fpot where they
are produced are not fufficient for their maintenance.
Thus being obliged to find out other countries, they
traverfe the fandy defarts ; and flill meeting with no¬
thing to allure them from their flight, they proceed
forward acrofs the fea, and thus come into Europe,
where they alight upon the firfl; green paflures that
occur.
See Acri- f°me parts of the world, loeufts are ufed as food*.
tfhagi. In many oriental countries they are caught in fmall
nets provided for that purpofe. They parch them
over the fire in an earthen pan ; and when their wings
and legs are fallen off, they turn rtddifh, of the colour
of boiled fhrimps. Dampier has eat them thus pre¬
pared, and thinks them a tolerable difh. The natives
of Barbarv alfo eat them fried with fait; and they are
faid to tafte like cray-fifh.
~LocvzT-Eaters. See the laft article, and Acri-
dophagi.
American Locust. See Cicada.
LODGEMENT, in military affairs, a work made
by the befiegers in fome part of a fortification, (after
the befieged have been driven out), to maintain it,
and be covered from the enemy’s fire.—When a lodge¬
ment is to be made on the glacis, covert-way, or in a
breach, there mull be a great provifion made of faf-
cines, fand bags, gabions, wool-packs, &c. in the
trenches ; and during the aftion, the pioneers, under
the dire&ion of an engineer, with fafcines, fand¬
bags, &c. fhould be making the lodgement, in order
to form a covering, while the grenadiers are florming
the covert way.
LOG, a machine ufed to meafure the (hip’s head¬
way, or the rate af her velocity as (he advances through
the fea. It is compofed of a reel and line, to which-
is fixed a fmall piece of wood, forming the quadrant
of a circle. The term log however is more particu¬
larly applied to the latter. See Navigation.
It is ufual to heave the log once every hour in (hips
of war and Eafl-Indiamen ; and in all other veffels,
once in two hours ; and if at any time of the watch,
Vol. VI.
the wind has increafed or abated in the intervals, fo Log
as to affeft the (hip’s velocity, the officer generally |!
makes a fuitable allowance for it, at the dole of the Loga.rith'
watch.  
I.OG-Board, a fort of table, divided into feveral
columns, containing the hours of the day and night,
the direftion of the winds, the courfe of the fliip, and
all the material occurrences that happen during the
24 hours, or from noon to noon ; together with the
latitude by obfervation. From this table the different
officers of the (hip are furnifhed with materials to com¬
pile their journals, wherein they likewife infert what¬
ever may have been omitted, or rejedl what may ap¬
pear fuperfluous in the log-board.
l^oc-Book, a book into which the contents of the
log-board is daily copied at noon, together with every
circumftance deferving notice, that may happen to the
(hip, or within her cognizance, either at fea or in a
harbour, &c. The intermediate divifions or watches
of the log-book, containing four hours each, are
ufually figned by the commanding officer thereof, in
(hips of war or Esfl-Indiamen. See Navigation.
LOGWOOD. See H^matoxylon.
LOGARITHMIC curve. If on the line AN
both ways indefinitely extended, be taken AC, CE,
EG, GI, IL, on the right hand; and alfo A^.^P,Plate
&c. on the left, all equal to one another: and if at thepLxr“
points Pg, A, C, E, G, I, L, be erefted to the right S’
line AN, the perpendiculars PS, AB, CD, EF,
G H, IK, L M, which let be continually propor¬
tional, and reprefent numbers, viz. AB, 1; CD, 10;
EF, 100, &c. then (hall we have two progreffions of
lines, arithmetical and geometrical: for the lines
AC, AE, AG, &c. are in arithmetical progreffion,
or as t, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and fo reprefent the logarithms
to which the geometrical lines AB, CD, EF, &c.
do correfpond. For fince AG is triple of the firft line
AC, the number GH (hall be in the third place from
unity, if CD be in the firfl: fo likewife (hall LM be
in the fifth place, fince AL = 5 AC. If the extremi¬
ties of the proportionals S, d, B. D, F, 3cc. be joined
by right lines, the figures SB ML will become a po-
lygon, confifling of more or lefs Tides, according as
there are more or lefs terms in the progreffion.
If the parts AC, CE, EG, &c. be bifedled in the
points, Cf e, g, i, l, and there be again raifed the per¬
pendiculars cd, cf> gh, Ik, Im, which are mean pro¬
portionals between AB, CD; CD, E F, &c. then
there will arife a new feries of proportionals, whofc
terms, beginning from that which immediately follows
unity, are double of thofe in the firfl feries, and the
difference of the terms is become lefs, and approach
nearer to a ratio of equality, than before. Likewife,
in this new feries, the right lines AL, Ac, exprefs the
diftances of the terms LM, cd, from unity, viz. fince
AL is ten times greater than Ac, LM fhall be the tenth
term of the feries from unity: and becaufe Ac is three
times greater than Ac, c/'will be the third term of
the feries if cd be the firfl, and there fhall be two mean
proportionals between AB and ef, and between AB
and LM there will be nine mean proportionals. And
if the extremities of the lines Bfl', D/j Yh, &c. be
joined by right lines, there will be a new polygon made,
confilling of more but fhorter fides than the lad.
If, in this manner, mesn proportionals be continual-
24 E Jy
LOG
logarithms]y placed between every two terms, the number of
terms at la!l will be made fo great, as alfo the number
of the Tides of the polygon, as to be greater than any
given number, or to be infinite; and every fide of the
polygon fo lefiened, as to become lefs than any given
right line; and confequently the polygon will be chan¬
ged into a curve-lined figure; for any curve-lined fi¬
gure may be conceived as a polygon, whofe Tides are
infinitely fmall and infinite in number. A curve defcri-
bed after this manner is called logarithmical.
It is manifeft from this defcription of the logarith¬
mic curve, that all numbers at equal diftances are con¬
tinually proportional. It is alfo plain, that if there be
four numbers, AB, CD, IK, LM, fuch that the di-
ftancc between the firft and fecond be equal to the di-
ftance between the third and the fourth, let the di-
llance from the fecond to the third be what it will,
thefe numbers will be proportional. For becaufe the
diftances AC, IL, are equal, AB (hall be to the incre¬
ment D/, as IK is to the increment MT. Wherefore,
By compofition, AB ; DC : : IK : ML. And, contra-
riwife, if four numbers be proportional, the diltance
between the firft and fecond ftiall be .equal to the di-
ftance between the third and fourth.
The diftance between any two numbers, is called
the hgarithm tf tke ratio of thofe numbers: and, in¬
deed, doth not meafure the ratio itfelf, but the num¬
ber of terms in a given ferics of geometrical propor¬
tionals, proceeding from one number to another, and
defines the number of equal ratios by the compofition
whereof the ratio of numbers is known.
LOGARITHMS, are the indexes or exponents
(moftly whole numbers and decimal fractions, confift-
ing of feven places of figures at lealt) of the powers or
roots (chiefly broken) of a given number ; yet fuch
indexes or exponents, that the feveral powers or roots
they exprefs are the natural numbers I, 2, 3, 4, 5,
he. to 10 or IOOOOO, &c. (as, if the given number
be 10, and its index be aflumed 1.0000000, then the
0.0000000 root of 10, which is 1, will be the loga¬
rithm of 1; the 0.301036 root of 10, which is 2, will
be the logarithm of 2; the 0,477121 root of 10, which
is 3, will be the logarithm of 3; the 1.612060 root
of 10, the logarithm of 4; the t.041 393 power of 10,
the logarithm of 11 ; the 1.079181 power of 10 the
logarithm of 12, &c.) being chiefly contrived for eafe
and expedition in performing of arithmetical opera¬
tions in large numbers, and in trigonometrical calcu¬
lations; but they have likewife been found of extenfive
fervice in the higher geometry, particularly in the me¬
thod of fluxions. They are generally founded on this
confideration, that if there be any row of geometrical
proportional numbers, as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,
256, &c. or 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, &c. and as
many arithmetical progreffional numbers adapted to
them, or fct over them, beginning with o,
o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, &c. 7
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, &c. i
5o, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.7
7.1, 10, too, 1000, loooo, &C. 5
then will the fum of any two of thefe arithmetical pro-
greflionals, added together, be that arithmetical pro
gfefltonal which anfwers to or Hands over the geome¬
trical progrefiional, which is the produfl of the two
geometrical progreffionals over which the two afiumed
LOG
arithmetical progrefiionals ftand : again, if thofe arith- Logarithms
metical progreflionals be fubtrafted from each other, ~
the remainder will be the arithmetical progrefiional
flanding over that geometrical progrelBonal which is
the quotient of the diviflon of the two geometrical pro¬
greffionals belonging to the two firft affumed arithme¬
tical progreffionals ; and the double, triple, &c. of any
one of the arithmetical progreffionals, will be the arith¬
metical progreffional Handing over the fquare, cube,
be. of that geometrical progreffional which the afiu¬
med arithmetical progreffional Hands over, as well as
the -J-, -j-, &c. of that arithmetical progreffional will be
the geometrical progrcffional anfwering to the fquare
root, cube root, &c. of the arithmetical progreffional
over it; and from hence arifes the following common,
tho’ lame and imperfed definition of logarithms, viz.
“ That they are fo many arithmetical progreffionals,
anfwering to the fame number of geometrical ones.”
Whereas, if any one looks into the tables of logarithms,,
he will find, that thefe do not all run on in an arith¬
metical progreffiotij nor the numbers they anfwef to in
a geometrical one ; thefe laft being themfelves arith¬
metical progreffionals. Dr Wallis, in his Hiftory of
Algebra, calls logarithms the indexes of the ratios of
numbers to one another. Dr Halley, in the Philofo-
phical Tranfadlions, n° 216, fays, they are the expo¬
nents of the ratios of unity to numbers. So alfo Mr
Cotes, in his Harmonia Men fur arum, fays, they are
the numerical meafures of ratios. But all thefe defini¬
tions convey but a very confufed notion of logarithms.
Mr Maclaurin, in his Treatife of Fluxions, has explained
the nature and genefis of logarithms agreeably to the
notion of their firft inventor Lord Naper. Logarithms
then, and the quantities to which they correfpond, may
be fnppofed to be generated by the motion of a point;
and if this point moves over equal fpaces in equal times,
the line deferibed by it increafes equally.
Again a line decreafes proportionably, when the
point that moves over it deferibes fuch parts in equal
times as are always in the fame conllant ratio to the
lines from which they are fubduded, or to the diftances
of that point, at the beginning of thofe lines, from a
given term in that line. In like manner, a line may
increafe proportionably, if in equal limes the moving
point deferibes fpaces proportional to its diftances from
a certain term at the beginning of each time. Thus, in Plate
the firft cafe, let ac be to ao, ed to co, de to do, e/'to CLXJJ. /J
eo, fg Xo fo, always in the fame ratio of QJI to ■
and iuppofe the point Pfetsout from a, deferibing ac* *’ ;
cd, de, ef, fg, in equal parts of the time; and let the
fpace deicribed by P in any given time be always in
the fame ratio to the diftance of Pfrom sat the begin¬
ning of that lime; then will the right litre ao deertafe
proportionably.
In like manner, the line oa, {ibid. n° 3.) increafes
proportionally, if the point />, in equal times, defciibes
the fpaces ac, cd, de, fg, &c. fo that ac is to ao, cd
to co, de to do, &c. in a conftant ratio. If we now
fuppofe a point P deferibing the line AG (ibid. »°4.)
with an uniform motion, while the point /> deferibes a
line increasing or decreafing proportionally, the line
AP, deferibed by P, with this uniform motion, in the
fame time that oa, by increafing or decreafing pro¬
portionally, becomes equal to of>, is the logarithm of
oJ>. Thus AC, AD, AE, &c. are the logarithms
[ 4256 ]
thus, -
LOG [ 4257 ]
garithmsoF 0 c, 0 d, 0 e, &c. refpeftivefy ; and 0 is the quan-
tity vvhofe logarithm is fuppofed equal to nothing.
We have here abftra&ed from numbers, that the
dodtrine may be the more general; but it is plain,
that if AC, AD, AE, &c. be fuppofed x, 2, 3, &c.
in arithmetic progrtffion; oc, od, oe, &c. will be in
geometric progfefficn ; and that the logarithm of oa,
which may be taken for unity, is nothing.
Lord Naper, in his firll fcheme of logarithms, fup-
pofes, that while op increafes or decreafes proportion¬
ally, the uniform motion of the point P, by which the
logarithm of op is generated, is equal to the velocity
of p nt a; that is, at the term of time when the loga¬
rithms begin to be generated. Hence logarithms, form¬
ed after this model, are called Naper’s Logarithms,
and fometimes Natural Logarithms.
When a ratio is given, the point p defcribes the dif¬
ference of the terms of the ratio in the fame time.
When a ratio is duplicate of another ratio, the point p
defcribes the difference of the terms in a double time.
When a ratio is triplicate of another, it defcribes the
difference of the terms in a triple time; and fo on. Al-
fo, when a ratio is compounded of two or more ratios,
the point p defcribes the difference of the terms of that
ratio in a time equal to the fum of the times in which
it defcribes the differences of the terms of the fimple
ratios of which it is compounded. And what is here
faid of the times of the motion of p when op increafes
proportionally, is to be applied to the fpaces deferibed
by P, in thofe times, with its uniform motion.
Hence the chief properties of logarithms are dedu¬
ced. They are the meafures of ratios. The excefs of
the logarithm of the antecedent above the logarithm
of the confequent, meafures the ratio of thofe terms.
The meafure of the ratio of a greater quantity to a
lefler is pofuive; as this ratio, compounded with any
other ratio, increafes it. The ratio of equality, com¬
pounded with any other ratio, neither increafes nor di-
tninifhes it; and its meafure is nothing. The meafure
of the ratio of a lefler quantity to a greater is nega¬
tive ; as this ratio, compounded with any other ratio,
diminilhes it. The ratio of any quantity A to unity,
compounded with the ratio of unity to A, produces
the ratio of A to A, or the ratio of equality; and the
meafures of thofe two ratios deftroy each other when
added together; fo that when the one is confidered as
pofitive, the other is to be confidered as negative. By
iuppofing the logarithms of quantities greater than oa
(which is fuppofed to reprefent unity) to be pofitive,
and the logarithms of quantities lefs than it to be ne¬
gative, the fame rules ferve for the operations by lo¬
garithms, whether the quantities be greater or lefs than
oa. When op increafes proportionally, the motion of p
■is perpetually accelerated; for the fpaces ae, cd, de, &c.
that are deferibed by it in any equal times that conti¬
nually fucceed after each other, perpetually increafe in
the fame proportion as the lines oa, oc, od, &c. When
the point p moves from a towards 0, and op deereafes
proportionally, the motion of p is perpetually retarded ;
for the fpaces deferibed by it in any equal times that
continually fucceed after each other, decreafe in this
cafe in the fame proportion as op decreafes.
If the velocity of the point p be always as the di-
ilance op, then will this line increafe or decrea-fe in the
manner fuppofed by Lord Naper; and the velocity of
the point p being the fluxion of the line op, will al-
L O G
ways vary in the fame ratio as this quantity itfelf.
This, we prefume, will give a clear idea of the genelis
or nature of logarithms; but for more of this doit line,
fee Maclaurin’s Fluxions.
Conjlruflion of Logarithms.
The firft makers of logarithms had in this a very la¬
borious and difficult talk to perform. They firtt made
choice of their fcale or fyftem of logarithms, that is,
what fet of arithmetical progreffionals Ihould anfwer
to fuch a fet of geometrical ones, for this is entirely
arbitrary; and they chofe the decuple geometrical
progreffionals, 1, 10, 100, IOOO, 10000, &c. and the
arithmetical one, o, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. or 0,000000,
1,000000, 2,000000, 3,000000, 4,000000, &c. as
the moft convenient. After this they were to get the
logarithms of all the intermediate numbers between
I audio, 10 and 100, too and 1000, 1000 and 1000Q,
&c. But firlt of all they were to get the logarithms
of the prime numbers 3, 5, 7, 1 1, 13, 17, 19, 23, &c.
and when thefe were once had, it was eafy to get thofe
of the compound numbers made up of the prime ones,
by the addition dr fubtradlion of their logarithms.
In order to this, they found a mean proportion he*-
tween 1 and 10, and its logarithm will be 4- that of 10;
and fo given, then they found a mean proportional be¬
tween the number fit ft found and unity, which mean will
be nearer to one than that before, and its logarithm will
be-4 of the former logarithm, or 4 of that of 10; and ha»
vingin this mannercontinuallyfoiindameau proportional
betweent andthe laft mean, and bife&ed the logarithms,
they at length, after finding 54 fuch means, came to a
number i.ooooooooooooooot 278191493,200323442,
fo near to 1 as not to differ from it fo much as
isttst6 6bg-goo'oQ-6-5~a^th part, and found its logarithm
to be 0.00000000000000005:551 115123125782702,
and 00000000000600012781914932003235 to be
the difference whereby 1 exceeds the number of roots
or mean proportionals found by extradliou ; and then,
by means of tbefe numbers, they found the loga¬
rithms of any other numbers whatfoever ; and that
after the following manner: Between a given num¬
ber whofe logarithm is wanted, and t, they found a
mean proportional, as above, until at length a num¬
ber (mixed) be found, fuch a fmall matter above 1, as
to have t and 15 cyphers after it, which are followed
by the fame number of fignificant figures; then they
faid, As the laft number mentioned above is to the mean
proportional thus found, fo is the logarithm above,
w'z. 0.000000000000000055.51115123125782702, to
the logarithm of the mean proportional number, fuch
a fmall matter exceeding 1 as but now mentioned; and
this logarithm being as often doubled as the number
of mean proportionals (formed to get that number)
will be the logarithm of the given number. And this
was the method Mr Briggs took to make the loga¬
rithms. But if they are to be made to only feven pla¬
ces of figures, which are enough for common ufe, they
had only occafion to find 25 mean proportionals, or,
which is the fame thing, to extradt the -|-T1-rI4^-. yth
root of to. Now having the logarithms of 3, 5, and
7, they eafily got thofe of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 9 ; for
fince the logarithm of 2 will be the difference
of the logarithms of 10 and 5, the logarithm of 4 will
be two times the logarithm of 2, the logarithm of 6
will be the fum of the logarithm of 2 and 3, and the
24 E 2 lo*
LOG
[ 425S ]
LOG
irithmslogarithm of 9 double the logarithm of 3. So, alfo
having found the logarithms of 13, 17, and 19, and
alfo of 23 and 29, they did eafily get thofe of all the
numbers between to and 30, by addition and fubtrac-
tion only ; and fo having found the logarithms of o-
ther prime numbers, they got thofe of other numbers
compounded of them.
But fince the way above hinted at, for finding the
logarithms of the prime numbers, is fo intolerably la¬
borious and troublefome, the more fkilful mathemati¬
cians that came after the firll inventors, employing
their thoughts about abbreviating this method, had a
vaftly more eafy and (hort way offered to them from
the contemplation and menfuration of hyperbolic fpa-
ces contained between the portions of an afymptote,
right lines perpendicular to it, and the curve of the
hyperbola : for if ECN (Platt CLXI. fig. 6. n° 1.)
be an hyperbola, and AD, AQ^ the afymptotes, and
AB, AP, AQ^ &c. taken upon one of them, be re-
prefented by numbers, and the ordinates BC, PM,
QJM, &c. be drawn from the feveral points B, P,
&c. to the curve, then will the quadrilinear fpaces
BCMP, PMNQ^ &c. viz. their numerical meafures,
be the logarithms of the quotients of the divifion of
AB by AP, AP by AQ^ &c. lince, when AB, AP,
AQ^c. are continual proportions, the faid fpaces are
equal, as is demonftrated by feveral writers concerning
conic feftions.
Having faid that thefe hyperbolic fpaces, numeri¬
cally expreffcd, may be taken for logarithms, we fhail
next give a fpeeimen, from the great Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, of the method how to meafure thefe fpaees, and
confequently of the conftruff ion of the logarithms.
Let CA {ibid. n°2.) =AFbe = i, and AB=A^x;
then will be=BD, and -—-^—bd; and puttting
thefe exprdfions into feriefes, it will be —x+x*
l-x3-{-x4—Xs, &c. and-
ents, we (hall have the area AFDB =x —
&c. and the area AFdb, =x-K
5
If the parts Ad and AD of this area be added feparate - Logarithm
ly, and the leffer DA be taken from the greater dA, we
(hall have Ad—AD-=xx-f-^—f—-f—&sc.—
2 3 4
=0.0100503358535014, for the terms reduced to de¬
cimals will ttand thus:
0.0100000000000000 = firfl 1 H
500000000000 = fecond g
33333333:53 ~ thi’'d I ^
25000000 = fourth ^
200000 — fifth u*
i667 =fixth j jjf
14 = feventh J S
=I+x+xx+x3+x4-fxs, &c.
=x+xx4-xJx-t-x3x4-x4x+xsx, &c. and taking the flu-
-+
&c. and the fum WDB=2x+-
--+T+T+
0.0100503358535014
Now if this difference of the areas be added to, or
fubtrafted from their fum before found, half the agre*
gate, viz. o. 1053605 156578263 will be thegreater area
Ad, and half the remainder, viz. 0.0953101798043249,
will be the leffer area AD.
By the fame tables, thefe areas AD and Ad, will be
obtained alfo when AB —A£ are fuppofed to be or
CB=i.oi, and 0=099, numbers are but duly
transferred to lower places, as
0.0200000000000000 = firft
6666666666 = fecond
400000 = third
28 = fourth
term
of the
feries.
Sum-=o.0200006667066694 = area ^B.
0.0001000000000000 = firft
50000000 = fecond
3333 = third
term
of the
feries.
00001000050003 3 33 = area Ad AD.
Half the aggregate 0.0100503358535014:^.1/, and
half the remainder, viz. 0.009950330853168 i=AD.
And fo putting A^—AbzzLx^^, or CB=i.ooi and
0=0.999, we obtain Ai 0.00100050003335835,
and AD -O 00099950013330835.
After the fame manner, if AB=A^, be =0.2, or 0.02,
or 0.002, thefe areas will arife.
Ad 0.2231435513142097, and
AD^.1823215576939546, or
A ^=0.0202027073175194, and
AD 0.1098026272961797, or
A d—0.002002, and AD=o.ooi.
From thefe areas thus found, others may be eafily had
Now, if AB or ab be t%-=x, Cb being=o.9, and
CB=i.i,by putting this value of x in theequationsabove,
we (hall have the area W DB^.2006706954621511,
for the terms of the feries will (land as you ice in this
table.
0.2000000000000000 = firft 1 j-3
6666666666666= fecond ^
40000000000 = third I 0
285714’86= fourth ( ^
2222222 = fifth
18182= fixth J J7,
154= feventh ! -•
1 = eighth J "
0.200670695462 JJil
For fince -- X- -
0.8 0.9
from addition and fubtradion only.
=2, the fum of the areas belonging to the ratios
r 2 and — (that is, infilling upon the parts of the
0.8 0.9
abfeifs 1.2, 0 8 ; and 1.2, 0.9) viz.
, „ , x AD--O.18232, &C.
0.40546J, &c. and | a</==0>I05^6> &c>
811111=0.28768, &c.
added thus, ] °0Xl%\ &c.
Total =0.69314, &c. = the area of AFHG,
when CG is =2. Alfo, fince^-|x2=3, the futn
0.0
1.0986122,
Logarithms
LOG
1.0986122, ire. of the areas belonging to
[ 4243 ] LOG
and 2, CG, and x for GP, or G/, the area p/QP, or -
V8X9963 K3 ^9_8-,. 99.
A 3 ' 2 J » 2 7 ’ o'
984
32
r=,7
988 _
4x13'
19;
=3i
984-
991L. -9971=59;
11X17 ^ 13X13
999
——37 ;
27
=43 i
; ^4-9=67;
X8t 3X49 '
=79. ^=*3 1 525?
994_
H'
=89;
y 6X17
1 Logarithms
will be the area of AFGH, when CG~3. Again, fince
2X2
~g =5, and 2X5=10; by adding AcJ—o.22$i, <bc.
AD=O i823, &c. and At/-0.1053, 6c. together, their
fum is 0.5108, 6c. and this added to 1.0986, 6c.
the area of AFGH, when CG=3. You will have
j.609337912434I004=AFGH, when CG is 5; and
adding tnat of 2 to this, gives 2.3025850929940457
=AFGH, when CG is equal to 10: and lincc 1 oX 10=
too, and 10X100=1000, and ^5X10X0.98=7, and
, 1000X1.001 , 1000X0008
10X1.1=11, and     1 3, and   
7X11 J 2
499, it is plain that the area AFGH may be found by
thecompofition of the areas found before,when CG=loO,
1000, or any other of the numbers above mentioned ;
and all thefe areas are the hyperbolic logarithms of
thofe feveral numbers.
Having thus obtained the hyperbolic logarithms of
the numbers 10, 0.98, 0.99, 1.01, 1 02 ; if the loga¬
rithms of the four laft of them be divided by the hy¬
perbolic logarithm 2.3025850, 6c. of 10, and the in¬
dex 2, be added ; or, which is the fame thing, if it be
multiplied by its reciprocal 0.434294481903 518, the
value of the fubtangent of the logarithmic curve, to
which Briggs’s logarithms are adapted, we ihall have the
true tabular logarithms of 98, 99, too, 101, 102. Thefe
are to be interpolated by ten intervals, and then we
fhall have the logarithms of all the numbers between
980 and 1020; and all between 980 and 1000, be¬
ing again interpolated by ten intervals, the table
will be as it were conftrufted. Then from thefe we
are to get the logarithms of all the prime numbers, and
their multiples lefs than too, which may be done by
addition and fubtra&ion only; for*1 - —=2;
9945
1001
=ll;rxTi=I35
986 . 992
2x17 y’ 32
9928 _
71’ 8x77 _7 3 » 7xi8 — /y ’ l2—7X16
197 ; and thus having the logarithms
of all the numbers lefs than too, you have nothing to
do but interpolate the feveral terms, through ten in¬
tervals.
Now the void places may be filled up by the following
theorem. Let n be a number, whofe logarithm is want¬
ed ; let x be the difference between that and the two
neareft numbers, equally diftant on each fide, whofe lo¬
garithms are already found ; and let be half the differ¬
ence of their logarithms : then the required logarithm
of the number w, will be had by adding </-4- 1 ,,
1 0 2tf I2«3
6c. to the logarithm of the leffer number; fur if the
numbers are reprefented by C/>, CG, CP, {ibid. n° 2.)
and the ordinates PQ>_be raifed j if » be wrote for
4 6c. will be to the area //HG, as the difference
3«3
between the logarithms of the extreme numbers, or 2 d,
is to the difference between the logarithms of the leffer,
and of the middle one ; which, therefore, w ill be
dx dx* dx3 ,
X.x3 X* , +2«^I2*3’ '
—4 1—, 6c.
n in 5«
, 6c.
The two firft terms </4-^this feries, being fuffi-
cient for the conftruAion of a canon of logarithms,
even to 14 places of figures, provided the number,
whofe logarithm is to be found, be lefs than 1000;
which cannot be very troublefome, becaufe x is either
i or 2 : yet it is not neceffary to interpolate all the
places by help of this rule, fince the logarithms of
numbers, which are produced by the multiplication or
divilion of the number lall found, may be obtained by
the numbers whofe logarithms were had before, by the
addition or fubtradion of their logarithms. More¬
over, by the difference of their logarithms, and by their
fecond and third differences, if neceffary, the void pla¬
ces may be fupplied more expeditioufly ; the rule afore¬
going being to be applied only w here the continuation
of fome full places is wanted, in order to obtain thefe
differences.
By the fame method rules may be found for the in¬
tercalation of logarithms, when of three numbers the
logarithm of the lefler and of the middle number are
given, or of the middle number and the greater; and
this although the numbers fhould not be in arithmeti¬
cal progreffion. Alfo by purfuing the fteps of this
method, rules may be eafily diicovered for the con-
ftrudion of artificial fines and tangents, without the
help of the natural tables. Thus far the great New¬
ton, who fays, in one of his letters to Mr Leibnitz,
that he was fo much delighted with the conitrudion
of logarithms, at his firlt letting out in thole Itu*
dies, that he was alhamed to tell to how many places
of figures he had carried them at that time : and this
was before the year 1666; beeaufe, he fays, the
plague made him lay afide thofe Itudies, and think of
other things.
Dr Keil, in hisTreatifeof Logarithms, at the end of
his Commandine’s Euclid, gives a feries, by means of
which may be found eafily and expeditioufiy the loga¬
rithms of large numbers. Thus, let z be an odd number,
whefe logarithm is fought: then fhall the numbersz—1
and z4-i be even,and accordingly their logarithms, and
the difference of the logarithms will be had, which let
be calledjt. Therefore, alio the logarithm of a number,
which is a geometrical mean between z—1 and z-f-i»
will begiven, wz. equal to half the fu n of the logarithms.
Now the feries ^X—4—— 1 - 4~^-002 *
4Z 24zJ 15X20Z7 13
&c. fhall be equal to the logarithm ot the ratio, which
the geometrical mean between the numbers z—1 and
z-fi, has to the arithmetical mean, viz. to the num¬
ber z. If the number exceeds 1000, the firft term
of the feries, wz. —, is fufficient for producing the
4z
log?-
LOG [ 4260 1
Logarithms logarithm to 13 or 14 places of figures, and the fe- of 20000
cond term will give the logarithm to 20 places of fi¬
gures. But if z be greater than icooo, the firft term
will exhibit the logarithm to 18 places of figures;
and fo this feries is of great ufe in filling up the chiliads
omitted by Mr Briggs. For example, it is re¬
quired to find the logarithm of 20001 ; the logarithm
L O G
the fame as the logarithm of 2, with Logarithms
the index 4 prefixed to it; and the difference of the
logarithms of 20000 and 20001, is the fame as the
difference of the logarithms of the numbers 10000 and
10001, wz. 0.0000434272, &c. And if this differ¬
ence be divided by 42, or 80004, the quotient i!-fhall be
42
0.000000000542813 ; and if the logarithm of the geometrical mean, viz.
4.3010517O9302416 be added to the quotient, the fum will be
4.30i05i709845230=the logarithm of 20001.
Wherefore it is manifell, that to have the logarithm
to 14 places of figures, there is no neceflity of con¬
tinuing out the quotient beyond 6 places of figures.
But if you have a mind to have the logarithm to 10
places of figures only, the two firft figures are enough.
And if the logarithms of the numbers above 20000 are
to be found by this way, the labour of doing them
will moftly con fill in fetting down the numbers. This
feries is eafily deduced from the confideration of the
hyperbolic fpaces aforefaid. The firft figure of every
logarithm towards the left hand, which is feparated
from the reft by a point, is called the index of that
■logarithm; becaufe it points out the higheft or re-
inoteft place of that number from the place of unity
in the infinite fcale of proportionals towards the left
hand: thus, if the index of the logarithm be I, it
fhews that its higheft place towards the left hand is
the tenth place from unity; and therefore all loga¬
rithms which have t for their index, will be found be¬
tween the tenth and hundredth place, in the order of
numbers. And for the fame reafon all logarithms
which have 2 for their index, will be found between
the hundredth and thoufandth place, in the order
of numbers, &c. Whence univerfally the index or
•chara&eriftic of any logarithm is always lefs by one
than the number of figures in whole numbers, which
anfwer to the given logarithm ; and, in decimals,- the
index is negative.
As all fyftems of logarithms whatever, are compofed
of fimilar quantities, it will be eafy to form, from any
fyftem of logarithms, another fyftem in any given ra¬
tio ; aud confequently to reduce one table of loga¬
rithms into another of any given form. For as any
one logarithm in the given form, is to its correfpon-
dent logarithm in another form ; fo is any othgr lo¬
garithm in the given form, to its correfpondent loga¬
rithm in the required form ; and hence we may re¬
duce the logarithms of lord Napier into the form of
Briggs’s, and contrariwife. For as 2.302585092, #ic,
lord Napier’s logarithm of to, is to I.0000000000 Mr
Briggs’s logarithm of 10 ; fo is any other logarithm in
lord Napier’s form, to the correfpondent tabular loga¬
rithm in Mr Briggs’s form : And becaufe the two firft
numbers conftantly remain the fame ; if lord Napier’s
logarithm of any one number be divided by 2.302585,
&c. or multiplied by 4342944, &c. the ratio of 1.0000,
&c. to 2.30258, &c. as is found by dividing 1.00000,
&c. by 2.30258, &c. the quotient in the former, and
the produft in the latter, will give the correfpondent
logarithm in BWggs’s form, and the contrary. And,
after the fame manner, the ratio of natural logarithms
to that of Briggs’s will be fonnd=8685889638c6.
fhe Ufe and Application of Logarithms.
It is evident, from what has been laid of the con-
ftruftion of logarithms, that addition of logarithms
muft be the fame thing as multiplication in common
ariihmetick ; and fubtrafh’on in logarithms the fame as
divifion: therefore, in multiplication by logarithms,
add the logarithms of the multiplicand and multiplier
together, their fum is the logarithm of the produtt.
num. logarithms.
Example. Multiplicand 8.5 0.1294189
Multiplier 10 1.0000000
Product 85 1.9294189
And in divifion, fubtraft the logarithm of the divifor
from the logarithm of the dividend, the remainder is
the logarithm of the quotient.
num. logarithms.
Example. Dividend 97 12.8 3.9873444
Divifor 456 2.6589648
Quotient 21.3 1.3283796
To find the Complement of a Logarithm.
Begin at the left hand, and write down what each
figure wants of 9, only what the laft figniiicant figure
wants of 10 ; fo the complement of the logarithm of
456, viz. 2.6589648, is 7.3410352.
In the rule of three. Add the logarithms of the
fecond and third terms together, and from the fum
fubtraft the logarithm of the firft, the remainder is
the logarithm of the fourth. Or, inftead of fubtradi-
ing a logarithm, add its complement, and the rcfult
will be the fame.
To raife Powers hy Logarithms.
Multiply the logarithm of the nuifiber given, by the
index of the power required ; the product will be the
logarithm of the power fought.
Example. Let the cube of 32 be required by lo¬
garithms. The logarithm of 32 = 1.5051500, which
multiplied by 3, is 45154500, the logarithm of
32768, the cube of 32. But in raifing powers, viz.
fquaring, cubing, &c. of any decimal fradtion by loga¬
rithms, it muft be obferved, that the firft fignificant
figure of the power be put fo many places below the
place of units, as the index of its logarithm wants of
10, 100, &c. multiplied by the index of the power.
To extrail the Roots of Powers hy Logarithms.
Divide the logarithm of the number by the index
of the power, the quotient is the logarithm of the
root fought.
To find mean Proportionals between any two numbers.
Subtract the logarithm of the lead term from the
logarithm of the greateft, and divide the remainder
by a number more by one than the number of means
de-
LOG [ 4261 ] LOG
I.ogarithmsJefired ; then add the quotient to the logarithm of of all the mean proportionals required.
the leaft term (or fubtraft it from the logarithm of the Example. Let three mean proportionals be fonght,
greateft) continually, and it will give the logarithms between 106 and 100.
Logarithm of 106= 2.0253C5&
Logarithm of 100= 2.0000000
Divided by 4)0.0253059(0.0063264.75
Logarithm of the leaft term too added
2.0000000
Logarithm of the firft mean lot.4673846 2.0063264.75
Logarithm of the fecond mean 102.9563014 2.0126529.5
Logarithm of the third mean 1044670483 2.0189794.25
Logarithm of the greateft term 106 2.0253059.
The following method, communicated by Mr Tho- cafes of multiplication or divifion, the fame con-
mas Atkinfon, Efq. of Ballyfhannon, Ireland, is neftion, as has been juft defcribed.
much more expeditious and eafy. ^-et thofe fucceffive roots be found, and noted in the
In any feries of numbers in a geometrical progref- form of a table, and, in another column, let the cor-
fion, beginning from unity, as in the refponding indexes found by thefe direaions be regti-
012 3 margin, the feries is compofed of a jarly noted, each oppofite to its own roots. Thefe
1 10 100 too |-et continued proportionals, of indexes are commonly known by the denomination of
which the member (landing nearetl to unity is the logarithms; the roots themfelves may be called naiu-
common ratio or rate of the proportion. If over or ral numbers.
under thefe another fen'es is placed, as in the example, Thefe roots are compofed of natural numbers fel-
of numbers in an arithmetical progreffion, beginning dom or never wanted ; but from them the logarithms-
with nought, and whofe common difference is unity, of fuch as are of general ufe may be thus found,
the members of this feries are called indexes ; for they Suppofe 2 the propofed ruimber, one muft examine
ferve to (how how many fucceffive multiplications have <be table of roots; there he will find 3.16, &c. &c. the
been made with the common rate to produce that neared to 2 of thofe which are greater; and 1.778,
member of the geometrical progreffion over which &c* abb neared to it of thofe which are lefs. He
each of thefe indexes does feverally (land.
This theory may be confidered in another light.
If the fquarerootof 10 (that is, of the common rate)
is found, it is a mean proportional between 1 and 10,
and becomes a new common rate for a new fet of eon-
2.l6
may make a divifion at his pleafure, either A__ or
: yet let the choice fall on what will yield the
1,77 Y .
—=1.1246, &c. See.
77
—1.02, See. Sec.
fmalleft quotient, and let the
tinned proportionals, as in circumftances of the calcula-
° 'Y 1 2 25 a the margin. And if the tion be noted, as in the mar-
1 3.10 10 31.& IOO 310 lia|f of un;ty> which ;n gin, for futurediredion. Here
the former cafe was the additional difference of the 2 w.i, .n- „ .• .t . 1 -i ,
arithmetical progreflion, i, made the additional dif. T^- * W'1'1 >h's 'I1' ■»!>'» be ap.
ference of this new feries,. and noted as in the example, plied to as before, and 1.1246, Sec. will be found to
a new combination is formed of two feriefes agreeing be between 1.154, Sec. Sec. and 1-074, &c* and*
with the firft in thefe remarkable properties, viz. If divifion to be made as in the example. In this man-
any two members of the geometrical progreffion are ner one is to proceed with each fucceffive quotient,
multiplied together, the fum of their correfponding til! at length he has one in which the number of the
indexes will become the index of their produft; and initial decimal noughts is equal at leaft, if not greater
converfely, if any one of them is divided by any other, than that of the (ignificant figures. Here the work-
the difference of their indexes will be found to be the of divifion may be difcootinued ; and as it will rarely
index of the quotient. This theory is indefinite ; and happen, that one will not have an additional initiah
repeated extraftions may be made with any propofed nought for every divifion, the number cannot be great'
number of decimals, and bifeftion made of the cor- in calculations of a moderate extent. Having at laft*
refponding indexes, until one has no more number found a quotient fuch as was defcribed, and fuppofing.
to work with; and each of the mean proportionals the number of decimals to be 10, one may readily find:
thus found between 1 and 10, will be found a mem- the logm. of that quotient thus—Suppofe the quotient
her of every new geometrical progreftion formed by 1.0000057968; he is to look into the table of roots
every fmaller root; and conftquently all the roots thus for thofe noted with 5 initial decimal noughts, and;
found, together with their correfponding indexes, have, from any one of thefe and its correfponding login.-
(late thus:
.0000087837, .*. 0000038147 its login .0000057968 of the quotient.-
.0000025175, its logm,
Thus knowing that 0.0000025175, or fuch like, is
the logm. of the lad quotient, one may have that of 2,
if he will but call to mind the following circum¬
ftances.
In every cafe of divifiqn, if he has logarithms of'
quotient and divifor, he has alfo that of the dividend,
by adding the two firft together: if he has the lo¬
garithm of tke dmdend, and that of either the divifor
Logarithms
Logarit
LOG [ 4262 ] LOG
>msor quotient, he may find that of the other; for he has The reafon for finding the logarithm of the lad quo- Logarithms
only to fubtrad what he knows from the logarithm of tient by the common proportion is this: He who has *
the dividend, the remainder is what he wants . and made a table of roots, will find, by infpedion only,
laftly, that in every divifion he made, he took one that as initial noughts come into the decimal parts
number from the table of roots whofe logarithm is of the roots, the fignificant figures julf immediately
known, being noted in the table, and which he made following them do afiume the form ,of a geometrt-
ufe of as his direftion either as a dividend or a divi- cal progreffion, defcending, whofe common rate
for: From thefe circumftances, one may, by the or divifor is 2, as is juft the cafe with the whole of
help of the logarithm juft found, difcover the loga- the decimals of the correfponding logarithms; and
rithm of that number of the laft divifion, whether it that the number of the fignificant figures endued with
be dividend or divifor, which was the quotient of the this property is generally equal to that of the initial
preceding divifion ; and thus, tracing his own work noughts: fo far as this, and no farther, the common
backwards by his notes from quotient to quotient, be proportion will hold between the fignificant figures of
they ever fo few or ever fo many, he will come at the decimals in the roots and the fame number of pla-
laft by addition and fubtraftion to the logarithm of ces in the logarithms; and for this reafon it was need-
the propoftd number. ful to continue the fucceffive divifions till a quotient
By this method, the logarithm of any number with- was found fo circumftanced, that its logarithm could
in the compafs of the table of roots may be found : if be found by the proportion.
a greater is propofed, fuppofe 9495, it muft be made The fame gentleman hath alfo favoured us with the
9.495, and its logarithm found ; then it muft be re- following new method
ftored to the propofed form, and have a proper in¬
dex noted before the decimals juft found. How to do txtrafling Roots cf Fractions by Logarithms.
this is too well known to have occafion to mention it The eafieft way to explain this, is firft to give an
here. example of involving fuch numbers.
— 3.301029995664 the logarithm of the fraftion given.
7 the power to which it is to be raifed.
—19.107209969648 the logarithm of the anfwer.
This differs from the like work in whole numbers fion ; but the produft =14 being lefs than 19, muft be
only in this, that, in multiplying the decimals, one has reje&ed ; then he may try it  1010720 606 8
at laft 2 to be carried from them to the whole num- with 3, this yields 21 for a pro-  9 4
bers; this is to be confidered as+2, then —■ 3X7=—21, duff. This 3 muft be noted with 9995 4
and —21 -\-2~—19 to be noted the index of the a negative fign for the index of the new logarithm,
anfwer. Extraftion of the roots is only the con- Then, on comparing 19 with 21, the difference is
verfe of this. Suppofe —19.107209969648 given, 2. This 2 muft be carried as 20 to the decimals, and
to find that root whofe exponent number is 7. one muft from that carry on the divifion of the de-
As 7 is the exponent number here, one may in his cimals with 7 for a divifor, as is ufually done in other
mind multiply it by 2 for a trial, as in common divi- cafes.
Another Example.
Suppofe —1.4771212545 given, to extraft the root of itsjth power.
—1.8954252109 the logarithm of the root.
For 5, the exponent of the root Xi is greater than of the root; and 4= the overplus, is to be carried as
the index of the given logarithm, and 4 is the remain- 40 to the decimals; and from that, divifion is to be made
der. Then —1 becomes the index of the logarithm with 5 as a divifor for the reft of the work.
LOGIC
Tlate . CLXII
1) ^
'x
X. c
R
Parti.
c
I
]
Words fur-
nifh the
means of
recording
our own
thoughts.
THE art of thinking and reafoning juftly; or, it
may be defined the fcience or hiitory of the hu¬
man mind, inafmuch as it traces the progrefs of our
knowledge from our firft and moft fimple conceptions
through all their different combinations, and all thole
numerous dedutifions that refult from varioufly com¬
paring them one with another.
The precife bufinefs of logic, therefore, is to explain
the nature of the human mind, and the proper manner
of conducing its feveral powers, in order to the attain¬
ment of truth and knowledge. It lays open thofe errors
and miftakes we are apt, through inattention, to run in¬
to ; and teaches us how todiltinguifh between truth, and
what only carries the appearance of it. By this means
we grow acquainted with the nature and force of the
undedtandiug; fee what things lie within its reach;
where we may attain certainty and demonftration ;
and when we mult be contented with probability.
This, fcience is generally .divided into four parts,
viz. Perception, Judgment, Reafoning, and Method.
This divifion comprehends the whole hiftory of the
fenlations and operations of the human mind.
PART I.
Ok PERCEPTION.
WE find ourfelves furrounded with a variety of
obje&s, which acting differently upon our fen-
fes, convey diftinft impreffions into the mind, and
thereby roufe the attention and notice of the under-
ftanding. By refle&ing too on what paffes within us,
we become fenfible of the operations of our own
minds, and attend to them as a new let of imprefllons.
But in all this there is only bare confcioufnefs. The
mind, without proceeding any farther, takes notice of
the impreffions that are made upon it, and views things
in order, as they prefent themfelves one after ano¬
ther. This attention of the underftanding to the ob-
je& aiiling upon it, whereby it becomes fenfible of the
impreffions they make, is called by logicians percep¬
tion ; and the notices themfelves, as they exift in the
mind, and are there treafured up to be the materials
of thinking and knowledge, are diftinguifhed by the
name of ideas. Having fliown at large, in the article
Metaphysics, how the mind being furniflied with
ideas, contrives to diverfify and enlarge its flock ; we
have here chiefly to confider the means of making
known our thoughts to others ; that we may not only
underfland how knowledge is acquired, but alfo in
what manner it may be communicated with the great-
eft certainty and advantage.
Chap. I. Of Words, confidered as the Signs of otir
Ideas.
Our ideas, though manifold and various, are ne-
verthelefs all within our own breafts, invifible to o-
thers, nor can of themfelves be made appear. But
God, defigning us for fociety, and to have fellowfhip
with thofe of our kind, has provided us with organs
fitted to frame articulate founds, and given us alfo a
capacity of ufing thofe founds as figns of internal con¬
ceptions. ■ Hence fpring words and language ; for,
having once pitched upon any found to Hand as the
mark of an idea in the mind, cuflom by degrees efta-
blifhes fuch a connection between them, that the ap¬
pearance of the idea in the underftanding always brings
to our remembrance the found or name by which it
is expreffed ; as in like manner the hearing of the
found never fails to excite the idea for which it is made
to ftand. And thus it is eafy to conceive how a man
may record his! own thoughts, and bring them again
into view in any fucceeding period of life. For this
connection being once fettled, as the fame founds will
always ferve to excite the fame ideas ; if he can but
contrive to regifter his words in the order and difpo-
fition in which the prefent train of his thoughts pre¬
fent them to his imagination, it is evident he will be
able to recal thefe thoughts at pleafure, and that too
in the very manner of their firft appearance. Ac¬
cordingly we find, that the inventions of writing and
printing, by enabling us to fix and perpetuate fuch
perilhable things as founds, have alfo furniflied us with
the means of giving a kind of permanency to the
tranfaClions of the mind, infomuch that they may be
in the fame manner fubjeCted to our review, as any
other abiding objefts of nature. 2
II. But, befides .the ability of recording our own And of the
thoughts, there is this farther advantage in the ufe mutual
of external figns, that they enable us to communicate communi-
our fentiments to each other, and alfo receive infer- ?at’on.
mation-of what palfes in their breafts. For any num- fr”^
ber of men, having agreed to eftabiifli the fame founds mantoano-
as figns of the fame ideas, it is apparent that the re- ther.
petition of thefe founds muft excite the like percep¬
tions in each,. and create a perfedl correfpondence of
thoughts. When, for in fiance, any train of ideas fuc-
eeed one-another in my mind, if the names by which
I am wont to exprefs them have been annexed by
thofe with whom I converfe to the very fame fet of
ideas, nothing is more evident, than that, by repeat¬
ing thofe names according to the tenor of my prefent
conceptions, I fliall raife in their minds the fame courfe
of thought as has taken poflelfion of my own. Hence,
by barely attending to what pafles within themfelves,
they will alfo become acquainted with the ideas in my
underftanding, and have them in a manner laid be¬
fore their view. So that we here clearly perceive
riow a man may communicate his fentiments, know¬
ledge and difeoveries to others, if the language in
which he converfes be extenfive enough to mark all
the ideas and tranfaflions of his mind. But as this is
not always the cafe, and men are often obliged to in-
( a ) vent
[ 2 ] LOGIC. Partrl.
vent terms of their own, to exprefs new views and
conceptions of things; it may be aiked, how in thefe
circumftances we can become acquainted with the
thoughts of another, when we make ufe of words, to
which we have never annexed any ideas, and that of
courfe can rail'e no perceptions in cur minds. In or¬
der to unveil this myltery, and give fome little intight
into the foundation, growth, and improvement of lan¬
guage, the following obfervations will be fqund of con-
3 fiderable moment.
Simple i- III. Firll:, That no word can be to any man the
deas cannot fign of an idea, tiji that idea comes to have a real ex-
be convey- iftence in his mind. For names, being only fo far in-
mintT'b* te^'g'ble as they denote known internal conceptions,
words, or a where they have none fuch to anfwer them, there
defcription. they are plainly founds without fignification, and of
courfe convey no inftrudiion or knowledge. But no
fooner are the ideas to which they belong raifed in the
underftanding, than, finding it eafy to conned them
with the eftablilhed names, we can join in any agree¬
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby enjoy the
benefit of their difcoveries. The firll thing therefore to
be confidered is, how thefe ideas may be conveyed in¬
to the mind; that being there, we may learn to con¬
ned them with their appropriated founds, and fo be¬
come capable of underftanding others when they make
ufe of thefe founds in laying open and communicating
their thoughts. Now, to comprehend this diftindly,
it will be oeceflary to attend to the divifion of our i-
deas into fimple and complex, (lee Metaphysics).
And firft, as for our fimple ideas ; they can find no
admiffion into the mind, but by the two original
fountains of knowledge, fenfation and refiedion. If
therefore any of thefe have as yet no being in the un¬
derftanding, it is impoffible by words pr a-defcription
to excite them there. A man who had never felt the
irnpreflion of heat, could not be brought to compre¬
hend that fenfation by any thing we might fay to ex¬
plain it. If we would really produce the idea in him,
it mnft be by applying the proper objed to his fepfes,
and bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught him
the perception to which men have annexed the name
heat, it then becomes to him the fign of that idea,
and he thenceforth underftands the meaning of the
term, which, before, all the words in this world woulcj
not have been fnfficient to convey into his mind. The
cafe is the lame in refped of light and colours. A
man born blind, and thereby deprived of the only con¬
veyance for the ideas of this clafs, can never be brought
to underftand the names by which they are exprefled.
The reafon is plain: they ftand for ideas that have
no exiftence in his mind ; and as the organ appro,
priated to their reception is wanting, all other coutri.
vances are vain, nor can they by any force of delcrip,
tion be raifed in his imagination. But it is quite other,
ways in our complex notions. For thefe being no
more than certain combinations of fimple ideas, put
together in various forms ; if the original ideas out of
which the colledions are made have already got ad-
miflion into the underftanding, and the names ferving
to exprefs them are known ; it will be eafy, by enu¬
merating the feveral ideas concerned in the compofi-
tion, and marking the order and manner in which
they are united, to raife any complex conception in
the mind. Thus the idea anfwering to the word rain-
how may be readily excited in the imagination of ano¬
ther who has never feen the appearance itfelf, by
barely defcribing the figure, largenefs, pofition, and
order of colours; if we fuppofe thefe feveral limple
ideas, with their names, lufficiently known to him. 4
IV. And this leads to a feeond obfervation upon this The names
fubjed, namely. That words Handing for complex complex
ideas are all definable, but thole by which we denote
fimple ideas are not; for the perceptions of this latter 0f fimple0;!
clafs, having no other entrance into the mind, than by deas not.
fenfation or refledion, can only be got by experience,
from the feveral objeds of nature, proper to produce
rhofe perceptions in us. Words indeed may very
well ferve to remind us of them, if they have already
found admiffion into the underftanding, and their con-
nediorj with the eftablilhed names is known ; but
they can never give them their original being and ex-
iftencie there. And hence it is, that when any one
afks the meaning of a word denoting a Ample idea,
we pretend not to explain it to him by a definition,
well knowing that to be impoffible ; but, fuppofing
him already acquainted with the idea, and only igno¬
rant of the name by which it is called, we either men¬
tion it to him by fome other name, with which we
prefume he knows its connedion, or appeal to the
objed where the idea itfelf is found. Thus was any
one to alk the meaning of the word white, we ftiould
tell him it ftood for the fame idea as in Latin,
or blanc m French ; or, if we thought him a ftranger
to thefe languages, might appeal to an objed produ¬
cing the idea, by faying it denoted the colour we ob-
ferve in fu&w or m'tlk. But this is by no means a de-
fiqition of the word, exciting a new idea in his un¬
derftanding ; but merely a contrivance to remind him
of a known idea, and teach him its connedion with
the eftablilhed name. For if the ideas after which he
enquires have never yet been raifed in. his mind ; as.
fuppofe one who had feen no other colours than black
and white, ftiould a fit the meaning of the word fcarlet 1
it is eafy to perceive, that it would be no more pof-
fible to make him comprehend it by words, or a defi¬
nition, than to difcourfe the fame perception into the
imagination of a man born blind. The only method
in this cafe is, to prefent fome objed, by looking at
which the perception itfelf may be excited, and thus
he will learn both the name and the idea together. ^
V. But how comes it to pafs that men agree in the Experience
names of their fimple ideas, feeing they, cannot view and obfer-
the perceptions in one another’s minds, nor make vat‘on
known thefe perceptions by words to others? Thebr*n&men
effed is produced by experience, and obfervation. merninThe
Thus finding, for inftance, that the name of heat is names of
annexed to that impreffion which men feel when they fimple i-
approach the fire, I make it alfo the fign of the idea <Jeas'
excited in me by fuch an approach, nor have any
doubt but it denotes the fame perception in my mind
as in theirs. For we are naturally led to,imagine, that
the fame objeds operate alike upon the organs of tbe
human body, and produce an uniformity of fenfations.
No man fancies, that the idea raifed in him by the
tafte of fugar, and which he calls fweetnefi, differs
from that excited in another by the like means; or
that
Part I.
L • Q G I C.
t 3 1
that wormwood, to whole relilh he has given the epi¬
thet Utter, produces in another the feni'ation which
he denotes by the word /meet. Prefuming therefore
upon this conformity of perceptions, when they aril'e
front the fame objects, we eafily agree as to the
names of our fimple ideas ; and if at any time, by a
more narrow fcrutiny into things, new ideas of this
clafs come in our way, which we chafe to exprels by
terms of our own invention; thefe names are ex¬
plained, not by a definition, but by referring to the
6 obje&s whence the ideas themfelves may be obtained.
The con- VI. Being in this manner furnilhed with fimple i-
-veyancc of deas, and the names by which they are expreffed, the
deas^b^de Riean*n& 0* te1'1115 that Hand for complex ideas is ea-
finitions, a” got > becaufe the ideas themfelves anfwering to
wifecontri- thefe terms may be conveyed into the mind by defi-
■vanceinna, nitions. For our complex notions are only , certain
ture. combinations of limple ideas. When therefore thefe
are enumerated, and the manner in which they are
united into one conception, explained, nothing more
is wanting to raife that conception in the underltand-
ing ; and thus the term denoting it comes of courl’e to
be underltood. And here it is worth while to refledl
a little upon the wife contrivance of nature, in thus
furnifhing us with the very apteft means of commu¬
nicating our thoughts. For were it not fo ordered,
that we could thus convey our complex ideas from
one to another by definitions, it would in many cafes
be impoflible to make them known at all. This is
apparent in thofe ideas which are the proper work of
the mind. For as they exift only in the underltand-
ing, and have no real objefls in nature in conformity
to which they are framed ; if we could not make them
known by defcription, they muft lie for ever hid with¬
in our own breafts, and be confined to the narrow
acquaintance of a fingle mind. All the fine fcenes
that arife from time to time in the poet’s fancy, and
by his lively painting give fuch entertainment to his
readers; were he deftitute of this faculty of laying
them open to the view of others by words and de¬
fcription, could not extend their influence beyond their
own imagination, or give joy to any but the original
y inventor.
And of VII. There is this farther advantage, in the ability
great avail we enjoy of communicating our complex notions by
towards the definitions; that as thefe make by far the largeft clafs
improve- . f ideas, and moft frequently occur in the progrefs
ment of , . ’ r, 1 , r
knowledge. anR improvement or knowledge, io they are by thele
means imparted with the greateft readinefs, than
which nothing could tend more to the increafe and
fpreading of (cience : for a definition is foon perufed ;
and if the terms of it are well underftood, the idea
itfelf finds an eafy admiflion into the mind. Whereas
in fimple perceptions, where we are referred to the
obje&s producing them, if thefe cannot be come at, as
is fometimes the cafe, the names by which they are
exprelfed muft remain empty founds., But new ideas
of this clafs occurring very rarely in the fciences, they
feldom create any great obftruiftion. It is otherwife
with our complex notions ; for every ftep we take
leading us into new combinations and views of things,
it becomes necelfary to explain thefe to others, before
they can be made acquainted with our difcoveries.
and as the manner of definitions is eafy, requiring no
apparatus but that of words, which are alvfays ready,
and at hand ; hence We can with the lei’s difficulty re¬
move fuch obftacles as might arife from terms of our
own invention, when they are made to Hand for new
complex ideas fuggefted to the mind by lome prefent
train of thinking. And thus at kilt we are let into
the myftery hinted at in the beginning of this chapter,
viz. how we may become acquainted with the thoughts
of another, when he makes ufe of words to which we
have as yet joined no ideas. The anfwer is obvious
from what has been already faid. If the terms denote
limple perceptions, he muft refer us to thefe objects of
nature whence the perceptions themlelves are to be
obtained ; but, if they Hand for complex ideas, their
meaning may be explained- by a definition.
Chap. II. Of Definitions.
I. A definition is the unfolding offeme conception of the Definition
mind, aufwering to the word or term made ufe of as the defined.
fign of it. Now as, in exhibiting any idea to another,
it is necelfary that the delcription be fuch as may ex¬
cite that puerile idea in his mind; hence it is plain’that
definitions, properly {peaking, are not arbitrary, but
confined to the reprefenting' of certain determinate
fettled notions, fuch namely as are annexed by the
fpeaker or writer to the words he ufes. As never-
thelefs it is univerfally allowed that the fignification of
words is perfectly voluntary, and not the effect of any
natural and necelfary connection between them and
the ideas for which they-ftand ; fome may perhaps
wonder why definitions are not fo too. In order
therefore to unravel this difficulty, and fhew diftinrily
what is and what is not arbitrary in fpeech, we muft
carefully diftinguilh between the connexion of our
words and ideas, and the unfolding of the ideas them¬
felves.
II. Firft, as to the connedtion of our words and ideas; Tjie
this, it is plain, is a purely arbitrary inftitution. When, neftjon be-
for inftance, we have in our minds the idea of any tween
particular fpecies of metals, the calling it by the name words and
gold is an eflecl of the voluntary choice of men fpeak- av^cr‘
ing the fame language, and not of any peculiar aptnefs i„nt^y jl
in that found to exprefs that idea. Other nations we ftablifh-
find make ufe of different founds, and with the fame ment.
effedl. Thus aurum denotes that idea in Latin, and
or in French, and even the word gold itfelf would
have as well ferved to exprefs the idea of that metal
which we call fiver, had cuftom in the beginning efta-
blilhed it. ^
III. But although we are thus entirely at liberty in Tbe de-
conneriing any idea with any found, yet it is quite feription of
otherwife in unfolding the ideas themfelves. For e- ideas notfo,
very idea having a precife appearance of its own, by but b°und-
which it is diftinguilhed from every other idea ; it is ecl to
manifeft, that in laying it open to others, we muft t;0f tbat
ftudy fuch a defcription as lhall exhibit that peculiar precife ap.
appearance. When we have formed to ourfelves the pearance by
idea of a figure bounded by four equal fides, joined which ahey
together at right angles, we are at liberty to exprefs
that idea by any found, and call it either a fquare or a hiong
triangle'. But which ever of thefe names we ufe, fo themfelves.
long as the idea is the fame, the defcription by which
we would lignify it to another muft be fo too. Let it
be called Jquare or triangle, it is ftill a figure having
( a 2 ) four
[ 4 ]
LOGIC.
Part I.
four equal fitles, and all its angles right ones. Hence
we clearly fee what is and what is not arbitrary in the
ufe of words. The eltablilhing any found as the mark
of fome determinate idea in the mind, is the effetft of
free choice, and a voluntary combination among men.
And as different nations make ufe of different founds
to denote the fame ideas, hence proceeds all that va¬
riety of languages which we meet with in the world.
But when a connection between our ideas and words
is once fettled, the unfolding of the idea anfwering to
any word, which properly conllitutes a definition, is
by no means an arbitrary thing. For here we are
bound to exhibit that precife conception which either
the ufe of language, or our own particular choice,
hath annexed to the term we ufe.
Caufes of IV. And thus it appears, that definitions, confidered
the obfcuri- as defcriptions of ideas in the mind, are fteady and in-
ty that has variable, being bounded to the reprefentation of thefe
hitherto precife ideas. But then, in the application of defini-
the theor t^ons t0 particular names, we are altogether left to our
of defini- own ^ree ch°ice* Becaufe as the connecting of any
tions. idea with any found is a perfectly arbitrary inflitu-
tion ; the applying the defcription of that idea to that
found mult be fo too. When therefore logicians tell
us that the definition of the name is arbitrary, they
mean no more than this; that as different ideas may
be connected with any term, according to the good
pleafure of him that ufes it, in like manner may dif¬
ferent defcriptions be applied to the term fuitable to
the ideas fo connected. But this connection being
fettled, and the term confidered as the fign of fome
fixed idea in the underltanding, we are no longer left
to arbitrary explications, but mufl ftudy fuch a de¬
fcription as correfponds with that precife idea. Now
this alone, according to what has been before laid
down, ought to be accounted a definition. What
feems to have occalioned no fmall confufion in this
matter, is, that many explanations of words where no
idea is unfolded, but merely the conneClion between
fome word and idea afferted, have yet been dignified
with the name of definitions. Thus, when we fay
that a clock is an inftrument by which we meafure
time; that is by fome called a definition ; and yet it
is plain that we are beforehand fuppofed to have an
idea of this inftrument, and only taught that the word
clock ferves in common language to denote that idea.
By this rule all explications of words in our dictio¬
naries will be definitions, nay, the names of even film-
pie ideas may be thus defined. White, we may fay,
is the colour we obferve in fnowormilk; heat the
fenfation produced by approaching the fil e ; and fo in
innumerable other inllances. But thefe, and all others
of the like kind, are by no means definitions, exciting
new ideas in the undei (landing, but merely contri¬
vances to remind us of known ideas, and teach their
conneClion with the eftablUhed names.
■‘Complex V But now in definitions properly fo called, we
ideas alone firft confider the term we ufe, as the fign of fome in¬
capable of ward conception, either annexed to it by cultom, or
that kind of 0Iir own free choice ; and then the bufinefs of the de-
which^oes fi11'11’011 *s to unfold and explicate that idea. As there¬
by the name f°re whole art lies in giving jull and true copies
of a defini- of our ideas; a definition is then (aid to be made per-
tion. feCl, when it ferves diftinClly to excite the idea de-
fcribed in the mind of another, even fuppofing him
before wholly unacquainted with it. This point fet¬
tled, let us next inquire what thofe ideas are which
are capable of being thus unfolded ? And in the firlt
place it is evident, that all our fimple ideas are necef-
farily excluded. We have feen already that expe¬
rience alone is to be confuked here, infomuch that if
either the objeCts whence they are derived come not
in our way, or the avenues appointed by nature for
their reception are wanting, no defcription is fufficient
to convey them into the mind. But where the un-
derftanding is already fupplied with thefe original and
primitive conceptions, as they may be united together
in an infinity of different forms; fo may all their fe-
veral combinations be diflinClly laid open, by enume¬
rating the fimple ideas concerned in the various col-
leClions, and tracing the order and manner in which
they are linked one to another. Now thefe combi¬
nations of fimple notices conflitute what we call our
complex notions ; whence it is evident that complex
ideas, and thofe alone, admit of that kind of defcrip¬
tion which goes by the name of a definition.
VI. Definitions, then, are pidlures or reprefenta-
tions of our ideas; and as thefe reprefentations are
then only poflible when the ideas themfelv.es are
complex, it is obvious to remark, that definitions
cannot have place but where we make ufe of terms
(landing for fuch complex ideas. But our complex
ideas, being as we have faid nothing more than dif¬
ferent combinations of fimple ideas ; we then know
and comprehend them perfe&ly, when we know the
feveral fimple ideas of which they confift, and can fo
put them together in our minds as is neceffary to¬
wards the framing, of that peculiar connexion which
gives every idea its di(lin£t and proper appearance.
VII. Two things are therefore required in every Two things
definition. Firlt, that ail the original ideas, out of required in
which the complex one is formed, be diftindily enu- a definition,
merated. Secondly, that the order and manner of t0 cn“me"
combining them into one conception be clearly ex- j^eas and
plained. Where a definition has thefe requifites, no- explam the
thing is wanting to its perfeciion ; becaufe every one manner of
who reads it and underltands the terms, feeing at once ‘beiryom-
what ideas he is to join together, and alfo in what binat,ons'
manner, can at pleafure form in his own mind the
complex conception anfwering to the term defined.
Let us, for iullance, fuppofe the word fquare to (land
for that idea by which we reprefent to ourfelves a
figure whofe (ides fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed
circle. The parts of this idea tire the (ides bounding
the figure. Thefe mud be four in number, and all
equal among themfelves, becaufe they are each to fuh-
tend a fourth part of the fame circle. But, befides
thefe component parts, we mud alfo take notice of
the manner of putting them together, if we would ex¬
hibit the precife idea for which the word fquare here
dands. For four equal right lines, any-how joined,
will not fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed circle.
A figure with this property mud have its (ides dand-
ing alfo at right angles. Taking in therefore this lad
confideration refpecding the manner of combining the
parts, the idea is fully defcribed, and the definition
ihereby rendered compleat. For a figure bounded by
four equal fides,joined together at right angles, has
Part I.
LOG
the property required; and is moreover the only right
l4 lined figure to which that property belongs.
How we are VIII. It will now be obvious to every one in what
to proceed manner we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at
to arrive atjuffc anci adequate definitions. Firft, we are to take
ch^tfate de an exa<^ v‘ew ^ t0 defcribed, trace it to
farmons. e* its original principles, and mark the feveral fimple
perceptions that enter into the compofition of it. Se¬
condly, we are to conlider the particular manner in
which thefe elementary ideas are combined, in order
to the forming of that precife conception for which the
term we make ufe of hands. When this is done, and
the idea wholly unravelled, we have nothing more to
do than fairly tranlcribe the appearance it makes to
our own minds. Such a defcription, by diftindlly ex¬
hibiting the order and number of our primitive con¬
ceptions, cannot fail to excite at the fame time in the
mind of every one that reads it, the complex idea re-
fulting from them ; and therefore attains the true and
proper end of a definition.
Chap. III. Of the Compofition and Refolutions of our
Ideas, and the Rules of Definition thence arifng.
In com- I. The rule laid down in the foregoing chapter is
pounding general, extending to all polfible cafes; and is indeed
our ideas, that to which alone we can have recourfe, where any
we proceed ^oubt or difficulty arifes. It is not however jieceflary
fiv^rada- that we fhould pracfife it in every particular inftance.
tion. Many of our ideas are extremely complicated, info-
muqh that to enumerate all the fimple perceptions out
of which they are formed, would be a very trouble-
fome and tedious work. For this reafon logicians
have eltablilhed certain compendious rules of defining,
of which it may not be amii’s here to give fome ac¬
count. But in order to the better underftanding of
what follows, it will be neceflary to obferve that
there is a certain gradation in the compofition of our
ideas. The mind of man is very limited in its views,
and cannot take in a great number of obje&s at once.
We are therefore fain to proceed by fteps, and make
our firft advances fubfervient to thofe which follow.
Thus in forming our complex notions, we begin at
firft with but a few fimple ideas, fuch as we can ma¬
nage with eafe, and unite them together into one con¬
ception. When we are provided with a fufficient
.flock of thefe, and have by habit and ufe rendered
them familiar to our minds, they become the compo¬
nent parts of other ideas ftill more complicated, and
form what we may call a fecond order of 'compound
notions. This procefs, as is evident, may be conti¬
nued to any degree of compofition we pleafe, mount¬
ing from one ftage to another, and enlarging the num-
j5 ber of combinations-
Hence ideas II. But now ftms fob istlf this kind, whoever would
of this clafs acquaint ’ mind forming tlwith the laft and higheft
belt com- or<jer 0f ideas, finds it mucn the moft expedient me-
when we t0 Proceeb gradually thorough all the interme-
advance diate fteps. For, was he to take any very compound
gradually idea to pieces, and, without regard to the feveral
through all elafles of fimple perceptions that have already been for-
tbe feveral mecj jnto diftinift combinations, break it at once into its
cr ers‘ original principles, the number would be fo great as per-
feblly to confound the imagination, and overcome the
utmoft reach and capacity of the mind. When we fee
i c. [ 5 ]
a prodigious multitude of men jumbled together in
crowds, without order or any regular pofition, we find
it impoffible to arrive at an exact knowledge of their
number. But if they are formed into feparate batta¬
lions, and fo ftationed as to fall within the leifure
furvey of the eye ; by viewing them fucceflively
and in order, we come to an eafy and certain deter¬
mination. It is the fame in our complex ideas. When
the original perceptions, out of which they are framed,
are very numerous, it is not enough that we take a
view of them in loofe and flattered bodies; we mull
form them into diftinbl clafles, and unite thefe clalfes
in a juft and orderly manner, before we can arrive at
a true knowledge of the compound notices refulting
from them.
III. This gradual progrefs of the mind to its com- 0ur
pound notions, through a variety of intermediate fteps, tions fhould
plainly points out the manner of conducting the defi- keep pace
nitions, by which thefe notions are conveyed into the with our ’*
minds of others. For as the feries begins with limple ^fervea
and eafy combinations, and advances through a fuc- i;ke gra(jJBI
ceffion of different orders, riling one above another in tion.
the degree of compofition; it is evident that, in a train
of definitions expreffing thefe ideas, a like gradation
is to be obferved. Thus the complex ideas of the
loweft order can no otherwife be defcribed than by
enumerating the fimple ideas out of which they are
made, and explaining the manner of their union. But
then in the fecond, or any other fucceeding order ; as
they are formed out of thofe gradual combinations^
and conllitute the inferior daffes, it is not neceilary,
in defcribing them, to mention one by one all the fim¬
ple ideas of which they conlift. They may be more
diftinblly and briefly unfolded, by enumerating the
compound ideas of a lower order, from whole union
they refult, and which are all fuppofed to be already
known in confequence of previous definitions. Here
then it is that the logical method of defining takes
place ; which that it may be the better underftood,
eve lhall explain fomewhat more particularly the fe-
veral fteps and gradations of the mind in compound¬
ing its ideas, and thence deduce that peculiar form of
a definition which logicians have thought fit to efta-
blilh.
IV. All the ideas we receive from the feveral ob- The
jells of nature that furround us, reprefent diftind in- by which
dividuals. Thefe individuals, when compared toge-the mind
ther, are found in certain particulars to refemble. proceeds
Hence, by collecting the refcmbling particulars into from Part‘~
one conception, we form the notion of a fpedes. And culalj y £e*
here let it be obferved, that this laft idea is lefs com- ntra eaS’
plicated than that by which we reprefent any of
the particular objects contained under it. For the idea
of the fpecies excludes the peculiarities of the feveral
individuals,, and retains only fuch properties as are
common to them all. Again, by comparing feveral
fpecies together, and obferving their refemblance, we
form the idea.of ; where, in the fame manner
as before, the compofition is leffened, becaufe we
leave out what is peculiar to the feveral fpecies com¬
pared, and retain only the particulars wherein they
agree. It is eafy to conceive the mind proceeding
thus from one ftep.to another, and advancing through
its feveral dalles of general notions, until at laft it
comes
[ 6 ]
LOGIC.
Part I,
comes to the higheft genus of all, denoted by tne word
being, where the bare idea of exiltence is only con-
19 earned.
The con- v. In this procedure we fee the mind unravelling
du<ft of the a complex idea, and tracing it in the afeending
compound- (cale> h oni greater or lefs degrees of competition,
ing its i- until it terminates m one fimpk perception. It now
•deas, as it we take the feries the contrary way, and, beginning
advances with the latt or highetl genus, carry our view down-
thro’ the vvarc]Sj through all the inferior genera and fpecies,
ordcrs'of qdte to the individuals, we lhall thereby arrive at a
perception, diftindl apprehenlion of the conduct of the underiland-
ing in compounding its ideas. For, in the feveral
claffes of our perceptions, the highelt in the fcale is
for the moft part made up of but a few fimple itleas,
fuch as the mind can take in and furvey with eafe.
This firft general notion, when branched out into the
different fubdiviftons contained under it, has in every
one of them fomething peculiar, by which they are
diftinguifhed among themfelves; tnfomuch that, in de¬
fending from the genus to the fpecies, we always
fuperadd feme new idea, and thereby increafe the
degree of compofttion. Thus the idea denoted by the
woxA figure is of a very general nature, and compo-
fed of but few fimple perceptions, as implying no
more than fpace every-where abounded. But if we
defend farther, and confider the boundaries of this
fpace, as that they mey be either lines or furface, we
fall into the feveral fpecies of figure. For where the
Ipace is bounded by one or more furfaces, we give it
\.he name of a. folid figure; but where the boundaries
20 are lines, it is called a plain figure.
The idea of VI. In this view of things it is evident, that the
L-.e fpecies fpecies is formed by fuperadding a new idea to the
fuperadT genils- Here> for i'dtance, the genus is circumfcri-
dingthe bed fpace. If now to this we fuperadd the idea of a
fpecific dif- circumf ription by lines, we frame the notion of that
ference to fpecies of figures which are called plain; but if we
the genus, conceive the circumfcription to be by furfaces, we
have the fpecies of folid figures. This fuperadded
idea is called the fpecific difference, not -only as it
ferves to divide the fpecies from the geftus, but be-
caufe, being different in all the feveral fubdivifions,
we thereby alfo diftinguiflt the fpecies one from ano¬
ther. And as it is likewife that conception, which,
by being joined to the general idea, compleats the
notion of the fpectes; hence it is plain, that the genus
and fpecific difference are to be confidered as the
proper and conflituent parts of the fpecies. If we
trace the progrefs of the mind ftill farther, and ob-
ferve it advancing through the inferior fpecies, we
fliall find its manner of proceeding to be always the
fame. For every lower fpecies is formed by fuper-
adding fome new idea to the fpecies next above it;
infomuch that in this defeending fcale of onr percep¬
tions, the underftanding paffes through different or¬
ders of complex notions, which become more and
more complicated at every flep it takes. Let us re¬
fume here, for inflance, the fpecies .of plain figures.
They imply no more than fpace bounded by lines. But
if we take in an additional confideration of the nature
of thefe lines, as whether they are right or curves, we
fall into the fubdivifions of plain figure, diftinguiflied by
the names of redilinear, curvilinear, and mixtilincar.
VII. And here we are to obferve, that though 21
plain figures, when confidered as one of thole branches And in all
that come under the notion of figure in general, take the-infenor
the name of a fpecies; yet compared with the claffes y
of curvilinear, rectilinear, and mixtilinear, into which tjie
they themfelves may be divided, they really become fpecific diff
a genus, of which the before mentioned fubdivifions ference to.
conftrtute the feveral fpecies. Thele fpecies, in the tlic lieare^
fame manner as in the cafe of plain and folid figures, Senus'
confilt of the genus and fpecific difference as their
confiituent parts. For in the curvilinear kind, the
curvity of the lines bounding the figure makes what is
called the fpecific difference; to which if we join the
genus, which here is a plain figure, or fpace circum-
Icribed by lines, we have all that is neceffary towards
compleating the notion of this fpecies. We are only
to take notice, that this laft fubdivifion, having two
genera above it, viz. plain figure, and figure in gene¬
ral; the genus joined witli the fpecific difference, in
order to conftitute the fpecies of enrvilinears, is that
which lies neareft to the laid fpecies. It is the no¬
tion of plain figure, and not of figure in general, that
joined with the idea of curvity makes up the complex
conception of curve-lined figures. For in this de-
Icending fcale of our ideas, figure in general, plain fi¬
gures, curve-lined figures, the two firil are confider¬
ed as genera in refpeft of the third ; and the fecond
in order, or that which Hands next to the third, is
called the nearefl getius. But now as it is this fecond
idea, which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms
the ipecies of curve-lined .figures ; it is plain, that the
third or laft idea in the feries is made up of the near¬
eft genus and fpecific difference. This rule holds
invariably, however far the feries is continued; be-
caufe, in a train of ideas thus fucceeding one another,
all that precede the laft are confidered as fo many ge¬
nera in refpedl of that laft ; and the laft itfelf is always
formed by fuperadding the fpecific difference to the
genus next it. 22
VIII. Here then we have an univerfal defeription, The idea of
applicable to all our ideas of whatever kind, from the any indivi-
higheft genus to the loweft fpecies. For, taking them dual c°m-
in order downwards from the faid general idea, they the^oweft
everywhere confift of the getius proximum, and dif- fpec;cs antj
ferentia fpecifica, as logicians love to exprels them- numeric
felves. But when we come to the loweft fpecies of difference,
all, comprehending under it only individuals, the fu¬
peradded idea, by which thefe individuals are diftin-
guilhed one from another, no longer takes the name
of the Ipecilic difference. For here it ferves not to
denote diftindl fpecies, but merely a variety of indivi¬
duals, each of which, having a particular exiftence of
its own, is therefore numey'- ”v different from every
other of the fame kind. ive that in this
laft cafe, logicians chufe trftg f/’fife ifipelraJKfed idea by
the name of the numerical difference; infomuch that,
as the idea of a fpecies is made up of the neareft ge¬
nus and fpecific difference, fo the idea of an indivi¬
dual confifts of the loweft fpecies and numeric differ¬
ence. Thus the circle is a fpecies of curve-lined fi¬
gures, and what we call the lo-wefi fpecies, as com¬
prehending under it only individuals. Circles in par¬
ticular are difttnguilhed from one another by the length
and pofition of their diameters. The length therefore
and
Parti.
LOGIC. [ 7 ]
and pofition of the diameter of a circle is what logi¬
cians call the numerical difference ; becaufe, thefe be¬
ing given, the circle itfelf may be deferibed, and an
23 individual thereby conliituted.
Definitions JX. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideas, be-
t0 f another §lns> we ^ee> t*le mo^ general notions, which,
in'tr^n Cr confifting of but a few fxmple notices, are ealily com-
and pafs bined and brought together into one conception,
thro’ the Thence it proceeds to the fpecies comprehended un-
fame fuccef- der this general idea, and thefe are formed by joining
tions’as our together t^e genus and fpecific difference. And as it
compound °ften happens, that thefe fpecies may be ft ill farther
ideas. fubdivided, and run on in a long feries of continued
gradations, producing various orders of compound
perceptions; fo all thefe feveral orders are regularly
and fucceflively formed by annexing in every ftep the
fpecific difference to the neareft genus. When by
this method of procedure we are come to the loweft:
order of all, by joining the fpecies and numeric dif¬
ference we frame the ideas of individuals. And here
the feries neceffarily terminates, becaufe it is impof-
fible any farther to bound or limit our conceptions.
This view of the compofition of our ideas, reprefent-
ing their conffituent parts in every ftep of the pro-
greflion, naturally points out the true and genuine
form of a definition. For as definitions are no more
than deferiptions of the ideas for which the terms de¬
fined ftand; and as ideas are then deferibed, when
we enumerate diftintftly and in order the parts of
which they confift; it is plain that, by making our de¬
finitions follow one another according to the natural
train of our conceptions, they will be fubject to the
fame rules, and keep pave with the ideas they de-
feribe. , 24
X. As therefore the firft order of our compound e ,fo™
notions, or the ideas that conftitute the higheft gene- ^
ra in the different feales of perception, are formed by ^ var;ous
uniting togetl>er a certain number of fimple notices ; orders of
fo the terms exprefling thefe genera are defined ty conception.
enumerating the Jimple notices fo combined. And as the
fpecies comprehended under any genus, or the com¬
plex ideas of the fecond order, arile from fuperadding
the fpecific difference to the laid general idea > fo the
definition of the names of the fpecies is abfolved, in ft.
detail of the ideas of the fpecific difference, cotmedfed
with the term of the genus. For the genus having
been before defined, the term by which it is exprei-
fed Hands for a known idea, and may therefore be
introduced into all fubfequent definitions, in the fame
manner as die names of fimple perceptions. It will
now be fufficiently obvious, that the definitions of all
the fucceeding orders of compound notions wiil every
where confift of the term of the neareft genus, joined
with an enumeration of the ideas that conftitute the
fpecific difference; and that the definition of indivi¬
duals unites the names of the loweft fpeeies with the
terms by which we exprefs the ideas of the numeric
difference.
XI. Here then we have the true and proper form
of a definition, in all the various orders of conception.
This is that method of defining which is commonly
called logical, and which vve fee is perfect in its kind,
inafmudi as it prefents a full and adequate delcription
of the idea for which the term defined ftands.
PART II,
Of J U D
25 Chap. I. Of the Grounds of human Judgment.
Intuition HT^HE mind being furnifhed with ideas, its next ftep
refpeAs the X in the way to knowledge is, the comparing thefe
between5 *deas together, in order to judge of their agreement
our ideas or difagreement. In this joint view of our ideas, if
when they the relation is fuch as to be immediately difcoverable
are imme- by the bare infpetftion of the mind, the judgments
diately per- thence obtained are called intuitive; from a word that
e«va e. denotes to look at; for in this cafe, a mere attention
to the ideas compared fuffices to let us fee how far
they are conneifted or disjoined. Thus, that the Whole
is greater than assy of its Parts, is an intuitive judg¬
ment, nothing more being required to convince us
of its truth, than an attention to the ideas of whole
and part. And this too is the reafon why we call the
act of the mind forming thefe judgments, intuition;
as it is indeed no more than an immediate precep-
tion of the agreement or difagreement of any two
26 ideas.
Experience II. But here it is to be obferved, that our know-
mon^^h" lec*ge t'1‘s kind refpe&s only our ideas, and the re-
grouud of lations between them ; and therefore can ferve only
fudging as as a foundation to fuch reafonings as are employed in
to fa&s. inveftigating thefe relations. Now it fo happens,
that many of our judgments are converfant about fatfts,
and the real exiftence of things, which cannot be tra-
G M E N T.
ced by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does
not follow, becaule I have the idea of a circle in my
mind, that therefore a figure anfwering to that idea
has a real exiftence in nature. I can form to myfelf
the notion of a centaur, or golden mountain, but never
imagine on that account, that either of them exift.
What then are the grounds of our judgment in rela¬
tion to fa£ts i experience and tejlimony. By expe¬
rience we are informed of the exiftence of the feve¬
ral objects which furround us, and operate upon our
fenfes. Teftimony is of a wider extent,, and reaches
not only to objects beyond the prefent fphere of our
obfervation, but alfo to fa<Sts and tranfa£iions, which
being now paft, and having no longer any exiftence,
could not without this conveyance have fallen under
our cognizance. 27
III. Here we have three foundations of human Threefoun-
judgment, from which the whole fyftem of our know- dations of
ledge may with eafe and advantage be derived. J”11"1111
Firft, intuition, which relpei5ts our ideas themfelves,
and their relations, and is the foundation of that fpe- tuition, the
cies of reafoning which we call demonftration. For ground of
whatever is deduced from our intuitive perceptions, frhntifical
by a clear and connected feries of proofs, is laid to. be knowhdge.
demonftrated, and produces abfolute certainty in the
mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in this man¬
ner is what we properly term fciencc ; becaufe in eve¬
ry
Part II.
t 8 ]
28
2. Experi¬
ence, the
ground of
our know¬
ledge of
the powers
and quali¬
ties of bo-
dies.
LOGIC.
ry ftep of the procedure it carries its own evidence
along with it, and leaves no room for doubt or hefi-
tation. And what is highly worthy of notice ; as the
truths of this clafs exprel’s the relation between our
ideas, and the fame relations muft ever and invari¬
ably fublilt between the fame ideas, our deductions
in the way of fcience conftitute What we call eternal,
mceffary, and immutable truths. If it be true that the
whole is equal to all its parts, it muft be fo unchange¬
ably ; becaufe the relation of equality being attached
to the ideas theml'elves, muft ever intervene where
the fame ideas are compared. Of this nature are all
the truths of natural religion, morality, and mathema¬
tics, and, in general, whatever may be gathered from
the bare view and confideration of our ideas.
IV. The fecond ground of human judgment is ex¬
perience j from which we infer the exifteuce of thofe
fubjeefts that furround us, and fall under the immediate
notice of our fenfes. When vve fee the fun, or cart
our eyes towards a building, we not only have ideas
of thefe ebjeefts within ourlelves, but aferibe to them
a real exiftence out of the mind. It is alfo by the in¬
formation of the fenfes, that we judge of the quali¬
ties of bodies ; as when we fay that fsiow is white, fire
hot, or fteel hard. For as we are wholly unacquaint¬
ed with the internal ftrudiure and conftitution of the
bodies that produce thefe fenfations in us, nay, and
are unable to trace any connecftion between that ftruc-
ture and the fenfations themfelves, it is evident, that
we build our judgments altogether upon obfervation,
aferibing to bodies fuch qualities as are anfwerable to
the perceptions they excite in us. But this is not the
only advantage derived from experience, for to that
too are we indebted for all our knowledge regarding
the co-exiftence of fenfible qualities in objeefts, and
the operations of bodies one upon another. Ivory,
for inftance, is hard and elaftic ; this we know by ex¬
perience, and indeed by that alone. For, being al¬
together ftrangers to the true nature both of elaftici-
ty and hardnels, we cannot by the bare contempla¬
tion of our ideas determine how far the one necefl’a-
rily implies the other, or whether there may not be
a repugnance between them. But when we obftrve
them to exirt both in the fame objeeft, we are then
afliired from experience, that they are not incompa¬
tible; and when we alfo find, that a ftone is hard and
rot elaftic, and that air though elaftic is not hard, we
alfo conclude upon the fame foundation, that the ideas
are not necelfarily conjoined, but may exift feparate-
ly in different objeefts. In like manner with regard
to the operations of bodies one upon another, it is e-
vident, that our knowledge this way is all derived
from obfervation. /!qua regia diflblves gold, as has
been found by frequent trial, nor is there any other
way of arriving at the difeovery. Naturalifts may
tell us, if they pleafe, that the parts of aqua regia
are of a texture apt to infinuate between the cor-
pufcles of gold, and thereby loofen and lhake them
afunder. If this is a true account of the matter, it
will notwithftanding be allowed, that our conjecture
in regard to the conformation of thefe bodies is de-
fftkee’d from the experiment,- and not the experiment
from the conjeCIure. It was not from any previous
knowledge of the intimate ftrudure of aqua regia and
gold, and the aptnefs of their parts to ail or to be ac¬
ted upon, that we came by the conclufion above-men¬
tioned. The internal conftitution of bodies is in a
manner wholly unknown to us; and could we even
furmount this difficulty, yet as the feparation of the
parts of gold implies fomething like an aitive force in
the menjtruum, and we are unable to conceive how
it comes to be poffefled of this activity; the effeit
muft be owned to be altogether beyond our'eompre-
henlion. But when repeated trials had once con¬
firmed it, infomuch that it was admitted as an efta-
bliffied truth in natural knowledge, it was then eafy
for men to fpin out theories of their own inven¬
tion, and contrive inch a ftru&ure of parts, both for
gold and aqua regia, as would belt ferve to explain
the phaenomenon upon the principles of that fyrtem of
philofophy they had adopted.
V. From what has been faid it is evident, that as
intuition is the foundation of what we call fcientifical
knowledge, fo is experience of natural. For this laft
being wholly taken up with objects of fenfe, or thofe
bodies that conftitute the natural world; and their
properties, as far as we can difeover them, being to
be traced only by a long and painful feries of obferva-
tions; it is apparent, that in order to improve this
branch of knowledge, we muft betake ourfelves to
the method of trial and experiment.
VI. But though experience is what we may term
the immediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet
with refpeft to particular perfons its influence is very
narrow and confined. The bodies that furround us
are numerous, many of them lie at a great diftance,
and fome quite beyond our reach. Life is too ffiort,
and fo crouded with cares, that but little time is left for
any fingle man to employ himfelf in unfolding the my-
fteries of nature. Hence it is neceflary to admit many
things upon the teftimony of others, which by this
means becomes the foundation of a great part of our
knowledge of body. No man doubts of the power
of aqua regia to diffolve gold, though perhaps he ne¬
ver himfelf made the experiment. In thefe therefore
and fuch like cafes we judge of the fadk and opera¬
tions of nature, upon the mere ground of teftimony.
However, as we can always have recourfe to expe¬
rience where any doubt or fcruple arifesj this is juftly
confidered as the true foundation of natural philofo¬
phy ; being indeed the ultimate fupport upon which
our affent refts, and whereto we appeal when the
higheft degree of evidence is required.
VII. But there are many fadts that will not allow
of an appeal to the fenfes, and in this cafe teftimony
is the true and only foundation of our judgments.
All human adlions of whatever kind, when conlidered
as already paft, are of the nature here deferibed ;
becaufe having now no longer any exiftence, both
the fatfts themfelves, and the circumftances attending
them, can be known only from the relations of fuch
as had fufficient opportunities of arriving at the truth.
Teftimony therefore is juftly accounted a third ground
of human judgment ; and as from the other two we
have deduced fcientifical and natural knowledge, fo
we may from this derive hiftorical; by which we
mean, not merely a knowledge of the civil tranfac-
tions of ftates and kingdoms, but of all fadts whatfo-
ever
29
3. Teftimo¬
ny, the
ground of
hiftorical
knowledge.
Part II.
LOGIC.
[ 9 )
ever, where teltimony is the ultimate foundation of
our belief.
Chap. II. Of Affirmative and Negative Propofitiont.
The fubjeft I. While the comparing of our ideas is confidered
and predi- merely as an adt of the mind, affembling them toge-
ther, and joining or disjoining them according to the
explained.1' *ts perceptions, we call it judgment i but when
our judgments are put into words, they then bear the
name oipropofttions. A propolltion therefore is a fen-
tence expreffing fome judgment of the mind, whereby
two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or difagree.
Now as our judgments include at lealt two ideas', one
of which is affirmed or denied of the other, fo muft a
propofition have terms anfwering to thefe ideas. The
idea of which we affirm or deny, and of courle the
term expreffing that idea, is called the fubjeft of the
propofition. The idea affirmed or denied, as alfo the
term anfwering it, is called the predicate. Thus in
the propofition, God is omnipotent; God is the fubjeft,
it being of him that we affirm omnipotence ; and om¬
nipotent is the predicate, becaufe we affirm the idea
3* exprelFed by that word to belong to God.
Thecopu- But as in proportions, ideas are either joined
a c' or disjoined ; it is not enough to have terms expref¬
fing thole ideas, unlefs we have alfo fbme words to
denote their agreement or difagreement. That word
in a propofition, which connects two ideas together,
is called the copula ; and if a negative particle be an¬
nexed, we thereby underftand that the ideas are dif-
joined. The fubjlantive verb is commonly made life
of for the copula, as in the above-mentioned propofi¬
tion, God is omnipotent; where is reprelents the co¬
pula, and fignifies the agreement of the ideas of God
and omnipotence. But if we mean to feparate two
ideas; then, befides the fubftantive verb, we muft
alfo ufe fome particle of negation, to exprefs this re¬
pugnance. The propofition, man is not perfeft, may
ierve as an example of this kind, where the notion
of perfeBiun being removed from the idea of man,
the negative particle not is inferted after the copula,
to fignify the difagreement between the fubjeft and
32 predicate.
PropoCti- HI. Every propofition neceffarily confifts of thefe
ons fome- three parts; but then it is not alike needful that they
Dreffed b" federally expreffed in words ; becaufe the co-
a fingle ^ pula is often included in the term of the predicate, as
word. when we fay, he fits; which imports the fame as he
is fitting. In the Latin language, a fingle word has
often the force of a whole lentence. Thus ambulat is
the fame as tile eft ambulans ; amo, as ego fum amans,
and fo in innumerable other inftances; by which it
appears, that we are not fo much to regard the num¬
ber of words in a fentence, as the ideas they repre-
fent, and the manner in which they are put together.
For wherever two ideas are joined or disjoined in an
expreffion, though of but a fingle word, it is evident
that we have a lubje£t, predicate, and copula, and of
33 confequence a complete propofition.
Affirmative IV. When the mind joins two ideas, we" call it an
and nega- affirmative judgment; when it feparates them, a ne-
fitions™**0" iaiwe ‘ ant* as any two ideas compared together
110ns. muft neceffarily either agree or not agree, it is evi¬
dent, that all our judgments fall under thefe two divi-
fions. Hence likewife the propofitiom expreffing thefe
judgments are all either affirmative or negative. An
affirmative propofition connects the predicate W'ith the
fubjetft, as a ftone is heavy ; a negative propofition
feparates them, as God is not the author of evil. Af¬
firmation therefore is the fame as joining two ideas
together, and this is done by means of the copula.
Negation on the contrary marks a repugnance be¬
tween the ideas compared, in which cafe a negative
particle muft be called in, to Ihew that the connec¬
tion included in the copula does not take place. 34
V. Hence we fee the reafon of the rule commonly When the
laid down by logicians; that in all negative propofi- negative
tions the negation ought to affect the copula. For as
the copula, when placed by itfelf, between the fubjeft
and the predicate, manifeftly binds them together ; it ideas,
is evident, that, in order to render a propofition ne¬
gative, the particles of negation muft enter it in fuch
a manner as to deftroy this union. In a word, then
only are two ideas disjoined in a propofition, when
the negative particle may be fo referred to the copu¬
la, as to break the affirmation included in it, and un¬
do that connection it would otherwife eftablilh. When
we fay, for inftance, No man is perfefl; take away
the negation, and the copula of itfelf plainly unites
the ideas in the propofition. But as this is the very
reverfe of what is intended, a negative mark is ad¬
ded, to ffiew that this union does not here take place.
The negation therefore, by deftroying the effect of
the copula, changes the very nature of the propofi¬
tion, infomuch that, inftead of binding two ideas to¬
gether, it denotes their reparation. On the contrary,
in this fentence ; The man who departs not from an up¬
right behaviour, is beloved of God: the predicate be¬
loved of God is evidently affirmed of the fubjeft an up¬
right man ; fo that, notwithftanding the negative par¬
ticle, the propofition is ftill affirmative. The reafon
is plain ; the negation here affeCts not the copula, but
making properly a part of the fubjeCI, ferves with
other terms in the fentence, to form one complex
idea, of which the predicate beloved of God, is direfl-
ly affirmed.
Chap. III. OfUniverfal and Particular Propofition:. ^
I. The next confiderable divifion of propofitions is Divifion of
into univerfal and particular. Our ideas, according to propolki-
what has been already obferved in the firft Part, are on.s int'?
all fingular as they enter the mind, and reprefent in- a^parti-
dividual objeCts. But as by abftraCVion we can render cuiar.
them univerfal, fo as to comprehend a whole clafs of
things, and fometimes feveral claffes at once ; hence
the terms expreffing thefe ideas muft be in like man¬
ner univerfal. If therefore we fuppofe any general
term to become the fubjeCt of a propofition, it is evi¬
dent, that whatever is affirmed of the abftraCl idea
belonging to that term may be affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which that idea extends. Thus when we
fay. Men are mortal; we confider mortality, not as
confined to one or any number of particular men, but
as what may be affirmed without reftri&ion of the
whole fpecies. By this means the propofition becomes
as general as the idea which makes the fubjeft of it,
and indeed derives its univerfality inttrely from that
idea, being more or lefs fo according as this may be
( b ) extended
Part II.
[ 10 ]
36 .
Propofiti-
ons univer-
fal where
the fubje£t
is fo, with-
of reftric-
tioij.
Propoiiti-
ons parti¬
cular where
yerfal fub-
jeft appears
with a mark
of limita-
38
Singular
propofiti-
dcr the
head of
particulars.
LOGIC.
extended to more or fewer individuals. But it is fur¬
ther to be obferved of theft general terms, that they
fometimes enter a propofition in their full latitude, as in
the example given above; and fometimes appear with
a mark of limitation. In this lail cafe we are given to
underftand, that the predicate agrees not to the whole
univerfal idea, but only to a part of it; as in the pro¬
pofition, fame men are wife : For here wifdom is not
affirmed of every particular man, but reftrained to a
few of the human ipecies.
II. Now from this different appearance of the ge¬
neral idea, that conflitutes the lubjedt of any judg¬
ment, arifts the divifion of propofitions into univerfal
and particular. An univerfal propofition is that where¬
in the fubje£t is feme general term taken in its full la¬
titude, infomuch that the predicate agrees to all the
individuals comprehended under it, if it denotes a
proper fpecies; and to all the feveral fpecies* and
their individuals, if it marks an idea of a higher order.
The words ally everyy no, none, &c. are the proper
figns of this univerfality ; and as they feldom fail to
accompany general truths, fo they are the moft obvi¬
ous criterion whereby to diftinguiffi them. /#/ ani-
mals have a power of beginning motion. This is an
univerfal propofition ; as we know from the word all
prefixed to the fubjedl animal, which denotes that it
mufi: be taken in its full extent. Hence the power of
beginning motion may be affirmed of all the feveral
fpecies of animals.
III. A particular propofition has in like manner
forne general term for its fubjefl, but with a mark of
limitation added, to denote, that the predicate agrees
only to fome of the individuals comprehended under a
fpecies, or to one or more of the fpecies belonging to
any genus, and not to the whole univerfal idea. Thus,
Some jlones are heavier than iron; fome men have an
uncommon Jhare of prudence. In the laft of theft propo¬
fitions, the fubjedtfo7)ie implies only a certain num¬
ber of individuals, comprehended under a fingle fpecies.
In the former, where the fubjedl is a genus that ex*,
tends to a great variety of diftindl claffes, fome Jiones
may not only imply any number of particular ftones,
but alfo feveral whole fpecies of ftones ; inafmuch as
there may be not a few with the property there de-
fcribed. Hence we fee that a propofition does not
ceafe to be particular by the predicate’s agreeing to a
whole fpecies, unlefs that fpecies, fingly and dillindl-
ly confidered, makes alfo the fubjedl of which we af¬
firm or deny.
IV. There is ftill one fpecies of propofitions that
remains to be defcribed, and which the more deferves
our notice, as it is not yet agreed among logicians to
which of the two claffes mentioned above they ought
to be referred ; namely, fwgular propofitions, or thoft
where the fubjedt is an individual. Of this nature are
the following : Sir Jfaac Newton was the inventor of
fluxions ; this book contains masiy ufeful truths. What
occafions fome difficulty as to the proper rank of theft
propofitions is; that the fubjedl being taken according
to the whofe of its extenfion, they fometimes have
the fame effedl in reafoning as univerfals. But if it
be confidered that they are in truth the moft limited
kind of particular propofitions, and that no propofition
can with any propriety be called univerfal but where
the fubjedl is fome univerfal idea ; we fliall not be
long in determining to which clafs they ought to be
referred. When we fay, Some books contain ufeful
truths ; the propofition is particular, becauft the ge¬
neral term appears with a mark of rdtridtion. If
therefore we fay, This book contains ufful truths ; it
is evident that the propofition muft be ftill more par¬
ticular, as the limitation implied in the word this is of
a more confined nature than in the former cafe. „
V. We fee therefore that all propofitiorls are either The four.
affirmative or negative ; nor is it lefs evident, that in fold divi-
both cafes they may be univerfal or particular. Hence f°n of pro-
arifes that celebrated fourfold divifion of them into u- pdidons.
niverfal affirmative and univerfal negative, particular
affirmative and particular negative, which compre¬
hends indeed all their varieties. The ufe of this me¬
thod of diftinguiffiing them will appear more fully af¬
terwards, when we come to treat of reafoning and
fyllogifm.
Chap. IV. Of Abfolute and Conditional Propofitions. ^
I. The objedls about which we are chiefly conver- Diftintfio*
fant in this world, are all of a nature liable to change, of qualities
What may be affirmed of them at one time cannot i;110 eflen-
often at another ; and it makes no fmall part of our ac*
knowledge to diftinguiffi rightly theft variations, and
trace the reafons upon which they depend. For it is
obfervable, that amidft all fhe viciffitude of nature,
fome things remain conftant and invariable ; nor even
are the changes to which we fee others liable, effed-
ed, but in confequence of uniform and fteady laws,
which, when known, are fufficient to diredl us in our
judgments about them. Hence philofophers, in di¬
ftinguiffiing the objedis of our perception into various
claffes, have been very careful to note, that fome
properties belong eftentially to the general idea, fo as
not to be feparable from it but by deftroying its very
nature ; while others are only accidental, and may be
affirmed or denied of it in different circumftances..
Thus folidity, a yellow colour, and great weight are
confidered as eflential qualities of gold ; but whether
it ffiall exift as an uniform conjoined mafs, is not alike
neceffary. We fee that by a proper menftruum it
may be reduced to a fine powder, and that an intenfe
heat will bring it into a ftate of fufion.
II. From this diverfity in the feveral qualities of Hence a
things arifts a confiderable difference as to the man- confider-
ner of our judging about them. For all fuch proper- able diver-
ties as are infeparable from objedts, when confidered in
as belonging to any genus or Ipecies, are affirmed ab- judging,
folutely, and without referve of that general idea.
Thus we fay ; Cold is very weighty, a flone is hard,
animals have a power offelf motion. But in the cafe
of mutable or accidental qualities, as they depend up¬
on fome other confideration diftindl from the general
idea; that alfo muft be taken into the account, in or¬
der to form an accurate judgment. Should we affirm,
for inftance, of fome ftones, that they are very fuf-
ceptible of a rolling motion ; the propofition, while it
remains in this general form, cannot with any advan¬
tage be introduced into our reafonings. An aptnefs
to receive that mode of motion flows from the figure
of the ftone ; which, as it may vary infinitely, our
judgment then only becomes applicable and determi¬
nate.
42
Which
gives rife
to the divi-
fion of pro-
pofitions in¬
to abfolute
and condi-
Part II. L O C
nate, when the particular figure, of which volubility
is a confequence, is alfo taken into the account. Let
us then bring in this other confideration, and the pro-
pofition will run as follows: Stones of a fphericalform
are eafily put into a rolling motion. Here we fee
the eondition upon which the predicate is affirmed,
and therefore know in what particular cafes the pro-
pofition may be applied.
III. This confideration of propofitions refpedting the
manner in which the predicate is affirmed of the fub-
jeft gives rife to the divifion of them into abfolute
and conditional. Abfolute propofitions are thofe where¬
in we affirm fome property infeparable from the idea
of the fubjeft, and which therefore belongs to it in
all poffible cafes ; as Cod is infinitely wife* Virtue
tends to the ultimate happinefs of man. But where
the predicate is not neceirarily connected with the
idea of the fubjeifi:, unlefs upon fome confideration di-
ftintft from that idea, there the propofition is called
conditional. The reafon of the name is taken from
the fuppofition annexed, which is of the nature of a
condition, and may be exprefled as fuch. Thus, If
a ft one is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will contrail
fome degree of heat. If a river runs in a very declin¬
ing channel, its rapidity will conftantly increafe.
IV. There is not any thing of greater importance
in philofophy than a due attention to this divifion of
propofitions. If we are careful never to affirm things
abfolutely but where the ideas are infeparably con¬
joined ; and if in our other judgments we diftin&ly
mark the conditions which determine the predicate to
belong to the fubjeft ; we fhall be the lefs liable to
miftake in applying general truths to the particular
concerns of human life. It is owing to the exact ob-
fervance of this rule that mathematicians have been
fo happy in their difcoveries, and that what they de-
monftrate of magnitude in general may be applied
with eafe in all obvious occurrences*
V. The truth of it is, particular propofitions are
then known to be true, when we can trace their con-
nedtion with univerfals; and it is accordingly the great
bufinefs of fcience to find out general truths that may
be applied with fafety in all obvious inftances. Now
the great advantage arifing from determining with
care the conditions upon.which one idea may be af¬
firmed or denied of another is this : that thereby par¬
ticular propofitions really become univerfal, may be
introduced with certainty into our reafonings, and
ferve as flandards to condudl and regulate our judg¬
ments. To illuftrate this by a familiar inflance : if
we fay. Some water aBs very forcibly ; the propofi¬
tion is particular : and as the conditions on which
this forcible adtion depends are not mentioned, it is
as yet uncertain in what cafes it may be applied. Let
us then fupply thefe conditions, and the propofition
will run thus ; Water conveyed in fufficient quantity
along a fteep defcent aBs very forcibly. Here we have
an univerfal judgment, inafmuch as the predicate
cible aBion may be afcribed to all water under the
circumfiances mentioned. Nor is it lefs evident that
the propofition in this new form is of eafy applica¬
tion ; and in fadt we find that men do apply it in in-
ftances where the forcible adlion of water is re¬
quired ; as in Corn-mills and many other works of art.
I
[ II 1
43
The great
importance
of this divi¬
fion, as it
renders
propofiti¬
ons deter¬
minate,
44
And redu¬
ces them
From par¬
ticulars to
generals.
Chap. V. Of Simple and Compound Propofttior.s. ^
I. Hitherto we have treated of propofitions, Divifion of
where only two ideas are compared together. Thefe propofiti-
are in the general called ftmple; becaufe, having but °ns into
one fubjedt and one predicate, they are the effect of
a fimple judgment that admits of no fubdivifion. But
if it fo happens that feveral ideas offer themfelves to
our thoughts at once, whereby we are led to affirm
the fame thing of different objects, or different things
of the fame objedt ; the propofitions expreffing thefe
judgments are called compound: becaufe they may bere-
folved into as many others as there arefubjedts or pre¬
dicates in the whole complex determination of the mind.
Thus, God is infinitely wife and infinitely powerful.
Here there are two predicates, infinite wifdom and
infinite power, both affirmed of the fame fubjedt; and
accordingly the propofition may be refolved into two
others, affirming thefe predicates feveraily. In like
manner in the propofition. Neither kings nor people
are exempt from death ; the predicate is denied of both
fubjedts, and may therefore be feparated from them
in diftindt propofitions. Nor is it lefs evident that if
a complex judgment confifts of feveral fubjedts,and
predicates, it may be refolved into as many fimple
propofitions as are the number of different ideas com¬
pared together. Riches and honours are apt to elate
the mind, and increafe the number of our defires. In
this judgment there are two fubjedts and two predi¬
cates, and it is at the fame time apparent that it may
be refolved into four difiindi propofitions. Riches
are apt to elate the'mind. Riches are apt to increafe
the number of our defires. And fo of honours. 45
II. Logicians have divided thefe compound propo- The proper
fitions into a great many different daffies ; but, in our notion of a
opinion, not with a due regard to their proper defi- coniPound
nition. Thus conditionals, cafuals, relatives, &c. are afcePrtain°a
mentioned as fo many diftindt fpecies of this kind, ed.
though in fadt they are no more than fimple propofi¬
tions. To give an inftance of a conditional ; If a
ftoue is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will contraB
fome degree of heat. Here we have but one fubjedt
and one predicate ; for the complex expreffion, A
fione expofed to the rays of the fun, conftitutes the pro¬
per fubjedt of this propofition, and is no more than
one determinate idea. The fame thing happens in
caufals. Rehoboam was unhappy becaufe he followed
evil counfel. There is here an appearance of two
propofitions arifing from the complexity of the ex¬
preffion ; but when we come to confider the matter
more nearly, it is evident that we have but a fingle
fubjedt and predicate. The purfuit of evil counfel
brought mifery upon Rehoboam. It is not enough
therefore to render a propofition compound, that the
fubjedt and predicate are complex notions, requiring
fometimes a whole fentence to exprefs them : for
in this cafe the comparifon is ftill confined to two
ideas, and conftitutes what we call a fimple judgment.
But where there are feveral fubjedts or predicates,
or both, as the affirmation or negation may be alike
extended to them all, the propofition expreffing fuch.
a judgment is truly a colledtion of as many fimple
ones as there are different ideas compared. Confining
ourfelves therefore to this more ftridt and juft notion
( b 2 ) of
t 12 3 L o c
of compound propofitions, they are all reducible to two
47 kinds, viz. copulatives and disjuntfives.
Compound III. A copulative propolition is, where the fubjefts
propofiti* and predicates are fo linked together, that they may
ons, either be ajj ievera]iy affirmed or denied one of another. Of
copu a ive. tj1js nature are examples of compound propofitions
given above. Riches and honours are apt to date the
mind, and increafe the number of our dejires. Neither
kings nor people are exempt from death. In the firft of
thefe the two predicates may be affirmed feverally of
each fubjeft, whence we have four diftinit propofi¬
tions. The other furnifhes an example of the nega¬
tive kind, where the fame predicate, being disjoined
from both (objects, may be alfo denied of them in
feparate propofitions.
Or disjunc- IV. The other fpecies of compound propofitions
live. are thofe called disjunctives; in which, comparing
feveral predicates with the fame fubjedt ; we affirm
that one of them neceflarily belongs to it, but leave
the particular predicate undetermined. If any one
for example fays, This world either exijls of itfelf or
is the work of fame all-wife and powerful caufe, it is
evident that one of the two predicates mu(t belong
to the world ; but as the propolition determines not
which, it is therefore of the kind we call disjunttive.
Such too are the following : The fun either moves
round the earth, or is the centre about which the earth
revolves. Friendjhip finds men equal, or makes them
fo. It is the nature of all propofitions of this clafs,
fuppofing them to be exadt in point of form, that up¬
on determining the particular predicate, the refi are
of courfe to be removed ; or if all the predicates but
one are removed, that one neceffarily takes place.
Thus in the example given above; if we allow the
world to be the work of fome wife and powerful
caufe, we of courfe deny it to be felf-exi(tent; or if
we deny it to be felf-exiftent, we muft neceffarily
admit that it was produced by fome wife and power¬
ful caufe. Now this particular manner of linking the
predicates together, fo that the eftablifhing one dif-
places all the reft; or the excluding all but one necef¬
farily eftabliffies that one ; cannot otherwife be effec¬
ted than by means of disjunctive particles. And hence
it is that propolitions of this clafs take their names
from thefe particles which make fo neceffary a part of
them, and indeed conftitute their very nature confi-
*iered as a diftintft fpecies.
Chap. VI. Of the Divifion of Propofitions into Self-
evident and DemonJIrable.
Propofiti- I. When any propofition is offered to the view of
ens divided the mind, if the terms in which it is expreffed and
into felf- under(lood ; upon comparing the ideas together, the
demonftra^ agreement or difagreement alferted is either itnmedi-
ye> " ately perceived, or found to lie beyond the prefent
reach of the underftanding. In the firft cafe the pro¬
pofition is faid to be fef-evident, and admits not of
any proof, becaufe a bare attention to the ideas them-
felves produces full convidtion and certainty ; nor is
it poffible to call in any thing more evident by way of
confirmation. But where the connedtion or repug¬
nance comes not fo readily under the infpedtion of the
mind, there we muft have recourle to reafoning;
and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make out the
* I c. Part II.
truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence fhall ac¬
company every ftep of the procedure, we are then
able to demonftrate what we affert, and the propofi¬
tion itfelf is faid to be demonflrable. When we affirm,
for inftance, that it is impojfible for the fame thing to be
and not to be •, whoever underftands the terms made
ufe of perceives at firft glance the truth of what is af-
ferted, nor can he by any efforts bring himfelf to be¬
lieve the contrary. The propofition therefore is felf-
evident, and fuch that it is imppffible by reafoning to
make it plainer ; becaufe there is no truth more ob¬
vious or better known, from which as a confequence
it may be deduced. But if we fay, This world had a
beginning ; the alfertion is indeed equally true, but
ffiines not forth with the fame degree of evidence.
We find great difficulty in conceiving how the world
could be made out of nothing : and are not brought
to a free and full confent, until by reafoning we ar¬
rive at a clear view of the abliirdity involved in the
contrary fuppofition. Hence this propofition is of the
kind we call demonfirable, inafmuch as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be
made appear by means of others more known and
obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable confe-
quence.
il. From what has been faid it appears, that rea¬
foning is employed only about demonftrable propofi¬
tions, and that our intuitive and felf-evident percep¬
tions, are the ultimate foundation on which it refts.
III. Self-evident propofitions furnifh the firft prin- Sclf-evi-
ciples of reafoning ; and it is certain, that if in our dent truths
refearches we employ only fuch principles as have 1,15
this character of felf-evidence, and apply them accord- of
ing to the rules to be afterwards explained, we fhall jng,
be in no danger of error in advancing from one dil-
covery to another. For this I may appeal to the
writings of the mathematicians, which, being con-
dutfted by the exprefs model here mentioned, are an
inconteftible proof of the firmnefs and (lability of hu¬
man knowledge, when built upon fo fure a founda¬
tion. For not only have the propofitions of this fcience
flood the teft of ages; but are found attended with
that invincible evidence, as forces the affent of all
who duly confider the proofs upon which they are
eftablifhed.
IV. Firft then it is to be obferved, that they have Definitions
been very careful in afeertaining their ideas, and fix- a great
ing the fignification of their terms. For this purpofe help to
they begin with definitions, in which the meaning of
their words is fo diftintftly explained, that they can- 4erce
not fail to excite in the mind of an attentive reader knowledge,
the very fame ideas as are annexed to them by the
writer. And indeed the clearnefs and irrefiftible evi¬
dence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing
fo much as this care in laying the foundation. Where
the relation between any two ideas is accurately and
juftly traced, it will not be difficult for another to com¬
prehend that relation, if in felting himfelf to difeever
it he brings the very fame ideas into compariftin. But
if, on the contrary, he affixes to his words ideas dif¬
ferent from thofe that were in the mind of him who
firft advanced the demonftration ; it is evident, that
as the fame ideas are not compared, the fame rela¬
tion cannot fubfift, infomuch that a propofition will be
rejected
Part II.
Mathemati¬
cians, by
beginning
with them,
procure a
ready re¬
ception to
the truths
they ad¬
vance.
S3
The efta-
biiihing of
principles,
the fecond
ftep in ma¬
thematical
knowledge.
rejected as falfe, which, had the terms been rightly
underftood, muft have appeared unexceptionabiy true.
A fquare, for inftance, is a figure bounded by four
equal right lines, joined together at right angles. Here
the nature of the angles makes no lefs a part of the
idea, than the equality of the fides ; and many pro¬
perties demonftrated of the fquare flow entirely from
its being a rediangular figure. If therefore we fup-
pofe a man, who has formed a partial notion of a
Iquare, comprehending only the equality of its fides,
without regard to the angles, reading fonie demon-
ftration that implies alfo this latter confideration; it
is plain he would reject it as not univerfally true, in-
afmuch as it could not be applied where the fides
were joined together at unequal angles. For this laft
figure, anfwering ftili to his idea of a fquare, would
be yet found without the property affigned to it in
the propofition. But if it conies afterwards to correal
his notion, and render his idea compleat, be will then
readily own the truth and ju fine is of the demonftration.
V. We fee therefore, that nothing contributes fo
much to the improvement and certainty of human
knowledge, as the having determinate ideas, and
keeping them Heady and invariable in all our dif-
courfes and reafonings about them. And on this ac¬
count it is, that mathematicians, as was before ob-
ferved, always begin by defining rheir terms, and di-
flin&ly unfolding the notions they are intended to ex-
prefs. Hence Inch as apply themfelyes to thefe ftu-
dies have exactly the fame views of things ; and,
bringing always the very fame ideas into comparifon,
readily difeerns the relations between them.
VI. When they have taken this firft ftep, and made
known the ideas whofe relations they intend to in-
veftigate ; their next care is, to lay down fome fclf-
evident truths, which may ferve as a foundation for
their future reafonings. And here indeed they proceed
with remarkable circumipedtion, admitting no princi¬
ples but what flow immediately from their definitions,
and neceffarily force themfelves upon a mind in any
degree attentive to its perceptions. Thus a circle is
a figure formed by a right line moving round f’ome as where Euclid teaches us to deferibe a fquare upon
fixed point in the lame plane. The fixed point round a given right-line.
55
Hence ma¬
thematical
principles
diftinguifh-
JIG. [ 13 J
VIII. From this twofold confideration of propofitions
arifes the twofold divifton of mathematical principles
into axioms and poftulates. By an axiom they un-
det Hand any felf-evident fpeculative truth’, as, that the
whole is greater than its parts : That things equal to
one and the fame thing are equal to one another. But a
felf-evident praftical propoiition is what they call a
populate. Such are thofe of Euclid ; that a finite right
line may be continued direfily forwards ,• that a circle
?nay be deferibed about any centre with any difiance.
And here we are to obferve, that as in an axiom the
agreement or difagreement between the fubjeft and
predicate muft come under the immediate infpe&ion
of the mind ; lb in a poflulate, not only the poffibility
of the thing aflerted muft be evident at firft view, but
alfb the manner in which it may be tffecled. For
where this manner is not of itfelf apparent, the pro¬
pofition comes under the notion of the demonftrable
kind, and is treated as fuch by geometrical writers.
Thus, to draw a right line from one point to anothert
is affumed by Euclid as a poffulate, becaufe the man¬
ner of doing it is fo obvious, as to require no previous
teaching. But then it is not equally evident, how we
are to conftrudt an equilateral triangle. For this rea-
fon he advances it as a demonftrable propofition, lays
down rules for the exabl performance, and at the fame
time proves, that if thefe rules are followed, the figure
will be juffly delcribed.
IX. This leads us to take notice, that as felf-evident
truths are diltinguifhed into different kinds, according
as they are fpeculative or practical; fo is it alfo with
demonftrable propofitions. A demonftrable fpecula¬
tive propofition is by mathematicians called ^ theorem.
Such is the famous 47th propofition of the firft book of
the elements, known by the name of the Tythagoric
theorem, from its fuppofed inventor Pythagoras, viz.
“ that in every right-angled triangle, the 1'quare de-
“ feribed upon the fide fubtending the right-angle is
“ equal to both the fquares deferibed upon the fides
“ containing the right-angle.” On the other hand, a
demonftrable praiftical propofition is called a proble
56
And de-
monftrable
propofiti*-
thcoremt-
' pro—■
54
Propofiti¬
ons divided
into fpecu¬
lative and
practical.
which the line is fuppofed to move, and where one of
its extremities terminates, is called the centre of the
circle. The other extremity, which is conceived to
be carried round until it returns to the point whence
it firft let out, deferibes a curve running into itlelf,
and termed the circumference. All right lines drawn
from the centre to the circumference are called radii.
From thefe definitions compared,geometricians derive
this felf-evident truth; that the radii of the fame circle
are all equal to one another.
VII. We now obierve, that in all propofitions we
either affirm or deny fome property of the idea that
conftitutes the fubjetft of our judgment, or we main¬
tain that fomething may be done of effected. The
firft fort are called fpeculative propofitions, as in the
example mentioned above, the radii if the fame circle
are all equal one to another. The others are called
fraflical, for a reafon too obvious to be'mentioned ;
thus, that a right line may be drawn from one point to
another, is a practical propofition ; iuafmuch as it ex-
preffes that fomething may be done.
X. It may not be amifs to add, that, befides the
four kinds of propofitions already mentioned, mathe¬
maticians have alfo a fifth, known by the name of
corollaries, Thefe are ufualiy fubjoined to theorems or
problems, anti differ from them only in this ; that they
flow from what is there demonftrated in fo obvious a
manner as to difeover their dependence upon the pro-
pofirion whence they are deduced, almoft as foon as
propofed. Thus Euclid having demonftrated, “ that
“ in every right-lined triangle all the three angles ta-
“ ken together are equal to two right-angles adds
by way of corollary, “ that all the three angles of any,
“ one triangle taken together are equal to all the
“ three angles of any other triangle taken toge-
“ ther:” which is evident ar firft fight; becaufe in
all cafes they are-equal to two right ones, and things
equal to one and the fame thing are equal to one ano¬
ther.
The fcholia of mathematicians are indifferently an¬
nexed to definitions, propofitions, or corollaries ; and
anfwer the fame purpofes as annotations upon a cl flic
author.
ST
Corollaries'
are obvious
deduftions
from theo¬
rems or
problems.
58
Scholia
ferve the
purpofes of
annotations,
or a com»
meat.
[ 14 ] LOGIC. Partin
author. For in them occafion is taken to explain what¬
ever may appear intricate and obfcure in a train of
reafoning; to anfwer objections; to teach the applica¬
tion and ufes of propoiitions; to lay open the original
PAR
Of REAS
Chap. I. Of Reafoning in general, and the parts of
* 59 which it confifh.
"Remote re- TT often happens in comparing ideas together, that
lations dif- their agreement or difagreement cannot bedifeern-
covered by ecj at vjew> efpecially if they are of fuch a nature as
» not to admit of an exadt application one to another,
interme- . _ 11 r ,.r
diate ideas. When, for inltance, we compare two ngures ot a clit-
ferent make, in order to judge of their equality or in¬
equality, it is plain, that by barely conficlering the fi¬
gures themfelves, we cannot arrive at an exadl de¬
termination ; becaufe, by reafon of their difagreeing
forms, it is impoffible fo to put them together, as that
their feveral parts fhall mutually coincide. Here then
it becomes neceffary to look out for fome third idea
that will admit of fuch an application as the prefent
cafe requires; wherein if we fucceed, all difficulties
vanifh, and the relation we are in queft of may be
traced with eafe. Thus right-lined figures are all re¬
duced to fquares, by means of which we can meafure
their areas, and determine exactly their agreement or
difagreement in point of magnitude.
This man- II. But how can any third idea ferve to difeover a
ner of am- relation between two others ? The anfwer is, by be-
ving at mg compared feverally with thefe others ; for fuch a
med tea-* comparifon enables us to fee how far the ideas with
foning. which this third is compared are connected or disjoin¬
ed between themfelves. In the example mentioned
above of two right-lined figures, if we compare each of
them with fome fquare whofe area is known, and find
the one exadily equal to it, and the other lefs by a
fquare inch, w'e immediately conclude that the area of
the firft figure is a fquare inch greater than that of the
fecond. This manner of determining the relation be¬
tween any two ideas, by the intervention of fome
third with which they may be compared, is that which
we call reafoning ; and is indeed the chief inftrument
by which we pufh on our difeoveries, and enlarge our
knowledge. The great art lies in finding out fuch in¬
termediate ideas, as, when compared with the others
in the queflion, will furnifh evident and known truths;
becaufe, as will afterwards appear, it is only by means
of them that we arrive at the knowledge of what is
hidden and remote.
The parts HI. Hence it appears, that every adt of reafoning
that confti- neceffarily includes three diftindt judgments ; two
tute an aft wherein the ideas whofe relation we want to difeover
of reafbn. are feverally compared with the middle idea, and a
fyflogifm. wlierein they are themfelves connected or dif-
^ joined, according to the refult of that comparifon.
Now as in the fecond part of logic our judgments,
when put into words, were called propoiitions, fo
here in the third part the expreffions of our reafon-
ings are termed fyllogifus. And hence it follows.
and hiftory of the feveral difeoveries made in the
fcience ; and in a word, to acquaint us with all fuch
particulars as deferve to be known, whether confider-
ed as points of curiofity or profit.
T III.
O N I N G.
that as every aft of reafoning implies three feveral
judgments, fo every fyllogilm miift include three di-
ftinft propofttions. When a reafoning is thus put into,
words, and appears in form of a fyllogifm, the inter¬
mediate idea made ufe of, to difeover the agreement
or difagreement we fearch for, is called the middle
term ; and the two ideas themfelves, with which this
third is compared, go by the name of the extremes. g3
IV. But as thefe things are belt illuflrated by ex- Inftance,
amples; let us, for inftance, fet ourfelves to inquire man and ac-
whether men are accountable for their attions. A> the rentable-
relation between the ideas of man and accountable'nefs ne s'
comes not within the immediate view of the mind,
onr firft care muft be to find out fome third idea that
will enable us the more eafily to difeover and trace it.
A very fmall meafure of refleftion is fufficient to in¬
form us, that no creature can be accountable for his
aftions, unlefs we fuppofe him capable of diftinguifh-
ing the good from the bad; that is, unlefs we fuppofe
him pofteffed of reafon. Nor is this alone fufficient.
For what would it avail him to know good from bad
aftions, if he had no freedom of choice, nor could a-
void the one and purfue the other ? hence it becomes
neceffary to take in both confiderations in the prefent
cafe. It is at the fame time equally apparent, that
where ever there is this ability of diftinguiffiing good
from bad aftions, and of purfuing the one and avoid¬
ing the other, there alfo a creature is accountable. We
have then got a third idea, with which accountable-
nefs is infeparably connefted, viz. reafon and liberty ;
which are here to be confidered as making up one
complex conception. Let us now take this middle
idea, and compare it with the other term in the quef-
tion, viz. man, and we all know by experience that it
may be affirmed of him. Having thus by means of
the intermediate idea formed two fevefal judgments,
viz. that man is pojfefed of reafon and liberty ; and
that reafon and liberty imply accountablenefs ; a third
obvioully and necelfarily follows, viz. that man is ac¬
countable for his alliens. Here then we have a com-
pleat aft of reafoning, in which, according to what has
been already obferved, there are three diftinft judg¬
ments ; two that may be ftiled previous, inafmuch as
they lead to the other, and arife from comparing the
middle idea with the two ideas in the queftion : the
third is a confequence of thefe previous afts, and flows
from combining the extreme ideas between them¬
felves. If now we put this reafoning into words, it
exhibits what logicians term a fyllogifm ; and, when
propofed in due form, runs thus:
“ Every creature poflefled of reafon and liberty is
<l accountable for his aftions.
“ Man is a creature poffefled of reafon and liberty;
“ Therefore man is accountable for his aftions.”
V.
Part III.
LOGIC.
[ -5 3
Premifes t^'ls we ma7 obferve, that there are
condufion three feveral propofitions exprefling the three judg-
extremes/ ments implied in the a£t of reafoning; and fo difpofed,
middle as to reprefent diftindtly what paifes within the mind in
terra. tracing the more diftant relations of its ideas. The two
firft propofitions anfwer the two previous judgments
in reafoning, and are called the premifes, becaufe they
are placed before the other. The third is termed the
couclujion, as being gained in confequence of what was
afferted in die premifes. We are alfo to remember,
that the terms exprefling the two ideas whofe rela¬
tions we inquire after, as here man and aecountabie-
n-ef, are in general called the extremes; and that the
intermediate idea, by means of which the relation is
traced, viz. a creature pofejfed of reafon and liberty,
takes the name of the middle term. Hence it follows,
that by the premifes of a fyllogifm we are always to
underlland the two propofitions where the middle term
is feverally compared with the extremes; for thefe con-
ftitute the previous judgments, whence the truth we
are in queft of is by reafoning deduced. The conch’-
fion is that other propofition, in which the extremes
themfelves are joined or feparated agreeably to what
64 appears upon the above comparifon.
Major and VI. The conclufion is made up of the extreme terms
minor of the fyllogifm : and the extreme, which ferves as the
term, ma- predjcate of the conclufion, goes by the name of the
nZ/propo-* ma}or term • th6 other extreme, which makes the
fition. fubjeft in the fame propofition, is called the minor
term. From this diftindtion of the extremes arifes alfo
a diftinftion between the premifes, where thefe ex¬
tremes are feveraliy compared with the middle term.
That propofitibn which compares the greater extreme,
or the predicate of the conclufion with the middle
term, is called the major propofition : the other,
wherein the fame middle term is compared with the
fubjeift of the conclufion or lefler extreme, is called
the minor propofition. All this is obvious from the fyl¬
logifm already given, where the conclufion is, man is
accountable for bis attions. For here the predicate
accountable for his aftions, being conne&ed with the
middle term in the firft of the two premifes ; every
creature poffefftd of reafn and liberty is accountable
for his aft ions, gives what we call the major propofi¬
tion. In the fecond of the premifes; man is a crea¬
ture pojfejfed of reafon and liberty, we find the lefler
extreme, or fubjedf of the conclufion, viz. man, con-
neifted with the fame middle term, whence it is known
to be the minor propofition. When a fyllogifm is pro-
pofed in due form, the major propofition is always
65 placed firft, the minor next, and the conclufion laft.
In a fmgle VII. Thefe things premifed, we may in the gene-
f^in^ "the ra'reafoning to be an a (ft or operation of the
premhes 6 deducing feme unknown propofition from other
muft be in- previous ones that are evident and known. Thefe
tuitive previous prppofitions, in a fimple aift of reafoning, are
trudis. only two in number ; and it is always required that
they be of themfelves apparent to the underftanding,
infomuch that we aflent to and perceive the truth of
them as foon as propofed. In the fyllogifm given a-
bove, the premifes are fupppofed to be felf-evident
truths ; otherwife the conclufion could not be inferred
by a fingle a<ft of reafoning. If, for inftance, in the
major, every creature pojfejfed of reafon and liberty is
accountable for his aflions, the connection between
the fubje<ft and predicate could not be perceived by a
bare attention to the ideas themfelves ; it is evident
that this propofition would no lefs require a proof than
the conclufion deduced from it. In this cafe a new
middle term muft be fought for, to trace the connec¬
tion here fuppofed ; and this of courfe furnilhes ano¬
ther fyllogifm, by which having eftablifticd the propo¬
fition in queftion, we are then, and not before, at li¬
berty to ufe it in any fucceeding train of reafoning.
And fliould it fo happen, that in this fecond eflay there
was ftill fome previous propofition whofe truth did not
appear at firft fight, we muft then have recourfe to a
third fyllogifm, in order to lay open that truth to the
mind ; becaufe fo long as the premifes remain uncer¬
tain, the conclufion built upon them muft be fo too.
When, by conducing our thoughts in this manner,
we at laft arrive at fome fyllogifm where the previ¬
ous propofitions are intuitive truths ; the mind then
refts in full fecurity, as perceiving that the feveral
conclufions it has pafled through Hand upon the im¬
moveable foundation of felf-evidence, and when tra¬
ced to their fource terminate in it. 66
VIII. We fee therefore, that in order to infer a Reafoning,.
conclufion by a fingle a eft of reafoning, the premifes
muft be intuitive propofitions. Where they are not, 0fjt oniya
previous fyllogifms are required ; in which cafe rea- concatena-
foning becomes a complicated a<ft, taking in a variety tion of fyl-
of fucceflive fteps. This frequently happens in tra- logifms.
cing the more remote relation of our ideas; where,
many middle terms being called in, the conclufion can¬
not be made out but in confequence of a feries of fyl¬
logifms following one another in train.. But although
in this concatenation of propofitions, thofe that form-
the premifes of the laft fyllogifm are often confide-
rably removed from felf-evidence ; yet if we trace
the reafoning backwards, we fliall find them the con-
clufions of previous fyllogifms, whofe premifes ap¬
proach nearer and nearer to intuition in proportion as
we advance, and are found at laft to terminate in it.
And if, after having thus unravelled a demonftration,
we take it the contrary way ; and obferve how the
mind, fetting out with intuitive perceptions, couples
them together to form a conclufion ; how, by intro¬
ducing this conclufipn into another fyllogifm, it ftill ad¬
vances one ftep farther; and fo proceeds, making
every new difeovery. fubfervient to its future pro-
grefs ; we fliall then perceive clearly, that reafoning,
in the higheft exercife of that faculty, is no more than
an orderly combination of thofe fimple aefts which we
have already fo fully explained. 67
IX. Thus we fee, that reafoning beginning with Requires
firft principles, rifes gradually from one judgnient to intuitive
another, and connects them in fuch manner, that every certairity 111
ftage of the progreflion brings intuitive certainty along „f th^ pro-
with it. And now at length we may clearly under- grellion.
ftand the definition given above of this diftingnifhing
faculty of the human mind. Reafon, we have laid, is
the ability of deducing unknown truths from principles
or propofitions that are already known. This evi¬
dently appears by the foregoing account, where we
fee that no propofition is admitted into a fyllogifm, to
ferve as one of the previous judgments on which the
conclufion refts, unlefs it is itfelf a known and efta-
blifhed
[ 16 ]
69
The firft
gards tl
genera ;
fpecies of
things.
The fteps
by which
lions of this
fort.
LOG
bliflied truth, whofe connexion with lelf-evident prin¬
ciples has been already traced.
Chap. II. Of the fever*1 kinds of Reafoning ; and
frfl, of that by which wc determine the Genera and
Species of Things.
I. All the aims of human reafon may in the general
be reduced to thel'e two: 1. To rank things under
thofe univerfal ideas to which they truly belong; and,
2. To aferibe to them their feveral attributes and pro¬
perties in confequence of that diftribution.
II. One great aim of human reafon is to determine
the genera and fpecies of things. We have feen in
the firft Part of this treatife, how the mind proceeds
in framing general ideas. We have alfo leen in the
fecond Part, bow by means of thefe general ideas we
come by univerfal propofitions. Now as in thefe uni¬
verfal propofitions we affirm fome property of a ge¬
nus or fpecies, it is plain that we cannot apply this
property to particular objects till we have firft deter¬
mined whether they are comprehended under that ge¬
neral idea of which the property is affirmed. Thus
there are certain properties belonging to all even num¬
bers, which neverthelefs cannot be applied to any par¬
ticular number, until we have firft diffiovered it to be
of the fpecies exprefled by that natural name. Hence
reafoning begins with referring things to their feve¬
ral divifions and clafles in the Icale of our ideas ; and
as thefe divifions are all diftinguiflied by particular
names, we hereby learn to apply the terms expreffing
general conceptions to fuch particular objects as come
under our immediate obfervation.
III. Now in order to arrive at thefe conclufions, by
which the feveral objects of perception are brought un¬
der general names, two things are manifeftly necef-
fary. Firft, that we take a view of the idea itfelf
denoted by that general name, and carefully attend to
the diftinguilhing marks which ferve to charadterize
it. Secondly, that we compare this idea with the
objedl under confideration, obferving diligently where¬
in they agree or differ. If the idea is found to corre-
fpond with the particular objedt, we then without he-
litation apply the general name ; but if no fuch corre-
fpondence intervenes, the conclufion muft neceffarily
take a contrary turn. Let us, for inftance, take the
number eight, and confider by what fteps we are led
to pronounce it an even number. Firft then, we call
to mind the idea fignified by the expreffion an even
number, viz. that it is a number divifible into two equal he frequently requires us to draw lines through certain
parts. We then compare this idea with the number points, and according to fuch and fuch diredtions.
ight, and, finding them roanifeftly to agree, fee at The figures thence refulting are often fquares, paral-
 .u rr, r _ j-u *..r.— nru^o. klograms, or rectangles. Yet Euclid never fuppofes
this from their bare appearance, but always demon-
fixates it upon the ftridleft principles of geometry.
Nor is the method he takes in any thing different from
that deferibed above. Thus, for inftance, having de¬
fined a fquare to be a figure bounded by four equal
fides joined together at right angles; when fuch a fi¬
gure arifes in any conftrudtion previous to the demon-
ftration of a propofition, yet he never calls it by that
name until he has ffiewn that its Tides are equal, and
all its angles right ones. Now this is apparently the
I C. Partlll.
Toning. When we fee a horfe in the fields, or a dog
in the ftreet, we readily apply the name of the fpe¬
cies ; habit, and a familiar acquaintance with the ge¬
neral idea, fuggefting it inftantaneoufly to the mind.
We are not however to imagine on this account that
the underftanding departs from the ufual rules of juft
thinking. A frequent repetition of adls begets a ha¬
bit ; and habits are attended with a certain prompt-
nefs of execution, that prevents our obferving the le-
veral fteps and gradations by which any courfe of ac¬
tion is accomplilhed. But in other inftances, where
we judge not by precontracted habits, as when the
general idea is very complex, or lefs familiar to the
mind, we always proceed according to the form of
reafoning eftablilhed above. A goldfmith, for in¬
ftance, who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whe¬
ther it be of the fpecies called go/d, firft examines its
properties, and then comparing them with the gene¬
ral idea fignified by that name, if he finds a perfedt
correfpondence, no longer hefitates under what clafs
of metals to rank it. y2
V. Nor let it be imagined that our refearches here, The great
becaufe in appearance bounded to the impoling of ge- importance
neral names upon particular objects, are therefore tri- th5s
vial and of little confequence. Some of the moft con-
fiderable debates among mankind, and fuch too as “
nearly regard their lives, intereft, and happinefs, turn
wholly upon this article. Is it not the chief employ¬
ment of our feveral courts of judicature to determine
in particular inftances, what is law, juitice, and equity ?
Of what importance is it in many cafes to decide a-
right whether an adtion ffiall be termed murder or
mats/laughter ? We fee then that no lefs than the lives
and fortunes of men depend often upon thefe decifions.
The reafon is plain. Adtions, when once referred to
a general idea, draw after them all that may be af¬
firmed of that idea ; infomuch that the determining
the fpecies of adtions is all one with determining what
proportion of praife or difpraife, commendation or
blame, &c. ought to follow them. For as it is allow¬
ed that murder deferves death ; by bringing any par¬
ticular adtion under the head of murder, we of courfe
decide the puniffiment due to it. 73
VI. But the great importance of this branch of rea- Andtheex-
foning, and the neceffity of care and circumfpedtion °bfer-
in referring particular objedts to general ideas, is ftill van^Y°jLt
farther evident from the pradtice of the mathemati- mathemati¬
cians. Every one who has read Euclid knows, that cians.
once the neceffity of admitting the conclufion. Thefe
feveral judgments therefore transferred into language,
and reduced to the form of a fyllogifm, appear thus :
<c Every number that may be divided into two
“ equal parts is an even number.
“ The number eight may be divided into two equal
ThofV fteps “ Pa|ls 5 . . . . . „
always fol- Therefore the number eight is an even number,
lowed, tho' IV. Here it may be obferved, that where the ge-
in familiar neral idea, to which particular objedls are referred, is
cales we do very familiar to the mind, and frequently in view; .... .... .-6.—  ...... — ~ri —
attendTo * reference, and the application of the general fame form of reafoning we have before exhibited in
them. name, feem to be made without any apparatus of rea- proving eight to be an even number.
VII. Having
Part III. LOGIC. [ 17 ]
74 VII. Having thus explained the rules by which we
invariable are to con<^u^ ourfelves in ranking particular objects
ideas with under general ideas, and fliewn their conformity to
a fteady ap- the practice and manner of the mathematicians ; it re¬
plication of mains only to obferve, that the true way of render-
names, ren- }ng this part 0f knowledge both eafy and certain, is,
part of * ^ habituating ourfelves to clear and determinate ideas,
knowledge and keeping them fteadily annexed to their refpeftive
both eafy names. For as all our aim is to apply general words
and certain, aright, if thefe words ftand for invariable ideas that
are perfectly known to the mind, and can be readily
diftinguilhed upon occafion, there will be little danger
of miitake or error in our reafonings. Let us fuppofe
that, by examining any objedt, and carrying our at¬
tention fucceffively from one part to another, we have
acquainted ourfelves with the feveral particulars ob-
fervable in it. If among thefe we find fuch as confti-
tute fome general idea, framed and fettled before¬
hand by the underftanding, and diftinguilljed by a par¬
ticular name, the refemblance thus known and percei¬
ved necelfarily determines the fpecies of the objedt,
and thereby gives it a right to the name by which
that fpecies is called. Thus four equal fides, joined
together at right angles, make up the notion of a
fquare. As this is a fixed and invariable idea, with¬
out which the general name cannot be applied, we ne-.
ver call any particular figure a fqudre until it appears
to have thefe feveral conditions; and contrarily,
wherever a figure is found with thefe conditions, it
necefiarily takes the name of a fquare. The fame
will be found to hold in all our other reafonings of this
kind, where nothing can create any difficulty but the
want of fettled ideas. If, for inftance, we have not
determined within ourfelves the precife notion deno¬
ted by the word manjlaughter, it will be impoffible for
' us to decide whether any particular adtion ought to
bear that name : becaufe, however nicely we examine
the adtion itfelf, yet, being ftrangers to the general
idea with which it is to be compared, we are utterly
unable to judge of their agreement or difagreement.
But if we take care to remove this obftacle, and di-
ftindtly trace the two ideas under confideration, all
difficulties vaniflt, and the refolution becomes both eafy
and certain.
VIII. Thus we fee of what importance it is towards
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge,
that we accuftom ourfelves to clear and determinate
ideas, and a fteady. application of words.
Chap. III. Of Riafoning, as it regards the Powers and
Properties of Thingst and tl; Relations of our gene-
, ral Ideas.
Thediftino I. We come now to the fecond great end'which
tion of rea- men have in view in their reafonings; namely, the
rcTards the c^cover*ng an^ afcribing to things their feveral attri-
fciencesand ^utes an<^ properties. And here it will be neceflary
as it con- to diftinguilh between reafoning, as it regards the
cerns com- fciences, and as it concerns common life. In the fci-
mon life, ences, our reafon is employed chiefly about univerfal
truths, it being by them alone that the bounds of hu¬
man knowledge are enlarged. Hence the divifion of
things into various clafles, called otherwife^wrr« and
fpecies. For thefe univerfal ideas being fet up as the
reprefentatives of many particular things, whatever
is affirmed of them may be alfo affirmed of all the in-*
dividuals to which they belong. Murder, for inftance,
is a general idea, reprefenting a certain fpecies of hu¬
man actions. Reafon tells us that the punilhment due
to it is death. Hence every particular action, coming
under the notion of murder, has the punilhment of
death allotted to it. Here then we apply the general
truth to fome obvious inftance ; and this is what pro¬
perly conftitutes the reafoning of common life. For
men, in their ordinary tranfa<51ions and intercourfe
one with another, have, for the moft part, to do on¬
ly with particular obje<fts. Our friends and relations,
their charadlers and behaviour, the conftitution of the
feveral bodies that furround us, and the ufes to which
they may be applied, are what chiefly engage our at¬
tention. In all thefe, we reafon about particular
things; and the whole refult of our reafoning is, the
applying the general truths of th.e fciences in the or¬
dinary tranfadtions of human life. When we fee a
viper, we avoid it. • Wherever we have occafion
for the forcible adlion of water to move a body that
makes confiderable refiftance, we take care to con¬
vey it in fuch a manner that it fhall fall upon the ob¬
ject with impetuofity. Now all this happehs in con-
fequence of our familiar and ready application of thefe
two general truths. The bite of a viper is mortal.
Water, falling upon a body with impetuofity, alls very
forcibly towards fet ting it in motion. In like manner,
if we fet ourfelves to confider any particular charac¬
ter, in order to determine the Ihare of praife or dif-
praife that belongs to it, our great concern is to af-
certain exactly the proportion of virtue and vice.
The reafon is obvious. A juft determination, in all
cafes of this kind, depends entirely upon an applica¬
tion of thefe general maxims of morality. Virtuous
allions deferve praife. Vicious allions deferve blame. 76
II. Hence it appears that reafoning, as it regards The fteps
common life, is no more than the afcribing the ge- by which
neral properties of things to thofe feveral objects with
which we are more immediately concerned, accord- foning of
ing as they are found to be of that particular divifion common
or clafs to which the properties belong. The fteps hhs.
then by which we proceed are manifeftly thefe. Firft,
we refer the objedl under confideration to fome gene¬
ral idea or clafs of things. We then recollect the fe¬
veral attributes of that general idea. And, laftly, a-
fcribe all thofe attributes to the prefent objetft. Thus,
in confidering the character of Sempronius, if we find
it to be of the kind called virtuous, when we at the
fame time reflect that a virtuous character is deferv-
ing of efteem, it naturally and obvioufly follows that
Sempronios is fo too. Thefe thoughts put into a fyl-
logifin, in order to exhibit the form of reafoning here
required, run thus:
(( Every virtuous man is worthy of efteem.
“ Sempronius is a virtuous man:
“ Therefore Sempronius is worthy of efteem.” 77
III. By this fyllogifm it appears, that before we af- The con-
firm any thing of a particular object, that object muft
be referred to fome general idea. Sempronius is pro- 0f the twa
nounced worthy of efteem only in confequence of his grand bran¬
being a virtuous man, or coming under that general ches of rea-
notion. Hence we fee the neceflary connection of ?ne
the various parts of reafoning, and the dependence ano“
[ i8 ] LOGIC. PartHL
they have one upon another. The determining the
genera and fpecies of things is, as we have faid, one
ekercife of human reafon; and here we find that this
exercife is the firft in order, and previous to the o-
ther, which confifts in afcribing to them their powers,
properties, and relations. But when we have taken
this previous Itep, arid brought particular objects un¬
der general names ; as the properties we afcribe to
them are no other than thofe of the general idea, it is
plain that, in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in this part
of knowledge, we mull thoroughly acquaint ourfelves
with the leveral relations and attributes of thefe our
general ideas. When this is done, the other part will
be eafy, and requires fcarce any labour or thought,
as being no more than an application of the general
form of reafoning reprefented in the foregoing fyllo-
gifm. Now as we have already fufficiently fliown
how we are to proceed in determining the genera
and fpecies of things, which, as we have laid, is the
previous Itep to this fecond branch of human know¬
ledge ; all that is farther wanting towards a due ex¬
planation of it is, to offer fome confideratioris as to
the manner of inveitigating the general relations of
our ideas. This is the higheft exercife of the powers
of the underftanding, and that by means whereof we
arrive at the difcovery of univerfal truths ; infomuch
that our deductions in this way conftitute that particu¬
lar fpecies of reafoning which we have before faid re-
78 gards principally the Iciences.
Two dungs IV. But that we may conduct our thoughts with
roake^ t0 fome order and method> we lhall begin with obferv-
goodrea- ing, that the relations of our general ideas are of two
ibner. kinds: either fuch as immediately difcover themfelves,
upon comparing the ideas one with another; or 1’uch
as, being more remote and diftant, require art and
contrivance to bring them into view. The relations
of the firft kind furnifli us with intuitive and felf-evi-
deut truths : thofe of the fecond are traced by reafon¬
ing, and a due application of intermediate ideas. It
is of this laft kind that we are to fpeak here, having
difpatched what was neceflary with regard to the o-
ther in the fecond Part. As, therefore, in tracing the
more diftant relations of things, we muft always have
recourfe to intervening ideas, and are more or lefs
fuccefsful in our refearches according to our acquain¬
tance with thefe ideas, and ability of applying them 5
it is evident that, to make a good reafoner, two
things are principally required. Firfi, An extc nfive
knowlege of thofe intermediate ideas, by means of
which things may be compared one with another.
Secondly, The Ikill and talent of applying them happily
in all particular inftances that come under confitlera-
79 tion.
Firft, an y. in order to our fuccefsful progrefs in reafoning,
extenfive we muq. ^av.e an extenfive knowledge of thofe inter-
ofhiterme- mediate ideas by means of which things may Ire com-
diate ideas, pared one with another. For as it is not every idea
that will anfwer the purpofe of our inquiries, but fuch
only as are peculiarly related to the objects about
which we reafon, fo as, by a comparifon with them,
to furnilh evident and known truths; nothing is more
apparent than that the greater variety of conceptions
we can call into view, the more likely we are to find
fome among them that will help us to the truths here
required. And, indeed, it is found to hold in experi¬
ence, that in proportion as we enlarge our views of
things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of dif¬
ferent objects, the reafoning faculty gathers ftrength:
for, by extending our fphere of knowledge, the mind
acquires a certain force and penetration, as being ac-
cuftomed to examine the feveral appearances of its
ideas, and obferve what light they call one upon ano¬
ther. g0
VI. This is the reafon why, in order to excel re- To excel hr
markably in any one branch ofTearhing, it is necefla- any °ne
ry to have at leaft a general acquaintance with the {3ranc.h
whole circle of arts and fciences. The truth of it is, w^muft be
all the various diviftons of human knowledge are very in general
nearly related among themfelves, and, in innume- acquainted
rable inftances, ferve to illuftrate and fet off each o- Wlth tlie.
tber. And although it is not to be denied that, by an cIe°of arts
obftinate application to one branch of ftudy, a man ailj ftien-
may make confiderable progrefs, and acquire fome ces.
degree of eminence in it; yet his views will be al¬
ways narrow and contracted, and he will want that
mafterly difcernment which not only enables us to pur-
fue our difcoveries with eafe, but all’o, in laying them
open to others, to fpread a certain brightnefs around
them. But when our reafoning regards a particular
fcience, it is farther neceflary that we more nearly
acquaint ourfelves with whatever relates to that fci¬
ence. A general knowledge is a good preparation,
and enables us to proceed with eai'e and expedition
in whatever branch of learning we apply to. But
then, in the minute and intricate queftions of any
fcience, we are by no means qualified to reafon with
advantage until we have perfectly maftered the fci¬
ence to which theyJ?elong. gr
VII. We come now to the fecond thing reqnir- Secondly,
ed, in order to a fuceefsful progrefs in reafoning ; the Ikill of
namely, the Ikill and talent of applying intermedi- applying>n-
ate ideas happily in all particular inftances that come ye^hap-
under confideration. And here, rules and precepts pjiy ;n par.
are of little fervice. Ufe and experience are the heft ticular in-
inftruCtors. For, whatever logicians may boaft of dances,
being able to form perfeCl reafoners by book and rule,
we find by experience, that the ftudy of their pre¬
cepts does not always add any great degree of ftrength
to the underftanding. In fliort, it is the habit alone
of reafoning that makes a reafoner. And therefore
the true way to acquire this talent is, by being much
converfant in thofe fciences where the art of reafon¬
ing is allowed to reign in the greateft perfeClion.
Hence it was that the ancients, who fo well rirtder-
ftood the manner of forming the mind, always began
with mathematics, 'as the foundation of their philo-
fophical ftudies. Here the underftanding is by de¬
grees habituated to truth, contracts irilenfibly a cer¬
tain fondnefs for it, and learns never to yield its af-
fent to any propofition, but where the evidence is
fufficient to produce full conviction. For this reafon
Plato has called mathematical demonftrations the ca¬
thartics or purgatives of the foul, as being the pro¬
per means to cleanfe it from error, and reftore that
natural exercife of its faculties in which juft thinking
eonfifts.
VIII. If therefore we would form our minds to a
habit of reafoning clofely and in train, we cannot
take
Partm. L O
82 take any more certain method, than the ejterdfing our-
The ftady feives in mathematical demon iirat ions, fo as to con trad
matical d^e- a ^am^iarity them. Not that we look
xnonftrati- uPon lt as neceflary that all men fhonld be deep ma-
ons of great thematicians; buttliat, having got the way of reafon-
avail in this ing which that Itudy neceflarily brings the mind to,
refpeft. tjiey may jje a^je to transfer it to other parts of know-
83 ledge, as they (hall have occafion.
As alfo of IX. But although the lludy of mathematics be of all
fuch au- others the moft ufeful, to form the mind, and give it
ther fab-.°" an early teltfli of truth, yet ought not other parts of
jefts, as are philofophy to be negleded. For there alfo we meet
diftinguifh- with many opportunities of exercifing the powers of
ed for the underftanding ; and the variety of fubjeds natu-
rally leads us to obferve all thole different turns of
of reafonr that are peculiarly adapted to the f'everal i-
ing. deas we examine, and the truth we fearch after. A
mind thus trained acquires a certain maftery over its
own thoughts, infomuch that it can range and model
them at pleafure, and call fuch into view as heft fuit
its prefent defigns. Now in this the whole art of rea-
foning confifts; from among a great variety of differ¬
ent ideas to Tingle out thofe that are moft proper for
the bufinefs in hand, and to lay them together
in fuch order, that from plain and eafy beginnings,
by gentle degrees, and a continued train of evi¬
dent truths, we may be infenfibly led on to fuch difco-
veries, as at pur firft fetting out appeared beyond
the reach of human underftanding. For this purpofe,
hefides the ftudy of mathematics before recommended,
we ought to apply ourfelves diligently to the reading
of fuch authors as have diftinguifhed themfelves for
ftrength of reafoning, and a juft and accurate manner
of thinking. For it is obfervable, that a mind exercifed
and feafoned to truth, feldom refts fatisfied in a bare
contemplation of the arguments offered by others; but
will be frequently affaying its own ftrength, and pur-
fuing its difcoveries upon the plan it is moft accuftom-
ed to. Thus we infenfibly contract a habit of tracing
truth from one ftage to another, and of inveftigating
thofe general relations and properties which we after¬
wards afcribe to particular things, according as we
find them comprehended under the abftradt ideas to
which the properties belong.
Chap. IV. Of the Forms of Syllogifms.
The figures I. Hitherto we have contented ourfelves with a
of fyllo- general notion of fyllogifms, and of the parts of which
gums. jjjgy confift. it js n0w time to enter a little more
particularly into the fubjeift, to examine their various
forms, and lay open the rules of argumentation pro¬
per to each. In the fyllogifms mentioned in the fore¬
going chapters, we may obferve, that the middle term
is the fubjedt of the major propofition, and the predi¬
cate of the minor. This difpofition, though the moft
natural and obvious, is not however neceffary ; it fre¬
quently happening, that the middle term is the fub-
jedl in both the premifes, or the predicate in both ;
and fometimes, diredlly contrary to its difpofition in
the foregoing chapters, the predicate in the major,
and the fubjedl in the minor. Hence the diftindiion
of fyllogifms into various kinds, called figures by logi¬
cians. For figure, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of the
G I G. [ 19 jj
middle term in any fyllogiftn. And as this difpofition
is, we fee, fourfold, fo the figures of fyllogifms thence
arifing are four in number. When the middle term is
the fubjedt of the major propofuion, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the firft figure.
If, on the other hand, it is the predicate of both the
premifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be the fecondfigure.
Again, in the third figure, the middle term is the filb;
jedf of the two premifes. And laftly, by making it
the predicate of the major, and fubject of the minor,
we obtain, fyllogifms in t\\t fourth figure. gj
II. But, befides this fourfold chftindlion of fyllo- The moois
gifms, there is alfo a farther fubdivifion of them in of fyllc-
every figure, arjfing from the quantity and quality, as K1*"15-
they are called, of the propofitions. By quantity we
mean the confideration of propofttions, as univerfal or
particular; by quality, as affirmative or negative.
Now as, in all the feveral difpofitions pf the middle
term, the propofitions of which a fyllogifm confifts
may be either univerfal or particular, affirmative or
negative; the due determination of thefe, and fo put¬
ting them together as the laws of argumentation re¬
quire, confthute what logicians call the moods pf fyllo-
gifrns. Of thefe moods there is a determinate num¬
ber to every figure, including all the poffible ways in
which propofitions differing in quantity or quality can
be combined, according to any difpofition of the mid¬
dle term, in order to arrive at a juft conclufion. 86
III. The divifion of fyllogifms according to mood Foundation
and figure refpedts thofe efpecially which are known °f the other
by the name of plain fimple fyllogifms; that is, which '’f
are bounded to three propofitions, all fimple, and ■' °
where the extremes and middle term are connedled,
according to the rules laid down above. But as the
mind is not tied down to any one precife form of rea¬
foning, but fometimes makes ufe of more, fometimes
of fewer prernifes, and often takes in compound and
conditional propofitions, it may not be amifs to take
notice of the different forms derived from this iburce,
and explain the rules by which the mind condu&s it-
felf in the ufe of them. g7
IV. When in any fyllogifm the major is a conditi- Condition-
onal propofition, the fyllogifm itfelf is termed condi- fyllo-
tional. Thus: £ifms*
“ If there is a God, he ought to be worlhipped.
“ But there is a God :
“ Therefore he ought to be worlhipped.”
In this example, the major, or firft propofition, is,
we fee, conditional, and therefore the fyllogifm itfelf
is alfo of the kind called by thatuame. And here we
are to obferve, that all conditional propofitions are
made of two diftinct parts: one expreffing the condi¬
tion upon which the predicate agrees or difagrees with
the fubjeiSl, as in this now before us, if there is aGod;
the other joining or disjoining the faid predicate and
fubjedt, as here, he ought to be luorjhipped. The firft
of thefe parts, or that which implies the condition, is
called the antecedent; the fecond, where we join or
disjoin the predicate and fubjedt, has the name of the
confequent. gg
V. In all propofitions of this kind, fuppofing them Ground of
to be exadt in point of form, the relation between the *n
antecedent and confequent muft ever be true and real; 5.°m
that is, the antecedent muft always contain fome cer- ^
{ c 2 ) tain
[ 20 ]
moods of
conditional
lyllogifms.
9o
They in¬
clude all
the legiti¬
mate ways
®f arguing.
LOG
tain and genuine condilion, which neceffarily implies
the confequent; for otherwife the propofition iti'elf
will he falfe, and therefore ought not to be admitted
into our realbnings. Hence it follows, that when any
conditional propofition is affumed, if we admit the
antecedent of that propofition, we mult at the fame
time necelTarily admit the confequent, but if we re-
jedt the confequent, we are in like manner bound to
reject the antecedent. For as the antecedent always
exprelfes fome condition which necelfarily implies the
truth of the confequent; by admitting the antecedent,
we allow of that condition, and therefore ought alfo
to admit the confequent. In like manner, if it appears
that the confequent ought to be reje&ed, the antece¬
dent evidently mult be fo too; becaufe, as was juft now
demonftrated, the admitting of the antecedent would
necelfarily imply the admiflion alfo of the confequent.
VI. There are two ways of arguing in hypothetical
fyllogifms, which lead to a certain and unavoidable con-
clullon. For as the major is always a conditional pro¬
pofition, confifting of an antecedent and a confequent;
if the minor admits the antecedent, it is plain that the
conclufion muft admit the confequent. This is called
arguing from the admiflion of the antecedent to the
admiffion of the confequent, and conftitutes that mood
or fpecies of hypothetical fyllogifms which is diftin-
guilhed in the fchools by the name of the modus ponenst
inafmuch as by it the whole conditional propolition,
both antecedent and confequenr, is eft iblilhed. Thus :
“ If God is infinitely wife, and a<5ts with perfedl
freedom, he does nothing but what is beft.
“ But God is infinitely wife, and adts with perfedl
“ freedom :
“ Therefore he does nothing but what is beft.”
Here we fee the antecedent or firft part of the con¬
ditional propofition is eftablilhed in the minor, and the
confequent or fecond part in the conclufion ; whence
the fyllogifm itfelf is an example of the modus ponens.
But if now we on the contrary fuppofe that the mi¬
nor rejedls the confequent, then it is apparent that the
conclufion muft alfo rejedl the antecedent. In this
cale we are laid to argue from the removal of the
confequent to the removal of the antecedent, and the
particular mood or fpecies of fyllogifms thence arifing
is called by logicians the modus tollcns; becaufe in it
both antecedent and confequent are rejected Or taken
away, as appears by the following example.
“ If God were not a Being of infinite goodnefs,
“ neither would he confult the happinefs of his
“ creatures.
“ But God does confult the happinefs of his crea-
“ tureS:
“ Therefore he is a Being of infinite goodnefs.”
VII. Thefe two fpecies take in the whole clafs of
conditional fyllogifms, and include all the poflible ways
of arguing that lead to a legitimate conclufion; be-
eaufe we cannot here proceed by a contrary procefs
of reafoning, that is, from the removal of the ante¬
cedent to the removal of the confequent, or from the
eftablilhing of the confequent to the eftablilhing of the
antecedent. For although the antecedent always ex-
prefl'es fome real condition, which, once admitted,
necefl'arily implies the confeqnent, yet it does not fol¬
low that there is therefore no other condition; and if
I C. PartHI.
fo, then, after removing thfe antecedent, the confe¬
quent may Hill hold, becaufe of fome other determi¬
nation that infers it. When we fay, If a flone is ex-
pofed fovie time to the rays of the Sun, it will contrail
a certain degree of heat; the propofition is certainly
true; and, admitting the antecedent, we muft alfo
admit the confequent. But as there are other ways
by which a ftone may, gather heat, it will not follow,
from the ceafing of the before-thentioned condition,
that therefore the confequent cannot take place. In
other words, we cannot argue : But the /lone has not
been expofed to the rays of the fun; therefore neither has
it any degree of heat: Inafmuch as there are a great
many other ways by which heat might have been
communicated to it. And if we cannot argue from
the removal of the antecedent to the removal of the
confequent, no more can we from the admiflion
of the confequent to the admiflion of the antece¬
dent: becaufe, as the confequent. may flow from a
great variety of different fuppofitions, the allowing
of it does not determine the precife fuppofition, but
only that fome one of them muft take place. Thus
in the foregoing propofition, If a flone is expofed
fometime to the rays of the fun, it will contrail a cer¬
tain degree of heat: admitting the confequent, viz.
that it has contr ailed a certain degree of heat, we are
not therefore bound to admit the antecedent, that it
has been fometime expofed to the rays of the fun; becaufe
there are "many other caufes whence that heat may
have proceeded. Thefe two ways of arguing, there¬
fore, hold not in conditional fyllogifms. 9l
VIII. As from the major’s being a conditional pro- The man-
pofition, we obtain the fpecies of conditional fyllo-ner of ar-
gifms; fo where it is a disjundUve propofition, the ^
fyllogifm to which it belongs, is alfo called disjunllive, fyiWifinsT
a-s in the following example :
“ The world is either felf-exiftent, or the work
“ of fome finite, or of fome infinite Being.
“ But it is not felf-exiftent, nor the work of a fi-
“ nite being:
“ Therefore it is the work of an infinite Being.”
Now a disjunctive propofition is that, where of fe-
veral predicates, we affirm one neceffarily to belong
to the fubjedt, to the exclufion of all the reft, but
leave that particular one undetermined. Hence it!
follows, that as foon as we determine the particular
predicate, all the reft are of courfe to be rejected ; or '
if we rejeCt all the predicates but one, that one necef¬
farily takes place. When, therefore, in a disjunctive
fyllogifm, the feveral predicates are enumerated in the
major ; if the minor eftablilhes any one of thefe pre¬
dicates, the conclufion ought to remove all the reft ;
or if, in the minor, all the predicates but one are re¬
moved, the conclufion muft neceffarily eftablifh that
one. Thus, in the disjunctive fyllogifm given above,
the major affirms one of the three predicates to be¬
long to the earth, viz. felf-exijlence, or that it is the
work of a finite, ov that it is the work of an infinite Be¬
ing. Two of thefe predicates are removed in the
minor, viz. felf-exiflence, and Mr work of a finite be¬
ing. Hence the conclufion neceflarily afcribes to it the
third predicate, and affirms that it is the work of an
infinite Being. If now we give the fyllogifm another
turn, infomuch that the minor may eftabliffi one of the
predicates.
92
Imperfeft
ted'fyllo-
gifras.
PartHI. L 0
predicates, by affirming the earth to be the produftion
of an infinite Being ; then the conclufion muft remove
the other two, affierting it to'be neither
nor the work cf a finite being. Thefe are the forms of
reafoning in theie fpecies of fyllogifms, the juftnefs of
which appears at firlt fight; and that there can be no
other, is evident from the very nature of a disjunctive
propofition.
IX. In the feveral kinds of fyllogifms hitherto men¬
tioned, we may obferve, that the parts are complete;
that is, the'three propofitions of which they confift are
reprefented in form. But it often happens, that fome
one of the premifes is not only an evident truth, but
alfo familiar and in the minds of all men ; in which cafe
it is ufually omitted, whereby we have an imperfeCl
fyllogifm, that feems to be made up of only two pro¬
pofitions. Should we, for infiance, argue in this
manner :
“ Every man is mortal:
“ Therefore every king is mortal.”
The fyllogifm appears to be imperfeCl, as confifting
but of two propofitions. Yet it is really complete ;
only the minor \_every king is a man\ is omitted, and
left to the reader to fupply, as being a propofition fo
familiar and evident that it cannot elcape him.
93
Enthyme-
GIG. [ 2 r }
triangles, each equal to a fqnare whofe fide is three
inches, are alfo eqaul between themfclves. This argu¬
ment therefore,
“ Things equal to one and the fame thing, are equal
“ to one another :
i( Therefore thefe two triangles, each equal to the
“ fquai e of a line of three inches, are equal be-
“ tween tbemfelves
is complete in its kind, and contains all that is necef-
fary towards a juft and legitimate conclufion. For the
firft or univerfal propofition is felf-evident, and there¬
fore requires no farther proof. And as the truth of
the particular is infeparably connetfied with that of the
univerfal, it follows from it by an obvious and un¬
avoidable confequence. 95
XII. Now in all cafes of this kind, where propofi- All reduci-
tions are deduced one from another, on account of a
known and evident connexion, we are laid to reafony-°^e one
by immediate confequence. Such a coherence of pro- forrn or
pofitions manifeft at firft fight, and forcing itfelf upon ther.
the mind, frequently occurs in reafoning. Logicians
have explained at fome length the feveral fuppofitions'
upon which it takes place, and allow of all immediate
confequences that follow in conformity to them. It is
however obfervable, that thefe arguments, though
X. Thefe feemingly imperfect fyllogifms are called feemingly complete, becaufe the conclufion follows ne-
enthymemes, and occur very frequently in reafoning,
efpecially, where it makes a part of common conver-
ceflarily from the fingle propofition that goes before,
ay yet be confidered as real enthymemes, whofe ma-
fation. Nay, there is a particular elegance in them, jor, which is a conditional propofition, is wanting. The
94
Ground of
reafoning
diate confe¬
quences..
becaufe, not difplaying the argument in all its parts,
they leave fomewhat to the exercife and invention of
the mind. By this means we are put upon exerting
ourfelves, and feem to ffiare in the dilcovery of what
is propofed to us. Now this is the great fecret of
fine writing, fo to frame and put together our thoughts,
as to give full play to the reader’s imagination, and
draw him infenfibly into our very views and courfe
of reafoning. This gives a pleafure not unlike to that
which the author himfelf feels in compofing. It befides
fliortens difeourfe,, and adds a certain force and liveli-
nefs to our arguments, when the words in which they
are conveyed favour the natural quicknefs of the mind
in its operations, and a fingle expreffion is left to ex¬
hibit a whole train of thoughts.
XI. But there is another fpecies of reafoning with
two propofitions, which feems to be complete in itfelf.
and where we admit the conclufion without fuppofing logic.
lyllogifm but juft mentioned, when reprefented accor¬
ding to this view, will run as follows :
“ If things equal to one and the fame thing, are e-
“ qual to one another; thefe two triangles, each equal
“ to a fquare whole fide is three inches, are alfo equal
“ between themfelves.
“ But things equal to one and the fame thing, are
<l equal to one another r
“ Therefore alfo thefe triangles,.ire. are equal be-
il tween themfelves.”'
This obfervation will be found to hold in all imme¬
diate confequences whatfoever, infomuch that they are
in faift no more than enthymemes of hypothetical fyl¬
logifms. But then it is particular to them, that the
ground on which the conclnfion refts, namely its co¬
herence with the minor, is of itfelf apparent, and
feen immediately to flow from the rules and reafons of
any tacit or fupprefled judgment in the mind,, from
which it follows fyllogiftieally. This happens between
propofitions,.where the connexion is fuch, that the ad-
miifion of the one neceffarily and at the firft fight implies
the admiffion alfo of the other. For if it fo falls <
XIII. The next fpecies of reafohing we (hall' take A forites of
notice of here is what is commonly known by the name plain fimple
of a forites. This is a way of arguing, in which a fyllogifms.
great number of propofitions are fo linked together,
that the predicate of one becomes continually the fub-
that the propofition on which the other depends is jedl of the next followings until at laft a conclnfion is for-
felf-evident, we content ourfelves with barely affirm¬
ing it,, and infer that other by a diredl conclufion.
Thus, by admitting an univerfal propofition, we are
forced alfo to admit of all the particular propofitions
comprehended under it, this being- the very condition
that conftitutes a propofition univerfal. If then that
univerfal propofition chances to be felf-evident, the
particular ones follow of courfe, without, any farther
train of reafonihg. Whoever allows, for inftance,
that things equal to one and the fame thing are equal to
taie another, muft. at the fame time, allow, that two
med, by bringing together the fnbjedl of the firft pro¬
pofition, and the predicate of the laft. Of this kind is
the following argument;
“ God is omnipotent.
“ An omnipotent being can-do every thing poffible.
“ He that can-do every thing poffible, can do what*
“ ever involves not a contradidiion.
“ Therefore God can do whatever involves not a
“ contradidtion.”
This particular combination of propofitions may be
continued to any length we pleafe, without in the leaft
weakening-,
[ 22 ]
■97
A fowtes of
hypotheti¬
cal fyllo-
gifins.
98
The ground
of reafon-
ing by in-
dudfion.
99
The form
and ftruc-
ture of an
argument
by induc-
L O
weakening the ground upon which the conclufion refb.
The reafon is, becaufe the forites itfelf may be refol-
ved into as many iimple fyllogifms as there are middle
terms in it ; where this is found univerfally to hold,
that when fuch a refolution is made, and the fyllogifms
are placed in train, the conclufion of the la ft in the
feries is alio the conclufion of the forites. This kind
of argument, therefore, as it ferves to unite feveral
fyllogifms into one, muft ftand upon the fame founda¬
tion with the fyllogifms of which it confifts, and is in¬
deed, properly fpeaking, no other than a compendious
way of reafoning fyllogiftically.
XIV. What is here faid of plain fimple propofitions
may be as well applied to thofe that are conditional;
that is, any number of them may be fo joined to¬
gether in a feries, that the confequent of one Jhall be¬
come continually the antecedent of the next follow¬
ing ; in which cafe, by eftablifliing the antecedent of
the firft propofition, we eftablilh the confequent of the
laft, or by removing the laft confequent remove alfo
the firft antecedent. This way of reafoning is ex¬
emplified in the following argument.
“ If we love any perfon, all emotions of hatred to-
{< wards him ceafe.
“ If all emotions of hatred towards a perfon ceafe,
“ we cannot rejoice in his misfortunes.
<( If we rejoice not in his misfortunes, we certainly
“ wifh him no injury :
“ Therefore, if we love a perfon, we wifh him no
“ injury.”
It is evident that this forites, as well as the laft,
tnay be refolved into a feries of diftindl fyllogifms,
with this only difference, that here the fyllogifms are
all conditional.
XV. We come now to that kind of argument which
logicians call induttion; in order to the right under-
ftanding of which, it w’ill be neceflary to obferve, that
our general ideas are for the moll part capable of va¬
rious fubdivifions. Thus the idea of the loweft fpecies
may be fubdivided into its feveral individuals, the idea
of any genus into the different fpecies it comprehends,
and fo of the reft. If then we fuppofe this diftribution
to be duly made, and fo as to take in the whole ex¬
tent of the idea to which it belongs; then it is plain
that all the fubdivifions or parts of any idea taken to'
gether conftitute that whole idea. Thus the feveral
individuals of any fpecies taken together conftitute
the whole fpecies, and all the various fpecies compre¬
hended under any genus make up the whole genus.
This being allowed, it is apparent, that whatever may
be affirmed of all the feveral fubdivifions and clafles of
any idea ought to be affirmed of the whole general
idea to which tbefe fubdivifions belong. What may
be affirmed of all the individuals of any fpecies may
be affirmed of the whole fpecies; and what may be
affirmed of all the fpecies of any genus may be alfo
affirmed of the whole genus; becaufe all the indivi¬
duals taken together are the fame with the fpecies,
and all the fpecies taken together the fame with the
genus.
XVI. This way of arguing, where we infer uni-
verfally concerning any idea what we had before af¬
firmed or denied feparately of all its feveral fubdivi¬
fions and parts, is called reafoning by induction. Thus
G I C. Part III.
if we fuppofe the whole tribe of animals fqbdivided
into men, beafts, birds, infers, and filhes, and then
reafon concerning them after this manner : “ all men
“ have a power of beginning motion; all beafts, birds,
“ and infe<5ts, have a power of beginning motion ; all
ti filhes have a power of beginning motion; therefore
“ all animals have a power of beginning motion.”
The argument is an inclusion. When the 1'ubdivifions
are juft, fo as to take in the whole general idea, and
the enumeration is perfeft, that is, extends to all and
every of the inferior claftes or parts; ther^the induc¬
tion is complete, and the manner of reafoning by in¬
duction is apparently conclufive. IOO
XVII. The laft fpecies of fyllogifm we fliall take The ground
notice of in this chapter is that commonly diftinguilh- of argu¬
ed by the name of a dilemma. A dilemma is an ar- mentation
gument by which we endeavour to prove the abfur- m a dllem~
dity or falfehood of fome aflertion. In order to this, m*'
we affume a conditional propofition, the antecedent
of which is the aflertion to be difproved, and the con¬
fequent a disjunctive propofition, enumerating all the
pollible fuppolitions upon which that aft'ertion can take
place. If then it appears, that all thefe feveral fup¬
politions ought to be rejected, it is plain, that the an¬
tecedent or aftertion itfelf muft be fo too. When
therefore fuch a propofition as that before mentioned
is made the major of any fyllogifm; if the minor re¬
jects all the fuppofitions contained in the confequent,
it follows neceflarily, that the conclufion ought to re-
jeCt the antecedent, which, as we have faid, is the
very aflertion to be difproved. This particular way
of arguing is that which logicians call a dilemma ; and
from the account here given of it, it appears that we
may in the general define it to be a hypothetical fyl¬
logifm, where the confequent of the major is a dif-
junCIive propofition, which is wholly taken away or
removed in the minor. Of this kind is the following .-
“ If God did not create the world perfeCI in its
“ kind, it muft either proceed from want of in-
“ clination, or from want of power.
“ But it could not proceed either from want of in-
“ clination, or from want of power.
“ Therefore he created the world perfeCI in its
“ kind.” Or, which is the fame thing : “ It is
“ abfurd to fay that he did not create the world
“ perfeCt in its kind.” tQi
XVIII. The nature then of a dilemma is univerfally An univer-
this. The major is a conditional propofition, whole fal defcrip-
confequent contains all the feveral fuppofitions upon tlon of lU
which the antecedent can take place. As therefore
thefe fuppofitions are wholly removed in the minor,
it is evident that the antecedent muft be fo too ; info-
much that we here always argue from the removal of
the confequent to the removal of the antecedent. That
is, a dilemma is an argument in the tnodus tollens of
hypothetical fyllogifms, as logicians love to Ipeak.
Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of the major
is an affirmative propofition, the conclufion of the di¬
lemma will be negative ; but if it is a negative pro¬
pofition, the conclufion will be affirmative.
Chap. V. Of Demonflration.
I. Having difpatched what feemed neceflary to be
faid with regard to the forms of fyllogifms, we now
proceed
Part III. L O (
102 proceed to explain their ufe and application in rea-
Of reafon- foning. We have leen, that in all the different ap¬
ing by a pearances they put on, we (Hll arrive at a jutt and le-
eoneatenau- gjtjmate Conclufion : now it often happens, that the
-me.y ° conclufion of one fyllogifm. becomes a previous propo-
gifms.
; I c. [23]
propofition, and the predicate of tlie minor. The 104
major is always an nniverfal propofition, and the mi- Tkeground
nor always affirmative. Let us now fee what effedi °n<rr^
thefe rules will have in reafoning. The major is an ^ figurt.,
univerfal propolition, of which the middle term is the
fnion in another ; by which means great numbers of fubjedl, and the predicate of the conclufion the predi-
them are fometimes linked together in a feries, and
truths are made to follow one another in train. And
as in fuch a concatenation of fyllogifms all the various
ways of reafoning that are truly coflclufive may be
with fafety introduced ; hence it is plain, that in de¬
ducing any truth from its firft principles, efpecially
where it lies at a confiderable diftance from them, we
are at liberty to combine all the feveral kinds of ar¬
guments above explained, according as they are found
beft to fuit the end and purpole of our inquiries.
When a propofition is thus by means of fyllogifms
tolledled from others more evident and known, it is
cate. Hence it appears, that in the major the pre¬
dicate of the conclufion is always affirmed or denied
Univerfally of the middle term. Again, the minor is
an affirmative propofition, whereof the fubjcift of the
conclufion is the fubjeft, and the middle term the pre¬
dicate. Here then the middle term is affirmed of the
fubjeft of the conclufion ; that is, the fubjedt of the
conclufion is affirmed to be comprehended under, or
to make a part of, the middle term. Thus then we
fee what is done in the premifes of a fyllogifm of the
firft figure. The predicate of the condulion is uni¬
verfally affirmed or denied of 1’ome idea. The fub-
faid to be proved; fo that we may in the general de- jedt of the conclufion is affirmed to be or to make a
fine the proof of a propofition to be a fyllogifm, or fe¬
ries of fyllogifms, colledting that propolition from
"part of that idea. Hence it naturally and unavoidably
follows, that the predicate of the conclufion ought to
known and evident truths. But more particularly, if be affirmed or denied of the fubject. To illuftrate
ducible to
the firft fi.
gure.
the fyllogifms of which the proofs confift admit of no
premifes but definitions, felf-evident truths, and pro-
pofitions already eftablilhed, then is the argument fo
conftituted called a demonftration ; whereby it appears
that demonftrations are ultimately founded on defini-
I0j tions and felf-evident propolitions.
All fyllo- II. All fyllogifms whatfoever, whether compound,
gifms what- multiform, or defective, are reducible to plain fimple
fyllogifms in forne one of the four figures. But this is
not all. Syllogifms of the firft figure, in particular,
admit of all poflible conclufions: that is, any propofi-
tions whatfoever, whether an univerfal affirmative or
tmiverfal negative, a particular affirmative or parti¬
cular negative, which fourfold divifion embraces all
their varieties; any one of thefe may be inferred by
virtue of fome fyllogifm in the firft figure. By this
means it happens that the fyllogifms of all the other
figures are reducible alfo to fyllogifms of the firft fi¬
gure, and may be confidered as Handing on the fame
foundatioiv with them. We cannot here demonftrate
and explain the manner of this reduction, becaufe it
would too much fwell the bulk of this treatife. It is
enough to take notice that the thing is univerfally
known and allowed among logicians, to w.hofe wri¬
tings we refer fueh as defire farther fatisfa&ion in this
matter. This then being laid down, it is plain that
any demonftrration whatfoever may be confidered as
eompofed of a feries of fyllogifins, all in the firft fi¬
gure. Bor, fince all the fyllogifms that enter the de¬
monftration are reducible to fyllogifms of fome one of
the four figures ; and fince the fyllogifms of all the
other figures are farther reducible to fyllogifms of the
firft figure, it is evident, that the whole demonftra¬
tion may be refolved into a feries of thefe laft fyllo¬
gifms, Let us now, if poffible, difeover the ground
upon which the conclufion refts in fyllogifms of the
this by an example, we ffiall refume one of the fyllo¬
gifms of the firft chapter.
“ Every creature poflefled of reafon and liberty is
“ accountable for his actions.
“ Man is a creature poffelfcd of reafon and liberty :
“ Therefore man is accountable for his aftions.”
Here, in the firft propolition, the predicate of the
conclufion accountablenefs is affirmed of all creatures
that have reafon and liberty. Again, in the fecond
propofition, man, the fubjtdi of the conclufion, is af¬
firmed to be or to make a part of this ciafs of crea¬
tures. Hence the conclufion neceflarily and unavoid¬
ably follows, viz. that man is accountable for his ac¬
tions ; becaufe, if reafbn and liberty be that which
conftitutes a creature accountable, and man has reafon
and liberty, it is plain be has that which conftitutes
him accountable. In like manner, where the major
is a negative propofition, or denies the predicate of
the conclufion univerfally of the middle term, as the
minor always aflerts the fubjedt of the conclufion, to
be or make a part of that middle term, it is no lefs
evident that the predicate of the conclufion ought in
this cafe to be denied of the fubjtci. So that the
ground of reafoning, in all fyllogilfns of the firft figure,
is manifeftly this: “ Whatever may he affirmed uni-
“ verfally of any idea, may be affirmed of every or
“ any number of particulars edmprehended under that
“ idea.” And again: “Whatever may be denied
“ univerfally of any idea, may be in like manner de-
“ nied of every or any number of its individuals.”
Thefe two propofitions are called by logicians the die-
turn de omni, and diflum ds nullo; and are indeed the
great principles of fyllogiftie reafoning, inafmueh as
all conclufions whatfoever either reft immediately up-
6n them, or upon propofuions deduced from them.
But what adds greatly to their value is, that they are
firft figure ; becaufe, by fo doing, we ffiall come at an really felf-evident truths, and fiieh as we eannot gain-
aniverfal principle of certainty, whence the evidence
of all demonftrations in all their parts may be ulti¬
mately derived.
III. The rules then of the firft figure are briefly
thefe. The middle term is the fubject of the major
fay without running into an exprefs contradiction.
To affirm, for inftance, that no man is psrfett, and yet
argue that fbme men are perfeCi ; or to fay that all
men are mortal, and yet that fome men are not mortal,
is to aifert a thing to V>£ and not to be at the lame time.
IV. And
[ 24 ]
L O G I C.
Pan III.
105 IV. And now we mny affirm, that, in all fyllogifms
tion10anra* t^ie %ure> the premifes are true, the conolu-
infal’lible ^on needs be true. If it be true that the pre¬
guide to dicate of the concluiion, whether affirmative or nega-
truth and tive, agrees univerfally to fome idea; and if it be alfo
-certainty, true that the fubjedt of the conclufion is a part of or
comprehended under that idea ; then it neceffarily
follows, that the predicate of the conclufion agrees alio
to the fubjedl. For to affert the contrary, would be
to run counter to fome one of the two principles be¬
fore eftabliflied; that is, it would be to maintain an
evident contradidlion. And thus we are come at laft
to the point we have been all along endeavouring to
eftablifli; namely, that every propofition which can
be demonftrated. is neceffarily true. Tor as every
demonftration may be refolved into a feries of fyllo¬
gifms all in the firli figure ; and as in any one of thefe
fyllogifms, if the premifes are true, the conclufion
muff needs be fo too ; it evidently follows, that if all
the feveral premifes are true, all the feveral conclu-
fions are fo, and confequently the conclufion alfo of
the laft fyllogifm, which is always the propofition to
be demonftrated. Now that all the premifes of a de¬
monftration are true, will eafily appear from the very
nature and definition of that form of rcafoning. A
demonftration, as we have faid, is a feries of fyllo¬
gifms, all whole premifes are either definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propolitions already eftablilhed.
Definitions are identical propofitions, wherein we
eonneil the defcription of an idea with the name by
which we chufe to have that idea called, and there¬
fore as to their truth there can be no difpute. Self-
evident propofitions appear true of themfelves, and
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind. Propoli¬
tions, before eftablifhed, are no other than conclufions
gained by one or more fteps from definitions and felf-
evident principles ; that is, from true premifes, and
therefore mult needs be true. Whence all the pre¬
vious propofitions of a demonftration being, we fee,
manifeftly true ; the laft conclufion, or propofition to
be demonftrated, muft be fo too. So that demonftra¬
tion not only leads to certain truth, but we have here
alfo a clear view of the ground and foundation of that
certainty. For as, in demonftrating, we may be faid
to do nothing more than combine a 1'eries of fyllogifms
together, all refting on the fame bottom ; it is plain
that one uniform ground of certainty runs through the
whole, and that the conclufions are every where built
upon fome one of the two principles before eftabliffied,
as the foundation of all our reafoning. Thefe two
principles are eafily reduced into one, and may be ex-
prefled thus: “ Whatever predicate, whether affir-
“ mative or negative, agrees univerfally to any idea;
“ the fame muft needs agree to every or any num-
“ her of individuals comprehended under that idea.”
And thus at length we have, according to our firft de-
fign, reduced the certainty of demonftration to one
fimple and univerfal principle ; which carries its own
evidence along with it, and which is indeed the ulti¬
mate foundation of all fyliogiftic reafoning.
V. Demonftration therefore ferving as an infallible
guide to truth, and ftanding on fo fure and unalter¬
able a balls, we may now venture to aflert, that the
rules of logic furnilh a fufficient criterion for the di-
The rules
of logic fur-
niih a fuffi-
rion for the
diftinguifh-
3ng between
truth and
falfehood.
ftinguilhing between truth and falfehood. For fince
every propofition that can be demonftrated is necef-
larily true, he is able to diftinguilh truth from falfe¬
hood who can with certainty judge when a propofi¬
tion is truly demonftrated. Now a demonftration is,
as we have laid, nothing more than a concatenation
of fyllogifms, all whole premiles are definitions, feif-
evident truths, or propofitions previoufly eftablilhed.
To judge therefore of the validity of a demonftration,
we muft be able to diftinguiffi whether the definitions
that enter it are genuine, and truly deferiptive of the
ideas they are meant to exhibit: whether the pro¬
pofitions aflumed without proofs as intuitive truths
have really that felf-evidence to which they lay claim :
whether the fyllogifms are drawn up in due form,
and agreeable to the laws of argumentation : in fine,
whether they are combined together in a juft and or¬
derly manner, fo that no demonftrable propofitions
ferve any where as premifes unlefs they are conclu¬
fions of previous fyllogifms. Now it is the bufinefs
of logic, in explaining the feveral operations of the
mind, fully to inltrucfl us in all thefe points. It teaches
the nature and end of definitions, and lays down the
■rules by which they ought to be framed. It unfolds
the feveral fpecies of propofitions, and diftinguiffies
the felf-evident from the demonftrable. It delineates
alfo the different forms of fyllogifms, and explains the
laws of argumentation proper to each. In fine, it de-
feribes the manner of combining fyllogifms, fo as that
they may form a train of reafoning, and lead to the fuc-
ceffive difeovery of truth. The precepts of logic there¬
fore, as they enable us to judge with certainty when a
propofition is duly demonftrated, furniffi a fure crite¬
rion for the diftingniffiing between truth and falfehood. 107
Vi. Perhaps it may be objected, that demonftra- And ex-
tion is a thing very rare and uncommon, as being the ^nding to
prerogative of but a few fciences, and therefore the
criterion here given can be of no great ufe. But certain
wherever, by the bare contemplation of our ideas, knowledge
truth is difcoverable, there alfo demonftration may be °f truth is
attained. Now that is an abundantly fufficient crite- attainable.
rion which enables us to judge with certainty in ail
cafes where the knowledge of truth comes within our
reach ; for with difeoveries, that lie beyond the li¬
mits of the human mind, we have, properly, no bufi¬
nefs or concernment. When a propofition is demon¬
ftrated, we are certain of its truth. When, on the
contrary, our ideas are fuch as have no vifible connec¬
tion or repugnance, and therefore furnifh not the pro¬
per means of tracing their agreement or difagreement,
there we are fure that fcientifical knowledge is not
attainable. But where there is fome foundation of
reafoning, which yet amounts not to the full evidence
of demonftration, there the precepts of logic, by
teaching us to determine aright of the degree of
proof, and of what is ftill wanting to render it full
and complete, enable us to make a due eftimate of
the meafures of probability, and to proportion our
affent to the grounds on which the propofition ftands.
And this is all we can poffibly arrive at, or even fo xhediftinc
much as hope for, in the exercife of faculties fo im- t;on 0f je_
perfect and limited as ours. monftrati-
VII. Before we conclude this chapter, it may not be into di-
iihproper to take notice of the diftinction of it into di- andm-
n£i dire<*-
Part III. L O (
reft and indireft. A dirett dcmonjlratioii is, when,
beginning with definitions, felf-esident propofitions,
or known and allowed truths, we form a train of fyllo-
gifms, and combine them in an orderly manner, con¬
tinuing the feries through a variety of fuccefiive fteps,
until at lad we arrive at a fyllogifm whofe conclufion
is the propofition to be demonitrated. Proofs of this
kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind them ; be-
caufe, all the feveral premifes being true, the conclu-
fions mud be fo too, and of courfe the very lad con¬
clufion or propoiition to be proved. The other fpe-
cies of demondration is the indireft, or, as it is fome-
times called, the apogogical. The manner of proceed¬
ing here is, by affuming a propofition which directly
contradicts that we mean to demondrate ; and thence,
by a continued train of reafoning, in the way of a di-
re£t demondration, deducing fome abfurdity or ma-
niftd untruth. For hereupon we conclude, that the
propofuion aifumed was falfe ; and thence again, by
an immediate confequence, that the propofition to be
demondrated is true. Thus Euclid, in his third book,
being to demondrate that circles ‘which touch one ano¬
ther inwardly have not the fame centre, affumes the di-
re6t contrary to this, viz. that they have the fame cen¬
tre ; and thence, by an evident train of reafoning,
proves that a part is equal to the whole. The fuppofi-
tion therefore leading to this abfurdity he concludes to
be falfe, viz. that circles touching one another inward¬
ly have the fame centre ; and thence again immediate-
,0p ly infers, that they have not the fame centre.
Ground of VIII. Now, becaufe this manner of demondration is
reafoning in accountet] by fome not altogether fo clear and fatisfac-
monftra-de" t°ry » we dial] therefore endeavour to diew, that it
tions. equally with the other leads to truth and certainty.
Two propofitions are faid to be contradiftory one of
another, when that which is afferted to be in the one
is afferted not to be in the other. Thus the propofi¬
tions, Circles that touch one another inwardly have the
fame centre, and Circles that touch one another inward¬
ly have net the fame centre, are contradiftories; be¬
caufe the fecond afferts the dired! contrary of w’hat is
afferted in the fird. Now, in all contradidlory pro¬
pofitions, this holds univerfally, That one of them is
neceffarily true, and the other neceffarily falfe. For if
it be true, that circles which touch one another in¬
wardly have not the fame centre; it is unavoidably falfe,
that they have the fame centre. On the other hand, if it
be falfe that they have the fame centre, it is neceffarily
true that they have not the fame centre. Since therefore
it is impofiible for them to be both true or both falfe
at the fame time ; it unavoidably follows, that one
is neceffarily true, and the other neceffarily falfe. This
then being allowed, which is indeed felf-evident, if any
two contradidlory propofitions are affumed, and one of
them can by a clear train of reafoning be demonftra-
ted to be falfe ; it neceffarily follows, that the other is
true. For as the one is neceffarily true, and the other
neceffarily falfe ; when we come to difeover which is
the falfe propofition, we thereby alfo know the other
iio to be true.
Indireade- IX. Now this is precifely the manner of an indiredt
monftra- demonftration, as is evident from the account given of it
tions a furc above. For there we affume a propofition which dii edfly
ccrtaint'0 contra(Iidts that we mean to demonftrate ; and, having
r‘ by a continued feries of proofs fhewn it to be falfe, thence
^ 1 C. (25) 4263
infer, that its contradidlory, or the propofition to be
demonftrated, is true. As therefore this lall conclu*
lion is certain and unavoidable; let us next inquire
after what manner we come to be fatisfied of the falfe-
hood of the affumed propofi'ion, that fo no poflible
doubt may remain as to the force and validity of de-
monftrations of this kind. The manner then is plain¬
ly this: Beginning with the affumed propofition, we,
by the help of-definitions, felf-evident truths, or pro¬
pofitions already ellablilhed, continue a feries of rea-
foning, in the way of a diredt demonftration, until at
length we arrive at fome abfurdity or known falfehood.
Thus Euclid, in the example before-mentioned, from
the fuppofition that circles touching one another in¬
wardly have the fame centre, deduces, that a part is
equal to the whole. Since therefore, by a due and or¬
derly procefsof reafoning, we come at laft to a falfe
conclulion ; it is manifeli, that all the premifes can¬
not be true: for, were all the premiffes true, the
laft conclulion muft be fo too, by what has been
before demonftrated. Now, as to all the other pre¬
mifes made ufe of in the courfe of reafoning, they
are manifeft and known truths by fuppofition, as
being either definitions, felf evident propofitions, or
truths previoufly eftablilhed. The affumed propofi¬
tion is that only as to which any doubt or uncertainty
remains. That alone therefore can be falfe ; and in¬
deed, from what has been already Ihewn, muft una¬
voidably be fo. And thus we fee, that in indiredl de-
monftrations, two contradidlory propofitions being laid
down, one of which is demonftrated to be falfe, the
other, which is always the propofition to be proved,
muft neceffarily be true; fo that here, as well as in
the diredl way of proof, we arrive at a cleerand fatif-
fadlory knowledge of truth. m
X. This is univerfally the method of reafoning in all A particu-
apogogicalor indiredl demonftrations. But if any pro- }ir ,of
polition is affumed, from which, in a diredl train °f m0nftra. ^
reafoning, we can deduce its contradidlory ; the pro- tions.
polition fo affumed is falfe, and the contradidlory one
true. For if we fuppofe the affumed propofition to
be true, then, lince all the other premifes that enter
the demonftration are alfo true, we lhall have a feries
of feafoning conlifting wholly of true premifes;
whence the laft conclufion or contradidlory of the af¬
fumed propofition muft be true likewife: fo that by
this means we Ihould have two contradidlory propofi¬
tions both true at the fame time, which is manifeftly
impoflible. The affumed propofition therefore, whence
this abfurdity flows, mult neceffarily be falfe; and
confequently its contradidlory, which is here the pro¬
pofition deduced from it, mnft be true. If then any
propofition is propofed to be demonftrated, and wre
affume the contradiftory of that propofition, and thence
diredlly infer the propofition to be demonftrated ; by
this very means we know that the propofition fo in¬
ferred is true. For fince from an affumed propofition
we have deduced its contradidlory, we are thereby
certain that the affumed propofition is falfe ; and if fo,
then its contradidlory, or that deduced from it, which
in this cafe is the fame with the propofition to be de¬
monftrated, muft be true.
XI. We have a curious in-ftance of this in the twelfth
propofition of the ninth book of the Elements. Eu¬
clid there propofes to demonftrate, that in any feries
( d ) 24 F of
42(H LOGIC. Part III.
”2 of numberst ri/tng from unity in geometrical progref-
knowfedfe finn' Prtme numbers that tneafurc the loft term
of the pn«-//2 the fries 'will alfo meafure the next after unity. In
ripks of lo-order to this, he affumesthe contradictory of the pro-
gic indif- pofuion to be demonftrated ; namely, that fame prime
number me a faring the lajl term in the fries does not
make us meafure the next after unity : and thence, by a conti-
proper nued train of reafoning, proves that it actually does
judges of meafure it. Hereupon he concludes the affumed pro-
demonftra- p0f,t;0n t0 be fajfe . an(j tj,at which is deduced from
it, or its contradictory, which is the very propofition
he propofed to demonftrate, to be true. Now that
this is a juft and conclufive way of reafoning, is a-
bundantly manifeft from what we have fo clearly efta-
blifhed above.
XI. Having thus fufficiently evinced the certainty of
demonftration in all its branches, and fhown the rules by
which we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at a juft
conclufion, according to the various ways of arguing
PAR
Of ME
I,4 TTr E have now done with the three firft operations
ftandinltler" ^ie m*n^» whofe office it is to fearch after
fometimes trinh> and enlarge the bounds of human knowledge,
employed There is yet a fourth, which regards the difpofal and
inputting arrangement of our thoughts, when we endeavour fo
klfowi61 t0 l)Ut t^em together as that their mutual connexion
truths, an<^ dependence may be clearly feen. This is what lo¬
gicians call Method, and place always the laft in order
in explaining the powers of the underftanding ; be-
caufe it neceflarily fuppofes a previous exercife of our
other faculties, and fome progrefs made in knowledge,
before we can exert it in any exteufive degree,
ns II. In this view, it is plain that we muft be before-
Sometinies^ j>ancj wc]] acquainted with the truths we are to combine
anddifcov-- °Set^er ’ 0^ierw‘fe> h°w could we difeern their feveral
ry of fuchconne&i°ns relations, or fo difpofe of them as
as are un-their mutual dependence may require ? But it often
known. happens, that the underftanding is employed, not in
the arrangement and compofition of known truths,
but in the fearch and difeovery of fuch as are un¬
known. And here the manner of proceeding is very
different. We affemble at once our whole ftock of
knowledge relating to any fubjeft, and, after a gene¬
ral furvey of things, begin with examining them fe-
parately and by parts. Hence it comes to pafs, that
whereas, at our firft fetting out, we were acquainted
only with fome of the grand ftrokes and outlines of
truth ; by thus purfuing her through her feveral
windings and receffes, we gradually difeover thofe
more inward and finer touches whence fhe derives all
her ftrength, fymmetry, and beauty. And here it
is, that when, by a narrow ferutiny into things, we
have unravelled any part of knowledge, and traced it
to its firft and original principles, iufomuch that the
whole frame and contexture of it lies open to the view
of the mind; here it is, that, taking it the contrary
way, and beginning with thefe principles, we can fo
adjuft and put together the parts as the order and me¬
thod of fcience requires.
III. But as thefe things are beft underftood when il-
luftrated by examples; let us fuppofe any machine, for
made ufe of; it is needlefs to enter upon a particular ny
confideration of thofe feveral fpecies of falfe reafoning of h-
which logicians diftinguifh by the name of fophifns.
He that thoroughly underftands the form and ftruc-gUard u°s a.
ture of a good argument, will of himfelf readily dif-gainrt error
cern every deviation from it. And although fophifns aT"1 fah'e
have been divided into many claffes, which are all rcaf0Ulng-
called by foundiag names, that therefore carry in them
much appearance of learning; yet are the errors
themfelves fo very palpable and obvious, that it would
be loft labour to write for a man capable of being
milled by them. Here therefore we choofe to conclude
this part of logick ; and fhall in the next give forne
account of Method: which, though infeparable from
reafoning, is neverthelefs always confidered by logi¬
cians as a diftindt operation of the mind; becaufe
its influence is not confined to the mere exercife of
the reafoning faculty, but extends in fome degree to
all the tranfadions of the underftanding.
T IV.
T H O D.
inftance a watch, prefented to us, whofe ftrudure and
compofnion we are as yet unacquainted with, but dluftraiel
want, if poffible, to difeover. The manner of PFO* Utricle o™*
ceeding, in this cafe, is, by taking the whole to pieces, watch,
and examining the parts feparately, one after another.
When, by fuch a ferutiny, we have thoroughly in¬
formed ourfelves of the frame and contexture of each,
we then compare them together, in order to judge of
their mutual a&ion and influence. By this means we
gradually trace out the inward make and compofition
of the whole, and come at length to difeern how parts
of fuch a form, and fo put together as we found in
unravelling and taking them afunder, conftitute that
particular machine called a 'watch, and contribute to
all the feveral motions and phsenomena obfervable in
it. This difeovery being made, we can take things
the contrary way, and, beginning with the parts, fo
difpofe and connect them as their feveral ufes and ftruc-
tures require, until at length we arrive at the whole
itfelf, from the unravelling of which thefe parts re-
fulted. 117
IV. And as it is in tracing and examining the works 9round of
of art; fo is it, in a great meafure, in unfolding any PaFt and fynm'e-
of human knowledge: for the relations and mutualtiemethods.
habitudes of things do not always immediately appear
upon comparing them one with another. Hence we
have recourfe to intermediate ideas; and, By means of
them, are furnilhed with thofe previous propolitionsthat
lead to the conclufion we are in queft of. And if it
fo happen that the previous propofitions themfelves are
not fufficiently evident, we endeavour, by new middle
terms, to afeertain their truth ; ftill tracing things
backward, in a continual feries, until at length we
arrive at fome fyllogifm where the premifes are firft
and fclf-evident principles. This done, we be¬
come perfe&ly fatisfied as to the truth of all the
conclufions we have paffed through, inafmuch as they
are now feen to ftand upon the firm and immovable
foundation of our intuitive perceptions. And as we
arrived at this certainty by tracing things backward
to the original principles whence they flow; fo may
we
Part III. L O i
we at any time renew it by a dirett contrary procefs,
if, beginning with thefe principles, we carry the train
of our thoughts forward until they lead us, by a con-
nefted chain of proofs, to the very laft conclufion of
the feries.
us V. Hence it appears, that, in difpofing and putting
Divifion of together our thoughts, either for our own ufe, that the
method into (]-j'cov€r;cs we have mac]e may at a]] times lie open to
fynthehc ^ review of the mind, or where we meao to commu¬
nicate and unfold the difcoveries to others, there are
two ways of proceeding equally within our choice:
for we may fo propofe the truths relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the mind
in the manner of inveftigation; carrying on the feries
of proofs, in a reverfe order, until they at laft termi¬
nate in firft principles: or, beginning with thefe prin¬
ciples, we may take the contrary way, and from them
deduce, by a direct train of reafoning, all the feveral
propofitions we want to eftablifh. This diverfity in the
manner of arranging our thoughts gives rife to the
twofold divifion of method eftabliftied among logi¬
cians : for method, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of our
thoughts relating to any fubjeft. When truths are fo
propofed and put together as they were or might have
been difcovered, this is called the analytic method, or the
method of refolution; inafmuch as it traces things back¬
ward to their fource, and refolves knowledge into its
firft and original principles. When, on the other hand,
they are deduced from thefe principles, and connefted
according to their mutual dependence, infomuch that
the truths firft in order tend always to the demonftra-
tion of thofe that follow; this conftitutes what we call
the fynthetic method, or method of compoftion. For here
we proceed by gathering together the feveral fcatter-
ed parts of knowledge, and combining them into one
whole or fyftem, in fuch manner that the underftand-
ing is enabled diftinftly to follow truth through all her
different ftages and gradations.
VI. There is this farther to be taken notice of, inre-
l.ohoch LOHOCH, or Loch, in pharmacy, a compofition
I.olni m °f a middle confidence between a foft eleftuary and a
—   fyrup, principally ufed in diforders of the lungs.
LOINS, in anatomy, the two lateral parts of the
umbilical region of the abdomen.
LOIRE, the largeft river in France, rifes in the
mountains of the Cevennes, and, after running a courfe
of about 500 miles, falls into the bay of JBifcay.
LOLIUM, darnell-grass ; a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants.
The moft remarkable fpecies are, 1. The perenne,
red darnel, or rye-grafs. This is very common in roads
and dry paftures. It makes excellent hay upon dry,
chalky, or Tandy foils. It is advantageoufly cultiva¬
ted along with clover, a.nd fprings earlier than other
graffes; thereby fupplying food for cattle at a time
when it is moft difficult to be obtained. Cows, horfes,
and fheep, eat it; goats are not fond of it. 2. The
temulentum, or white darnel, grows fpontaneoufly in
ploughed fields. If the feeds of this fpecies are malt¬
ed with barley, the ale foon occafions drunkennefs.;
mixed with bread-corn, they produce but little tffeft
} I C. 4265
lation to thefe two fpecies of method ; that the firft has •")
alfo obtained the name of the method of invention, be-
caufe it obferves the order in which our thoughts fuc- metiloci vf
ceed one another in the invention or difcovery of truth, invention,
The other, again, is often denominated the method of*n& ‘he
do£lrine or inf ruCtion; inafmuch as, in laying our of
thoughts before others, we generally choofe to proceed
in the fynthetic manner, deducing them from their firft
principles. For we are to obferve, that although there
is great pleafure in purfmng truth in the method of
inveftigation, becaufe it places us in the condition of
the inventor, and fhews the particular train and pro¬
cefs of thinking by which he arrived at his difcoveries;
yet is it not fo well accommodated to the purpofes of
evidence and convidtion. For, at our firft fetting out,
we are commonly unable to divine where the analyfis
will lead us ; infomuch that our refearches are for fome
time little better than a mere groping in the dark.
And even after light begins to break in upon us, we
are ftill obliged to many reviews, and a frequent com-
parifon of the feveral fteps of the inveftigation among
themfelves. Nay, when we have unravelled the whole,
and reached the very foundation on which our difco¬
veries (land, all our certainty, in regard to their truth,
will be found in a great meafure to arife from that
connexion we are now able_to difeern between them
and firft principles, taken in the order of cotnpofition.
But in the fynthetic manner of difpofing our thoughts,
the cafe is quite different: for as we here begin with
the intuitive truths, and advance by regular deduc¬
tions from them, every ftep of the procedure brings
evidence and conviftion along with it; fo that, in our
progrefs from one part of knowledge to another, we
have always a clear perception of the ground on which
our affent refts. In communicating therefore our dif¬
coveries to others, this method is apparently to be
chofen, as it wonderfully improves and enlightens the
underftanding, and leads to an immediate perception
of truth.
L E I
unlefs the bread is eaten hot. Sheep are not fond of Lokmin.
the plant.
LOKMAN the Wise, an eminent philofopher a-
mong the Eafterns. The Arabians fay he was the fon
of Baura, the fon or grandfon of a fifter or aunt of
Job. He was an Ethiopian, and a flave for fome time.
It is related that he was born in the time of David,
and lived till the age of the prophet Jonas. Some fup-
pofe him to have been the fame with iEfop the my-
thologift: and indeed we find in the parables or apo¬
logues of Lokman in Arabic, many particulars that
are feen in iEfop’s fables; fo that it is not eafy to de¬
termine whether the Greek or the Arabian are the ori¬
ginals. He is faid to have been deformed in his per-
fon; but that this defcfl was fufficiently made up by
the perfe&ions of his mind. Some pieces of his are
extant; and he was looked upon as fo excellenfa per-
fon, that Mahomet has inferted a chapter of the Ko¬
ran, called after his name, in which he introduces God
as faying, “ We heretofore beftowed wifdom on Lok¬
man.”—It is related that he got his liberty on the fol¬
lowing occafion. His mailer having given him a bitter
24 F 2 melon
L O M [ 4266 ] L O M
Lollards melon to eat, he eat it all. His mailer, furprifed at
lombards exa<"* 0^e^ience> aiked, How it was poffible for
-— —1— him to eat fuch a naufrous fruit? He anfwered, “ I
have received fo many favours from you, that it is no
wonder I Ihould once in my life eat a bitter melon
from your hand.” This generous anfwer of the flave
ftrpck the mailer to fuch a degree, that he immediate¬
ly gave him his liberty. M. Galland tranflated all the
fables of Lokman, and Bidpai, or Pilpay, a bramin
philofopher; which were publilhed at Paris in 1724.
LOLLARDS, a religious fedt which arofe in Ger¬
many about the beginning of the 14th century; fo
called from its author Waiter Lollard, who began to
dogmatize in 1315,
Lollard, and his followers, rejefted the facrifice of
the mafs, extreme unftion, and penances for fin ; ar¬
guing that Chrilt’s fuflferings were fufficient. He is
likewife faid to have fet alide baptifm, as a thing of no
efifed; and repentance, as not abfolutely nectlLry, &c.
—Lollard was burnt alive at Cologne, in 1322. In
England, the followers of WicklilF were called, by way
of reproach, Lollards, from fome affinity there was
between fome of their tenets; though others are of
opinion, that the Englilh Lollards came from Germany.
See Wickliffite. They were folemnly condemned
by the archbilhop of Canterbury, and the council of
Oxford.
LOMBARD (Lambert), an eminent painter,
born at Liege in 1500; who, after a diligent ttudy
of the antique at Rome, introduced that ftyle of
painting among his countrymen, inftead of the Gothic.
He painted hiftory, architefture, and perfpeclive; and
though he could never altogether free himfelf from his
national gout, he is ranked among the bell painters of
his time. He died in 1560.
Lombard (Peter), well known4 by the title of
Majler of the Sentences, was born at Novara in Lom¬
bardy; but being bred at Paris, he diftingtiiffied him¬
felf fo much at that univerfity, that he firll had the
canonry of Chartres conferred on him, was fome time
tutor to Philip fon of Louis le Gros, and laftly ob¬
tained the fee of Paris. He died in 1064. His work
of the Sentences is looked on as the fource of the
fcholaltic theology of the Latin church. He wrote
alfo Commentaries on the Pfalms, and on St Paul's
Epiftles.
LOMBARDS, a Scandinavian nation, who for¬
merly fettled in Italy, and for fome time made a con-
2 fiderable figure.
Etymo’ogy Their name of Lombards, or Longobards, is by fome
ofthename, delved from the word lack, or lache, fignifying in the
German tongue ’water; becaufe the Lombards, while
in Scandinavia, lived in marffies, or near the fea. Others
think that it Gomes'from the two German vrorAs langen
harden, or helleborden, that is, from the long halberts
they were fuppofed to ufe in war. But Paulus Dia-
conus their hiftorian, and who was himfelf a Lombard,
tells us, that they were called Longobards from the
length of their beards. A nation called the Lombards
is mentioned by Tacitus, Strabo, and Ptolemy; but
thefe are different from the Lombards who afterwards
fettled in Italy, and are reckoned to be the fame with
the Gepidae, whom the Italian Lombards almoft ex¬
terminated. The Lombards who fettled in Italy are
firft mentioned by Profper Aqnitanus, bilhop of Rhe- Lombards
gium'in the year 379. That writer tells ns, that
about this time the Lombards, abandoning the mod VandaU de-
diilant coalls of the ocean, and their native country Seated by
ScandinavL, and feeking for new fettlements, as
were over-[locked with people at home, firft attacked
and overcame about this time the Vandals in Germany.
They were then headed by two chiefs, Iboreus and
Aion ; who, dying about the year 389, were fucceeded
by Agilmund, who is commonly reckoned the firft king
of the Lombards.
Before the time of Odoacer, the Lombard hiftory
affords nothing remarkable ; in his time, however,
they fettled on the Danube, in the country of theT[lcy3|-ettie
Rugians, whom Odoacer had almoil totally extermi-in the coun-
nated or carried into captivity. During their flay in try of the
this country, they rendered themfelves formidable toRu8'ins*
the neighbouring nations, and carried on fuccefsful
wars with the Heruli and Gepidae. In 526, they
were allowed by the emperor Juftinian to fettle in
Pannonia ; and here they made war a fecond time
with the Gepidae. Alboinus,’ the Lombard king,
killed the king of the Gepidas with his own hand, put 4
their army to the rout, and cut fuch numbers of them Deftroy the
in pieces, that they ceafed from that time to be a na-
tion. Having caufed the deceafed king’s head to be
cut off, he trade a cup of his fkull, called in the lan¬
guage of the Lombards fchala, which he made ufe of
in all public entertainments. However, having taken,
among many other captives of great ditlindlion, the
late king’s daughter, by name Rofamunda, he married
her after the death of his former wife Clodifvinta, the
daughter of Clotaire king of France.
By this viftory Alboinus gained fuch reputation,
that his friendfhip was courted by Juftinian; and, in
confequence of the emperor’s application, a body of
6000 Lombards were fent to the affillance of Narfes
againll the Goths. The fuccefs of the Romans in
this expedition, the invafion of Italy by the Lombards,
and their fucceffes in that country, have been taken
notice of under the article Italy, n° 28—32. At ^
laft, Alboinus, having made himfelf matter of Venetia, A'boinus
Liguria, jEmilia, Hetruria, and Umbria, was flain by king of the
the treachery of his wife, in the year 575, the fourth L',ILbard*
of his reign. This princcfs was the daughter of the
king of the Gepidae, whom Alboinus had killed ingationof
battle, and made a cup of his fkull, as above related, his wife.
As he was one day feafting at Verona with his chief
favourites and principal officers, in the height of his
mirth he fent for the queen, and, filling the detefted
cup, commanded her to drink merrily with her father.
Rofamund, ftruck with horror, hurried out of the
room ; and, highly incenfed againil her huffiand for
thus barbaroufly triumphing over the misfortunes of
her family, refolved, at all events, to make him pay
dear for fuch an inhuman and affronting copdudt.
Accordingly, ffie difcovered her intention to Helmi-
child the king’s fhield-bearer, a youth of great bold-
nefs and intrepidity. Helmichjld peremptorily refufed
to imbrue his hands in the blood of his fovereign, or
to be any way acceffory to his death ; and in this re-
folution he perfifted till he was, by a fhameful ftrata-
em, forced by the queen to a compliance: for ffie,
nowing that he carried on an intrigue with one of
L O M [ 4267 ] L O M
Lombards, her ladies, placed herfelf one night in her bed, and
’ receiving the youth, indulged him as if ihe had been
his own miftrefi in his amorous defires ; which fhe had
no fooner done, than, difcovering herfeif to the de¬
ceived lover, fhe told him that he mud now either put
the king to death, or be put to death by him. Hel-
michild, well apprifed, that, after what he had done,
his fafety depended upon the death of the king, en¬
gaged in the treafon, which he otherwife abhorred-
One day, therefore, while Alboinus was repofing in
his chamber after dinner, Helmichild, with fome others
whom he had made privy to his defign, breaking in
unexpectedly, fell upon the king with their daggers.
Alboinus, darting up at their firft coming in, laid
hold of his fword, which he had always by him; but
having in vain attempted to draw it, the queen having
beforehand fadened it in the fcabbard, he defended
himfelf for fome time with a footdool; but was in
the end overpowered, and difpatched with many
wounds.
Rofamund had promifed to Helmichild, that, as
foon as he had difpatched the king, die would marry
him, and, with her perfon, bedow upon him the king¬
dom of the Lombards. The fird part of her promife
die immediately performed; but was fo far from being
able to bedow the crown upon him, that both of them
were obliged to fave themfelves by flight. They fled
to Longinus the exarch of Ravenna, taking with them
all the jewels and treafure of the late king. Longinus
received her with the greated marks of friendfhip and
kindnefs, and aflured her of his protection. She had
not been long in Ravenna, however, before the exarch,
judging that a favourable opportunity now offered of
making himfelf king of Italy by her means, imparted
his defign to her, and declared bis intention to marry
her, provided, by fome means or other, die difpatched
Helmichild.—Rofamund, highly pleafed with the pro-
pofal, refolved to fatisfy her ambition by getting rid
of the perfon whom die had married in order to gra¬
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
ftrong poifon, die mixed it with wine, and gave it to
her hufband as he came out of the bath, and called for
drink, according to his cudom. Helmichild had not
half emptied the cup, when, by the hidden and drange
g operation which he felt in his bowels, he concluded
Her death, what it was; and, with his fword pointed at the queen’s
bread, compelled her to drink the red. The poifon
had the fame effeCI on both ; for they died in a few
hours. Longinus, on the death of the queen, laid
afide all thoughts of making himfelf king of Italy,
and fent the king’s treafure to Condantinople, toge¬
ther with Albifvinda the daughter of Alboinus by
Rofamund, whom die had brought along with her.
After the death of Alboinus, the Lombards chofe
Clephis, one of the nobility, for their king. He was
murdered afterafhort reign of 18 months; upon which
M , enfued an interregnum of 10 years, as related under
abolifhed. ^ article Italy, n° 32. During this time, they
extended their conqueds in that country; but at lad
the Romans, jealous of their progrefs, refolvcd to put
a flop to their victories, and, if poflible, to drive them
quite out. For this purpofe, they defigned not only
to employ their own force, but entered into alliance
with the Franks; which fo alarmed the Lombards,
that they re-edablilhed the monarchical form of go¬
vernment among thenifelves, and chofe Autharis the Lombards,
fon of Clephis for their king. This monarch, confi- 8
dering that the power of the dukes, who had governedRedered.
Lombardy for the fpace oi 10 years, was during that
length of time very much eflabliflied, and that they
would-not probably be willing to part with the au¬
thority which they had fo long enjoyed, allowed them
to continue in their government; but obliged them to
contribute one moiety of their revenues towards the
maintenance and fupport of his royal dignity, fuffer-
ing them to difpofe of the other as they thought pro¬
per. He referved to himfelf the fupreme dominion
and authority; and took an oath of the dukes, that,
in time of war, they would readily affilt him to the
utmoft of their power. Though he could remove the
dukes at pleafure, yet he deprived none of them cf
their dukedoms, except in cafes of treafon; nor gave
them to others, except when their male-iffne failed.
Having fettled matters in this manner with the dukes,
he enatted feveral wholefome laws againft theft, ra¬
pine, murder, adultery, and other vices which prevailed
among his fubjeCts; and was the firff of the Lombard
kings who embraced Chriftianity. Moil of his fub¬
jeCts followed the example of their monarch: but, as
they were all inftruCted by Arian biihops, they conti¬
nued long infecied with that herefy; which occafioned
great difputes between them and the orthodox biihop#
of the cities fubjeft to them.
From the re-eilabliihment of the monarchy under
Autharis, to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the hiftory
of the Lombards affords nothing memorable. This 9
period is remarkable for the introduction of written Written
laws among thefe people. Before his time they kad^5. '^n
been governed only by tradition ; but Rotharis, in imi- r°”
tation of the Romans and Goths, undertook the pub-
liihing of written laws; and to thofe which he enaCted,
many were added by the fucceeding princes. Grotius
prefers the method which the Lombards followed in
making laws, to that which was praCtifed by the Ro-
mans themfelves. Among the latter,.the emperor was
the foie lawgiver; fo that whatever pleafed him had
the force of a law. But the Lombard kings did not
affume that power to themfelves, lince their laws were
ena&ed in public affemblies, convened for that purpofe,
after they had been maturely examined and approved
of by all the lords of the kingdom. From thefe affem¬
blies were excluded the eccleliaftic order, and the peo¬
ple; fo that the legiflative power was lodged in the
king and nobles alone.
The reign of Rotharis is remarkable, not only for
his introducing written laws among his fubjeCis, but
for the conqudls he made, and the fuccefsful wars
carried on with the exarch of Ravenna, whom he
totally defeated in feveral engagements, and made
himfelf mafter of fome part of his territories. This
monarch died in 652 ; and the affairs of the Lombards
went on profperoufly, till the ambition of Luitprand
laid the foundation of the total ruin of his kingdom.
He afeended the throne of Lombardy in 711, and , IO
watched all opportunities of enlarging his dominions at ^'u,‘t.t).rancl 5
. rr . 1 AV /?. r . ambition,
the expence or the emperors. Ur this, a fair oppor¬
tunity offered in 716: for the emperor Leo Ifauricus,
who at that time reigned in the call, having, by his
fampus edid, forbidden the worfhip of images, and
ordered them to be every-where pulled down, the
people-
L O M [ 4268 ] L O M
Lombards, people were fo provoked at that innovation, that, in
‘feveral places, they openly revolted, and, falling up¬
on the emperor’s officers, drove them out of the cities.
In the eaft, Germanus patriarch of Conftantinople
oppofed the emperor’s defign with great warmth ; but
Leo caufed him to be depofed, and Anaftafins to be
raifed to that fee in his room, ordering at the fame
time all the images in the imperial city to be pulled
down, and publicly burnt. He llriftly enjoined his
officers in the weft, efpecially the exarch of Ravenna,
to fee his edift punclually obeyed in their refpedlive
governments. In compliance with thefe orders, Scho-
lafticus, then exarch, began to pull down the images
in all the churches and public places in Ravenna ;
which incenfed the fuperftitious multitude to fuch a
degree, that, taking arms, they openly declared they
would rather rem*u«ce their allegiance to the emperor,
than the worlhip of images.
Thus a kind of civil war being kindled in the city,
Luitprand thought he had now a favourable opportu¬
nity of making himfelf mailer of the feat of the exarch,
not doubting but the conqueft of fuch an important
tt place would be followed by that of the whole ex-
He befiegesarchate. Having therefore drawn together all his
and at laft forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ravenna,
takes Ra- an(j cl0fe]y befieged it. The exarch little expefted
venua. a a3 a friendly correfpondence had been
maintained for many years between the exarchs and
the Lombard kings. However, he defended the
place wuth fuch courage and refolution, that Luit¬
prand, defpairing of fuccefs, broke up the fiege, and
led his army againft Claffis at a fmall diftance from
Ravenna, which he took, plundered, and levelled with
the ground. The lofs of this place, and the fevere
treatment the inhabitants met with from the king,
threw the citizens of Ravenna into the utmoft con-
flernation ; which Luitprand being informed of, he
refolved to take advantage of their fears, and, return¬
ing before Ravenna while the inhabitants were thus
diiheartened, to attempt once more the redu&ion of
that place. Accordingly he led his whole army a-
gainft it, and, by frequent attacks, tired the inhabi¬
tants and garrifon to fuch a degree, that the exarch,
finding they could hold out no longer, and defpairing
of relief, privately withdrew. Luitprand, informed
of his retreat, attacked the town with more violence
than ever; and, having carried it by ftorm, gave it
up to be plundered by his foldiers, who found in it an
immenfe booty, as it had been for a long time the
feat of the Roman emperors, of the Gothic kings,
and the exarchs. The king Itripped it of moll of its
valuable monuments of antiquity, and caufed, among
the reft, an equeftrian ftatute of an emperor, of
wonderful workmanlhip, to be conveyed to Pavia,
where it is to be feen to this day. The redu&ion of
tl Ravenna was followed by the furrender of feveral cities
Redocestheof the exarchate, which Luitprand reduced to a
exarchate to dukedom ; appointing Hildebrand, his grandfon, to
a dukedom. g0vern wfrj, the title of duke ; and giving him, as he
was yet an infant, Peredeus duke of Vicenza for his
guardian.
The conqueft of Ravenna and the greater part of
the exarchate, did not a little alarm Gregory II. bi-
fhop of Rome. He was then at variance with the
emperor, whofe edidl againft the worlhipping of ima¬
ges he had oppofed with all his might, and by that Lombards*
means provoked Leo to fuch, a degree, that he had 
threatened to drive him from the fee, and fend him in¬
to exile. However, the pope, no lefs jealous of the
power of the Lombards, than all his predeceffors had
been, refolved, by fome means or other, to put a (top
to their conquefts. The only prince in Italy to
whom he could have recourfe, was Urfus duke of Ve¬
nice, the Venetians making already no inconfiderable
figure. To him accordingly he wrote a very preffing^g e^arcb
letter ; conjuring him to affift his worthy fon the ex-affifted by
arch, and, for the love of the holy faith, to attempt tbe Veneti-
with him the recovery of the exarchate, which theans*
wicked nation of the Lombards had unjuftly taken
from his fons Leo and Conftantine emperors. Urlus
and the Venetians, moved with the pope’s letter, and
at the fame time greatly alarmed at the growth of fo
powerful a neighbour, promifed to affift the exarch
with the whole ftrength of their republic; and ac¬
cordingly fitted out a confiderable fleet, pretending it
was defigned for the fervice of the emperor againft the
Saracens. At the fame time the exarch, who had
taken refuge in Venice, abandoning that place, as it
were in defpair of bringing the duke over to his par¬
ty, raifed, in the places Ilill fubjedl to the emperor,
what forces he was able; and, having got together a
confiderable body, he marched with them towards I-
mola, giving out that he deugned to befiege that ci¬
ty ; but, turning on a fudden towards Ravenna, as
had been agreed on between him and the Venetians,
he laid fiege to it by land, while they invefted it al-
moft at the fame inftant by fca. Peredeus defended
the town for fome time with great courage and refo-
lution; obliging all thofe who were able to bear-arms,
to repair to the walls. But the Venetians having, in
fpite of all oppofition, forced open one of the gates on
the fide of the fea, the city was taken, and Peredeus
{lain, while he was attempting, at the head of a choice
body, to drive the enemy from the polls they had
feized. As for Hildebrand, he fell into the hands of
the Venetians; who, having thus recovered Ravenna to
the emperor, returned home, leaving the exarch in
polfeffion of the city. Luitprand was then at Pavia;
but the town was taken before he could aflemble bis
troops to relieve it.
And now Gregory bilhop of Rome, to whom the
recovery of Ravenna was chiefly owing, perfuading
himfelf, that the emperor would, out of gratitude,
give ear to his remonltrances and admonitions, began
to folicit him with more preffing letters than ever to
revoke his edidl againft the worlhip of images: but
Leo, well apprifed, that the bilhop, in all the mea-
fures he had taken, had been more influenced by a re¬
gard to his own intereft, than to that of the empire,
inftead of hearkening to his remonilrances, was Hill
more provoked againft him for thus obftinately oppo-
fing the execution of his edidl. Being therefore re¬
folved at all events to have it obferved in Rome itfelf,
and, on the other hand, not doubting but the pope
would oppofe it to the laft with all his might; in order
to remove all obftacles, he fent three.officers to Rome,
with private orders, either to difpatch the pope, or to
take him prifoner and convey him to Conftantinople.
At the fame time he wrote to Mauritius duke of .
Rome, fecretly enjoining him to affift his three officers
L O M [ 4269 ] L O M
Lombards, in their undertaking: but no favourable opportunity
- 1 " offering to put their defign in execution, the emperor,
in the year 725, recalled Scholafticus, and fent Paul
a patrician into Italy, to govern in his room, with pri¬
vate inflrucfions to encourage the above-mentioned of¬
ficers with the promife of great rewards, and to af-
fure them of his protection.
But in the mean time the plot was difcovered, and
two of the confpirators were apprehended by the citizens
of Rome, and put to death ; the third having efcaped
into a monaftery, where he took the monadic habit,
and ended his days. Hereupon the exarch, in com¬
pliance with the emperor’s orders, refolved to proceed
no longer fecret plots, but by open force. Accord¬
ingly, he drew together a confiderable body of troops,
and fet out at the head of them on his march to Rome,
with a defign to feize on the pope, and fend him, as he
>s had engaged to do, in chains to Conftantinople. But,
1intPtbn<l 00 ^US occa^on» Luitprand, though highly provoked
pop/agafnftaff?inft 9regory for having ^'rred up the Venetians a-
thc crunch. ga>nft him, yet refolved to affift him and the citizens of
Rome againft the exarch, in order to keep the balance
even between them, and, by afliiling fometimes the
one and fometimes the other, weaken both. Purfuant
to this refolution, he ordered the Lombards of Tuf-
cany, and thofe of the dukedom of Spoleto, to join
the pope and the inhabitants of Rome; who, being,
by this reinforcement, far fuperior in ftrength and num¬
ber to the exarch, obliged him to return to Ravenna,
and give over all thoughts of any further attempt on
the perfon of the pope.
In the mean time, Leo, perfifting in his former re¬
folution of fuppreffing throughout his dominions the
worfitip of images, fent frefh orders to the exarch
Paul,ftri£Uy enjoining him to canfe his edi& to be put
in execution in all the cities of Italy under his empire,
efpecially in Rome. At the fame time he wrote to the
pope; promifing him his favour and protection, if he
complied with the ediCt; and declaring him, if he con¬
tinued to oppofe it, a rebel, and no longer veiled with
the papal dignity. But Gregory was fo far from
yielding to the emperor’s threats or promifes, that, on
the contrary, he folemnly excommunicated the exarch
for attempting to put the imperial edidl in execution ;
and at the fame time wrote circular letters to tl*e Ve¬
netians, to king Luitprand, to the Lombard dukes, and
to all the chief cities of the empire, exhorting them
to continue ftedfaft in the Catholic faith, and to op-
pore with all their might fuch a deteftable innovation.
Thefe letters made fuch an impreffion on the minds of
the people in Italy, that, though of different interefts,
and often at war with one another, they all united;
protelling they would defend the Catholic faith, and
the life of the pope, in fo glorious a caufe, at the ex¬
pence of their own : nay, the citizens of Rome, and
the inhabitants of Pentapolis, now Marca d’Ancona,
not contenting tbemfelves with fuch a proteftation, o-
penly revolted from the emperor; and, pulling down
his llatues, theyeleCled, by their own authority, ma-
gillratesto govern them during the interregnum. We
are even told, that, tranfported with a blind zeal, they
were for choofing a new emperor, and conduding
him to Conftantinople, not doubting but the people
would every-where join them. But the pope, think¬
ing this refolution unfeafonable, and not to be ealily
put in execution, oppofed it; fo that it did not take bombards,
place.
In the mean time, the exarch Paul, having gained
a confiderable party in Ravenna, began, purfuant to
the repeated orders from the emperor, to remove the i-
mages, as fo many idols, out of the churches. Here¬
upon the adverfe party, fupported and encouraged by J(.
the pope, flew to arms; and, falling upon the iconoc- a civil war
lafls or image-breakers, as they ftyled them, gave rife in Ravenna-
to a civil war within the walls of Ravenna. Great num¬
bers were killed on both fides: but thofe who were for
the worlhip of images prevailing in the end, a dread¬
ful flaughter was made of the oppofite party ; and,
among the reft, the exarch himfelf was murdered.
However, the city of Ravenna continued faithful ta
the emperor; but moft of the cities of Romagna be¬
longing to the exarchate, and all thofe of Pentapolis
or La Marca d’Ancona, abhorring the emperor as an
heretic, fubmitted to Luitprand king of the Lombards;
who, pretending a zeal for the Catholic religion, took
care to improve the difeontent of the people to his
advantage, by reprefenting to them, that they could
never maintain their religious rights under a prince,,
who was not only an heretic, but a perfecutor of the
orthodox.
In Naples, Exhilaratus, duke of that cityr, having
received peremptory orders from the emperor to caufe
his edi£l to be put in. execution, did all that lay in his
power to perfuade the people to receive it; but find¬
ing all his endeavours thwarted by the biftiop of Rome,
for whom the Neapolitans had a great veneration, he
hired affaflins to murder him. But the plot being dif¬
covered, though carried on with great fecrecy, the
Neapolitans, highly provoked againft the duke, tore
both him and his fon to pieces, and likewife put to
death one of his chief officers, who had compofed a
libel againft the pope. Luitprand, and Gregory at
that time duke of Benevento, laying hold of fo fa¬
vourable an opportunity to make themfelves mafters
of the dukedom of Naples, did all that lay in their
power to perfuade the Neapolitans to fubmit to them.
But the Neapolitans, bearing an irreconcileable ha¬
tred to the Lombards, wiih whom they had been con-
ftantly at variance, rejected every overture of that na¬
ture with the utmoft indignation ; and, continuing
ftedfaft in their allegiance to Leo. received from Con¬
ftantinople one Peter, who was fent to govern them in
the room of Exhilaratus. Some writers fuppofe the
Neapolitans, in this general revolt of the cities of 1-
taly, to have fhaken oft the yoke with the reft, and to
have appointed magiftrates of their own eledlion to
govern them,, in the room of the officers hitherto fent
from Conftantinople, or named by the exarch : but
they are certainly miftaken ; it being manifeft from-
hiftoryj that Peter fucceeded Exhilaratus in that duke¬
dom, and that the Neapolitans continued to live un¬
der the emperors till they were conquered many years
after by the Normans.
In the mean time, Leo hearing of the murder of
the exarch, and the general revolt of the cities, and
not doubting but the pope was the chief author of fo
much mifehief, fent the eunuch Euty.chius into Italy,
with the title and authority of exarch,enjoin¬
ing him to get the pope difpatched by fome means or
other, fince his death was abfolutely neceffary for the
trails
L O M [ 4270 ] L O M
Lombards, tranquillity of Italy. The exarch fpared no pains to
get the pope into his power : but a meflenger, whom
he had fent to Rome, being apprehended by the citi¬
zens, and an order from the emperor being found up¬
on him to all his officers in that city, commanding
them to put the pope to death at all events, the pope’s
friends thenceforth guarded him with fuch care, that
the exarch’s emifiaries could never afterwards find an
opportunity of executing their defign. As for the mef-
fenger, the Romans were for putting him to death ;
but the pope interpofed, contenting himfelf with ex-
communicating the exarch.
The Ro- And now the Romans, provoked more than ever
mans re- againft Leo, and, on the other hand, unwilling to
volt. i;ve uncler the Lombards, refolved to revolt from the
^emperor, and appoint their own magiftrates, keeping
themfelves united under the pope, not yet as their
•prince, but only as their head. This they did ac¬
cordingly ; and from thefe flender beginnings the fo-
vereignty of the popes in Italy took its rife, though
they did not then, as is commonly fuppofed by hitto-
rians, but many years after, become fovereign lords
of Rome.
Eutychius failed in his defign upon the life of the
pope ; but, having brought with him from Conftanti-
nople a good number of troops, he eafily quelled the
rebellion in Ravenna, and feverely puniihed the au¬
thors of the late difturbances. As for the rebellious
Romans, he was well apprifed he could never reduce
them, fo long as they were fupported by the king
of the Lomoards ; and therefore he employed all
his art and policy to take off that prince from the
lg party of the Romans, and bring him over to his own.
Luitprand Luitprand, for fome time, withftood all his offers;
concludes but Thrafimund duke of Spoleto revolting at this very
an alliance juncture, the exarch, laying hold of that opportuni-
exarch.6 tf’ 0^ere(^ t0 ^ k'nS w't^ ^1'8 ftrength a-
gaintt the rebellious duke, provided he would, in like
manner, affilt him againft the pope and the Romans.
With this propofal Luitprand readily clofed ; and a
league being concluded upon thefe terms between him
and the exarch, the two armies joined, and began
their march towards Spoleto. At their approach, the
duke, defpairing of being able to refill two fuch
powers, came out with a fmall attendance to meet
them, and, throwing himfelf at the king’s feet, fued,
in that humble poll ure, for pardon; which Luitprand
not only granted him, but confirmed him in the duke¬
dom, after he had obliged him to take a new oath
of allegiance, and give hoflages for his fidelity in
time to come. From Spoleto the two armies march¬
ed, in purfnance of the treaty, to Rome; and encamp¬
ed in the meadows of Nero, between the Tiber and
r the Vatican.
The pope Gregory had caufed the city of Rome to be fortified
fubmits to in the belt manner he could : but, being fenfible that
Luitprand. the Romans alone could not long hold out againfl two
fuch armies, and refleiting on the kind treatment the
duke of Spoleta had met with upon his fubmitting to
the king, he refolved to follow his example ; and ac¬
cordingly, taking with him fome of the clergy, and
the principal inhabitants of the city, he went to wait
on the king in his camp ; and there, with a pathetic
fpeech, as he was a great mailer of eloquence, foften-
ed Luitprand to fuch a degree, that, throwing him¬
felf at his feet in the prefence of the whole army, Lombards.
he begged pardon for entering into an alliance againlt  *
him : and, affuring him of his protedlion for the fu¬
ture, he went with him to the church of St Peter ;
and there, difarming himfelf in the prefence of his
chief officers, he laid his girdle, his fword, and his
gantlet, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold,
and Crofs of filver, on the apoitle’s fepulchre. After
this, he reconciled the pope with the exarch, who was
thereupon received into the city, where he continued
for fome time, maintaining a friendly correfpondence
with the pope. At this time an impollor, taking the
name of Tiberius, and pretending to be defeended
from the emperors, feduced a great many people in
Tufcany, and was by them proclaimed emperor. The
exarch refolved to march againil him ; but, as he had
not fufficient forces to oppofe the rebels, Gregory, who
let no opportunity flip of obliging Leo, periuaded the
Romans to attend the exarch in this expedition; by
which means the ufurper being taken in a caftle, his
head was fent to the emperor, and the rebellion utter¬
ly fupprefled. But, the emperor Hill infilling upon his
edidl againft the images being received in Rome, the
Romans, at the inftigation of the pope, publicly re¬
nounced their allegiance to Leo, paid him no more
tribute, and withdrew for ever their obedience to the
emperors of the call. 20
Leo, informed of this revolt, and not queftioningThe empe-
but the pope was the author of it, immediately cauied "r fazes
all the patrimonies of the church of Rome in Sicily,
Calabria, and his other dominions, to be confifcatcd. the pope.
At the fame time he ordered a powerful army to be
raifed, with a defign to recover the towns that had re¬
volted; to chaftife the Romans for their rebellion ; and,
above all, to be revenged on the pope, who had rai¬
fed all thefe difturbances, by oppofing himfelf, and
perfuading others to oppofe, the execution of his e-
didl. Gregory, alarmed at the warlike preparations
that were carrying on throughout the empire, and
well apprifed that they were qhiefly defigned againft;
him and the Romans, refolved to recur to the pro-
tedlion of the French, the only nation at that time
capable of coping with the emperor, and on whom,
on account of their zeal for religion, he thought he
might depend. The Lombards were then very pow¬
erful ; but, as they wanted to be mafters of Rome,
he did not think it advifeable to truft them. The Ve¬
netians, though zealous in the defence of the pope,
were not yet in a condition to withftand the power of
the emperor; and, befides, were jealous of the Lom¬
bards, who watched all opportunities of enlarging
their dominions at the expence of their neighbours.
As for Spain, it was then in a moft deplorable condi¬
tion, being over-run, and almoft wholly ruined, by
the Saracens. xt
The French nation was at this time governed by who ap-
the celebrated Charles Martel, who had diftinguifhed pli« to the
himfelf in a moft eminent manner in the wars ofFrench•
France and Germany; and had, not long before,
gained a fignal victory over the Saracens in the neigh¬
bourhood of Tours ; whence he was generally repu¬
ted the bell commander, and the greatell hero, of his
time. To him therefore Gregory fent a folemn em-
bafly, with a great number of relicks, earntftly in¬
treating him to take the Romans, and the church, un¬
der
LON [ 4271 ] LON
Lombards der his protection, and defend them againft the at-
\ (I tempts of Leo. The embaffadors were received with
Lomond ex^raord'nary marks of honour; and a treaty was foon
 concluded between them and Charles, who engaged to
march into Italy in perfon, at the head of a power¬
ful army, in defence of the Romans and the church,
if they ihould be attacked either by the emperor or the
Lombards. On the other hand, the Romans were to
acknowledge him for their prote&or, and confer on
him the honour of the confulfhip, as it had been for¬
merly conferred on Clovis by the emperor Anaftafius,
after that prince had defeated the Viiigoths. The ern-
balfadors returned from France loaded with rich pre-
fents. But Gregory did not long enjoy the fruit of
their negotiations; for he died the fame year 73 1, and
was fucceeded by Gregory III. in whofe time fome
place the above-mentioned embalfy.
End of the The French nation was at this time juft recovered
Lombard from its diftreffed fituation under the defcendants of
Bionarc ty. 0]ov;s . 3,,^ by t},e bravery and conduft of Charles
Martel, had become the moft powerful kingdom in
the weft. His fucceflbr Pepin, was no lefs wife and
powerful than his father had been ; and as the ambi¬
tion of the Lombard princes would be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than the entire conqueft of Italy, the
French monarch, Charlemagne, under colour of aflift-
ing the pope, at laft put an end to the empire of Lom¬
bardy, as related under the article France, n° 21, 22.
Charter, Th6 Lombards were at firft a cruel and barbarous
&c. ofthe nation ; but, divefting themfelves by degrees of their
Lombards, native fiercenefs and barbarity, efpecially after they
had embraced the Chriftian religion, they governed
with fuch equity and moderation, that moft other na¬
tions envied the happinefs of thofe who lived under
them. Under the government of the Lombards, fays
Paulus Diaconus, no violence was commited, no one
unjuftly difpoffelfed of bis property, none opprefled
with taxes; theft, robberies, murder, and adultery,
were feldom heard of: every one went, without the
leaft apprehenfion, wherever he pleafed. Their laws
were fo juft and equitable, that they were retained in
Italy, and obferved there, fome ages after their king¬
dom was at an end.— According to Paulus Uiaconus,
alfo, their drefs was loofe, and for the moft part of
linen, fuch as tfre Anglo-Saxons wore, being inter¬
woven with various colours; that their fhoes were
open to the end of their foot, and that they ufed to
buttom or lace them. From fome ancient paintings,
it appears, that they fhaved the back part of their
heads; but that their hair was long before; their
locks being parted, and laid on each fide their fore¬
heads.
LOMENTACEiE, in botany, (from lomentum, a
colour ufed by painters), the name of the 33d order
in Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confifting
of the following genera, many of which furnifh beau¬
tiful tindtures that are ufed in dyeing, viz. adenanthe-
ra, bauhinia, caslalpina, caffia, ceratonia, cercis, gledit-
fia, guilandina, hsematoxylon, hymenasa, mimofa, par-
kinfonia,poinciana, polygama. See Botany, p. 13 J I.
Loch LOMOND, a large lake of Dunbarton or
Lennox (hire in Scotland, of which Mr Pennant gives
thefollovving defeription. “ Loch-lomond, the laft, the
molt beautiful of the Caledonian lakes. The firft
view of it from Tarbat prefents an extenfive ferpentine
You VI-
winding amidft lofty hills; on the north, barren, Loch-
black, and rocky, which darkens with their (hade that I'omon<i-
contracted part of the water. On the weft fide, the
mountains are cloathed near the bottoms with woods
of oak quite to the water-edge; their fummits lofty,
naked, and craggy. On the eaft fide, the mountains
are equally high; but the tops form a more even ridge
parallel to the lake, except where Ben-lomond, like
Saul amidft his companions, overtops the reft. The
upper parts were black and barren ; the lower had
great marks of fertility, or at leaft of induftry, for the
yellow corn was finely contrafted with the verdure of
the groves intermixed with it.
“ This eaftern boundary is part of the Grampian
hills, which extend from hence through the counties
of Perth, Angus, Mearns, and Aberdeen. The
road runs fometimes through woods, at others is ex-
pofed and naked ; in fome, fo fteep as to require the
fupport of a wall ; the whole the work of the foldiery :
blefled exchange of inftruments of deftrudtion for thofe
that give fafety to the traveller, and a polifh to the
once inacctfiible native !—Two great head-lands co¬
vered with trees feparate the firft feene from one to¬
tally different; the laft is called the Point of Firkin.
On pafiing this cape an expanfe of water burfts at
once on your eye, varied with all the fofter beauties
of nature. Immediately beneath is a flat covered
with wood and corn : beyond, the headlands ftrfetch
far into the water, and confift of gentle rifings; many
have their furfaces covered with wood, others adorned
with trees loofely fcattered either over a fine verdure,
or the purple bloom of the heath. Numbers of iflands
are difperfed over the lake, of the fame elevated form
as the little capes, and wooded in the fame manner;
others juft peep above the furface, and are tufted with
trees; and numbers are fo difpofed as to form magni¬
ficent viftos between.
“ Oppofite Lufs, at a fmall diftance from flrore, is a
mountainous ifle almoft covered with wood; is near
half a mile long, and has a moft fine effedt. I could
not count the number of iflands, but was told there
are twenty-eight; the largeft two miles long, and
flocked with deer.
“ The length of this charming lake is 24 Scotch
miles; its greateft breadth, eight ; its greateft depth,
which is between the point of Firkin and Ben-
lomond, is 120 fathoms. Befides the fi(h common to
the lochs are guiniads, called here poam.
“ The furface of Loch-lomond has for feveral years
pad been obferved gradually to increafe, and invade the
adjacent (hore : and there is reafon to fuppofe that
churches, houfes, and other buildings, have been loft
in the water.. Near Lufs is a large heap of ftones at
a diftance from the (hore, known by the name of the
old church 5 and about a mile to the fouth of that, in
the middle of a large bay, between Camftraddan and
the ifle Inch-lavanack, is another heap, faid to have
been the ruins of a houfe. To confirm this, it is
evident by a pafiage in Cambden’s Atlas Britannica,
that an ifland, exifting in his time, is now loft; For
he fpeaks of the ifle of Camftraddan, placed between,
the lands of the fame name and Inch-lavanak, in
which, adds he, was an houfe and orchard. Befides
this proof, large trees with their branches (till ad¬
hering are frequently found in the mud near the (hore,
24 G over-
LON [ 4272 ] LON
London, overwhelmed in former times by the increafe of water.
-rjPhjg js fUpp0feci to be occafioned by the vaft quanti¬
ties of ftone and grave] that is continually brought
down by the mountain rivers, and by the falls of the
banks of the Leven ; the firft filling the bed of the
lake, the laft impeding its difcharge through the bed
of the river.
“ Mr Golborne.at the requeft of the feveral proprie¬
tors, has made a voyage and furvey of the lake, in
order to plan fome relief from the incroachment of
the water. He propofes to form a conftant naviga¬
tion down the Leven, by, deepening the channel,
and cutting through the neck of two great curva¬
tures : which will not only enable the inhabitants of
the invirons of Loch-lomond to convey their flate,
timber, bark, &c. to the market ; but alfo, by
lowering the furface of the lake, recover fome thou-
fands of acres now covered with water.”
LONDON, a large city of Middlefex in England,
the metropolis of Great Britain, and one of the moft
wealthy and populous places in the world, is iltuated
on the river Thames, in Long. 000. N. Lat. 51. 32.
* The moft ancient name of this city is Londinium, or
names Lundinhm, according to Ammianus. It was then
changed into Augujia; in honour, as fome fay, of He¬
lena Aiigufta, the mother of Conftantine the Great;
while others think it more probable that it had this
name from the fecond legiop, whofe peevliar title was
Augujia; and fome imagine that the honourable ap¬
pellation of Augujia, was conferred upon this city by
the Romans, as upon other principal cities of their em¬
pire, on account»of its being grown up to be the ca¬
pital of their Britilh province. How long the name
of Augujia prevailed is not now certainly known ; but
after the eftablilhment of the Saxons we find no more
mention of Augufta. It was then called Caer Lun-
dain, Lundoun Byrig, Lunden 'Ceajler, Lunden-’wye,
Lundenne, Lufiden-berh, ox Lundenburg; and fince the
conqueft the records call it Londonia, Lundonia, Lon-
dim, Londres, and, for feveral ages paft, London, a
manifeft corruption from Tacitus’s Londinium. The
jrioft probable derivation of thefe names] according to
Mr Entick, is from the Britifh words Ihong, “ a (hip,”
and dinas, “a city;” i. e. a city or harbour for fliips;
for which, it appears from Tacitus, to have been fa¬
mous from its firft foundation.
When The city of London cannot be reckoned more an-
founded. cient thap the time of Julius Caefar. Geoffrey of Mon¬
mouth indeed relates, that, before the Roman -inva-
fion, London was a town encompaffed with walls, and
fortified with innumerable towers: but herein he de-
ferves no credit; for Caefar informs us, that in his time
the Britons had no other towns than thick woods fur-
rounded with a ditch, and fortified with a rampart.
The foundation of the town is with the greateft pro¬
bability afcribed to Oftorius Scapula, about the year
49, for the fecurity of the Roman allies, who were be¬
fore too much expofed to the incurfions of the Bri¬
tons. It is indeed conje&ured, and that not without
a great degree of probability, that at this time the ri¬
ver Thames, by reafon of the great fpreading of its
waters, was fordable at the place where London now
Hands, and that London was built particularly with a
view to fecure and command this ford. The embank¬
ing of the river, and the ftoppage of the tide at Lon¬
don bridge, have greatly increafed the depth of the wa- London,
ter fince that time, fo that it is now very far from be- "
ing fordable there. ?
At firft, London had no walls or other fortifications Burnt by
to defend it, and was therefore expofed to the attacks the Britons,
of every enemy: and thus it fuffercd feverely about
the year 64, being burnt by the Britons under Boa-
dicea, and all the inhabitants maffacred. Soon after
this, however, it was reftored by the Romans, and in¬
creafed fo much, that in the reign of the emperor Se-
verus it is called by Herodian, a greai and wealthy city.
About the fame time it was made a Roman prefecture,
in imitation of Rome itfelf; whofe prefedt was fent
annually to do juftice, and to adt in all public matters,
fuch as taxes, tributes, impofts, and military affairs, as
diredted by the Roman fenate. It continued in a de-
fencelefs ftate till the year 296, or 298, when walls gurrpun(je^
were built round it on the following occafion. The with walls,
province of Britain had for fome time been difmember-
ed from the empire by Caraufius, who revolted from,
the emperors Dioclefian and Maximian; but he being
murdered by one Cains Aledlns, a Roman army was
difpatched againft this new ufurper. Aledtus called in
the Franks to fupport him ; but being defeated and
killed, his allies determined to plunder the city of Lon¬
don : but while they were bufy in fo doing, the Ro¬
mans arrived, and cut them all in pieces. To prevent
difafters of a fimilar kind for the future, a wall of hewn
ftone and Britifh bricks was erefted round the city.
It was three miles and 165 feet in circumference; the
figure quadrangular, but not equilateral, the fides be¬
ing longer from eaft to weft than from north to fouth.
The veftiges of this wall are ftill to be feen. In the Saxon
times, and probably from its firft foundation, it extend¬
ed along the fide of the river; and if it is not at pre-
fent pofiible to trace the foundations along the rivcr-
fide, this may juftly be fuppofed owing to the many
and great encroachments made by wharfs, which are
continually gaining upon it, fo that now they advance
as far as the fourth pier of London bridge. 5
Dr Woodward, in his Roman Antiquities and Pre- Dr Wood-
fent State of London, informs us, that he had an op- ward’s ac-
portunity of examining the fabric and compofitioo °r
materials of which thefe walls were built, from dig¬
ging at Bifhop’s-gate for the foundation of certain
houfes to be ere&ed in 1707. He writes, that the
faid wall, from the foundation, eight feet below the
prefent furface, quite up to the top, which was in all
ten feet more, was compiled alternately of layers of
broad flate, bricks, and of rag-ltones. The bricks lay
in double ranges; and each brick being but one inch
and three tenths in thicknefs, the whole layer, with the
mortar interpofed, exceeded not three inches. The lay¬
ers of ftone were not quite two feet thick of our mea-
fure. This was the height of the Roman work ; and
thefe were the remains of the ancient Roman wall fup¬
pofed to be built by Conftantine the Great. It was
here very obfervable, that the mortar was, (as ufual in
the Roman work), fo very firm and hard, that the ftone
itfelf as eafily broke, and gave way as foon as it. Thus
far from the foundation upwards, it was nine feet in
thicknefs: the broad thin bricks were all of Roman
make, and of the very fort, as we learn from Pliny,
that were in common ufe among that people ; being
in length a foot and an half of their ftandard, and in
breadth
LON [4273
London, breadth a foot. Dr Woodward found them 17 inches fore
""four-tenths in length, 11 inches fix-tenths in breadth,
and one inch three-tenths in thicknefs. On the land-
fide the city-wall was ftrengthened and embellilhed
with {lately towers ; the remains of 15 of which are
Hill to be feen. Dr Woodward difcovered one built
in the fame manner and of the fame materials as the
wall, 26 feet high, in three ftories, behind a houfe fa¬
cing Gravel-lane in Houndlditch ; but much decayed.
In fearching for this tower, Mr Entick and Mr Mait¬
land found out another, about 80 yards nearer Aid-
gate, of the fame Roman conftru&ion, 21 feet high,
perfe&ly found, and much more beautiful: the bricks
were as found as when new laid; but moft of the Hones
were decaying, having lain, according to the moft
probable computation, 14.59 years-
The wall of London was finifhed about the year 306,
and about the fame time alfo it is very probable that a
bridge was ereCled at the place where London-bridge
{lands; for it is not to be fuppofed that the city had
no commerce with the country fouth of the river, and
a ferry could not by any means be thought adequate
to the bufinefs. Till the year 457, nothing remark-
<5 able happened to the city of London. It was then for-
Rh cec^ to t0 l^e Saxons, and became the chief city
and be”115’0^ the kingdom of Efiex ; and though it fuffered much
comes the in the wars carried on between the Britons and Saxons,
metropolis it foon recovered, fo that Bede calls it a princely mart-
gf Eng- town, under the government of a chief magiftrate,
whofe title of port grave, or portreve, (for we find him
called by both names), conveys a grand idea of the
mercantile ftate of London in thofe early ages, that
required a governor or guardian of the port. During
the civil wars of the Saxons with each other, the
Londoners had always the addrefs to keep themfelves
neuter; and about the year 819, when all the feven
Saxon kingdoms fell under the power of Egbert, Lon¬
don became the metropolis of England, which it has
ever fince continued.
During the invafions of the Danes, London fuffered
greatly. In 849, thefe invaders entered the Thames
with 250 fhips, plundered and burnt the city, and maf-
facred the inhabitants ; and two years after they re¬
turned with a fleet of 350 fail, fully determined to de-
ftroy every thing that had efcaped their barbarity in
the former expedition. At this time, however, they
were difappointed ; moft of their troops being cut in
pieces by king Ethelwolf and his fon Athelbald; yet
fuch was the deltru&ion made by thofe barbarians at
London, that it fufl'ered more from thefe two incur-
8 fions than ever it had done before.
Recovers In the reign of king Alfred the Great, London be-
under Al- gan to recover from its former ruinous ftate. He re-
fred the built its walls, drove out the Danifti inhabitants who
had fettled there, reftored the city to its former liberties
and beauty, and committed the care of it to his fon-
in-law, Ethelred duke of Mercia, in hopes that this
land.
Plundered
by the
Danes.
Great.
] LON
the houfes were quickly rebuilt, and the citydi- London,
vided into wards and precindis for its better order and • ”
government. This king alfo inftituted the office ofJ(s *°ern,
(heriff, the nature of which office made it neceffary tonieiU let.
have it alfo in London : fo that here we have the glim- tkd.
merings of the order of magiftrates afterwards fettled
in the city of London; in the perfon of the portreve,
or portgrave, or governor of the city, as fupreme ma¬
giftrate ; in the fheriff, and in the officer or fubordi-
nate magiftrate by what name foever then diftinguifh-
ed, which, being placed at the head of each ward or
precirtfl, were analogous to the more modern title of
aldermen and common-council men. ,,
Alfred having fettled the affairs of England in the Brick and
moft prudent manner, dire&ed his attention to the or- ft0"eh°“<'s
namenting, as much as poffible, the city of London. r ere e
For this purpofe, he fpirited up the Englifh to an emu¬
lation in building their houfes of ftronger and more
durable materials than formerly. At that time their
houfes were moftly of wood ; and an houfe built of
any other materials w^as looked upon as a kind of won -
der. But Alfred having begun to raifehis palaces of
ftone and brick, the opulent Londoners, and the nobi¬
lity refident in and about London followed the example,
though the cuftom did not come into general ufe till
fome ages after.
In 1015, a foreign enemy again appeared before Beficged by
London. Canute king of Denmark having invaded Canute,
and plundered the counties of Dorfet, Somerfet, and
Wilts, failed up the Thames with 200 fhips, and laid
fiege to the city. The citizens continued faithful, not-
withftanding the defeclion of the greateil part of the
kingdom; and made fuch a brave refiftance, that Ca¬
nute thought fit to withdraw his army, leaving only
his fleet to blockade the city by water, that when he
found a fair opportunity he might renew the fiege with
better fuccefs. At laft, however, being defeated
in feveral battles by Edmund Ironfide, he w'as obli¬
ged to call off his {hips to cover his own army in cafe
of neceffity. In the compromife, however, which was
afterwards made between Edmund and Canute, the
city of London was given to the latter, and owned him
for its lawful fovereign. We have a ftrong proof of
the opulence of London even at this time, from the tax
laid upon it by Canute in order to pay his army; this
being no lefs than 10,500!. while the reft of the na¬
tion was at the fame time taxed only at 72,000!. ,3
In 1046, we have the firft inftance of the London-Sends re-
ers fending reprefentatives to parliament. This hap-Pre<enta'
pened on fettling the fucceffion to the throne after Ca-f|J“e^Par*
nute’s death. The Englifli in general declared for Ed¬
ward fon of king Ethelred, or, if that could not be
carried, for Hardicanute, fon of Canute by queen
Emma, and then abfent on a tour to Denmark. The
city of London efpoufed the claim and intereft of Ha¬
rold Harefoot, fon alfo of Canute by queen Elgiva of
Northampton. Edward’s party foon declined; and
might always be a place of fecure retreat within its the Londoners agreed, for the peace of the realm, that
ftrong walls, whatever might happen from a foreign or
domeftic enemy. In 893, however, he had the mor¬
tification to fee his capital totally reduced to afhes by
9 an accidental fire, which could not be extinguifhed, as
aihesl'Ce<1 t0t^e houfes at that time were all built of wood. The
walls, however, being conftructed of incombuftible ma¬
terials, continued to afford the fame prote&ioh as be-
the two brothers fiiould divide the kingdom between
them; but as Hardicanute did not return in proper
time to England, a wittenage-mote was held at Ox¬
ford, where earl Leofric, and moft of the thanes on
the north of the Thames, with the pilots of London,
chofc Harold for their king. Here, by pilots we are
to anderftand the dire&ors, magiftrates, or leading
24 G 2 menr
LON [ 4274 ] LON
London. men 0f the city: and this manifeftly {hews, that Lon-
don was then of fuch confequence, that no important
national affair was tranfa£ted without the confent of
the inhabitants ; for the Saxon annals affure us, that
rone were admitted into this affembly of ele&ion but
the nobility and the pilots of London.
On the invafion of the Normans under William I.
London fubmitted as well as the reft of the kingdom;
and received two charters from that prince, confirm-
J4 *nS t^,e priv'leges they had under the Saxon kings,
Suffers and adding feveral new ones. But while the citizens
greatly by were promifing themfelves all manner of fecurity and
canesk&c' tran<lu*^‘ty un^er the new government, it was almoft
’ ’ entirely reduced to alhes by an accidental fire in 1077.
It had fcarcely recovered from this calamity, when it
wasvifited by another of the fame kind in 1086, which
began at Ludgate, and deftroyed the beft and moft o-
pulent part of the city; confuming, among other build¬
ings, the cathedral of St Paul’s; which, however, was
foon rebuilt more magnificently than before. Under
the reign of William Rufus, Lendon fuffered confider-
ably by fires, hurricanes, and inundations, and feems
to have been depreffed by the tyranny of that prince;
but Henry I. granted large immunities to the city,
which again revived its trade, and was favourable to
the progrefs of the arts. The king, however, ftill re¬
tained the privilege of appointing the portreve, or
chief magiftrate; but the immunities granted to the
Londoners fecured their affe&ions, and tended much
to fecure him on the throne. At the fame time there
was luch a plenty of all kinds of provifions, that as
much corn was fold for 1 s. as would fuffice too people
for a day; 4d. would purehafe as much hay and corn
as would maintain 20 horfes for a day; and a ftieep
is could be bought for a groat.
Monflrous Henry thought proper alfo to check the licentious
behaviour of the Normans, which, by the favour
Normans. Shewed them under the two Williams, had carried
them into the moft barbarous pra&ices. Thofe who
followed William Rufus in his excurfions, haraffed
and plundered the country at difcretion. Many of
them were fo extravagant in their barbarity, that what
they could not eat or drink in their quarters, they ei¬
ther obliged the people to carry to market and fell
for their ufe, or elfe they would throw it into the fire :
and, at their going off, they frequently wafhed their
horfes heels with the drink, and ftaved the cafks con¬
taining the remainder. King Henry refolved to put
a ftop to thefe exceffes and favage cuftoms ; and there¬
fore pnblifhed a proclamation at London, commanding
that thenceforward all perfons who fhould be convifted
of fuch barbarities fhould have their eyes pulled out,
or their hands or feet cut off, as the minifters of juftice
fiiould think fit. This effedlually checked the info-
lence of the Normans, and the city continued to flou-
rifh throughout the reigns of Henry I. and Stephen.
The attachment of the citizens to Stephen, however,
was a crime which never could be forgiven by Henry II.
and of confequence he made them fenfible of his dif-
pleafure by making frequent demands of money from
0. I® them. About this time, indeed, the Londoners were
Londoners arrived at fuch a pitch of licentioufnefs, that their pro-
fperity feemed a curfe rather than a blefiing. The
fons of the moft eminent and wealthy citizens entered
into a confederacy to commit burglaries, and to rob
and murdet* all that came in their way in the night- London,
time. The king took an opportunity from thefe irre-
gnlarities to enrich himfelf. He demanded feveral
loans and free gifts ; till at laft the Londoners, to
prevent further inquiries into their conduit, paid into
the exchequer 5000 1. in three years. Thefe diforders,
however, were at laft flopped by the execution of John
Senex; who, though a very rich and reputable citizen,
had engaged in thefe enterprizes. He offered 500 tt>.
weight of filver, a prodigious fum in thofe days, for
his pardon, but was refufed. The king, however, ftill
continued to drain the citizens of their money by free
gifts; and at laft fined every feparate guild, fraternity,
or company, that had prefumed to aft as bodies cor¬
porate without the royal letters-patent.
On the death of Henry II. the title of the fii ft ma¬
giftrate of London was changed from portgreve to that
bailiff; and in 1189 claimed and afted in the office *
of the chief butler at the coronation of Richard I. In
1191 this monarch permitted the bailiff, named Henry ,7
Fitz Alwine, to affume the title of mayor. For, in The office
X192, we find certain orders of the mayor and alder-
men to prevent fires ; whereby it was ordained, that
“ all houfes thereafter to be erefted in London and
the liberties thereof, fhould be built of ftone, with
party-walls of the fame; and covered either with flates
or tiles, to prevent thofe dreadful calamities by fire,
which were frequently and chiefly occafioned by houfe#
built of wood, and thatched with ftraw or reeds.”
And for this purpofe it was alfo provided by the dif-
creeter men of the city, “ that 12 aldermen of the
city fhould be chofen in full huftings, and there fworn
to affift the mayor in appeafing contentions that might
arife among neighbours in the city upon inclofure be¬
twixt land and land, and to regulate the dimenfions of
party-walls, which were to be of ftone, 16 feet high,
and three feet thick ; and to give direftions about
girders, windows, gutters, and wells.” Such confi¬
dence alfo did Richard put in the wifdom and faith-
fulnefs of the city of London, that when it was re¬
folved to fix a ftandard for weights and meafures for
the whole realm, his majefty committed the execution
thereof to the fheriffs of London and Middlefex, whom
he commanded to provide meafures, gallons, iron rods,
and weights for ftandards, to be fent to the feveral
counties of England. This happened in 1198, at
which time corn was advanced to the enormous price
of 18. 4d. per quarter. i3
The city of London was much favoured by king Favours
John, who granted them three charters foon after his granted to
acctffion. The firft was a recital and confirmation of city by
thofe granted by Henry I. and II. with the farther k,nSJohn*
privilege of being free from toll and every other duty
or cuftom in his majefty’s foreign dominions; for
which they paid the fum of 3000 merks. The fecond
was a confirmation of one granted by king Richard.
By this the citizens of London had the jurifdiftion
and confervancy of the river Thames; with a claufe to
extend that jurifdiftion, and the powers therewith
granted, to the river Medway ; and with another
claufe to enable the faid city, as confervators of the
rivers Thames and Mtdway, to inflift a penalty of 10I.
upon any perfon that fhould prefume to ereft a wear
in either of thefe rivers. The third charter contains
a fee-farm-rent of the ffieriffwicks of London and
Middlefex
Lon [ 4275 ] lon
London. Middlefex at the ancient rent, of which they had been
deprived by queen Maud ; granting them alfo the ad¬
ditional power of choofing their own fheriffs. This
charter w'as given by way of conveyance from the
crown to the citizens for a valuable confideratiow, by
which the Iheriffwick became their freehold; and this
is the fird covenant or conveyance we find on record
with the legal terms of to have and to hold, which are
at this time accounted an eflential part in all convey-
ances of property.
Lordonop During the reign of Henry III. the city of London
prcfled by was oppreffed in many different ways. In 1218, he
Henry III. exafteJ a fine of 40 marks for felling a fort of cloth
not two yards within the lifts; and a 15th of the citi¬
zens perfonal ettates for the enjoyment of their ancient
rights and privileges. In 1221, he commanded by
proclamation all the foreign merchants to depart the
* city ; which drew 30 marks from the Anfeatic
company of the Steelyard, to have feifin of their guild
or hall in Thames-ftreet. But it was the wreftling-
match at St Giles's in the fields that brought on their
greateft burden. In the year 1221, on St James's day,
the citizens of London having carried off the vidtory
from the people of Weftminfter and other neighbour¬
ing villages, the fteward of the abbot of Weftminfttr,
meditating revenge againft the Londoners, propofed
another wreftling match with them, and gave a ram for
the prize. The citizens reforted to the place at the
time appointed; but were unexpedledly affaulted by a
great number of armed men, who killed and wounded
many, and difperfed the reft. This railed a great
commotion in the city. The populace breathed
revenge; and, by the inftigation of Conftantine Fitz-
Arnulph, a great favourer of the French party during
the troubles in king John’s reign, they proceeded to
Weftminfter, and pulled down the houfes both of the
the fteward and abbot. Hearing afterwaids that the
abbot was come into the city with his complaint to
Philip Daubney the king’s counfel, they purfued him,
beat his fervants cruelly, took away 12 of his horfes,
and would have murdered himfelf, had he not efcaped
by a back-door. Upon this tumult, Hubert de Bury,
then chief jufticiary, fummoned the mayor and many of
the principal citizens to attend him in the tower of
London ; and inquiring for the authors of the riot,
Conftantine, the ringleader, boldly anfwered, that “ he
was one ; that they had done no more than they
ought; and that they were refolved to avow what
they had done, let the confequence be what it would.”
In this he was feconded by his nephew and one Geof-
fery; but the jufticiary, having difmiffed all the reft,
detained thefe three, and ordered them to be hanged
next morning, though Conftantine offered 15,000
marks for his pardon. Hubert then coming into the
city with a ftrong guard, caufed the hands and feet of
moft of the principal rioters he could feize to be cut
off; all which was executed without any legal pro¬
ceedings or form of trial. After thefe arbitrary cruel¬
ties, he degraded the mayor and all the magiftrates;
placed a cujlos over the city, and obliged 30 perfons
of his own choofing to become fecurities for the good
behaviour of the whole city. Several thoufand marks
were alfo exafted by the king, before he would con-
fent to a r. conciliation.
This arbitrary behaviour alarmed the whole nation.
The parliament of 1224 began to be uneafy for them- I-onJoe.
felves, and addreffed his majefty that he would be plea-
fed to confirm the charter of liberties which he had
fworn to obferve; and the confequence of this applica¬
tion was a confirmation of the magna charta in the full
parliament at Weftminfter in the year 1225. At this
time alfo all the rights and privileges of the citizens
were confirmed. They were exempted from profecu-
tidns for burels, ;. e. lifted-cloth ; and were granted
the right of having a common feal. The neceffitous
circumftances of this monarch, however, made him of¬
ten exadi money arbitrarily as long as he lived.
Under the fucceeding reigns, as the liberty ofthe peo¬
ple in general was augmented, fo the liberty, opulence,
and power ofthecitizensofLondon increafed, until they
became a kind of balance to the power of the crown
itfelf, which in feme meafure they ftill continue to be.
Riots indeed, for which they generally fuffered, were by
no means unfrequent ; the city often fuffered by fires,
and plagues. Nothing, however, happened which ma¬
terially affected the welfare of the city, till the reign of 29
Charles II. in 1665.—This year London was ravaged Dreadfuh
by the moft violent plague ever known in Britain, plague in
The whole fummer had been remarkably ftill and,<l5i*
warm, fo that the weather was fometimes fuffocating
even to people in perfedt health ; and by this unufual
heat and fultry atmofphere, people were undoubtedly
prepared for receiving the infedtion, which appeared
with violence in the months of July, Auguft, and
September. A violent plague had raged in Holland
in the year 1663 ; on which account the importation
of merchandife from that country was prohibited by
the Britilh legiflature in 1664. Notwithftanding this
prohibition, however, it feems the plague had adtually
been imported; for in the clofe of the year 1664, two
or three perfons died fuddenly in Weftminfter, with
marks of the plague on their bodies. Some of their
neighbours, terrified at the thoughts of their danger,
removed into the city ; but their removal proved too
late for themfelves, and fatal to thofe among whom
they came to refide. They foon died of the plague;
and communicated the infedtion to fo many others,
that it became impoffible to extinguilh the feeds of it
by feparating thofe that were infedted from fuch as
were not. It was confined, however, through a hard
frofty winter, till the middle of February, when it
again appeared in the parifh of St Giles’s, towhich'it
had been originally brought ; and after another long
reft till April, (hewed its malignant force afrefti, as
foon as the warmth of the fpring gave it opportunity.
— At firft it took off one here and there, without any
certain proof of their having infedted each other, and
houfes began to be (hut up, with a dcfign to prevent
its fpreading. But it was now too late; the infedtion
ained ground every day, and the (hutting up of
oufes only made the difeafes fpread wider. People,
afraid of being (hut up, and (tqueftered from all commu¬
nication with fociety, concealed their ilinefs, or found
means to efcape from their places of confinement;
while numbers expired in the greateft torments, defti-
tute of every affiftance ; and many died both of the
plague, and other difeafes, who would in all probabi¬
lity have recovered, had they been allowed their
liberty, with proper exercife and air.—A houfe was
(hut up on account of a maid-fervant, who had only
LON [ 4276 ] LON
London, fpots, and not the gangrenous plague-blotches, upon
her, fo that her dittemper was probably a petechial
fever. She recovered; but the people of the houfe
obained no liberty to ftir, either for air or exercife, for
40 days. The bad air, fear, anger, and vexation, at¬
tending this injurious treatment, caft the miftrefs of
the family into a fever. The vifitors appointed to
fearch the houfes, faid it was the plague, though the
pbyficians were of a different opinion: the family,
however, were obliged to begin their quarantine anew,
though it had been almoft expired before ; and this
fecond confinement affe£ted them fo much, that mofl
“of the family fell fick, fome of one diltemper, and fome
of another. Every illnefs that appeared in the family
produced a frtfh prolongation of their confinement ;
till at laft the plague was a&ually brought in by fome
of thofe who came to inquire into the health of the
family, and almofl every perfon in the houfe died.—
Many examples of a fimilar kind happened, and this
was one of the worft confequences of (hutting up
houfes. All means of putting a flop to the infe&ion
were evidently ineffe&ual. Multitudes fled into the
■country ; many merchants, owners of (hips, &c. (hut
themfelves up, on board their veffels, being fupplied
with provifions from Greenwich, Woolwich, and Angle
farm-houfes on the Kentilh fide. Here, however,
they were fafe ; for the infe&ion never reached below
Deptford, though the people went frequently on (bore
to the country-towns, villages, and farm-houfes, to
buy frefli provifions. As the violence of the plague
increafed, the (hips, which had families on board, re¬
moved farther off; fome went quite out to fea, and
then put into fuch harbours and roads as they could
bell get at.
In the mean time the diftemper made the mod ra¬
pid advances within the city. In the laft week of
July, the number of burials amounted to zoto; but
the firft week of Auguft it rofe to 3817 ; thence to
3880 ; then to 4237 : the next week, to 6102 ; and at
laft to 7000 and 8000 weekly. In the laft week of
September, however, the fury of the difeafe began
to abate ; though vaft numbers were fick, yet the
number of burials decreafed from 7155 to 5538 ; the
next week there was a farther decreafe to 4929, then
to 4327, next to 2665, then to 1421, and the next
week to 103 1.
All this while, the poor people had been reduced
to the greateft diftreffes, by reafon of the ftagnation
of trade, and the fickneffes to which they were pe¬
culiarly liable on account of their manner of living.
The rich, however, contributed to their fubfiftence in
a mod liberal manner. The fums collefted on this
occafion are, indeed, almoft incredible; being faid
to amount to 100,0001. per week. The king is re¬
ported to have contributed 10001. weekly ; and in the
parifh of Cripplegate alone 17,000 1. was diftri-
buted weekly among the poor inhabitants.—By the
vigilance alfo of the magiftrates, provifions continued
remarkably cheap throughout the whole time of this
dreadful calamity, fo that all riots and tumults on
that account were prevented ; and at laft, on the ceffa-
tion of the difeafe in the winter of 1665, the inhabi¬
tants who had fled returned to their habitations, and
London to appearance become as populous as ever,
though it was computed that 100,000 perfons had
been carried off by the plague.
The city was fcarcely recovered from the defolation " ■
occafioned by the plague, when it was almoft totally . 21 r f
laid in afhes by a moft dreadful fire. This broke out th^gr'eat°
in a baker’s (hop in Pudding-lane, on Saturday-night, firein i(5S<5.
September 2. 1666. In a few hours Billingfgate ward
wasentirelyburntdown; and before morning the fire had
croffed Thames-Street, anddeftroyed the church of St
Magnus. From thence it proceeded to the bridge,
and confumed a great pile of buildings there; but
was (topped by the want of any thing more to de-
ftroy. The flames, however, being fcattered by a
ftrong eaft wind, continued their devaftation in other
quarters. All efforts to flop it proved unfuccefsful
throughput the Sunday. That day it proceeded up as
farasGarlick-hithe; and deftroying Canon-ftreet, inva¬
ded Cornhill and the exchange. On Monday, the flames
having proceeded eaftward againft the wind through
Thames-ftreet, invaded Tower-ftreet, Grace-church-
ftreet, Fenchurch-ftreet, Dowgate, Old-fifti-ftreet,
Watling-ftreet,Thread- needle-ftreet,and feveral others,
from all which it broke at once into Cheapfide. In a
few hours Cheapfide was all in flames, the fire having
reached it from fo many places at once. The fire then
continuing its courfe from the river on one fide, and
from Cheapfide on the other, furrounded the cathedral
of St Paul's. This building flood by itfelf at fome
diftance from any houfes; yet fuch was the violence of
the flames, and the heat of the atmofphere occafioned
by them, that the cathedral took fire at top. The
great beams and maffy (tones broke through into
Faith-church underneath, which was quickly fet on
fire ; after which, the flames invaded Pater-nofter-row,
Newgate-ftreet, the Old Bailey, Ludgate-hill, Fleet-
ftreet, Iron monger-lane, Old-Jury, Laurence-lane,
Milk ftreet, Wood-ftreet, Gutter-lane, Fofter-laue,
Lothbury, Cateaton-ftreet; and, having deftroyed
Chrift-church, burnt furioufly thro’ St Martin’s Le
Grand towards Alderfgate.
The fire had now attained its greateft extent, and
was feveral miles in compafs. The vaft clpuds of fmoke
obfcured the fun fo, that he either could not be feen
at all, or appeared through it as red as blood. The
flames reached an immenfe way up into the air, and
their refle&ion from the fmoke, which in the night¬
time feemed alfo like flame, made the appearance ftill
more terrible. The atmofphere was illuminated to a
great extent, and this illumination is faid to have been
vifible as far as Jedburgh in Scotland. Some of the
light afhes alfo are faid to have been carried to the di¬
ftance of 16 miles. Guildhall exhibited a Angular ap¬
pearance. The oak with which it was built was fo
folid that it would not flame, but burnt like charcoal, fo
that the building appeared for feveral hours like an en¬
chanted palace of gold or burnilhed brafs.
At laft, on Wednefday morning, when every one
expefted that the fuburbs as well as the city were to
have been burnt, the fire began of itfelf to abate by
reafon of the wind having ceafed, and fome other
changes no doubt taken place in the atmofphere. It
was checked by the great building in Leaden-hall-
ftreet, and in other ftreets, by the blowing up fe¬
veral houfes with gun-powder; and on Thurfday the
flames were quite extinguifhed.—The following is a
calculation of the damage done by this extraordinary
con-
LON
Calculation
mage done.
uti fire
again.
z.
3,960,000
696,000
12,000
50,000
10.000
78,000
9000
15,000
6000
7000
40,000
3000
5000
5000
3000
,000,000
150,000
4277 ] LON
to be powerfully fupported by a French army. In London.
d. confequence of this difcovery, the Fapifts were banifh- "
ed from the city and ten miles round, and five jefuits
were hanged for the abovementioned plot. 24.
o The Papilfs thought to revenge themfelves, by for- Which
ging what was called the meal-tub plot, in which the Rives occa*
o Prefbyterians were fuppofed to hatch treacherous de- lo"rrt°a
o figns ogainft the life of the king. Sir Edmondbury with the
o Godfrey alfo, who had been very a&ive in his pro- court,
o ceedings againft the Papifts, was murdered by fome
unknown perfons ; and this murder, together with
o their diicovering the falfehood of the meal-tub plot,
o • fo exafperated the Londoners, that they refolved to-
o fhew their detettation of Popery by an extraordinary
o exhibition on the 17th of November, qdeen Eliza-
o beth’s acceffion to the fhrone, on which day they
had ufually burnt the pope in effigy. The proceffion
o began with a perfon on horfeback perfonating Sir Ed-
o mondbury Godfrey, attended by a bell-man proclaim-
o ing his execrable murder. He was followed by a per-
o fon carrying a large filv&r-crofs, with priefts in copes,
o Carmelites, and Gray-friars, followed by fix jefuits:
O then proceeded divers waiters, and after them fome
bifliops with lawn-flecves, and others with copes and
o mitres. Six cardinals preceded the pope, enthroned
in a {lately pageant, attended by divers boys with pots
of incenfe, and the devil whifpering in his ear. In this
O order they marched from BHhopfgate to Fleet-ftreet;
and there, amidil a great multitude of fpe&ators,.
o •committed his holinefs to the flames.
This proceffion gave great offence to the court, at
which the duke of York, afterwards James II. had a
o greatJnfluence. The breach was farther widened by
  the choice of fheriffs for that year. The candidates
10,689,000 o o fet up by the court were rcjedled by a majority of al-
It was never certainly known whether this fire was moll two to one ; but this did not deter their par-
accidental or defigned. A fufpicion fell upon the Pa- ty from demanding a poll in their behalf,, upon which,
pills; and this gained fuel) general credit, that it is af- a tumult enfued. This was reprefented by thePopilh
ferted for a truth on the monument which is erefted in party in fuch colours to the king, that he iffued out a
memory of the conflagration. Of the truth of this af- commiffion that fame evening for trying the rioters j
fertiou, however, though there was not fufficient proof, which, however, was fo far from intimidating the refl,
it had the effedl of making the Papilts moll violent- that they grew more and more determined, not only
ly fufpe&ed and abhorred by the Protellants, which to oppofe the Popilh party, but to exclude the duke
fome time after proved very prejudicial to the city it- of York from his fucceffion to the crown,
felf. In the mean time, the king prorogued the parlta-
From this calamity, great as it was, London foon ment, to prevent them from proceeding in their in-
recovered itfelf, and 'became much more magnificent quiry concerning the Popilh plot, and the exclufion-
than before; the ftreets, which were formerly crooked bill. Upon this the lord-mayor, aldermen, and com-
and narrow, being now built wide and fpacious ; and mon-council, prefented a petition to his majefly, fa
the induftry of its inhabitants repaired the Ioffes they which they requelled, that he would permit the:
bad fuRained. In 1679, the city was again alarmed parliament to fit in order to complete their falutary,
by the difcovery of a defign to dellroy it by fire a fe- meafures and councils. This petition was highly re-
cond time. Elizabeth Oxly, fervant to one Rind in fented by the king; who, in Head, of granting it, dif-
.Fetter-lane, having fet her mailer’s houfe on fire, was folved the parliament, and could never afterwards be.
apprehended on fufpicion, and confeffed, that {he had reconciled to the city. From this time it was deter-
been hired to do it by one Stubbs a Papift, for a re- mined to feize their charter; and frefli provocations
ward of 5 1. Stubbs being taken into cuftody, ac- having been given about the election of fheriffs, a qtio>A ^ac¬
knowledged that he had perfuaded her to it; and •warranto was at laft produced by the attorney-gene-
that he himfelf had been prevailed upon by one father ral, in order to overthrow their charter, and thereby,
• Gifford his confeffor, who had affured him, that by to deprive the citizens of the power to choofe flierifi's..c;ty<
burning the houfes of heretics he would do a great fer- This information fet forth. That “ the mayor and
vice to the church. He alfo owned that he had feve- commonalty and citizens of the city of London, by.
ral conferences with Gifford and two Irilhmen on the the fpace of a month then laft pad and more, ufed,
affair. The maid and Stubbs alto agreed in declaring, and yet do claim to have and ufe, without any lawful
that the Papifts intended to rife in London, expelling warrant or regal grant, within the city of London afore-
faid.
conflagration.
Thirteen thoufand two hundred
houfes, at 12 years purchafe, fup
pofing the rent of each 25 1. Ster
ling,
Eighty-feven parifli-churches, at
8000 1.
Six confecrated chapels, at 2000I.
The royal exchange
The cultom-houfe
Fifty-two halls of companies, at
15001. each
Three city-gates at 3000I. each
Jail of Newgate
Four ftone-bridges
Seffions-houfe
Guildhall, with the courts and
offices belonging to it
Blackwell-hall
Bridewell
Poultry Compter
Woodftreet Compter
St Paul’s church
Wares, houfehold-ftuff, money,
and moveable-goods loft or fpoiled 2,000,000
Hire of porters, carts, wag-
gons, barges, boats, &c. for re¬
moving goods 200,000
Printed books and paper in
fhops and warehoufes
Wine, tobacco, ftigar, &c. of
which the town was at that time
very full
[,500,000
LON
LON [ 4278 ]
London, fald, and the liberties and privileges of the fame city,
- the liberties and privileges following, viz.
“ i. To be of themfelves a body corporate and poli¬
tic, by the name of mayor andcotnmonalty and citizens
of the city of London.
“ 2. To have fheriffs civitat. et com. London. <b com.
Middlefex, and to name, make, cleft, and conftituce
them.
“ 3. That the mayor and aldermen of the faid city
fhould be juftices of the peace, and hold feffionsof the
peace.
All which liberties, privileges, and franchifes, the
faid mayor and commonalty, and citizens of London,
upon the king did by the fpace aforelaid ufurp, and
yet do ufurp.
Though nothing could be more unjuft than this
profecution, the miniftry were determined at all e-
vents to cru(h the Londoners; rightly judging, that it
would be an eafy matter to make all other colora¬
tions furrender their charters into the king’s hands,
and that they had no other body in the nation to
fear. Accordingly they difplaced fuch judges as would
not approve of their proceedings; and, on the 12th of
June 1683, Juftice Jones pronounced the following
fentence : “ That a city might forfeit its charter;
that the malverfations of the common-council were
afts of the whole city ; and that the points fet forth
in the pleadings were juft grounds for the forfeiting of
a charter.”
Notwithftanding this fentence, however, the attor¬
ney-general, contrary to the ufual cuftom in fuch ca¬
fes, was direfted to move that the judgment might
not be recorded ; being afraid of the confequsnces.
Yet it was judged that the king might feize the li¬
berties of the city. A common-council was imme¬
diately fummoned to deliberate on this exigency. The
country party moved to have the judgment entered;
but they were over-ruled by the court-party, who in-
iifted upon an abfolute fubmiffion to the king before
judgment was entered : and though this was in effeft
a voluntary furrender of the city-liberties, and depri¬
ving themfelves of the means of getting the judgment
reverfed, the aft of fubmiflion was carried by a great
majority : and in a petition from the lord-mayor, al¬
dermen, and common-council, they “ acknowledged
their own mifgovernment, and his majefty’s lenity ;
begged his pardon, and promifed conltant loyalty and
obedience ; and humbly begged his majefty’s com¬
mands and direftions.” To this his majeity anfwered,
that he would not rejeft their fuit, if they would agree
upon the following particulars.
2? 1. That no lord-mayor,- fheriff, recorder, common
Conditions f^rjeantf town-clerk, or coroner, of the city of Lon-
hationbe- ^0n» or fteward of the borough of Southwark, (hall be
tween the capable of, or admitted to, the exercife of their refpec-
king and tive offices before his majefty fhall have approved of
clty- them under his fign manual.
2. That if his majefty (hall difapprove the choice
of any perfon to be lord mayor, and fignify the fame
under his fign manual to the lord mayor, or, in de¬
fault of a lord mayor, to the recorder or fenior aider-
man, the citizens (hall, within one week, proceed to
a new choice : and if his majefty fhall in like manner
difapprove the fecond choice, his majefty may, if he
pleafes, nominate a perfon to be lord-mayor for the
year enfuing. London.
3. If his majefty (hall, in like manner, difap-
prove the perfons chofen to be fheriffs, or either of
them, his majefty may appoint (heriffs for the year en¬
fuing.
4. That the lord-mayor and court of aldermen may,
with the leave of his majefty, difplace any alderman,
recorder, &c.
5. Upon the eleftion of an alderman, if the court
of aldermen (hall judge and declare the perfon prefent
to be unfit, the ward (hall choofe again; and upon a
difapproval of a fecond choice, the court may appoint
another in his room.
6. That the juftices of the peace (hould be by the
king’s commffion ; and the fettling of thofe matters
to be left to his majefty’s attorney-general, and coun¬
cil learned in the law.
To thefe the lord keeper added in the king’s name,
“ That thefe regulations being made, his majefty would
not only pardon this profecution, but would confirm
their charter in fuch a manner as fhould be confiftent
with them ;’’ concluding thus: “ My lord mayor,
the term draws towards an end, and midfummer-day
is at hand, when fome of the officers ufed to be cho¬
fen ; whereof his majefty will referve the approbation.
Therefore, it is his majefty’s pleafure, that you return
to the city, and confult the common-council, that he
may fpeedily know your refolutions thereupon, and
accordingly give his direftions. That you may fee
the king is in earned, and the matter is not capable
of delay, I am commanded to let you know he hath
given orders to his attorney-general to enter upon
judgment on Saturday next; unlefs you prevent it by
your compliance in all thefe particulars.”
A common-council was fummoned, when the friends
of liberty treated thofe flavifti conditions as they de¬
fended ; and even declared, that they were ready to fa-
crifice all that was near or dear to them, rather than
fubmit to fuch arbitrary impofitions: but when it was
put tot he vote, there appeared a majority of 18 for
fubmiffion. 1(y
Thus the king got the government of the city into The king
his own hands, though he and his brother entirely loft breaks h>s
the affeftions of the Londoners. But, not content with Promi e'
their fubmiffion, his majtfty departed from his pro-
mife; commanded the judgment upon the quo 'warran¬
to to be entered; and commiffioned Sir William Prit¬
chard, the lord mayor, to hold the fame office during
his majefty’s pleafure. In the fame manner he appoint¬
ed or difplaced the other magiftrates as he thought
proper; after which the miniftry, having nothing to
fear, proceeded in the moft arbitrary manner.
In this fubjeftion to the will of the court, the city Privilege*
of London continued till the revolution: but, in 1689, of the city
the immediate reftoration of the Londoners to their lc^ore<(-
franchifes was ordered; and in fuch a manner and form,
as to put it out of the powers of an arbitrary miniftry
and a corrupt judge and jury to deprive them of their
chartered liberties for the time to come. Accordingly
a bill was brought into parliament, and puffed, for re-
verfing the judgment of the quo warranto againft the
city of London, and for reftoring the fame to its ancient
rights and privileges. Since that time the city of Lon¬
don hath enjoyed tranquillity; its commerce hath been
carried to the higheft pitch; and for the politenefs,
riches.
LON [ 4279 ] LON
London, riches, and number of its inhabitants, as well as its ex-
tent and the magnilicence of its buildings, is inferior
to no city in Europe.
of'theci't'0" London (lands on a fpot where the Thames is formed
o t e city. jntQ a ha]f_moonf and at the diftance of 60 miles by wa¬
ter from the mouth of the river, but where the flux and
reflux of the tide is very perceptible. But the part par¬
ticularly diftinguifhed by the name of the city of I.ondon,
(lands on the north (hore from the Tower to the Temple,
and is covered from the cold north winds by the hills
of Hampftead and Highgate. In its prefent extent, it
* has included one city, one borough, and 49 villages.
For within it we find the city of Weilminfter, the bo¬
rough of South-wark and the villages of Mora, Finf-
bury, Wenlexbarn, Clerkenwell, Iflington, Hoxton,
Shoreditch, Norton-falgate, the Spital, Whitechapel,
Mile-end new town, Mile-end old town, Bethnal
Green, Stepney, Bow, Bromley, Blackwall, Poplar,
t Limehoufe, Ratcliff, Shadwell, Wapping-Stepney,
Wapping, Eall-Smithfield, Hermitage, St Catherine’s,
the Minories, St Clement’s Danes, the Strand, Cha-
ring-crofs, St James’s, Knightfbiidge, Marybone,
Soho, St Giles’s in the fields, St Martins in the fields,
Bloomfbury, Port-pool, Saffron-hill, Holborn. And
on the fouth-fide of the Thames are Vauxhall, Lam¬
beth, Lambeth-marfh, Kennington, Newington-Butts,
Bermondfey, the Grange, Horfley Down, and Ro-
therMthe; beyond which, a very little to the eaftward,
(land the two villages of Deptford and Greenwich,
the former of which contains between 1800 and 1900
houfes, and the latter between 1300 and 1400, each of
them excelling the capitals of three or four foreign
princes put together, both in number of houfes, inha¬
bitants, and riches. The length ofthe ground on which
all thefe buildings (land is (even miles and a half and
176 yards, its breadth three miles 170 yards and an half.
By the city of London, we are to underftand. no
more than that part formerly encompafled by the wall,
which in circumference meafures only three miles and
165 feet. In this wall there were eight gates: but
the wall hath long fince been pulled down to make
way for new buildings in feveral places; and there is
now left (landing only one of the city-gates called
New-gate, the others being removed to widen the
ftreets, and to make the avenues to the city more
commodious and airy. The liberties, or thpfe parts of
this great city which *are fubjedl to its jurifdi&ion,
and lie without the walls of London, are bounded on
the eaft, in White-chapel, the Minories, and Bifhopf-
gate, by bars, which were formerly pods and chains,
that were frequently taken away by arbitrary power,
when it was thought proper to feize the franchifes of
the city of London: on the north, they are bounded
in the fame manner in Pick-ax (Ireet, at the end of
Fan-alky, and in St John’s (Ireet: on the weft, by
bars in Holborn: at the eaft end of Middle Row,
and at the weft end of Fleet-ftreet, by the gate called
Temple-bar: on the fouth, we may include the jurif-
- didlion which the city holds on the river Thames,
and over the borough of Southwark, to which the
city of London has an undoubted right by char¬
ter, and for which they paid a valuable confideration
to king Edward VI. and which was confirmed to them
by the 2d of William & Mary, c. 8.—-The city is at
prefent divided into 26 wards.
Vol. VI.
r. Alderfgate ward takes its name from a city-gate London,
which lately (lood in the neighbourhood. It is —"
bounded on the eaft by Cripplegate ward; on the
weft, by Farringdon ward within and without ; and
on the fouth, by Farringdon ward within. It is very
large, and is divided into Alderfgate-within and Al-
derfgate-without. Each of thefe divifions coniifts of
four precindis, under one alderman, eight common-
council men, of whom two are the alderman’s depu¬
ties, eight conftables, fourteen inqueft-men, eight
fcavengers, and a beadle; exclufive of the officers be¬
longing to the liberty of St Martin’s le Grand, which
contains 168 houfes.
2. Aldgate takes its name alfo from a gate, which
was of great antiquity, being mentioned in king Ed¬
gar’s charter to the knights of the Knighton guild
about the year 967 ; and was probably of a much
more ancient foundation, for it was the gate through
which the Roman Vicinal way lay to the ferry at
Oldford. It was pulled down fome years ago by
parliamentary authority, at the petition of the cor¬
poration.—The ward of Aldgate is bounded on the
eaft by the city-wall, which divides it from Portfoken-
ward; on the north, by Bifhopfgate ward ; on the
weft, by Limc-ftreet and Langborn wards; and on
the fouth, by Tower-ftreet ward. It is governed by
an alderman, fix common-council men, fix conftables,
twenty inqueft-men, feven fcavengers, and a beadle ;
befides the officers belonging to St James’s, Duke’s
Place. — It is divided into feven precinds.
3 Bajfijhanu or Bajinghall ward, is bounded on
the eaft and fouth by Coleman-ftreet ward, on the
north by part of Cripplegate, and on the weft by
part ofthe wards of Cheap and Cripplegate. On the
fouth, it begins at Blackwell-hall ; and runs north¬
ward to London-wall, pulled down fome time ago to
make way for new buildings in Forc-Jlreet, and fpreads
88 feet eaft, and 54 feet weft againft the place where
that wall Hood. This is a very fmall ward, and con-
fids only of two precinds: the upper precind contains
no more than 66, and the lower only 76 houfes. It
is governed by an alderman, four common-council
men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, three
conftables, feventeen inqueft-men, three fcavengers,
and a beadle. It has its name from Bafinghall the
manfion-houfe of the family of Baftngs, which was the
principal houfe in it, and (lood in the place of Black¬
well-hall.
4. Billingfgate ward is bounded on the eafl by
Tower-ftreet ward; on the north, by Langbourn
ward; on the weft, by the ward of Bridge-wfithin;
and-on the fouth, by the river Thames. It is divided
into laprecinds; and is governed by an alderman,
10 common-councilmen, one of whom is the aider-
man’s deputy, 11 conftables, 14 inqueft-men, fix fca¬
vengers, and a beadle. The origin of its name is un¬
known. Its fituation on the river gives it great ad¬
vantages with refpedl to trade and merchandize; fo
that it is well inhabited, and is in a continual hurry
of bufinefs at the feveral wharfs or quays.
5. Bijhopfgate ward is bounded on the eaft. by
Aldgate ward, Portfoken ward, and part of the Tower-
liberty, or Norton-falgate ; on the welt, by Broad (Ireet
ward and Moorfields; and on the fouth, by Langbourn
ward. It is very large, and divided into Bilhopfgate-
24 H within,
LON [ 4280 ] LON
London, within, and BHhopfgate-without. The firft; contains
all that part of the ward within the city-wall and
gate, and is divided into five precin&s ; the fecond
lies without the wall, and is divided into fourprecin&s.
This ward is governed by an alderman, two deputies,
one within and the other without, 12 common-council
men, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcaven-
gers, and two beadles. It took its name from the
gate, which has been pulled down to make that part
of the city more airy and, commodious.
6. Bread-Jlreet ward is encompalled on the north
and north-weft, by the ward of Farringdon-withiu; on
the call, by Cordwainer’s ward; on the fouth by Queen-
hithe ward; and on the weft, by Callle-Baynard ward.
It is divided into 13 precin&s; and is governed by an
alderman, 12 common-council men, of whom one is
the alderman’s deputy, 13 conftables, 13 inqueft-men,
13 fcavengers, and a beadle ; and yet contains no
more than 331 houfes. It takes its name from the
ancient bread-market, which was kept in the place
now called BreadJireet; the bakers being obliged
to fell their bread only in the open market, and not in
Ihops.
7. Bridge-ward within is bounded on the fouth by
the river Thames and Southwark; on the north, by
Langbourn and Bilhopfgate ward; on the eaft, by
Billingfgate; and on the weft, by Candlewick and
Dowgate wards. It is divided into 14 precin&s,
three of which were on London-bridge; and is go¬
verned by an alderman, 15 common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, 14 conftables, 15
inqueft-men, 14 fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes
its name from its connexion with London-bridge.
8. Broad-Jireet ward is bounded on the north and
eaft, by Bilhopfgate ward; on the fouth, by Cornhill
and Wallbrook ward ; and on the weft by Coleman-
ftreet ward. It is divided into 10 precin&s; and go¬
verned by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, jo conftables, 13
inqueft-men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. It has
its name from that part of it now diftinguifhed by
the name of Old Broadjireet; and which, before the
fire of 1666, was accounted one of the broadeft ftreets
in London.
9. Candlewick-ward, Candlewick-Jlreet, or Candle-
wright-Jlreet ward, as it is called in fome ancient re¬
cords, is bounded on the eaft by Bridge ward; on the
fouth, by Dowgate, and part of Bridge ward; on the
weft, by Dowgate and Wallbrook; and on the north,
by Langbourn ward. It is but a fmall ward, confift-
ing of about 286 houfes ; yet is divided into feven
precinfts. It is governed by an alderman, eight
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, feven fca¬
vengers, and a beadle. It has its name from a ftreet
formerly inhabited chiefly by candle-wrights or candle-
makers, both in tallow and wax ; a very profitable bu-
finels in the times of Popery, when incredible quanti¬
ties of wax-candles were confumed in the churches.
That ttreet, however, or at leaft its name, Candlewick,
is loft fince the great conflagration, for which the
name Canon-Jlreet is fnbftituted, the candle-wrights
being at that time burnt out and difperfed through
the city.
jo. Cajile-Baynard ward is bounded by Queen-
hithe and Bread-ftreet wards oh the eaft; on the fouth, London.
by the Thames; and on the weft and north, by the  
ward of Farringdon-within. It is divided into topre-
cin&s, under the government of an alderman, 10 com¬
mon-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s, de¬
puty, nine conftables, 14 inqueft-men, feven fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from a caftle
built on the bank of the river by one Baynard, a fol-
dier of fortune, who came in with William the Con¬
queror, and was by that monarch railed to great ho¬
nours and authority.
11. Cheap ward is bounded on the eaft by Broad-
ftreet and Wallbrook wards; on the north, by Cole¬
man-ftreet, Bafiifhaw, and Cripplegate ; and on the
fouth, by Cordwainer’s ward. It is divided into nine
precin&s; and is governed by an alderman, 12 common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy,
11 conftablts, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the Saxon word chepe,
which fignifies a market, kept in this divifion of the
city, now called Cheapfide; but then known by the
name of Wcjlcheap, to difiinguifli it from the market
then alfo kept in Eaftcheap, between Canon or Candle-
wick ftreet and Tower-ftrcet.
12. Coleman Jlreet ward is bounded on the eaft by
Bifhopfgate, Broadftreet, and Cheap wards ; on the
north, by Cripple-gate ward, Middle Moorfields, and
Bilhopfgatt; on the fouth, by Cheap ward ; and on the
weft, by Baffiftiaw ward. It is divided into fix pre-
cindls; and is governed by an alderman, fix common-
council men, one of whom is the alderman’s de¬
puty, fix conftables, 13 inqueft-men, fix fcavengers,
and a beadle. The origin of the name is not certain¬
ly known.
13. Cordwainer’s ward \s on the eaft by
Wall-brook, on the fouth by Vintry ward, on the weft
by Bread-ftreet, and on the north by Cheap ward. It
is divided into eight precinfts; and is governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, eight conftables, 14 in-
queft men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. Its proper
name is Cordwainers-Jlreet-ward; which it has from
Cordvvainers-ftrect, now Bow-lane, formerly occu¬
pied chiefly by ftioemakers and others that dealt or
worked in leather.
14. Cornhill ward is but of fmall extent. It is
bounded on the eaft by Biftiopfgate, on the north by
Broadftreet, on the weft by Cheap ward, and on the
fouth by Langbourn ward. It is divided into four
precinfts, which are governed by one alderman, fix
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, four conftables, 16 inqueft-men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from the prin¬
cipal ftreet in it, known from the earlieft ages by
the name of Cornhill, becaule the corn-market was
kept there.
15. Cripple-gate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Moorfields, Coleman-ftreet ward, Bafiiftiaw ward, and
Cheap-ward; on the north, by the parifh of St Luke’s,
Old-ftreet; on the weft, by Alderfgate ward ; and on
the fouth, by Cheap ward. It is divided into 13 pre-
cin£ts, nine within and four without the wall; and
is governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, 13 conllables,
34 inqueft-men, 16 fcavengers, and three beadles. It
takes
LON
LON [ 4281 1
London, takes its namefrom Cripplegati, which flood on the north-
weft part of the city-wall. It was an old plain ttruc-
ture, void of all ornament, with one poftern ; but had
more the appearance of a fortification than any of
the other gates. It was removed in order to widen
the entrance into Wood-fireet, which, by the nar-
rownefs of the gateway was too much contra&ed
and rendered dangerous for pafiengers and great wag¬
gons.
16. Do*ugate 'ward is bounded on the call by Candle-
wick and Bridge wards, on the north by Wallbrook
ward, on the weft by Vintry ward, and on the fouth
by the Thames. It is divided into eight precincts,
under the government of an alderman, eight common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy,
eight conftables, 15 tuqueft-men, five fcavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the ancient water-gate,
called Dcurgate, which was made in the original wall
that ran along the north-fide of the Thames, for the
fecurity of the city againft all attempts to invade it by
water.
17. Farringdon-'ward 'within is bounded on the eaft
by Cheap ward and Baynard-caftle ward ; on the north,
by Alderfgate and Cripplegatc wards, and the liberty
of St Martin’s le Grand ■ on the weft, by Farringdon-
without; and on the fonth, by Baynard caftle ward,
and the river Thames. It is divided into 18 precinCls;
and governed by one alderman, 17 common-council
men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, J9 con-
flables, 17 inqncft-men, 19 fcayengers, and two
beadles. It takes its name from William Farringdon
citizen and goldfmith of London, who, in 1279, Pur'
chafed all the aldermanry with the appurtenances,
within the city of London and fuburbs of the fame,
between Ludgate and Newgate, and alfo thefe
gates.
18. Farringdon-ward without is bounded on the eaft
by Farringdon-within, the precincf of the late priory
of St Bartholomew near Smithfield, and the ward of
Alderfgate; on the north, by the charter-houfe, the
parifh of St John’s Clerkenwell, and part of St An¬
drew's parilh without the freedom ; on the weft, by
High Holhorn, and St Clement’s parifh in the Strand;
and on the fouth, by the river Thames. It is governed
by one alderman, 16 common-council-men, of whom
two are the alderman’s deputies, 23 conftables, 48 in-
queft-men; 24 fcavengers; and four beadles. It takes
its name from the fame goldfmith who gave name to
Farringdon-within.
19. Langborn ward is bounded on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward; on the north, by part of the fame, and
Ltmeftreet ward ; on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet, Bil-
lingfgate. Bridge, and Candlewick wards; and on the
weft by Wall brook. It is divided into 12 precindts.
It had its name from a rivulet or long bourn of frefh-
water, which anciently flowed from a fpring near Mag-
pye alley adjoining to St Catherine Coleman’s church.
20. Lirneftreet ward is bounded on the eaft and
north by Aldgate ward, on the weft by Bifhopfgate;
and on the fouth by Lmgbourn ward. It is divided
into four precindts ; and governed by an alderman, four
common-councilmen, one of whom is the alderman’s
deputy, four conftables, 13 inqueft men, f/sur fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It is very fmall; and has its name
from fame lime-kilns that were formerly built in or
near Lime-ftreet. London..
21. Portfoken ward is bounded on the eaft by the
parifhes of Spitalfields, Stepney, and St George’s in
the eaft ; on the fouth, by Tower hill ; on the north,
by Bifhopfgate ward, and on the weft by Aldgate
ward. It is divided into five precindts; and is go¬
verned by an alderman, five common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, five conftables, 19
inqueft-mcn, fivefcavtngers, and a beadle. Its name
fignifies the franchife of the liberty-gate. This Portfoken
was for fome time a guild; and had its beginning in
king Edgar, when 13 knights, “ well-beloved of the
king and realm, for fervices by them done,” requefted
to have a certain portion of land on the eaft part of the
city, left defolate and forfaken of the inhabitants by
realon of too much fervitude. They hefought the king
to have this land, with the liberty of a guild for ever.
The king granted their requeftonthe following condi¬
tions, viz. that each of them fhould vidloriouflyaccom-
plifh three combats, one above the ground, one under
ground, and the third in the water : and after this, at
a certain day, in Eaft Smithfield, they fhould run with
fpears againft all comers. All this was glorioufly per¬
formed ; upon which the king named it Knighten
Guild, and extended it from Aldgate to the places
where the bars now are on the eaft, and to the Thames
on the fouth, and as far into the water as an horfeman
could ride at low water and throw his fpear.
22. Queen-kithe ward is bounded on the eaft by
Dowgatc, on the north by Bread-ftreet and Cord-
wainer’s wards, on the fouth by the Thames, and on the
weft by Caftle-Baynard ward. It is divided into nine
precindls; and is governed by one alderman, fix com-
mon-councilmen, one of whom is the alderman’s depu¬
ty, and nine conftables. It has its name from the AV/k,
or harbour for large boats, barges, and lighters ; for
which, and even for fliips, it was the anchoring place,
and the key for lading and unloading veflels almoft of
any burden ufed in ancient times. It has the name of
queen, becaufe the queens of England ufually poffefied
the tolls and cuftoms of veflels that unloaded goods at
thishithe, which were very confiderable.
23. Tower ward, or Tower-ftreet ward, is bounded
on the fouth by the river Thames, on the eaft; by
Tower-hill and Aldgate ward, on the north by Lang-
bourn ward, and on the weft by BIHingfgate ward. It
is governed by one alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 12 conftables,
13 inqueft-men, 12 fcavengers, and one beadle. It
takes its name from Tower ftreet, fo called becaufe it
leads out of the city in a direft line to the principal en
trance of the Tower of London.
24. Vintry ward is bounded on the eaft by Dow-
gate, on the fouth by the Thames, on the weft by
Queen-hithe ward, and on the north by Cordvvainers
ward. It is a fmall ward, containing only 418 houfes;
but is divided into nine precinfts, and governed by an
alderman, nine common-council men, one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, nine conftables, 13 inqueft-
men, three fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes its
name from the vintners or wine-merchants of Bour-
deaux, who formerly dwelt in this part of the ci¬
ty, were obliged to land their wines on this fpot,
and to fell them in 40 days, till the 28th of Ed¬
ward I.
24 H 2
25.
London.
LON [ 4282 ] LON
25. iValllrook ward is bounded on the eaft by
"■“ Langbourn, on the fouth by Dowgate ward, on the
welt by Cordwainers ward, and on the north by
Cheap ward. It is fmall, containing only jobhoufes;
but is divided into feven precinfts, and governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, of whom one
is the alderman’s deputy, feven conltables, 13 inqueft-
men, fix fcavengers, and a beadle. It has its name
from the rivulet IVall-brook, that ran down the ftreet of
this name into the river Thames near Dowgate; but in
procefs of time it was fo loft by covering it with
bridges, and buildings upon thofe bridges, that its
channel became a common fewer.
26. The ward of Bridge without includes the bo¬
rough of Southwark, and the pari/hes of Rother-
hithe, Newington, and Lambeth. It has its name
from London-bridge, with the addition of the word
without, becaufe the bridge mull be palled in order to
come at it. This borough was incorporated in 1327.
At this time, the citizens finding themfelves greatly
infefted by felons, thieves, and difturbers of the peace,
who efcaped to and took (belter in Southwark, peti¬
tioned king Edward III. and his parliament for a grant
of jurifdidlion over the faid village of Southwark : and
their petition appeared fojuft, that his majefty, with
confent of his parliament, granted to the faid citizens,
for himfelf and his heirs, the faid village of Southwark,
with the appurtenances, to have and to hold, to them
and their heirs and fucceflbrs, citizens of the faid city,
of the crown for ever, paying at the exchequer the
farms due and accuftomed. This ward is governed in a
manner'fimilar to the others. However, the magiftra-
cy of London feem to have adopted this ward only as
a ftnecure for the fenior alderman for the time being;
and thus negle&ing the interefts of Southwark, the
juftices of the county of Surry at laft encroached fo
far upon the rights of the city of London as to con¬
tend with the citizens concerning their jurifdidlion
within the borough.
Public Of the many public buildings worthy of notice
buildings, about London, the following are feledted as the moft
remarkable.
1. The Tower. This building was at firft defigned
as a fortrefs, and moft probably erefled in the time of
the Romans. It was enlarged and ftrengthened by
William the Conqueror, who garrifoned it with fome
of his bell Norman troops, in order to keep the city in
awe. In 1079, built an addition to it, called the
White Tower, on account of the colour of the ftones
with which it was conftru&ed : and this being much
damaged by an hurricane in 1093, repairs became ne-
ceflary ; at which time a new foundation was laid for a
caftle under the fouth fide of the white tower, which
was caftellated round at a great expence, but not finifti-
cd till the reign of Henry I. It is indeed perhaps the
beft chofen fituation for a fortrefs of any in the world.
It lies to the eaftward of the city, but fufficiently
near tp preferve it from any invafion by water ; being
only 800 yards from the bridge ; and to the north of
the river Thames, from which it is parted by a narrow
ditch and a convenient wharf. With the latter it
communicates by a draw-bridge, for the readier ilfuing
and receiving ammunition and military ftores. On this
wharf there is a long and beautiful platform, on which
are planted 61 pieces of cannon, mounted on new and
very elegant iron-carriages. They are chiefly ufed on
days of Hate and for proclaiming any good news to the London.
public. Parallel to the wharf, within the walls, is a
platform 70 yards in length, called the Ladies LAne,
becaufe much frequented by the ladies in the lummer;
it being lhaded in the infide with a row of lofty trees,
and without it is a delightful profpeft of the (hipping
with boats pafiing and repaffing on the river Thames.
You afcend this line by ftone iteps, and being once up¬
on it you may walk almoil round the walls of the tower
without interruption.
The principal entrance into the tower is by a gate
to the weft, large enough to admit coaches and heavy
carriages; but thefe are firft admitted through an out¬
ward gate, fituated without the ditch upon the hill, and
mull pafs a ftout ftone bridge built over the ditch be¬
fore they can approach the main entrance. There is,
befides, an entrance near the very fouth-weft corner of
the Tower outward wall, for perfons on foot, over the
draw-bridge already mentioned, to the wharf. There
is alfo a water-gate, commonly called Traitor’s gate,
through which it has been cuftomary to convey trai¬
tors and other ftate-prifoners to or from the Tower,
and which is feldom opened on any other occafion ;
but the lords committed to the Tower in 1746 were
publicly admitted at the main entrance. Over this gate
is a regular building, terminated at each end by two
round towers, on which are embrafures for point¬
ing cannon. In this building there are the infirmary,
the mill, and the water-works that fupply the tower
with water.
The white tower is a large fquare irregular build¬
ing, fituated almoft in the centre, no one fide anfwer-
ing to another; nor are any of its watch-towers, of
which there are four that ornament the top, built
alike: one of thefe towers is now converted into an ob-
fervatory, and feems very well fituated for the.pur-
pofe. The building itfelf confifts of three very lofty
ftories; under which are moft fpacious and commodious
vaults, chiefly filled with falt-petre. It is covered at
top with flat leads, from whence there is an extenfive
and delightful profpeft. For a more particular de-
fcription of the tower and the curiofities contained in
it, fee the article Tower of London.
2. The Royal Exchange was founded in the year 1566.
Sir Thomas Grelham, merchant in London, made an
offer to the lord mayor and citizens, to build at his own
expence, a commodious edifice for merchants to meet
and tranfadl-bufinefs, provided the city would find him
a convenient fituation for the fame. The citizens ac¬
cordingly purchafed, for the fum of 3532 1. 80 houfes
in the two alleys called New St Chri/lophers, and
Swan-alley, leading out of Cornhill into Threadneedle
ftreet. The materials of thofe houfes were fold for
478 1. and the ground, when cleared, was conveyed to
Sir Thomas Grelham, who, accompanied by ieveral
aldermen, laid the firft brick of the new building on
the 7th of June that year. Each alderman alfo laid
his brick, and left a piece of gold for the workmen;
who fet about it with fuch affiduity and refolution, that
the whole fabric was roofed by the month of November
1567, and was foon after completed under the name
of the Burfe. Sir Thomas, by his will dated the 26th
of November 1579, devifed this (lately fabric to the
mayor and citizens of London and the company of
mercers, to be equally enjoyed and poffeffed by them,
with all its appurtenances and the profits arifing there-
LON
London, by, on condition that the citizens out of their n'.oie-
’ ty fliould pay a falary of 501. per annum each to four
lecturers, to read lectures in divinity, aitronomy, ma¬
fic, and geometry, in his manlion-houfe, viz. Gref-
ham-college : and to pay 61. 13 s. 4 d. per annum
each, to eight alms-people, fituate behind the faid col¬
lege, in Broaddreet ; and lol. yearly to each of the
prifohs of Newgate, Ludgate, Kuig’s-hench, Mar-
fhalfea, and Woodftreet Compter: And that the mer¬
cers out of their moiety (hould pay 501. each per an¬
num, to three le&urers to read leisures in law, phyiic, and
rhetoric, in his manfion-houfe ; and 100 1. per annum
for four quarterly dinners at their own hall, for the en¬
tertainment of the whole company; and 101. yearly
to Chrift’s, St Bartholomew’s, Bethlehem, and St
Thomas’s hofpitals. The fame fum was alfo to be paid
annually to the Spital, and to the Poultry Compter. Phis
building was totally deftroyedby the fire in 1666; and
in its place the prefent magnificent ftrutdure was erec¬
ted at the expence of 80,000 1. which Hands upon a
plat of ground 203 feet in length and 171 in breadth,
containing an area in the middle, of 61 fquare perches,
furrounded with a fubftantial and regular Hone build¬
ing, wrought in ruftic. It has two fronts, north and
fouth, each of which is a piazza ; and in the centre
are the grand entrances into the area, under a very
lofty and noble arch. The fouth front in Cornhill is
the principal; on each fide of which are Corinthian de-
mi-columns, fupporting a compafs pediment ; and, in
the intercolumniation on each fide, in the front next the
ftreet, is a niche, with the ftatues of king Charles I.
and II. in Roman habits, and well executed. Over the
aperture, on the cornice between the two pediments,
are the king’s arms in relievo : on each fide of this en¬
trance is a range of windows placed between demi-
colutnns, and pilafters of the compofite order, above
which runs a baluftrade. This building is 56 feet high :
and from the centre, in this front, rifes a lanthorn and
turret 178 feet high, on the top of which is a fane of
gilt brafs made in the fiiape of a grafshopper, thecreft
of Sir Thomas Grefham’s arms. The north front in
Threadneedle-ftreet is adorned with pilafters of the com-
L O N
polite order ; but has neither columns nor ftatues on London.
the outfide ; and has a triangular, inftead of compafs,'  
pediments. The infide of the area is alfo furrounded
with piazzas, forming ambulatories for merchants, &c.
to (belter tffttmfelves from the weather, when met there
upon bufinefs. Above the arches of this piazza is an
entablature with curious ornaments ; and on the cornice
a range of pilafters with an entablature extending
round, and a compals pediment in the middle of the
cornice of each of the four fides. Under the pediment
on the north fide are the king’s arms ; on the fouth,
the city’s arms ; on the eaft, Sir Thomas Grelham’s
arms ; and on the weft, the mercer’s arms, with their
refpeftive enrichments. In thefe intercolumns are 24
niches, 20 of which are filled with the ftatues of the
kings and queens of England. Under thefe piazzas,
within the area, are 28 niches, all vacant but that in
which Sir Thomas Grclham’s ftatue is placed in the
north-weft angle, and that in the fouth-weft, where
the ftatute of Sir John Barnard was placed in his life¬
time by his fellow-citizens to exprefs their fenfeof his
merit. The centre of this area alfo is ornamented
with a ftatute of king Charles II. in a Roman habit,
Handing upon a marble pedeftal about eight feet high,
and encompafled with iron rails; which pedeftal is en¬
riched on the fouth fide with an imperial crown, a
feeptre, fword, palm-branches, and other decorations,
with a very flattering infeription to the king. On the
weft fide is a cupid cut in relievo, retting his right
hand on a fhield with the arms of France and England
quartered, and holding a rofe in his left hand. On the
north fide is another cupid fupporting a (hield with the
arms of Ireland ; and on the eaft-fide are the arms
of Scotland, with a cupid holding a thiftle; all done
in relievo : the whole executed by that able ftatuary
Mr Gibbon.
In this area, merchants, and fuch as have bufi¬
nefs with them, meet every day between twelve at
noon and three in the afternoon: and for the more re¬
gular and readier difpatch of bufinefs, they difpofe of
themfelves into feparate walks, according to the fol¬
lowing plan.
North.
1 4283 ]
Threadneedle-ftreet.
Cornhill.
South.
In
LON [ 4284 ] LON
London. In building this expenfive ftruflure there was an eye
 —“not only to magnificence, and to accommodate the
merchants, but alfo to reimburfe the expence. For
this reafon a gallery was built over the four fides of
the royal exchange. This was divided into 200 (hops,
which were let out to haberdafhers, milliners, Sec. and
which for feveral years were well occupied. But thefe
ftiops have now for a long time been deferted, and the
galleries are let out to the Royal Exchange affuratice
office, the merchant-feamens office, the Marine fo-
ciety, and to auctioneers, &c. Under the whole area
there are the fined dry vaults that can be found any
where, which are let out to the Ead India company to
depofit their pepper. In the turret is a good clock
with four dials, which is well regulated every day, fo
that it becomes a dandard of time to all the mercan¬
tile part of the town ; and it goes with chimes at
three, fix, nine, and twelve o’clock, playing upon
twelve bells. The outfide of this grand fabric fuffers
very much in its elegance from the drops that furround
it, and are built within its walls; and which are occu¬
pied by bookfellers, toymen, cutlers, hofiers, watch¬
makers, &c.
3. St PauPs cathedral is faid by fome to have been
founded on that very ipot where formerly dood a temple
dedicated to the heathen goddefs Diana. This, how¬
ever, is refuted by Mr Entick, “ Becaufe (fays he)
there mud have been found ox-dculls, horns of dags,
and tuiks of boars, ufed in facririces to that goddefs, in
the earth about her temple. But Sir Chridopher Wren,
who had more opportunity than any other perfon to
difeover the bowels of the earth, in digging the foun¬
dation of St Paul’s as it now dands, declares that he
found no indications to fupport fuch a tradition: but
adds, that it was manifed the north fide of this ground
had been anciently a great burying-place; becaufe he
found, under the graves of the latter ages, in a row
below them, the burial-places of the Saxon people,
who were aecudomed to line their graves with chalk-
dones, or to be buried in coffins hewn out of the folid
done: and, in a row below the Saxons, he met with Bri-
tidi graves. In thefe lad were found ivory and wooden
pins, the latter made of box or other hard wood, about
fix inches long, and in great numbers, which were ufed
to pin up the corpfe in a woollen diroud. And in the
fame row, but deeper, were Roman urns intermixed;
this burial-place was upwards of 18 feet deep, and be¬
longed to the colony of London, when the Romans
and Britons lived together. The furveyor’s curiofity
led him deeper; and upon fearching for the natural
ground below thefe graves, he difeove.-ed that the
foundation of the old church dood upon a layer of very
clofe and hard pot-earth. Then he dug wells in dif¬
ferent places; and found that this pot-earth on the
north-fide of the church-yard was about fix feet thick
or more, but thinner and thinner towards the fouth,
till it decreafed to fcarce four feet at the declining of
the hill, under which he found nothing but dry fand,
mixed fometimes unequally, but loofe, fo that it would
run through the fingers. Thence he dug down to the
level of low-water-mark; where he met with water and
fand, mixed wdth periwinkles and other fea-ffiells. He
continued boring, till he firft came to a hard beach,
and under that to the natural hard clay, upon which
the city, country, and river of Thames, are founded:
wdience he drew this inference, That the fea, or cur- London,
rent of the river, had been where now the hill is, on -
which the cathedral of St Paul’s itands. For which
Sir Cbriftopher accounted in this manner : ‘ The whole
country between Camberwell hill and the hills of Ef-
fex, (fays he), might have been a great frith or finus
of the fea, and much wider near the mouth of the
Thames; which made a large plain of fand at low-wa¬
ter, through which the river found its way: but at low-
water, in the fummer-feafon, when the fun dried the
furface of the fand, and flrong wind happened at the
fame time, before the flood came on, the fands would
dry with the winds, and raife heaps, which in time in-
creafed to large and lofty fand-hilis, fuch as thofe rai-
fed in the fame manner on the coafts of France and
Flanders. For fands are known, upon a conjun&urc
of funfhine and wind, to drive into vdible clouds; and
this might be the effc£t many ages before hiftory, -
without having recourfe to the flood. The fand hill at
St Paul’s,in the time of the Roman colony, was about
12 feet lower than the prefent furface thereof; and the
river-fand, eafily driven with the wind, lay uppermolt,
and the hard coat of the earth might be thus made.
For, pot-earth diffolved in water, and viewed by a mi-
crofcope, is but impalpable fand, which with the fire
will vitrefy.”
The cathedral was finifhed in a very magnificent
manner about the year 610, in the reign of Ethelbert
king of Kent. It is, however, fnppofed to have been
at firft built only of wood; for it was accidentally burnt
in 961, and re-built again the fame year. A fimilar
difafter befel it in the year to86, when a confiderable
part of the city fhared the fame fate. However, fuch
was the aftivity of Maurice bifhop of London, and
fuch the devotion of the people to the apoftle Paul,
that the cathedral was rebuilt in a much more magni-
nificent manner than any ftrudture applied to the pur-
pofes of devotion had ever been in England before.
Maurice obtained a grant of the materials found in the
ruins of a tower, called the great palatine tower, near
Fleet-ditch, which had been burnt down at the fame
time, to help forward St Paul’s. But the good bifhop
had planned this cathedral fo extenfively, that he was
obliged to leave the finifhing of it to poflerity; though
he profecuted the work with the greateft diligence for
20 years. It was not fully compleated till the year
1240, under the reign of Henry III. In 1444, the
wooden part of the fteeple wasconfumed by lightning.
A misfortune of the fame nature happened to it in
1561. The lightning ftruck the fteeple within a yard
of the weather-cock. A fmall light, like a torch, ap¬
peared at that place, which increafed with fuch rapi¬
dity, that in a quarter of an hour the weather-cock fell
down. The wind rifing high at the fame time, the
whole fteeple was burnt down to the battlements in an
hour’s time. The falling of the burning timber-work
foon fet fire to that which fupported the bells, which
by the vehemence of the conflagration were melted,
and at the fame time the roofs of the cathedral taking
fire, the whole fabric was ruined.
After this conflagration, there was a general contri¬
bution among the clergy, nobility, great officers of
ftate, the city of London, and queen Elizabeth herfelf,
who gave 1000 merks of gold towards its fpeedy re¬
pair, with a warrant for xooo loads of timber to be
cut
LON [42
London, cut in any of her woods: and the zeal (hewn on this
' occafion, by perfons of all ranks, bad fo good an effedi,
that in five years time, the timber roofs (the two lar-
geft whereof were framed in Yorkfiiire and brought from
thenoe by fea) were entirely finifhed and covered with
lead. But fome difference in opinion arifing about the
model of the fteeple, that part of the work was left
unattempted, and never afterwards rebuilt: for, upon
raifing the roofs, the walls, by the corroding quality
of the coal fmoke, were found to be fo much decayed,
that a general repair of the whole building was judged
abfolutely neceffary; and though this was delayed
from time to time, yet by the indefatigable application
of Henry Farley, a private gentleman, king James
came to this refolution, to undertake the arduous talk
of repairing the cathedral. For this purpofe it was
agreed to iflue a proclamation under the great feal,
empowering feveral principal perfonages, or any fix of
them, to inquire into the true ftate of the decays, with
the caufe thereof, and to confider of the neceflary re¬
pairs, and the means of raifing money for carrying
them into execution. But it being afterwards found,
that the ruin of the bifhop, and of the principal dig¬
nitaries of the cathedral, was chiefly aimed at by the
commiffioners, the whole matter came at laft to no¬
thing. In the time of Charles I. however, between the
years 1631 and 1643, no kf* t^an IOI>33°** 4s- 8^*
was laid out in repairing this cathedral. In 1643, the
money, goods, and materials, bought or given for the
repair of this cathedral, were feized by order of the
parliament, and the body of the church was afterwards
converted into horfe-quarters for foldiers; a part of
the building towards the eaft being partitioned off by
a brick-wall, in the year 1649, for a preaching-place.
In 1660, this was made the choir, and the other parts
of the church were repaired, when the whole was de-
ftroyed by the great fire in 1666. So vehement was
the heat at that time, that the tlones of the walls were
fplintered, and came off in great flakes; fo that, inftead
of being repaired, this magnificent cathedral now re¬
quired to be rebuilt from the foundation. Immediate
attention was paid to this by the king and parliament;
a tax was laid upon coals for the purpofe; and it was
rebuilt in fuch a manner, as to be excelled for its archi-
tedture by no ftrufture in the world.
The old church was 690 feet long, and 130 broad;
the height of the roof of the weft part from the floor
being 102 feet, that of the eaft only 88, and that of
the body 150 feet. The height of the tower was 260
feet; from whence rofe a wooden fpire, covered with
lead, 274 feet in height. On the top of this was a
ball capable of holding ten bufhels of corn; and upon
that ball was a crofs 15 feet high, whofe traverfe mea-
fured fix feet. This fabric covered three acres and a
half, one rood and a half, and fix perches, of ground.
Its ornaments exceeded thofe of every church in the
kindom. The chapels, chantries, monuments, inferip-
tions, anniverfaries, and all other ftrudlures in and a-
feout the old church, are largely treated of in Dugdale’s
hiftory of this cathedral.
It being refolved to ereft a new cathedral, which
Ihould equal, if not excell the magnificence of the old
fabric, letters patent were iffued under the great feal,
authorifing commilEoners to give direftions, and to
85 ] LON
manage that work ; and appointing Sir Chriftopher London.
Wren, furveyoi'-general of all his majefty’s works, to "
prepare a fuitable defign for the fabric; and king
Charles II. was gracioufly pleafed to give 10001. per
annum out of his privy purfe, for carrying it on. Sir
Chriftopher endeavoured to gratify the connoiffcurs
with a defign antique and well-ftudied, comformable
to the beft ftyle of the Greek and Roman architec¬
ture. Of this defign he caufed a curious large model
to be made of wood, accurately wrought, with all
its proper ornaments, and prefented it to his magefty:
but, the biihops not approving it, as not being
enough of a cathedral fafliion, the furveyor was or¬
dered to amend it; and at length produced the feheme
of the prefent ftruiffure, which was honoured with his
majefty’s approbation. The i'urveyor, however, fet
a higher value on the firft defign than on any
other he ever drew. It was only of one order, viz.
the Corinthian, like St Peter’s at Rome ; and the
author of his life affures us, that he would have put
it in execution with more cneerfulnefs than that which
was afterwards ere&ed.—This original model is ftill
prefervedin the cathedral, and may be feen at a final!
expence.
The work was begun in 1675, an^ fin idled in 1710,
at the expence of 736,752!. 2 s. 3d. according to
Mr Entick; of 800,0001. according to others ; and
of more than a million, according to Smoliet. It hath
three grand porticoes, fupported by ftately columns,
on the north, fouth, and weft fides ; the nave and
choir are paved with marble, and the altar with por¬
phyry finely polifhed. The dome is painted by Sir
James Thornhill, with the hiftory of St Paul’s conver-
iion; and has on its vertex a neat balcony; and above
that a beautiful ftone lanthorn near 70 feet high, with
a ball and fine gilt crofs at top. The church is built
of Portland ftone, in form of a crofs, in imitation of St
Peter’s at Rome.
The length of the cathedral from eaft to weft is 500
feet within the walls; the breadth, from north to fouth
within the doors of the porticoes, 223 feet ; at the en¬
trance, 100 feet; its circuit, 2292 feet; its height with¬
in,! 10 feet; to the gallery of the dome, 208 feet; to
the upper gallery 276; the diameter of the dome 108
feet; from thence to the top of the crofs, 64 feet; of
the crofs from the ball, 30 feet; the diameter of the
ball, fix feet; the diameter of the columns of the por¬
ticoes four feet; their height 48 feet ; to the top of
the weft pediment under the figure of St Paul, 120
feet; of the towers at the weft front 280 feet; and the
extent of the ground-plot whereon it (lands, two acres,
16 perches, 23 yards, one foot. This vaft fabric is
furrounded at a proper diftance with ftrong iron pali-
fadoes, in number about 2500; and in the area of the
grand weft front, on a pedeftal of excellent workman-
(hip, (lands a ftatue of queen Anne, with proper de¬
corations. The figures on the bafe reprefent Britan¬
nia with her fpear, Gallia with a crown in her lap,
Hibernia with her harp, and America with her bow;
all the workmanftiip of the fame ingenious artift. The
following are the dimenfions of the old cathedral com¬
pared with the new and with the church of St Peter’s
at Rome.
Old.
London.
LON [ 4286 ] LON
Old
St Paul’s.
Feet.
Length within 690
Breadth at the entrance
Front without
Broad at the crofs 130
Cupola clear
Height from the level of the
ground - ■ - 520
Height of the churches 150
Height of cupola and lan-
thorn
St raid’s.
Feet.
j8o
223
108
440
1 to
33°
St
Peter’s.
Feet.
669
226
395
442
*39
578
146
432
The cathedral of St Paul’s is governed by a bilhop,
a dean, a precentor, chancellor, treafurer, five arch¬
deacons, 30 prebendaries, 12 petty canons or minor
canons, fix vicars coral, and feveral other inferior of¬
ficers. All the prebends or canonries are in the colla¬
tion of the bifhop of the diocefe ; and out of thefe 30
canons there are three refidentaries, befides the dean ;
fo called from their continual refidence in the church,
to tranfaA the bufinefs of the church in the chapter,
and take care of her daily concerns.
4. IVeJlminJler abbey was founded in 610, but foon af¬
ter ruined by the Danes. It was rebuilt in 1053 by
the recommendation of a religious hermit, who pre¬
tended to bring a commilfion for that purpofe from
God himfelf. It was endowed with great privileges
by king Edward the Confeflbr; who had them con¬
firmed by a bull from pope Nicholas. The king alfo
thought proper to infert that bull of confirmation in
the charter granted by himfelf; in which bull and
charter there is a remarkable claufe, fetting forth,
“ That the place where the faid church and monaftery
were built, was anciently the feat of kings : therefore,
fays the pope, by the authority of God and his holy
apoftles and this Roman fee, and our own, we grant,
permit, and mod folidly confirm, that hereafter for
ever, it be the place of the king’s conttitution or coro¬
nation, and confecration ; the repofitory of the royal
crown and enfigns of majefty ; and a perpetual habi¬
tation of monks, who lhall be fubje& to no other per-
fon at all, but only to the king himfelf,”
Weftminfter abbey is at prefent a collegiate church ;
and the dean and 12 prebendaries were incorporated
by the name of the dean and chapter of the collegiate
/church of St Peter, Wefminfer, by queen Elizabeth,
who alfo placed therein a fchool. The church is a
magnificent pile of Gothic building, and has been
adorned on the outfide with the ftatues and figures of
all the princes that have contributed towards the fi-
nilhing of it. But this abbey fuffered fo much at the
diffolution of the monaftery, and during the civil com¬
motions in the time of Charles I. that it gradually de¬
cayed almoft to the prefent time, when the parliament
ordered a thorough reparation at the national expence.
In confequence of this interpofition, the whole fabric
has been new coated, except that part called king Hen*
rj VII.’s chapel, and the weft end has been made
more magnificent by the addition of two towers re¬
built in asmafterly a manner as any other part of the
abbey, but the beautiful carving and the ftatues with
which it was once adorned are now loft.
The extent of this building is 360 feet within the
walls, 72 feet broad at the nave, and 195 at the crofs.
The Gothic arches and fide ailes are fupported by 48
pillars of grey marble, each compofed of clufters of
very flender ones, and covered with ornaments. The
grand entrance into the choir is by a pair of fine iron
gates, on each fide of which is a very magnificent tomb.
The floor is paved with the handfomeft blue and white
marble. The flails are covered with Gothic acute
arches, fupported by fmall iron pillars, and painted
purple. At the eaft end is the altar, made of a beau¬
tiful piece of marble, the gift of queen Anne, inclofed
by a curious baluftrade, and upon a pavement of por-
phyry, jafper, Lydian, and ferpentine Hones, laid in
the Mofaic ftile, at the expence of abbot Ware, A. D.
1272} and is faid to be one of the moft beautiful of itc
kind in the world.
On each fide of this altar a door opens into St Ed¬
ward’s chapel; round which are ten other chapels,
ranging from the north to the fouth crofs ailes, and are
dedicated, x. To St Andrew. 2. To St Michael.
3. To St John Evangelift. 4. Ifiip’s chapel. 5. To
St John Baptift. 6. To St Paul. 7. Henry V.’s cha¬
pel. 8. To St Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund. 10. To
St Benedift.
In St Edward’s chapel are ftill to be feen the remains
of his fhrine; which, though now in obfeurity, and
robbed of all its riches and luftre, was once etteemed
the glory of England, fo far as art and riches could
make it. Here are the tombs of king Edward I. and fe¬
veral other kings and queens of England; and here alfo
is ftiown the famous chair in which the kings of Scot¬
land ufed to be crowned at Scoon. Henry V.’s chapel
is divided from St Edward’s by an iron fereen, on each
fide of which are ftatues as big as life.—St Andrew’s
chapel, which is next the north crofs, and the others
which furround the choir, are crowded with the mo¬
numents of noble perfonages, worth the attention of
the curious—At the corner of St Benedict's chapel,
an iron gate opens into the fouth crofs aile ; which
from the number of monuments ere&ed therein to cele¬
brated Englifh poets, has obtained the name of the
poets corner: though here we find a moft magnificent
monument erected at the fouth end in memory of the
late John duke of Argyle and Greenwich ; another to
William Camden the antiquarian; and others to the
celebrated divine Dr Ifaac Barrow, to Thomas Parr
who died at the age of 152 years, &c.
The fouth aifle is adorned with 19 curious monu¬
ments of the pious, the brave, and the learned. Amongft
whom, next the entrance at the weft end, is a noble
monument, ere&ed by order of parliament, in honour
of the brave captain Cornwall. And turning north¬
ward from the weft door, we view 48 more monuments
worthy of notice.
On the eaft: of the abbey, and which, though feparate
from the other chapels in the choir, feems to be one and
the fame building with the abbey, ftands the chapel of
king Henry VII. which that king founded in the year
1502, and was at that time ftyled ihciuonder of the'world,
and is now one of the moft expenfive remains of the
ancient Englifh tafte and magnificence. There is no
looking upon it without admiration : it conveys an
idea of the fine tafte of Gothic architecture in that
age : and the infide is fo noble, majeftic, and of fuch
curious workmanfhip, that it would take a volume to
deferibe each part with juftice and propriety.
LON [ 4287 ] LON
I onion. Jts original intention was to be a dormitory for the Behind, to the weftward of Weftminfter-hall and the London.
• royal blood: and fo far the will of the founder has exchequer, we come to the feat of judicature, the houft 
been obferved, that none have been interred therein, of commons and the houfe of lords,
but fuch as have traced their defcent from -ancient ^The houfe of commons, compofed of the reprefenta-
kings, The tomb of king Henry VII. is moft magni- lives of the people, and eledted by them for counties,
ficent, inclofed with a fcreen of call brafs, moft admi- cities, and boroughs, fit upon national affairs in St
rably defigned, and as well executed. Within the rails Stephen’s chapel, at the fouth-weft angle of Weftmin-
are the figures of that king and his royal confort, in fter-hall, built originally by king Stephen ; and has
their robes of ftate, on a tomb of black marble: and been appropriated to its prefent ufe ever fincc the reign
at the head of this tomb lie the remains of Edward VI. of king Edward VI. and now called the houfe of com-
In different parts of this chapel are the monuments of mons; to which there is a communication and an afcent
Lewis Stuart duke of Richmond, George Villars duke from Weftminfter-hall, by a dark entry and a grand
of Buckingham, John Sheffield duke of Buckingham, flight of ftone ftairs.
Charles Montague marquis of Halifax, Edward V. and From hence paffing through a kind of hall paved
his brother Richard ; the vault of James I. and his with ftone, called the couit of requejis, ufed chiefly by
queen Anne, and daughter Mary, on which is a fmall thofe who attend the parliament to walk in, we come,
[tomb adorned with the figure of a child; a lofty mo- on the left hand, into the houfe of Lords, a fpacious
nument of queen Elizabeth, and another of Mary lofty room, well difpofed for the conveniency of the
queen of Scots; the monuments for Margaret Douglas, peers of the realm, who fit there upon national affairs,
daughter of Margaret queen of Scots, Margaret coun- and concur with the commons in making laws to be
tefs of Richmond mother to Htnry VII- the vault of figned by the fovereign upon the throne, and hung
king Charles II. and William III. queen Mary his with tapeftry reprefenting the defeat of the Spaniih ar-
confort, queen Anne and prince George. Over thefe mada.
royal perfonages are their effigies (except that of 6. ftands at the north end of King ftreet.
prince George) in wainfcot preffes, made of wax to In it the nine courts of the city are kept, viz. 1. The
refemble life, and dreffed in their coronation robes, court of common-council. 2. The court of the lord-
And at the corner of the great eaft window, in another mayor, and his brethren the aldermen. 3. The court
wainfcot prefs, ftands the effigy of Mary duchefs of of huftings. 4. The court of orphans. 5. The two
Richmond, daughter to James duke of Richmond and courts of the flieriffs. 6. The court of the wardmote.
Lenox, dreffed in the very robes (he wore at the coro- 7. The court of hallmote. 8. The court of requefts,
nation of queen Anne. On leaving the aide, you are commonly called the court of confcience. 9. The cham-
fhewn another prefs, containing the effigy of general berlain’s court for binding apprentices, and making
Monk, who, on account of his loyalty, and part he them free.
took in the reftoration of king Charles 11. had a vault The guildhall flood formerly in or near Alderman-
appropriated to him and his family, amongft the royal bury, or Aldermens-court, from which fituation of this
blood. It only remains to obferve, that the royal fa- hall the ftreet is faid to take its denomination, and
mily of the houfe of Hanover are interred in a vault confequently the hall muft have been founded before
under the centre of this chapel; without any monu- the year 1189; for then we find this ftreet to have had
mental infcription or ornaments. that name. And it is not unlikely that Edward the
5. Wflminjier-hall, built by William Rufus, as an Confeffor, who began to reign in 1042, had a confi-
addition to the palace of Weftminfter, was rebuilt, derable ftiare in the firft foundation, his arms being in
A.D. 1397, by king Richard II. with additional apart- feveral places of this prefent hall: “ Which (Robert
ments on the eaft and weft fides, and called the new Fabian faith) was begun to be new-built in the year
palace, to diftinguilh it from the old palace, where 1411, the 12th of Henry IV. by Thomas Knowles,
the houfe of lords and commons now affemble. The then mayor, and by his brethren the aldermen. The fame
front of this hall is narrow, built with ftone in the Go- was made, of a little cottage, a large and great houfe,
thic tafte, with a tower on each fide the entrance, adorn- as it now ftands. Towards the charge whereof the
ed with much carved work. The part called the hall, companies gave great benevolences. Alfo offences of
is fuppofed to be the largeft room in Europe not fup- men were pardoned for fums of money towards this
ported by pillars, being 270 feet long, and 74 broad, work; and extraordinary fees were raifed, fines, amer-
It is a regular Gothic ftrudiure. In this hall we find ciaments, and other things employed, during feven
the high courts of equity and juftice; the high court years, and a continuation thereof three years more ; all
of chancery a[ the north-weft corner, and the court to be employed to this building.”
of king’s bench at the fouth-weft corner: about the This ftately hall being much damaged by the un¬
middle on the north-fide is the court of common-pleas; happy conflagration of the city in the year t666, was
and at the north-eaft corner is his majefty’s court of reftored anno 1679, and extremely well beautified and
exchequer. repaired both in and out-fide, which coft about 2500I.
In the fouth-weft angle of new palace-yard ftands the , The portico is adorned with a ftately Gothic frontif-
cxchequer, or the office of the receipt of his majefty’s piece, enriched with the king’s arms under a cornice,
exchequer: a plain old building of wood and piafter, pediment, and vafe, and between two cartouches and
where the king’s revenue is received and diftmrfed : the city-fupporters, on acroters, and thefe between two
and to which belong the feveral offices called the pipe- other vafes, under which are niches; and in the middle
office in Gray’s inn, foreign oppofers office and king’s of this front are depenciled in gold thefe words:
remembrancer’s ‘office in the Temple j clerk of the pleas Reparata is ornata Thoma Ralinfon, mi lit. Majore,
office, in Lincoln’s-inn, &e. An. Dorn. MDCCVI.
Vol. VI. 24 I
Above
LON [ 4288 ] LON
London. Above the balcony are the figures of Mofes and A-
  aron; on the tides beneath, are the four cardinal vir¬
tues, over the aperture; and below the balcony are
dcpl&ed the arms of the 24 companies.
The roof of the infide is flat, divided into pannels ;
the walls on the north and fouth fides are adorned with
four Gothic demi-pillars, painted white, and veined
with blue, and the capitals gilt with gold, upon which
are the royal arms, and thofe of Edward the Confeflbr.
Going up nine or ten fteps to the mayor’s court, on
each fide, at fome height, are two giants of an enor¬
mous fize, the one holding a pole ax, the other an hal¬
bert; fuppofed by Mr Strype to be an ancient Briton
and a Saxon.
Between thefe, and over the fteps and aperture lead¬
ing to the mayor’s court, is a balcony, fupported at
each end by four iron pillars in the form of palm trees,
which compofe fomething like two arbours: under thefe
are the following large capital letters, S. P. Q^_L. i. e.
Senattis Populufque Londinenfis.
Round the hall, on 14 demi-pillars above the capitals,
are the king’s arms on the north-eaftward, and the
arms of London on the fouth-ea ft ward pillar; and weft-
ward from thence are the arms of the 12 companies;
at the eaft end are the king’s arms between the por¬
traitures, finely painted, of their late majefties king
George II. and queen Caroline : clofe by the firft is
the pi&ure of queen Anne, at the foot of an anaba- -
thrum, under a rich canopy; by the latter, his late ma-
jefty king George I. and at the fame end of the hall,
but on themorth and fouth fides, the pifturrs of king
William III. and queen Mary, fronting each other.
The intercolumns are painted in imitation of porphyry,
and embdlithed with the pictures, in full proportion,
of 18 judges, which were there put up by the city in
gratitude for their fignal fervices done in determining
differences between landlord and tenant (without the
expence of law-fuits), in rebuilding the city, purfuant
to an aft of parliament, after the fire in 1666.
This hall is in length 153 feet, breadth 48, and al¬
titude within 55. It is ufed by the city for the itffiou
of the feveral courts of judicature before named ; for
feafting our kings, queens, and other potentates, fo¬
reign minifters, &c.; and laftly, for chooiing the lord-
mayors, fheriffs, members of parliament, &c. it being
capacious enough to contain 7000 perfons.
7. The college of phyjicians (lands on the weft fide of
Warwick-lane in Farringdon-ward without. It is a
mod noble edifice of brick and (lone. The entrance is
grand, under an oftogonal theatre, finifhing in a dome,
with a cone at the top making a lanthorn to it. The
infide is elegant, finely enlightened, and very capaci¬
ous ; defigned by Sir Chriftopher Wren. The central
building, which contains the library and other rooms
of ftate and convenience, was the defign of Inigo Jones.
The afeent to the door is by a flight of fleps, and in
the under part is a cafement ftory. On one fide, over
the door-cafe, is the ftatue of king Charles II. in a
niche; on the other fide, the ftatue of Sir John Cutler.
The whole front is decorated with pilafters of the Ionic
and Corinthian orders. The buildings at the two fides
of the court are uniform, with window-cafes handfome-
ly ornamented. Within is a great hall for the quar¬
terly meetings of the doftors, adorned with piftures
and fculpture; a theatre for anatomical difleftion; a
preparing room, where there are 13 tables, containing
all the mufcles, &c. of the human body; a library
well furnifhed with books; a committee-room; a hall in
which the phyficians fit to give advice gratis to the
poor ; befides the different apartments for the fervants,
officers, &c.
The phyficians were incorporated in the 10th of
Henry VIII. An account of their conftitution and
and privileges is given under the article College.
8. The Britijl) Mufeum, a magnificent building fi-
tuated in Ruffel-Street, and containing an amazing
number of curiofities, is deferibed under the article
Museum.
9. Ranelagh Gardens are one of thofe public places
of pleafure about this metropolis, which are not to
be equalled in any part of Europe. The gardens
themfelves are very beautiful; but the amphitheatre is
much more to be admired. It is a circular building,
whofe external diameter is 185 feet. Round the whole
is an arcade; over that, a gallery and ballnftrade, (to
admit the company into the upper-boxes,) except
where the entrances break the continuity ; and over
this are the windows and roof. The internal diameter
is 150 feet; and the architefture of the infide corre-
fponds with the outfide, except that over every column,
between the windows, termini fupport the roof. In the
middle of the area is a chimney with four faces, which
makes it warm and comfortable in cold weather. The
orcheftra fills up the place which was originally one of
the entrances. The orcheftra then flood on the centre,
where the chimney is at prefent. The entertainment
confifts of a fine band of muiic, with an organ, and fome
of the belt voices: and the regale is tea and coffee,
included in the money paid for entrance.
10. Vauxhall Gardens, which take their name from
the village ofVauxball, about two miles from London
bridge, m the parifh of Lambeth and county of Sur¬
ry, are alfo celebrated all over Europe for the enter¬
tainment they afford. A noble gravel-walk, of about
900 feet in length, planted on each fide with very
lofty trees, which form a fine vifta, leads from the
great gate, and is terminated by a landfcape of the
country, a beautiful lawn of meadow-ground, and a
grand Gothic obeliflt. At the corners of the obeliJk
are painted a number of flaves chained, ami over them
this inferiptiou:
SPECTATOR
FASTIDIOSUS
SIBI MOLESTUS.
To the right of this walk, and a few fteps within
the garden, is a fquare, which, from the number of
trees planted in it, is called the grove; in the middle
of it is a magnificent orcheftra of Gothic conftruftion,
ornamented with carvings and niches, the dome of
which is furmounted with a plume of feathers, the
creft of the prince of Wales. In fine weather, the
mufical entertainments are performed here. At the
Upper extremity of this orcheftra a very fine organ is
erefted; and at the foot of it are the feats and defks
for the muficians, placed in a femicircular form, leav¬
ing a vacancy at the front for the vocal performers.
The concert is opened with inftrumental mufic at fix
o’clock; which having continued about half an hour,
the company are entertained with a fong; and in this
manner feveral other fongs are performed, with fonatas
London,
LON [ 4289 ] LON
I London. and conrertos between each, till the clofe of the en-
' " tertainment, which is generally about 10 o’clock. A
curious piece of machinery is exhibited about 9 o’clock,
in a hollow on the left hand, about half-way up the
walk already defcribed, reprefenting a beautiful land-
fcape in perfpective, with a miller’s houfe, a water¬
mill, and a cai'cade. The grove is illuminated in the
evening with about ryoo glafs lamps; in the front of
the orchellra they are contrived to form three trium¬
phal arches, and are all lighted, as it were, in a mo¬
ment. In cold or rainy weather, the mufical perfor¬
mance is in a rotunda 70 feet in diameter, on the left
fide of the entrance into the gardens, nearly oppolite
to the orcheftra. Along the front, next the grove, is
a piazza formed by a range of pillars, under which is
the entrance from the grove. The front of the ceiling
is fupported by four columns of the Ionic order, em-
bellifhed with foliage from the bafe a confiderable way
upwards; and the remaining part of the (haft, to the
capital, is finely wreathed with a Gothic balluftrade,
where boys are reprefented afcending it. In the
centre hangs a magnificent chandelier, 11 feet in dia¬
meter, containing 72 lamps in three rows. The top
is a dome, flated on the outfide, and painted within
like a (hell. The roof is fo contrived, that founds
never vibrate under it, A part of the rotunda is laid
open for receiving a faloon ; and its entrance here is
formed and decorated with columns like thofe in the
front of the orcheftra. In the roof, which is arched
and elliptic, are two little cupolas in a peculiar tafte,
and adorned with painting; and in the fummit of each
is a (ky-light, divided into 10 compartments, with
frames in the Gothic ftyle. Above each cupola is an
arch divided into compartments ; from the centre of
each of which, depends a large chandelier, in the form
of a balket of flowers. Adjoining to the walls are
10 three-quarter columns. Between thefe columns
are four paintings by Hayman, on fubjedts of Britifli
glory.
The entrance into this faloon from the gardens is
through a Gothic portal. The pavilions or alcoves
are ornamented with paintings from the defigns of Mr
Hayman and Mr Hogarth, on fubje&s adapted to the
place; and each pavilion has a table in it large
enough for fix or eight perfons. The pavilions con¬
tinue in a fweep, which leads to a beautiful piazza,
and a colonnade 500 feet in length, in the form of a
femicircle, of Gothic architedlure, embelliftied with
rays. This femicircle leads to a fweep of pavilions
that terminate in the great walk. Near the centre of
the gardens is a crofs gravel-walk formed by (lately
trees on each fide. On the right hand, it is termi¬
nated by the trees which (hade the lover’s walk; and
at the extremity on the left, is a beautiful landfcape
painting of ruins and running water. At each end of
another walk is a beautiful painting: one is a build¬
ing, with a fcaffold and a ladder before it, which has
often deceived the eye; the other is a view in a Chi-
nefe garden. The principal part of all thofe walks
forms the boundaries of wilderneffes compofed of trees
which (hoot to a great height, and are all inclofed with
an efpalier in the Chinefe tafte.
11. The Monument is a great fluted pillar, of the
Doric order, erefted in memory of the conflagration
in 1666. It is fituated on the eaft fide of Fi(h-ftreet
hill, facing Crooked-lane. It was begun by Sir Londor.
Chriftopher Wren in 1671, and finiflied by him in
1677. Its height from the pavement is 202 feet;
the diameter of the (haft, or body of the column, is
15 feet; the ground-plinth, or lowed part of the pe-
deftal, is 28 feet fquare ; and the pedcftal is 40 feet
high. Over the capital is an iron balcony cncompaf-
fing a cone 32 feet high, which fupports a blazing
urn of gilt brafs. Within is a large ftair-cafe of
black marble, containing 345 fteps, each 10 inches
and a half broad, and fix inches thick. The weft fide
is adorned with a curious emblem in alt-relief, denoting
the deftru&ion and reftoration of the city. The firft
female figure reprefents London fitting in ruins, in a
languiftiing pofture, with her head dejefted, her hair
diflievelled, and her hand carelefly lying on her fword.
Behind is Time, gradually railing her up: at her fide is
a woman touching her with one hand, whilft a winged
fceptre in the other direfts her to regard the goddefles
in the clouds.; one with a cornucopia, denoting Plenty ;
the other with a palm branch, the emblem of Peace.
At her feet is a bee-hive, (hewing, that by induftry
and application the greateft misfortunes are to be
overcome. Behind the figure of Time are citizens
exulting at his endeavours to reftore her; and beneath,
in the midfl of the ruins, is a dragon, who, as the
fupporter of the city-arms, with his paw endeavours
to preferve the fame. Oppofite to the city, on an
elevated pavement, (lands the king, in a Roman habit,
with a laurel on his head, and a truncheon in his
hand; and approaching her, commands three of his
attendants to defcend to her relief. The firft repre¬
fents the Sciences, with a winged head, and circle of
naked boys dancing thereon; and holding Nature in
her hand, with her numerous breads, ready to give
afiiftancc to all. The fecond is sirebitefture, with a
plan in one hand, and a fquare and pair of compaffes
in the other; and the third Liberty, waving a hat in
the air, (hewing her joy at the pleafing profpetl of
the city’s fpeedy recovery. Behind the king (lands
his brother the duke of York, with a garland in one
hand to crown the rifing city, and a fword in the
other for her defence. The two fignres behind are
yujlice and Fortitude; the former with a coronet, and
the latter with a reined lion ; and under the royal
pavement lies Envy, gnawing a heart, and inceflamly
emitting peftiferous fumes from her mouth. On the
plinth the reconftru&ion of the city is reprefented by
builders and labourers at work upon houfes. On the
north, fouth, and eaft fides, are inferiptions relating
the deftruclion occafioned by the conflagration, the
regulations about rebuilding the city, and ere&ing
the monument; and round it is the following one:-*-
“ This pillar was fet up in perpetual remembrance
of the moft dreadful burning of this Proteftant city,
begun and carried on by the treachery and malice of
the Popifti fa&ion, in the beginning of September, ia
the year of our Lord 1666, in order to their carrying
on their horrid plot for extirpating the Proteftant
religion and old EngliJlj liberty, and introducing
Popery and flavery.” 30
The city and liberties of London are under a civil,GoVCTn*
ecclefiaftical, and military government,
The civil divides divides it into wards and precinfls,
under a lord-mayor, aldermen, and common-council;
24 I 2 the
LON [ 4290 ] LON
London, the ecclefiaJUcal into parifhes, under a bi(hop, archdea- citizens were fubjeft from fuch a government,put them Lcndoti
con, and minifters or paftors ; and the military is the upon means to abolifh the perpetuity of that office; and  
militia, under the power of a lord-lieutenant, which
is lodged in the mayor and aldermen, and fomeof the
principal citizens, the city being ere&ed by charter a
county-corporate, and a lieutenancy by itfelf.
The civil government of this city, in its prefent
form, may be faid, in every refpeft, to refemble the
legiflative power of the nation ; the mayor, aldermen,
and common-council men, making laws and governing
the city of London, as the king, lords, and commons,
prefide over, govern, and make laws for the whole na-
31 tion.
Lord- The mayor, or lord-mayor, is the fupreme magi-
mayor. ftrate of London, chofen annually by the citizens,
purfuant to a charter of king John. The prefent
manner of ele&ing a lord-mayor is by the liverymen of
the feveral companies, aflembled in Guildhall annually
on Michaelmas-day, according to an aft of common-
council, A. D- 1476, where, and when, the livery-men
choofe, or rather nominate, two aldermen below the
chair, who have ferved the office of ffieriff, to be re¬
turned to the court of aldermen, who may choofe ei¬
ther of the two ; but generally declare the fenior of
the two, fo returned, to be lord-mayor eleft. The
eleftion being over, the lord-mayor eleft, accompa¬
nied by the recorder and divers aldermen, is foon af¬
ter prefented to the lord-chancellor (as his majefty’s
reprefentative in the city of London) for his approba¬
tion ; and on the 9th of November following is fworn
into the office of mayor, at Guildhall ; and, on the
day after, before the barons of the exchequer at Weft-
minfter ; the proceffion on which occafion is exceeding¬
ly grand and magnificent.
The lord-mayor fits every morning at the manfion-
houfe, or place where he keeps his mayoralty, to de¬
termine any difference that may happen among the
citizens, and to do other bufinefs incident to the office
of a chief magiftrate. Once in fix weeks, or eight
times in the year, he fits as chief judge of Oyer and
Terminer, or gaol-delivery of Newgate for London
and the county of Middlefex. His,jurifdiftion ex¬
tends all over the city and fuburbs, except fome places
that are exempt. It extends alfo from Colneyditch,
above Staines bridge in the weft, to Yeudale, or
Yenflete, and the mouth of the river Medway, and up
that river to Upnor caftle, in the eaft: by which he
exercifes the power of puniftnng or correfting all
perfons that fhall annoy the ftreams, banks, or fifh.
For which purpofe his lordlhip holds feveral courts of
confervacy in the countries adjacent to the faid river,
for its confervation, and for the punifhment of offen-
-2 ders.
Aldermen. The title of dignity, alderman, is of Saxon original,
and of the greateft honour, anfwtring to that of earl ;
though now it is nowhere to be found but in charter¬
ed focicties. And from hence we may account for the
reafon why the aldermen and commonalty of London
were called barons after the conqueft. Thefe magi-
ftrates are properly the fubordinate governors of their
refpeftive wards under the lord-mayor s jurifdiftion :
and they originally held their aldermanries either by
inheritance or purchafe ; at which time the alderman¬
ries or wards changed their names as often as their
governors or aldermen. The oppreffiofis, to which the
they brought it to an annual eleftion. But that man¬
ner of eleftion being attended with many inconvenien¬
ces, and becoming a continual bone of contention
amongft the citizens, the parliament, 17 Richard IE
A.D- 1394, enafted. That the aldermen of London
ftiould continue in their feveral offices during life or
good behaviour. And fo it ftill continues: though
the manner of elefting has feveral times varied. At
prefent it is regulated by an aft of parliament, paifed
in the year 1724-5; and the perfon fo defied is to be
returned by the lord mayor (or other returning officer
in his ftead, duly qualified to hold a court of wardmote)
to the court of lord mayor and aldermen, by whom the
perfon fo returned muft be admitted and fworn into the
office of aldermen before he can aft. If the perfon
cbofen refuftth to ferve the office of alderman, he is
finable 5001.
Thefe high officers conftitute a fccond part of the
city legiflature when affembled in a corporate capacity,
and exercifean executive power in their refpeftive wards.
The aldermen who have pafied the chair, or ferved the
high office of lord mayor, are juftices of the quorum;
and all the other aldermen are not only juftices of the
peace, but by the ftatute of 43 Eliz. intitled, Jn ail
for the relief of the poor, “ every alderman of the city
of London, within his ward, {hall and may do and
execute, in every refpeft, fo much as is appointed and
allowed by the faid aft to be done or executed by one
or two juftices of peace of any county within this
realm.” They every one keep their wardmote, or
court, for choofing ward-officers and fettling the affairs
of the ward, to redrefs grievances, and to prefent all
defaults found within their refpeftive wards. ^3
The next branch of the legiflative power in this Common-
city is the common-council. The many inconveniences counci,•
that attended popular affemblies, which were called
folkmote, determined the commonalty of London to
choofe reprefentatives to aft in their name and for their
intereft, with the lord-mayor and aldermen, in all
affairs relating to the city. At firft thefe reprefenta¬
tives were chofen out of the feveral companies : but
that not being found fatisfaftory, nor properly the
reprefentatives of the whole body of the inhabitants, it
was agreed to choofe a certain number of difereet men
out of each ward: which number has from time to
time increafed according to the dimenfions of each
ward : and at prefent the 25 wards, into which Lon¬
don is divided, being fubdivided into 236 precinfts,
each precinft fends a reprefentative to the common-
council, who are elefted after the fame manner as an
alderman, only with this difference, that as the lord-
mayor prefides. in the wardmote, and is judge of the
poll at the eleftion of an alderman, -fo the alderman
of each ward is judge ol the poll at the eleftion of a
common-council man.
Thus the lord mayor, aldermen, and common-
council, when affembled, may be deemed the city par¬
liament, refembling the great council of the nation.
For it confifts of two houfes ; one for the lord-mayor
and aldermen, or the upper-houfe ; another for the
commoners or reprefentatives of the people, commonly
called the common-council men. And they have power
in their incorporate capacity to make and repeal bye¬
laws ;
LON [ 4291 ] LON
I London, laws 5 and the citizens are bound to obey or fubmit to
 thofe laws. When they meet in their incorporate ca¬
pacity, they wear deep-blue lilk gowns: and their
affemblies are called the court of common-council, and
their ordinances atts of common-council. No ad can
be performed in the name of the city of London with¬
out their concurrence. But they cannot affemble with¬
out a fummons from the lord-mayor: who, neverthelefs,
is obliged to call a common-council, whenever it fliall
be demanded, upon extraordinary occafions, by fix
| ^ reputable citizens and members of that court.
Sheriffs, re- This corporation is affifted by two fheriffs and a
-corder, &c. recorder. The die riffs are chartered officers, to perform
certain fuits and fervicts, in the king’s name, within
the city of London and county of M’ddlelex, chofen
by the liverymen of the feveral companies on Midfum-
mer-day. Their office, according to Camden, in ge¬
neral, is to collect the public revenues within their fe¬
veral jurifdi&ions; to gather into the exchequer all
fines belonging to the crown; to ferve the king’s writs
of procefs; to attend the judges, and execute their or¬
ders; to impannel juries; to compel headftrong and
obftinate men by the poffe comitatus to fubmit to the
decifions of the law; and to take care that all condemned
criminals be duly puniffied and executed. In particu¬
lar, in London, they are to execute the orders of the
comgion-council, when they have refolved to addrefs
his majefty, or to petition parliament.
The fheriffs, by virtue of their office, hold a court at
Guildhall every Wednefday and Friday, for a&ions
entered at Wood-ftreet Compter ; and on Thurfdays,
and Saturdays for thofe entered at the Poultry Comp¬
ter: of which the ffieriffs being judges, each has his
affiftant, or deputy, who are called the judges of thofe
courts ; before whom are tried aftions of debt, tref-
pafs, covenant, &c. and where the teftimony of any
abfent witnefs in writing is allowed to be good evi¬
dence. To each ofthefe courts belong four attornies,,
who, upon their being admitted by the court of aider-
men, have an oath adminiftered to them.
To each of thefe courts likewife belong a fecondary,
a clerk of the papers, a prothonotary, and four clerks-
fitters. The feco.idary’s office is to allow and return
all writs brought to remove clerks out of the faid
courts ; the clerk of the papers files and copies all
declarations upon a&ions; the prothonotary draws and
ingroffes all declarations ; the clerks-fitters enter ac¬
tions and attachments, and take bail and verdi&s. To
each of the compters, or prifons belonging to thefe
courts, appertain 16 ferjeants at mace, with a yeo¬
man to each, befides inferior officers, and the prifon-
keeper.
In the fheriffs court may be tried a&ions of debt,
cafe, trefpafs, account, covenant, and all perfonal ac-
* tions, attachments, and fequeftrations. When an er¬
roneous judgment is given in either of the fheriffs
courts of the city, the writ of error to reverfe this
judgment muft be brought in the court of huflings be¬
fore the lord mayor ; for that is the fuperior court.
The fheriffs of London may make arrefts and ferve
executions on the river Thames.
We do not read of a recorder till the year 1304, who,
by the nature of his office, feems to have been intended
as an affiflant to, or affeffor with, the lord mayor, in
the.execution of his high office, in matters of juftice
and law. He is chofen by the lord-mayor and alder- London,
men only ; and takes place in all courts, and in the 1
common-council, before any one that hath not been
mayor. Of whom we have the fcllowing defeription
in one of the books of the chamber. “ He fhall be,
and is wont to be, one of the mod fkilful and virtuous
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom ; whofe
office is always to fit on the right hand of the mayor,
in recording pleas, and paffing judgments; and by
whom records and proceffes, had before the lord-
mayor and aldermen at Great St Martin’s, ought to be
recorded by word of mouth before the judges affigned
there to corredl errors. The mayor and aldermen have
therefore ufed commonly to fet forth all other bufi-
neffes, touching the city, before the king and his
council, as alfo in certain of the king’s courts, by Mr
Recorder, as a chief man, endued with wifdom, and
eminent for eloquence.’’
Mr recorder is looked upon to be the mouth of the
city, to deliver all addreffes to the king, &c. from the
corporation ; and he is the firlt officer in order of pre¬
cedence that is paid a falary, which originally was no
more than 101. Sterling per annum, with fome few
perquifites; but it has from time to time been aug¬
mented to 2801. per annum, and become the road to
preferment in the law. This office has fometimesbeen
executed by a deputy.
The next chartered officer of this corporation is the
chamberlain ; an office of great repute and truft, and
is in the choice of the livery annually. This officer,
though chofen annually on Midfummer-day, is never
difplaced during his life, except fome very great crime
can be made outagainft him. He has the keeping of
the moneys, lands, and goods, of the city-orphans, or
takes good fecurity for the payment thereof when the
parties come to age. And to that end he is deemed
in the law a foie corporation, to him and his fuccef-
fors, for orphans ; and therefore a bond or a recog¬
nizance made to him and his fucceffors, is recoverable
by his fucceflbrs. This officer hath a court peculiarly
belonging to him. His office may be termed a public
treafury, collediing the cuftoms, moneys, and yearly
revenues, and all other payments belonging to the cor¬
poration of the city. It has been generally cuftomary
for the government to appoint the chamberlain receiver
of the land-tax.
The other officers under the lord.mayor are, 1. The Other offi-
Common ferjeant. He is to attend the lord-mayor andeers.
court of aldermen on court-days, and to be in council
with them on all occafions, within or without the pre-
cin&s or liberties of the city. He is to take care of
orphans eftates, either by taking account of them, or
to fign their indentures, before their paffing the lord-
mayor and court of aldermen. And likewife he is to
let, fet, and manage the orphan’s eftates, according to
his judgment, to the bell advantage.
2. The town-clerk ; who keeps the original char¬
ter of the city, the books, rolls, and other records,
wherein are regiftered the ads and proceedings of the
city; fo that he may not be Improperly termed the
city-regiller: he is to attend the lord-mayor and
aldermen at their courts, and figns all public inftru-
ments.
3. The city-rcmembrancer; who is to attend the
lord-mayor on certain days, his bufinefs being to put
his
LON
London, his lordfhip in mind of the feleft days he is to go a-
broad with the aldermen, &c. He is to attend daily
at the parliament-houfe, during the feffions, and to
report to the lord-mayor their Iran factions.
4. The fword-bearer; who is to attend the lord-
mayor at his going abroad, and to carry the fword be¬
fore him, being the emblem ofjuftice. This is an
ancient and honourable office, reprefenting the (late
and princely office of the king’s moft excellent majefty,
in his reprefentative the lord-mayor; and, according to
the rule of armory, “ He muft carry the fword up¬
right, the hilts being holden under his bulk, and the
blade diredHy up the midft of his breaft, and fo forth
between the fword-bearer’s brows.”
5. The common-hunt; whofe bufinefs is to take
care of the pack of hounds belonging to the lord-
mayor and citizens, and to attend them in hunting
in thofe grounds to which they are authorifed by
charter.
6. The common-crier. It belongs to him and the
ferjeant at arms, to fummon all executors and admini-
ftrators of freemen to appear, and to bring in invento¬
ries of the perfona! eftates of freemen, within two
months after their deceafe : and he is to have notice
of the appraifements. He is alfo to attend the lord-
mayor on fet days, and at the courts held weekly by
the mayor and aldermen.
7. The water bailiff; whofe office is to look after
the prefervation of the river Thames, againft all en¬
croachments ; and to look after the fifhermen for the
prefervation of the young fry, to prevent the deftroy-
mg them by unlawful nets. For that end there are
juries for each county, that hath any part of it lying
on the fides or fhores of the faid river ; which juries,
fummoned by the water-bailiff at certain times, do
make inquiry of all offences relating to the river and
the fifh, and make their prefentments accordingly. He
is alfo bound to attend the lord-mayor on fet days in
the week.
JV. B. Thefe feven purchafe their places; except the
town-clerk, who is chofen by the livery.
There are alfo three ferjeant-carvers ; three ferjeants
of the chamber ; a ferjeaut of the channel ; four yeo¬
men of the water-fide ; an under water-bailiff; two
yeomen of the chamber; two meal weighers; two
yeomen of the wood wharfs; a foreign taker; city-
marihals. There are befides thefe, feven gentlemens
men ; as, The fword bearer’s man, the common hunt’s
two men, the common crier’s man, and the carver’s
three men.
Nine of the foregoing officers have liveries of the
lord mayor, viz. the fword-bearer and his man, the
three carvers, and the four yeomen of the water-
fide. All the reft have liveries from the chamber of
London.
The following officers are likewife belonging to the
city; farmer of the markets, auditor, clerk of the
chamber, clerk to the commiffioners of the fewers,
clerk of the court of confcience, beadle of the fame
court, clerk of the city-works, printer to the city,
juftice of the Bridge-yard, clerk-comptroller of the
Bridge-houfe, fteward of the Borough, bailiff of the
Borough.
There are alfo a coroner, called fo from corona, i. e.
a crown, becaufe he deals principally with the crown,
LON
or in matters appertaining to the imperial crown of Londp*. j
England. As to the antiquity of this office, there '" ' 1 ■*!
were coroners in the time of king Alfred, as appears
by the book intitled The mirror. The lord-mayor for
the time being, is coroner, but hath his deputy for the
management thereof. In ancient time, this office was
of fuch great efteem, that none could execute it under
the degree of a knight. As the fheriff may inquire of
all felonies, fo the coroner is to inquire of all fudden
deaths ; and to that end he impannels a jury, takes e-
vidence upon oath, and gives the charge to the jury.
Befides thefe officers, there are feveral courts in this
city for the executing of juftice, viz. the court of hu¬
ttings, lord-mayor’s court, &c. In the city there are
alfo two fubordinate kinds of government. One exe¬
cuted by the alderman, deputy, and common council
men, and their inferior officers, in each ward ; under
which form are comprehended all the inhabitants, free
or not free of the city. Every ward is therefore like l
a little free ftate, and at the fame time fubjeft to the
lord-mayor as chief magiftrate of the city. The
houfekeepers of each ward cleft their reprefentatives
the common-council, who join in making bye-laws for
the government of the city. The officers andfeivants
of each ward manage the affairs belonging to it, with¬
out the affiftance of the reft ; and each has a court call¬
ed the wardmote, as has been already defcribtd, for
the management of its own affairs. The other, by the
mafter, wardens, and court of affiftants, of the incor¬
porate companies; whofe power reaches I10 further
than over the members of their refpeftive guilds or fra¬
ternities ; except that in them is inverted the power to
choofe reprefentatives in pailiament for the city, and all
thofe magiftrates and officers elefted by a common-
hall : which companies are invefted with diftinft
powers, according to the tenor of their refpeftive
charters. 36
With regard to the number of inhabitants in Lon-.Num^er °f
don, they have commonly been reckoned at a million, ‘"habitant*.
or at lead upwards of 700,000 ; but Mr Entick re¬
duces this number to 500,000, and indeed confiderably
reduces the fuppofed number of inhabitants in feveral
other great cities, altho’ he eftimates the number of
houfes in London at 100,000.
If we compare London, (fays he), with other
cities both ancient and modern, we (hall find that our
metropolis is the moft numerous. Nineveh, though its
walls are faid to encompafs 480 furlongs, or 60 miles,
does not appear to have contained above 403,000 citi¬
zens, which is 97,000 lefs than London. Babylon
was alfo 60 Englifh miles in compafs, and not allowed
to contain more than 487,921 inhabitants, which is
12,079 lefs than London. As to Jerufaiem, the inha¬
bitants did not amount to more than a fixth part of
the prefent inhabitants of this metropolis. Rome has
been the fubjeft of many panegyrics; but, in its ut-
moft extent, it never entertained more than 367,448,
which is 132,552 lefs than in London. Conftantinople
is at this time allowed to have no more than 420,000
inhabitants ; Grand Cairo no more than 300,000 ;. Pe¬
kin in China no more than 412,610: and to conclude
this parallel, it may be concluded that Paris, whofe en¬
comium has been fo extravagantly publirtied, does not
contain more than 437,438 inhabitants.
“ Another method to arrive at fome certainty about
the
[ 4292 ]
LON [ 4293 ] LON
the number of inhabitants in fuch a vaft place, is, that lhare in the herring-fifhery, but fending fhips alfo to
_ it has been calculated upon a prefumption of the num- the Weft-Indies, New-England, and Newfoundland,^
ber of mouths, which confume yearly 369,635 quar¬
ters, and upwards, of wheat flour; 98,244 cattle;
711,123 flreep and lambs: 194,760 calves; 186,932
hogs; 52,000 fucking pigs; x 15,536 buihels of oy-
fters ; 14,740,000 mackarel; 16,366,728 pounds of
butter ; 21,066,000 pounds of cheefe 5 befides the in¬
finite quantities of fowls of all forts, of fiffi of all
A ...a- „ C  f 1 . _ IV ^ loll-
for which they are fo advantageoufly fituated, that a _
veffel bound from thence to America often arrives
there before a London (hip can get clear of the found¬
ings, or arrive in the latitude of Londonderry. Tho’
there are a great many ihallows in Lough-Foyle,
which ferves it inftead of a road; yet they are ealily
avoided, as there are deep channels between them.
torts, and of garden-ftuff and milk : of which laft ar- Thofe joints cd\\zi\ Entijlotie, Rtifterbull, or Caldy-had,
-:_i„ —1—: 1- n—   r- k„.,r- - "—*■>- which lie a little to the weft of the mouth of the har¬
bour, are counted the moft northerly of Ireland, lying
in lat. 55. 20. The inhabitants of this city are al-
moft all Proteftants. It gives title of earl and baron
to a branch of the family of Pitt. A late traveller
fays, “ Derry is, perhaps, the deaneft, belt built, and
moft beautifully lituated town in Ireland; and, ex¬
cepting Corke, as convenient as any for commerce,
foreign and domeftic; and, but for the reftridions on
tide, reckoning only a gallon to each houfe in a wetk;
there is expended annually 5,200,000 gallons. And
in the year from Midfummer 1759 to 1760 there were
brewed in the city and fuburbs, 975,217 barrels and
three firkins of beer.
LONDONDERRY, or Colerain, a county of
Ireland, in the province of Ulfter. It is bounded on
the fouth and fouth-wcft by the county of Tyrone;
by Antrim on the call, from which it is parted by the
river Bann; by Donegal, on the weft; and that county the trade of Ireland, would in a few years become
and the Deueaiedonian ocean, on the north. Its
greateft length is about 36 miles, its breadth 30, con¬
taining about 251,5 to acres. The bogs and heaths
of this country are manured with fea-(hells, as thofe
of Donegal. Like that too, it is pretty champaign,
and not unfruitful. It is particularly noted for a very
dear river called the Bann, abounding v/ith falmon, a
fiih faid to delight in limpid ftrcams. This river, to
diftinguilh it from a lelfer of the fame name, is called
the Greater or Lonuer Bann, In order to cultivate,
fettle, and civilize this county, king James I. granted
it, by letters-patent, to a fociety, by the name of the
Governor and Ajjiftants at London of the new plantation
of Ulfter in the realm of Ireland. It contains fix ba-
flourilhing and wealthy city.” The lake almoft fur-
rounds it; and the whole ground-plot both of it and
its liberties belongs to the 12 great companies of
London. Great quantities of falmon, faked and bar¬
relled, are exported from hence to America.
LONG, an epithet given to whatever exceeds the
ufual ftandard of length.
Long-2?^, the large ft and ftrongeft boat be-
Jonging to any Ihip. It is principally employed to car¬
ry great burdens, as anchors, cables, ballaft, &c. See
Boat.
LONGEVITY, length of life.
_ From the different longevities of men in the begin-
ning of the world, after the flood, and in thefe ages,
ronies; and, befides the two knights of the (hire, fends Mr Derham draws an argument, for the interpofition
to parliament two members for the city of London- of a divine Providence.
den y, and two each for Coleraine, and Newton-Lima-
vady or Lamnevady.
Londonderry, or Derry, the capital of the county,
and the fee of a bilhop, (lands at the bottom of Lough-
Foyle. This city has a very good port, to which fliips
of the greateft burden have accefs, and a confiderable
trade. It will be ever famous for the gallantry and
perfeverance with which it defended itlelf in three
Immediately after the creation, when the world was
to be peopled by one man and one woman, the ordi¬
nary age was 900 and upwards.— Immediately after
the flood, when there were three perfons to dock the
world, their age was cut (horter, and none of thofe
patriarchs, but Shem, arrived at 500.—In the fecond
century we find none that reached 240 : in the third,
none but Terah that came to 200 years ; the world.
memorable fieges, in defiance of the greateft hardlhips at leal! a part of it, by that time being fo welt
and difcouragements, namely, ill, In 1641, when the peopled, that they had built cities, and were canton-
—u"1~ —,J —J— '* 1— f—..j — e  €d out into diftant nations.—By degrees, as the
number of people increafed, their longevity dwindled,
till it came down at length to 70 or 80 years : and
there it Hood, and has continued to (land ever fince
rebels could not reduce it either by fraud or force,
jdly, In 1649, when it was befieged by the lord Ardes,
and reduced almoft to extremity by famine, till at laft
relieved by troops fent from England. 3dly, When
it held out againft the French and Irilh from the 7th
of December 1688, to the laft day of July 1689,
though it was neither well fortified, nor provided with
a garrifon or (lores of provifion and ammunition, and
hardly any attempt made to relieve it during fo long a
time. Though the city is 20 miles up the river, yet
very large fhips can came up to the quay, where there
is four or five fathoms of water. It is now well forti¬
fied with a flrong wall, befides outworks; and along
the banks of the river are feveral calllts, and a fort.
This city is of no great antiquity, having been built
and planted in the reign of James I. by a colony fent
by the fociety abovementioned. The trade of the
town is very confiderable, having not only a large
the time of Mofes.—This is found a good medium,
and by means hereof the world is neither overftocked,
nor kept too thin ; but life and death keep a pretty
equal pace.
Thai the common duration of man’s life has beem
the fame in all ages fince the world was peopled, is
plain both from facred and profane hiftory. To
pafs by others, Plato lived to 81, and was accounted
an old man : and the inftances of longevity produced
by Pliny, L. vii. c. 48. as very extraordinary,
may molt of them be matched in modern hiftories.
Mr Carew (a) tells us, that there lived in his
time, in Cornwall, one Polzew, who reached the
age of 130; a kinfman of his lived to 112; oner
Me
Long,
>onga*vii)r»
(a) Survey of Cornwall, fol. 63.
L O
Longevity, Mr Beauchamp, to 106
(L his own pariih, in the fhort fpace of 14 weeks,
N [ 4294 ] LON
and that there died in horfe-races ; and gentlemen come to it from the neigh-Lorgimetry
four perfons, whole years made together 340. The
famous Thomas Par, who was born at Alderbury in
Shropfhire, lived to 152 years (b). In Oxfordlhire,
Dr Plott tells us of Richard Clifford,, living, at
Bolfcot, to 114; Brian Stevens, at Woodftock, and
two or three perfons then living at Oxford, above
too (c). Dr Willet informs us of a man who lived
at Everfden, in Bedfordlhire, to the age of 124 (d).
Dr Hakewill obferves of William, marquis of Win-
chelter, that he reached 107 (e). Dr Plott tells us,
that Mr Biddulph, of Biddulph in Staffordlhire, had
12 tenants living, whofe ages, put together, made
Market. The produce of this ifland is chiefly provi-
fions for the mouth, fuch as wheat, Indian-corn, fait,,
beef, pork, fifh, and ftrong-beer, which they fend to
the Caribbee Illands ; and, in lieu of them, receive
fugar, rum, cotton, and indigo.
LONGIMETRY, the art of meafuring lengths,
both acceflible and inacceffible. See Geometry and
Trigonometry.
LONGING, is a preternatural appetite in pregnant
women, and in fome lick perfons when about to recover.
It is called pica, from the bird of that name, which is
faid to be fubjedt to the fame diforder. The diforder
1000 (f). Henry Jenkins, of Yorklhire, died at con fills of both a defire of unufual things to eat and
.<-2 /-.t t„ oir« drink, and in being foon tired of one and wanting an¬
ther. It is called ww/rfc/rf, from /Aa\xY.<&, “ weaknefs.”
In pregnant women it is fomewhat relieved by bleed¬
ing, and in about the fourth month' of their pregnancy
it leaves them. Chlorotic girls, and men who labour
under fuppreffed haemorrhoids, are very fubjedt to this
who was known to Sir Walter Ralegh and Lord complaint, and are relieved by promoting the refpec-
Bacon, lived to 140 (k). tive evacuations. In general, whether this diforder is
No certain caufes have hitherto been difeovered to obferved in pregnant women, in perfons recovering
which the longevity of mankind can always be attri- from an acute fever, or in thofe who labour under ob-
buted. Some have attributed it to temperance and a ftru&ions of the natural evacuations, this craving of
country life ; but inllances of longevity are as rare the appetite Ihould be indulged.
t68 (g). In Scotland alfo, fome perfons have at¬
tained to a very great ages. Buchanan mentions
one, who at 140, was able to go out to filh, in a
tempeftuous fea, in his own little boat (h) ; and Mr
Martin affirms, that one Tairville lived, in Shetland,
180 (1). The countefs of Defmond, in Ireland)
among people who live in this way as among others
who live more freely, provided they go not to great
exceffes. It would feem therefore, that at the firft
formation of the human body, the original ftamina in
fome are of fuch a nature as to be capable of con¬
tinuing life for a much longer time than in others,
even where circumllances are otherwife very, much
alike. Hence we may eafily fee how it becomes ex¬
ceedingly difficult, or rather impoffible, to lay down
a rule by following of which he may expeft to attain
to long life;—a deficiency in the original ftamina
cannot by fnpplied by art, though temperance and
fobriety are undoubtedly the beft methods of avoiding
any watle of that ftrength which nature has originally
given, or of ffiortening our life by bringing on
difeafes. See Abstinence.
LONGFORD, a county of Ireland, 25 miles in
length, and 16 in breadth, bounded on the eaft and
fouth by Weft Meath, on the north and north-weft
by Lctrim and Cavan, and on the weft by the river
Shannon. It contains upwards of 5000 houfes, 24
parifhee, 6 baronies, 4 boroughs, and fends 10 mem¬
bers to parliament. It is a fmall, but rich and plea-
fant country, and the principal town is of the fame
name.
LONG-island, is an ifland of North America,
in the colony of New-York, which is feparated from
the continent by a narrow channel; and is about 100
miles in length, and 12 in breadth, containing
Queen’s-county, Suffolk-county, and Richmond-
county. There is a fine plain in the middle of the
ifland, called Salijbury-plain, on which they have
LONGINICO, a town of Turky in Europe, in the
Morea, anciently called Olympia, famous for being the
place where the Olympic games were celebrated, and
for the temple of Jupiter Olympus, about a mile di-
ftant. It is now but a fmall place, feated on the river
Alpheus, 10 miles from its mouth, and 50 fouth of
Lepanto. E. Long. 22. o. N. Lat. 37. 30.
LONGINUS (Dionyfius), a celebrated Greek cri¬
tic of the third century, was probably an Athenian.
His father’s name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch. His youth was
fpent in travelling with his parents, which gave him an
opportunity to increafe his knowledge, and improve
his mind. After his travels he fixed his refidence at
Athens, and with the greateft affiduity applied to ftudy.
Here he publiffied his Treatife on the Sublime; which
raifed his reputation to fuch a height, and gave the
Athenians fuch an opinion of his judgment and tafte,
that they made him fovereign judge of all authors, and
every thing was received and reje&ed by the public
according to his decifions. He feems to have ftaid at
Athens a long time; here he taught the academic phi-
lofophy, and among others had the famous Porphyry
for his pupil. But it was at length his fortune to be
drawn from Athens, and to mix in more aftive feenes;
to train up young princes to virtue and glory; to guide
the bnfy paffions of the great to noble objeifls; to
ftruggle for, and at laft to die, in the caufe of liberty.
Zenobia, queen of the Eatl, prevailed on him to un¬
dertake the education of her fons; and he foon gained
an uncommon (hare in her efteem : (he fpent the vacant
hours of her life in his converfation, and modelled her
fenti-
(b) Philofophical Tranfadtions, N° xliv. p. 886.—-(c) Natural Hiftory of Oxfordfhire, chap. ii. p. 19.—(d) Dr
Andrew Willet’s Hexapla in Gen. chap. v. §.5. p. 68—(e) Hakewill’s Apology, lib. iii. p. 183.—(f) Na¬
tural Hiftory of Staffordfhire, chap viii. p. J29.—(g) Philofophical Tranfadtions, N° ccxxii. p. a66—(h) Rerum
Scot. Hift. lib. i. Roberti Sibbaldi Prodr. Hift. Nat. Scot. lib. i. cap ao. p. 44—(1) Defcription of the
-Weftern Iflands of Scotland, p. 373.—(x'Sir Walter Ralegh’s Hiftory of the World, b. i. chap. 5. §. 5. Lord Bacon’s
Works, edit. 1753. vol. i. p. 241. See alfo Dr Baynard’s Appendix to Sir J. Floyer’s Treatife On Cold Baths.
I LongilTI-
.jT
montanus
LON [ 4295 ] LON
fentiments and conduft by his inftruftions. That prin-
ccfs was at war with Aurelian; and being defeated by
him near Antioch, was compelled to fhut herfelf up in
. Palmyra, her capital city. The emperor wrote her a
“letter, in which he ordered her to furrender; to which
/he returned an anfwer, drawn up by Longinus, which,
filled him with refentment. The emperor laid fiege to
the city ; and the Palmyrians were at length obliged
to open their gates, and receive the conqueror. The
queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly into Perfia ;
but were unhappily overtaken and made prifoners when
they were on the point of croffing'the Euphrates. The
queen, intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindica¬
ting the liberty of her country on its true author; and
the brave Longinus, to the difgrace of the conqueror,
was carried away to immediate execution. The wri¬
tings of Longinus were numerous, fome on philofophi-
cal, but the" greater part on critrical fuhje£ts. Dr
Pearce, has colle&ed the titles of 25 treatifes, none of
which, excepting that on the Sublime, have efcaped
the depredations of time and barbarians. On this im-
perfe& piece the great fame of Longinus israifed, who,
as Pope expreffes it—“ is himfelf the great fublime he
draws.” The belt edition of his works is that by Tol-
lius, printed at Utrecht in 1694, cum nctis variorum.
It has been tranflated into Englifh by Mr Smith.
LONGISSIMUS dorsi. See Anatomy, Talk
cf the Mufcks.
LONGITUDE of a Star, in aftronomy, an arch
of the ecliptic, intercepted between the beginning of
Aries and the point of the ecliptic cut by the itar’s
circle of longitude.
Longitude of any place on the furface of the earth.
See Geography, Astronomy, and Navigation.
See alfo Harrison.
Method of finding the Longitude at Sea. See Na¬
vigation.
LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes fomething
placed lengthwife ; thus fome of the fibres in the vef-
fels of the human body are placed longitudinally, others
tranfverfely or acrofs.
LONGOMONTANUS (Chriftian), a learned a-
ftronomer, born in a village of Denmark, in 1562. He
was the fon of a ploughman ; and was obliged to fuflfer
during his ftudies all the hardlhips to which he could
be expofed, dividing his time, like the philofopher Cie-
anthes, between the cultivation of the earth and the
leffons he received from the minifter of the place. At
laft, when he was 15, he ftole away from bis family,
and went to Wiburg, where there was a college, in
which he fpent 11 years; and though he was obliged
to earn a livelihood, he applied himfelf to ftudy with
fuch ardour, that among other fciences he learned the
mathematics in great perfedion. He afterwards went
to Copenhagen ; where the profefibrs of that univerfity
in a fliort time conceived fo high an opinion of him,
that they recommended him to the celebrated Tycho
Brahe. Longomontanus lived eight years with that fa¬
mous aftronomer, and was of great fervice to him in
his obfervations and calculations. At length, being
extremely dcfirous of obtaining a profeflor’s chair in
Denmark, Tycho Brahe confented, though with fome
difficulty, to deprive himfelf of his fervice; gave him
a difcharge, filled with the higheft teftimonies of
his efteem; and furnifhed him with money for the
Vol. VI.
expence of his long journey. He obtained a profefibr- Longue-
(hip of mathematics in the univerfity of Copenhagen, vil!e*
in 1605 ; and difcharged the duty of it worthily till Lonjccnj-
his death, which happened in 1647. He wrote many   
learned works; amnftfd himfelf with endeavouring to
fquare the circle, and pretended that he had made that
difcovery; but Dr John Pell, an Englifh mathemati¬
cian, attacked him warmly on that fubjedl, and proved
that he was miftaken.
LONGUEVILLE, a town of France, in Upper
Normandy, and in the territory of Caux, feated on the
fmall river Lee, 17 miles north of Rouen. It has the
title of a duchy. E. Long. 1. to. N. Lat. 49. 46.
LONGWY, a town of France, on the frontiers of
the duchy of Luxemburg, with a caftle, divided into the
the-old and new towns. This laft was built and forti¬
fied by Lewis XIV. It is feated on an eminence. E.
Long. 5. 51. N. Lat. 40. 32.
LONGUS, a Greek fophift, author of a book, in-
titled noiofvixa, or Paftorals, and a romance containing
the loves of Daphnis and Chloe. Huetius, bifhop of
Avranches, fpeaks very advantageoufly of this work ;
but he cenfures the obfcene touches with which it is
interfperfed. None of the ancient authors mention him,
fo the time when he lived cannot be certainly fixed.
There is an Englifh tranflation of this author, whkh
is afcribed to the latej. Craggs, Efq; fecretary of ftate.
LONICERA, Honeysuckle; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. The alpigena, or upright red-berried
honeyfuckle, rifes with a fhrubby, fhort, thick, upright
Item, branching ftrong and eredtly four or five feet
high; largifh, fpear-fhaped leaves, in pairs oppofite;
and from the fides of the branches many red flowers by
two’s on long footftalks, each fucceeded by two red
berries joined together at their bafe; it flowers in Au-
guft, and the b.emes ripen in autumn. 2. The cseru-
lea, or blue.berriecf opright honeyfuckle, rifes with a
fhrubby upright ftem, branching moderately three or
four feet high, with many white flowers proceeding
from the fides of the branches; appearing in May, and
fucceeded by blue berries joined together at their bafe.
3. The nigra, or black-berried upright honeyfuckle,
rifes with a fhrubby ftem branching three or four feet
high, with white flowers fucceeded by Angle and di-
ftindl black-berries. 4. The tartarica, or Tartarian
honeyfuckle, rifes with a fhrubby upright ftem, branch¬
ing ere&ly three or four feet high; heart-fhaped, op¬
pofite leaves, and whitifh erett flowers fucceeded by
red berries, fometimes diftinft, and fometimes double.
5. The diervilla, or yellow-flowered Acadian honey¬
fuckle, rifes with fhrubby upright ftalks, branching
ereft to the height of three or four feet; the branches
terminated by clufters of pale yellow flowers, appear¬
ing in May and June, and fometimes continuing till
autumn; but rarely ripening feeds here. 6. The xylo-
fteum, or fly honeyfuckle, rifes with a ftrong fhrubby
ftem, branching ereft to the height of feven or eight
feet; with ereft white flowers proceeding from the fides
of the branches; each fucceeded by large double red
berries, joined together at their bafe. The flowers ap¬
pear in June, and the berries ripen in September. 7. The
fymphoricarpos, or fhrubby St Peter’s-wort, rifes with,
a fhrubby, rough ftem, branching ere& four or five feet
24 K high,
Lonfdale,
Lookin -
glaffss2
LOO [ 4296 ] LOO
high, with fmall greenilh flowers appearing round the
ttalk in Auguft. 8. The periclymenum, or common
climbing honeyfuckle, hath two principal varieties, viz.
-The Englifh wild honeyCuckle, or woodbine of our
woods and hedges, and the Dntch or German honey¬
fuckle. The former rifes with flirubby, weak, very
long {lender ftalks, and branches trailing on the ground,
or climbing round any fupport; all terminated by oval
imbricated heads, furnifliing fmallifh flowers of white
or red colours, and appearing from June or July till
autumn. The Dutch honeyfuckle rifes with a Ihrubby
declinated ftalk, and long trailing purplifh branches,
terminated by oval imbricated heads, furnifhing large
beautiful red flowers of a fragrant odour, appearing in
June and July. 9. The caprifolium, or Italian honey¬
fuckle, rifes with flirubby declinated ftalks, fending out
long flender trailing branches, terminated by verticil-
late or whorled bunches of clofe-fltting flowers, very
fragrant, and white, red, and yellow colours. 10. The
fempervirens, or evergreen trumpet-flowered honey¬
fuckle, rifes with a ftirubby declinated ftalk, fending
out long flender trailing branches, terminated by naked
verticillate fpikes, of long, unreflexed, deep fcarlet
flowers, very beautiful, but of little fragrance.
Culture. The moft eafy method of propagating
thefe plants is by layers or cuttings, efpecially the lat¬
ter; both of thefe readily emit roots, and form plants in
one year fit for tranfplantation. Some forts are alfo
propagated by fuckers and feed.
LONSDALE, or Kirkby Lonsdale, a town of
Weftmoreland, feated on the river Lon, in a pleafant
and rich valley of the fame name. It is a large well-
built town, has a handfome church, and a fine ftone-
bridge over the river. It is well inhabited; and is the
beft town in the county, except Kendal. W. Long.
2. 27. N. Lat. 54. 10.
LOO, a town of the United Provinces, in Guclder-
land, eight miles weft of Deventer, where the prince
of Orange has a fine palace. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat.
52. 18.
LOOP, the after part of a fhip’s bow ; or that part
of her fide forward where the planks begin to be in-
curvated into an arch as they approach the ftem.
LOOK-out, in the fea-language, a watchful at¬
tention to fome important objeft or event which is ex¬
pected to arife from the prefent fituation of a ftiip,
&c. It is principally ufed in navigation when there
is a probability of danger from the real or fuppofed
proximity of land, rocks, enemies, and, in fliort, what¬
ever peril (he may encounter through inattention, which
might otherwife have been avoided by a prudent and
neceflary vigilance.
There is always a look-out kept on a {hip’s fore-
caftle at fea, to watch for any dangerous objeCts lying
near her track, and to which {he makes a gradual ap¬
proach as (he advances: the mate of the watch accord-
ingly calls often from the quarter-deck, “ Look out
afore there 1’’ to the perfons appointed for this fer-
vice.
LOOKING-glasses, are nothing but plain mir¬
rors of glafs; which, being impervious to the light,
refledf the images of things placed before them ; for
the the theory whereof, fee the articles Mirror and
Reflection.
For the cafting, grinding, and polilhing of looking-
glaffes, fee the article Glass. Loom,
For foliating of looking-glafies. See the article
Foliating.
LOOM, a frame compofed of a variety of parts,
ufed in all the branches of weaving ; for a particular
defeription of which, fee the article Weaving.
/f«>-LooM, in law, are fuch goods and perfonal
chattels, as, contrary to the nature of chattels; (hall
go by fpecial cuftom to the heir along with the in¬
heritance, and not to the executor of the laft proprie¬
tor. The termination, loom, is of Saxon original ;
in which language it fignifies a limb or member; fo ,
that an heir-loom is nothing elfe but a limb or mem- comment.
ber of the inheritance. They are generally fuch
things as cannot be taken away without damaging or
dilmembering the freehold : otherwife the general
rule is, that no chattel-intereft whatfoever fhall go to
the heir, notwithftanding it be exprefsly limited to a
man and his heir*, but (hall veil in the executor. But
deer in a real authorized park, fifties in a pond,
doves in a dove-houfe, &c. though in themfelves
perfonal chattels, yet they are fo annexed to, and fo
neceflary to the well-being of, the inheritance, that
they (hall accompany the land wherever it veils, by
either defeent or purchafe. For this reafon alfo
the ancient jewels of the crown are held to be
heir-looms; for they are neceflary to maintain the
ftate, and fupport the dignity, of the fovereign
for the time being. Charters likewife, and deeds,
court-rolls, and other evidences of the land, toge¬
ther with the chefts in which they are contained,
fhall pafs together with the land to the heir, in the
nature of heir-looms, and fhall not go to the executor.
By fpecial euftom alfo, in fome places, carriages,
utenfils, and other houfehold implements, may be
heir-looms; but fuch cuftom muft be ftri&ly proved.
On the other hand, by almoft general cuftom, what¬
ever is ftrongly affixed to the freehold or inheritance,
and cannot be fevered from thence without violence or
damage, quod ab tedibus non facile revellitur, is
become a member of the inheritance, and fhall there¬
upon pafs to the heir; as chimney-pieces, pumps,
old fixed or_ dormant tables, benches, and the like.
A very fimilar notion to which prevails in the duchy
of Brabant ; where they rank certain things moveable
among thofe of the immoveable kind, calling them
by a very peculiar appellation, preedia volantia, or
volatile eftates : fuch as beds, tables, and other heavy
implements of furniture, which (as an afthor of their
own obferves) dignitatem iftam natta funt, ut villis,
Jylvis, et a dibus, aliifque priediis, comparentur; quod
folidiora mobilia ipfis a dibus ex dejlinatione patrisfamilias
cobarere videantur, et pro parte ipfarum tedium ajli-
mentur.
Other perfonal chattels there are, which alfo de-
feeud to the heir in the nature of heir-looms ; as a
monument or tomb-ftone in a church, or the coat-
armor of his anceftor there hung up, with the pen¬
nons and other enfigns of honour fuited to his de¬
gree. In this cafe, albeit the freehold xif the church
is in the parfon, and thefe arc annexed to that free¬
hold, yet cannot the parfon or any other take them
away or deface them, but is liable to an a&ion from
the heir. Pews in the church are fomewhat of the
fame nature, which may defeend by cuftom immemo-
LOP [ 4297 ] LOR
Looking rial (without any ecclefiaftical concurrence) from the
^ anceftor to the heir. But though the heir has a pro-
<>p1ius' perty in the momuments and efcutcheons of his an-
ceftors, yet he has none in their bodies or allies ; nor
can he bring any civil aftion againft fuch as indecently '
at leaft, if not impioufly, violate and difturb their
remains, when dead and buried. The parfon indeed,
who has the freehold of the foil, may bring an aftion
of trefpafs againft fuch as dig and difturb it : and,
if any one in taking up a dead body fteals the ftiroud
or other apparel, it will be felony ; for the property
thereof remains in the executor, or whoever was at
the charge of the funeral.
Heir-looms, though they be mere chattels, yet
cannot be devifed away from the heir by will ; but
fuch a devife is void, even by a tenant in fee-fimple.
For, though the owner might during his life have
fold or difpofed of them, as he might of the timber
of the eftate, fince, as the inheritance was his own,
he might mangle or difmember it as he pleafed ; yet,
they being at his death inftantly veiled in the heir,
the devife (which is fubfequent, and not to take
effeft till after his death) lhall be poftponed to the
cullom, whereby they have already defeended.
LOOMING, in the fea-language, an indiftinft ap¬
pearance of any diftant objeft, as the fea-coaft, Ihips,
mountains, &c. as, “ Ihe looms large before the wind
“ the looming of the land is high above the water, &c.”
LOPES le vega, See Vega.
LOPH1US, Fishing-frog, Toad fi/Jo,or Sea-devil;
a genus of the branchioft^gious order of fifties, whofe
head is in fize equal to all the reft of the body.
There are three fpecies, the moll remarkable of
which is the pifeatorius, or common filliing- frog, an
inhabitant of the Britilh feas. This fingular filh was
known to the ancients by the name of Barpa^of. and
Rana; and to us by that of the fifhhig-frog, for it
is of a figure refembling that animal in a tadpole
Hate. Pliny takes notice of the artifice ufed by it to
take its prey : Eminentia fub oculis cornicula turbato
Unto e .erit, ajfultantes pifciculos attrahens, donee tam
prope accedunt, ut ajfiliat. “ It puts forth the llen-
4er horns it has beneath its eyes, enticing by that
means the little filh to play round, till they come
within reach, when it fprings on them.” The fifhing-
frog grows to a large fize, fome being between four
and five feet in length ; and Mr Pennant mentions
one taken near Scarborough, whofe mouth was a
yard wide. The filhermen on that coaft have a great
regard for this filh, from a fuppofition that it is a
great enemy to the dog-filh ; and whenever they take
it with their lines, fet it at liberty.
It is a filh of very great deformity : the head is
much bigger than the whole body; is round at the
circumference, and flat above ; the mouth of a pro¬
digious widenefs. The under jaw is much longer
than the upper: the jaws are full of llender lharp
teeth : in the roof of the mouth are two or three rows
of the fame : at the root of the tongue, oppofite each
other, are two bones of an elliptical form, thick fet,
with very ftrong lharp teeth. The noftrils do not
appear externally, but in the upper part of the
mouth are two large orifices that ferve inftead of
them. On each fide the upper jaw are two lharp
fpines, and others are fcattered about the upper part Loranthns,
of the head. Immediately above the nofe are two k01^*
long tough filaments, and on the back three others;
thefe are what Pliny calls cornicula, and fays it makes
ufe of to attraft the little filh. They feem to be like
lines flung out for that end. Along the edges of the
head and body are a multitude of Ihort fringed Ikins,
placed at equal diftances. The aperture to the gills
is placed behind ; each of thefe is very wide, fo that
fome writers have imagined it to be a receptacle for
the young in time of danger. The body grows (len¬
der near the tail, the end of which is quite even. The
colour of the upper part of this filh is dulky, the lower
part white ; the fkin fmooth.
LORANTHUS, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants.
There is only one fpecies, a native of America, dif-
covered by Father Plunder, and found growing natu¬
rally at La Vera Cruz by Dr Houfton. It rifts with
a Ihrubby ftalk, eight, or 10 feet high, dividing into
feveral branches, having at their ends clufters of fmall
fcarlet-coloured flowers, fucceeded by oval berries with
a pulpy covering, and a hard Ihell with one cell, in-
clofing feveral comprelfed feeds. It is propagated by
feeds, which Ihould be fown foon after they are ripe;
otherwife they are very apt to mifearry, or lie a year in
the ground without germinating. The plants require
always to be kept in a bark-ftove.
LORD, a title of honour given to thofe who are
noble either by birth or creation. In this fenfe, it
amounts to much the fame as peer of the realm, or
lord of parliament. The title is by courtefy alfo given
to all the fons of dukes and marquifes, and to the
eldeft fons of earls: and it is alfo a title of honour be¬
llowed on thofe who are honourable by their employ¬
ments ; as lord advocate, lord chamberlain, lord chan¬
cellor, &c The word is Saxon, but abbreviated from
two fyllables into one; for it was originally Illaford,
which, by dropping the afpiration, became Laford,
and afterwards, by contraftion, Lord. “ The etymo¬
logy of the word (fays J. Coates) is well worth ob-
ferving : for it was compofed of illaf, “ a loaf of
bread,” and ford, “ to give, or affordfo that Ilia-
ford, wove Lord, implies “ a giver of bread;” becaufe,
in ,thofe ages, fuch great men kept extraordinary
houfes, and fed all the poor; for which reafon they
were called givers of bread, a thing now much out of
date ; great men being fond of retaining the title,
but few regarding the pradtice for which it was firft
given. See Lady.
Houfe o/'Lords, one of the three eftates of parlia¬
ment, and compofed of the Lords Spiritual and Tem¬
poral.
1. The Spiritual Lords confift of 2 archbilhops, and
24 bilhops; and, at the diffolution of monafteries by
Henry VIII. confided likewife of 26 mitred abbots,
and two priors: a very confiderable body, and in
thofe times equal in number to the temporal nobility.
All thefe hold, or arefuppofed to hold, certain ancient
baronies under the king: for William the Conqueror
thought proper to change the fpiritua! tenure of frank¬
almoign or free-alms, under which the biftiops held
their lands during the Saxon government, into the
feudal or Norman tenure by barony; which fubjedled
23 K 2 their
LOR [ 4298 ] LOR
I their eftates to all civil charges and afiefiments, from
which they were before exempt; and, in right of fuc-
ceffion to thofe baronies, which were unalienable from
their refpe&ive dignities, the bifhops and abbots were
allowed their feats in the houfe of lords. But though
thefe lords fpiritual are in the eye of the law a diftindt
eftate from the lords temporal, and are fo diftinguiflaed
in moll of our adls of parliament; yet in pra&ice they
are ufually blended together under the name of/un/r;
they intermix in their votes, and the majority of fuch
intermixture joins both eftates. And from this want
of a feparate aflembly, and feparate negative of the
prelates, fome writers have argued very cogently, that
the lords fpiritual and temporal are now in reality only
one eftate: which is unqueftionably true in every ef-
feftual fenfe, though the ancient diftindtion between
them ftill nominally continues. For if a bill ftiould
pafs their houfe, there is no doubt of its validity, tho’
every lord fpiritual fhould vote againft it; of which
Selden and Sir Edward Coke give many inftances: as,
on the other hand, doubtlefs it would be equally good,
if the lords temporal prefent were inferior to the bi¬
fhops in number, and every one of thofe temporal lords
gave his vote to rejedf the bill; though this Sir Edward
Coke feems to doubt of.
2. The temporal lords confift of all the peers of the
realm, (the bifhops not being in ftridfnefs held to be
fuch, but merely lords of parliament), by whatever
title of nobility diftinguifhed ; dukes, marquifes, earls,
* See N0W-vifeounts, or barons *. Some of thefe fit by defeent,
I'V- as do all ancient peers ; fome by creation, as do all
new-made ones; others, fince the union with Scotland,
by eledlion, which is the cafe of the 16 peers, who
reprefent the body of the Scots nobility. Their num¬
ber is indefinite, and may be increafed at will by the
power of the crown: and once, in the reign of queen
Anne, there was an inftance of creating no lefs than
12 together; in contemplation of which, in the reign
of king George I. a bill paffed the houfe of lords, and
was countenanced by the then miniftry, for limiting
the number of the peerage. This was thought by
fome to promife a great acquifition to the conftitution,
by reftraining the prerogative from gaining the afeen-
dant in that auguft aflembly, by pouring in at plea-
fure an unlimited number of new-created lords. But
the bill was ill relifhed, and mifearried in the houfe of
commons, whofe leading members were then defirous
to keep the avenues to the other houfe as open and eafy
as poflible.
The diftin&ion of ranks and honours is neceflary in
every well-governed ftate : in order to reward fuch as
are eminent for their fervices to the public, in a manner
the moft defirable to individuals, and yet without burthen
to the community ; exciting thereby an ambitious yet
laudable ardour and generous emulation in others. And
emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a fpring of a&ion
which, however dangerous or invidious in a mere repu¬
blic or under a defpotic fway, will certainly be attended
with good effe&s under a.free monarchy ; where, with¬
out deftroying its exiftence, its exceffes may be conti¬
nually reftrained by that fuperior power, from which
all honour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally
diffufed, gives life and vigour to the community ; it
fets all the wheels of government in motion, which,
under a wife regulator, may be directed to any bene¬
ficial purpofe ; and thereby every individual may be Lords.
made fubfervient to the public good, while he prin- 
cipally means to promote his own particular views.
A body of nobility is alfo more peculiarly necefi’ary
in our mixed and compounded conftitution, in ordy to
fupport the rights of both the crown and the people,
by forming a barrier to withftand the encroachments
of both. It creates and preferves that gradual fcale
of dignity, which proceeds from the peafant to the
prince ; rifing like a pyramid from a broad founda¬
tion, and diminilhing to a point as it rifes. It is this
afeending and contrafting proportion that adds liabi¬
lity to any government ; for when the departure is
fudden from one extreme to another, we may pro¬
nounce that ftate to be precarious. The nobility
therefore are the pillars, which are reared from
among the people, more immediately to fupport the
throne ; and, if that falls, they mult alfo be buried
under its ruins. Accordingly^, when in the laft cen¬
tury the commons had determined to extirpate mo¬
narchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords to be ufelefs
and dangerous. And fince titles of nobility are thus
expedient in the ftate, it is alfo expedient that their
owners Ihould form an independent and feparate
branch of the legiflature. If they were comfounded
with the mafs of the people, and like them had only a
vote in eledling reprefentatives, their privileges would
foon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular
torrent, which would, effedlually level hll dillin&ions.
It is therefore highly neceflary that the body of nobles
fhould have a diftindt aflembly, diftindl deliberations,
and diftinft powers from the commons. See alfo
King, Nobility, Parliament, Commons, a/n/CoM-
MONALTY.
As to the peculiar laws and cuftoms relating to the
houfe of lords : One very ancient privilege is that de¬
clared by the charter of the foreft, confirmed in parlia¬
ment 9 Hen. III. ; viz. that every lord fpiritual or
temporal fummoned to parliament, and palling thro’
the king’s forefts, may, both in going and returning,
kill one or two of the king’s deer without warrant ;
in view of the forefter if he be prefent, or on blowing
a horn if he be abfent ; that he may not feem to take
the king’s venifon by ftealth.
In the next place, they have a right to be attended,
and conftantly are, by the judges of the court of
king’s-bench and common-pleas, and fuch of the
barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the
coif, or have been made ferjeants at law ; as likewife
by the king’s learned counfel, beingTerjeants, and by
the mailers of the court of chancery ; for their ad¬
vice in point of law, and for the greater dignity of
their proceedings. The fecretaries of ftate, with the
attorney and folicitor general, were alfo ufed to attend
the houfe of peers, and have to this day (together
with the judges, &c.) their regular writs of fummons
ifiued out at the beginning of every parliament, ad
traftandum et conjilium impendendum, though not ad
confentiendum: but, whenever of late years they have
been members of the houfe of commons, their at¬
tendance here hath fallen into difufe.
Another privilege is, that every peer, by licence
obtained from the king, may make another lord of
parliament his proxy, to vote for him in his abfencc l
A privilege, which a member of the other houfe can
by
LOR [ 4243 ] LOR
JLoretto. by no means have, as he is himfelf but a proxy for a
multitude of other people.
Each peer has alfo a right, by leave of the houfe,
when a vote pafles contrary to his fentiments, to en¬
ter his diflent on the journals of the houfe, with the
reafons for fuch diffent; which is ufually ftyled his
proteft.
All bills likewife, that may in their confequences
any way affeft the rights of the peerage, are by the
cuftom of parliament to have their firft rife and be¬
ginning in the houfe of peers, and tofuffer no changes
or amendments in the houfe of commons.
There is alfo one ftatute peculiarly relative to the
houfe of lords; 6 Ann. c. 23. which regulates the
election of the 16 reprefentative peers of North
Britain, in confequence of the 22 and 23 articles of
the union : and for that purpofe prefcribes the oaths,
&c. to be taken by the eleftors ; dire&s the mode of
balloting ; prohibits the peers eledting from being at¬
tended in an unufual manner ; and exprefsly provides,
that no other matter (hall be treated of in that affembly,
fave only the eleftion, on pain of incurring a praemu¬
nire. See alfo the articles Nobility and Peers.
LORETTO, a town of Italy, in the Marca or
Marche of Ancona, with a bifhop’sfee. It is fmall,
but fortified; and contains the cafa fanta, or the houfe
of Nazareth, in which they pretend Jefus Chrift was
brought up. They tell us, that it was carried by an¬
gels into Dalmatia, and thence to the place where it
now (lands. The inner part of this houfe or chapel is
very old, but it is furrounded by a marble wall, and
within a church built of free-done. The famous lady
of Loretto, who holds the infant Jefus in her arms,
dands upon the principal altar: this datueis of cedar
wood, three feet high; but her face can hardly be feen,
on account of the fmoke of the numerous lamps round
about her. She is cloathed with cloth of gold, fetoff
with jewels ; and the little Jefus is covered with a (hirt.
He holds a globe in his hand, and is adorned with
rich jewels. There are prodigious numbers frequently
go in pilgrimage to Loretto, particularly at Eaderand
Whitfuntide, among whom there are many of the firll
didinftion. Every pilgrim, after having performed
his devotion, makes the Virgin a prefent proportion-
able to his ability; whence it may be readily conclu¬
ded, that this ehapel mud be full of immenfe riches.—
Chridina, queen of Sweden, made the Virgin a prefent
of a crown of gold, worth above 100,000 crowns ;
and Ifabella, infanta of Spain, fent her a garment
which cod 40,000 ducats. Lewis XIII. of France,
and his queen, fent her two crowns of gold, enriched
with diamonds. Befides thefe crowns, they fent an
angel of mafi'y filver, holding in his hand the figure of
the dauphin, of folid gold. The place where the go¬
vernor refides dands near the church, and the ecclefi-
adics who are employed in it lodge in the fame palace,
where they receive the pilgrims of high didiudion. As
for the town itfelf, exclufive of the chapel, it is neither
very confiderable nor very agreeable; nor does it con¬
tain above 300 inhabitants, wrho are aimod all (hoe-
makers, taylors, or fellers of chaplets. The environs
of this town are very agreeable, and in fine weather
the high mountains of Croatia may be feen from hence.
It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 13. 50. N.
Lat.43. 24.
LORIMERS, one of the companies of London, Lorimers,
that make bits for bridles, fpurs, and fuch like fmall II .
iron ware. They are mentioned in datute 1 Rich. II. Lon'ailu
c. 12.—The word feems derived from the Latin word
lorum, a thong.
LORME (Phil-ibert de), one of the mod celebra¬
ted architefts of the 16th century, was born at Lyons.
Queen Catharine de Medicis gave him the fuperinten-
dance of buildings; and he had the diredtion of thofe
of the Louvre, the Tuilleries, the cadle of St Anet,
St Germains, and other edifices credited by her orders.
He wrote feveral books of architecture, which are e-
deemed ; and died about the year 1577.
LORNE, a divifion of Argyleihire in Scotland,
which gives the title of marquis to the duke of Argyle.
It extends above 30 miles in length from north to
fouth, and about nine at its utmod breadth; bounded
on the ead by Braidalbin; on the weft, by the iflands ;
on the north, by Lochaber ; and is divided from Knap-
dale on the fouth, by Loch Ettiff, on the banks cf
which (lands the caftle of Bergomarn, wherein the
courts of jullice were anciently held. This diilridt,
abounding with lakes, is the mod pleafant and fertile
part of Argyleftiire, producing plenty of oats and
barley. It once belonged to the ancient family of
Mac Dougal, dill refiding on the fpot; but devolved
to the lords of Argyle, in confequence of a marriage
with the heirefs, at that time a branch of the Stuart
family. The only place of note in this diftridl is the
caftle of Dunftaffnage, or St Stephen’s mountain,
which formerly belonged to the kings of Scotland,
fome of whom are here interred: at prefent it is pof-
feffed by the duke of Argyle, and governed by an he¬
reditary captain.
LORRAIN, a fovereign date of Europe, bounded
on the north by Luxemburg and the archbidioprick of
Treves, on the eaft by AKace and the duchy of Deux
Fonts, on the fouth by Tranche Compte, and on the
weft by Champagne and the duchy of Bar. It is about
100 miles in length, and 75 in breadth ; and abounds
in all forts of corn, wine, hemp, flax, rape-feed, game,
and fifh, with which it carries on fome trade, and in
general all the needfaries of life. There are fine mea¬
dows and large forefts, with mines of iron, filver, and
copper, as alfo falt-pits. There are a great number
of rivers-; of which the principal are the Maefe or
Meufe, the Mofelle, the Seille, the Meure, and the
Sarre. It is divided into three parts; the duchy of
Lorrain, properly fo called, which was heretofore a
fovereign (late; the duchy of Barr, which formerly be¬
longed to the dukes of Lorrain, but afterwards came
under the government of France; and the third com¬
prehends the three bifhopricks of Metz, Tool, and
Verdun, which have belonged to France ever fince the
year 1552. In 1733, the emperor of Germany being
at war with France, this laft got poffeffion of the duchy
of Lorrain; and when there was a peace made in 1735,
it was agreed, that Staniflaus king of Poland, father-
in-law to the king of France, (hould poffefs thefe du¬
chies, and that after his death they (hould be united
for ever to the crown of France. It was alfo then
agreed, that Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, and
the emperor’s fon-in-law, (hould have the grand duchy
of Tufcany as an equivalent for Lorrain. After the
death of the great duke of Tufcany, in 1737, king
LOT [ 4300 ] LOT
Lorrain, Staniflaus and the duke of Lorrain took pofleffion of
I their refpedtive dominions, and the ceffation was con-
Lot Ul1' firmed and guarantied by a treaty in 1738. The inha¬
bitants are laborious and valiant, and their religion is
the Roman Catholic. They have but little trade with
ftrangers, becaufe they have no navigable rivers, and
becaufe they have all necefiaries within themfelves:
but what little trade they have confifts of corn and
linen cloth. Nanci is the capital town.
LORRAIN (Robert le), an eminent fculptor, born
at Paris in 1666. From his infancy, he made fo ra¬
pid a progrefs in the art of defigning, that at the age
of 18 the celebrated Girardon intrufted him with the
care of teaching his children and correfting his difci-
pies. He committed to him alfo, in conjunftion with
Noulifibn, the execution of the famons tomb of cardi¬
nal Richlieu in the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St
Landres in Paris. On his return from Rome, he finilh-
ed feveral pieces at Marfeilles, which had been left im-
perfedl by the death of Mr Puget. He was received
into the academy of Sculpture in 1701. His chief
d'asuvre is Galatea, a work univerfally admired. Lor-
rain afterwards made a Bacchus for the gardens at
Verfailles, a Faun for thofe of Marly ; and feveral
bronzes, among which is an Andromeda ; all in an
excellent tafte. This artift fucceeded chiefly in heads;
and more particlarly in that of young girls, which he
performed with incomparable delicacy and truth.
Lorrain (Claude.) See Claud.
LOTEN (John), a good jandfcape-painter of the
Englifh fchool; though a native of Switzerland. His
talle led him to folemn and dreary fcenes, as land-
ftorms accompanied with fhowers of rain, &c. and he
feldom omitted to introduce oak-trees in his profpe&s:
his landfcapes are generally large, and he painted with
nature, truth, and force. But the effe& of his eom-
pofition had been much greater if he had been lefs cold
in his colouring : for the judicious eye is not pleafed
with the darkifh tint that predominates in it.
LOTHIAN, a name given to three counties of
Scotland, viz. Linlithgow-lhire, Haddington-fhire,
and Edinburgh-fhire. An account is given of Lin¬
lithgow (hire, or weft Lothian, under the article Lin¬
lithgow.
Eaft-Lothian, or Haddington-fhire, is bounded on
the north by the Frith of Forth ; on the fouth, by the
hills of Lammermuir; and on the weft, by the fhire of
Edinburgh or Mid Lothian. It is about 20 miles in
length, and 12 in breadth ; and is one of the moft
fruitful counties in Scotland, producing great quanti¬
ties of wheat and all forts of grain, well-watered, and
plentifully fupplied with fifh, fowl, fuel, and all the
neceffaries of life. It abounds with towns, villages,
and farms, interfperfed with a great number of agree¬
able houfes belonging to perfons of rank and fortune.
For cultivation, populoufnets, and fertility, this fhire
may vie with any trail of land in the ifland of Great
Britain. Over and above the farming, which turns
out to great account, the people towards the fea-coaft
employ themfelves in the fifhery, fait-making, and in
foreign trade : and fome of the more inland inhabitants
engage in the linen and woollen manufa&ures. Lime-
ftone and coal are found in moft parts of the country,
and great numbers of fheep are fed.on the hills of
Lammermuir.
Edinburgh (hire, or Mid-Lothian, is 20 miles long,
but varies in its breadth indifferent places from five to
16 miles. It is bounded on the eaft by Eaft-Lothian;.
on the weft, by the fhire of Linlithgow; on the fouth,
by Tweeddale ; and on the north, by part of Weft-Lo-
thian and the Frith of Forth. The afpeft of the coun¬
try is in general level and pleafant, interfperfed with a
few hills, that help to exhibit agreeable profpefts. It
is well watered with rivers, andfhaded with woods. It
produces plenty of coal, lime-ftone, a foft black
marble, and fome copper ore. The foil, of itfelf fer¬
tile, is finely cultivated, and yields as plentiful harvefts
of excellent wheat as are found in any part of Great
Britain. The whole fhire is interfperfed with noble
houfes and plantations belonging to noblemen and
gentlemen of fortune. The farmers are mafter of the
fcience of agriculture ; and wealthy in confequence of
their flcill, fome of them paying 500 1. of yearly rent.
The country is well inhabited, and prefents us with a
good number of towns and populous villages. Along
the fea-coaft the common people fubfift by fifhing, and
traffic in coals and fait, and fome few carry on a
fmuggling commerce. Thofe in the inland are em¬
ployed in farming, and fome branches of the weaving
manufa&ure. The fheriffalty of this fhire is in the
gift of the crown ; and Edinburgh is a county in it¬
felf.
Mid-Lothian is adorned with a great number
of elegant houfes, which we cannot pretend to par¬
ticularize ; among others, the houfes of the carls
of Morton and Lauderdale, about fix miles to the
weftward of Edinburgh, two elegant edifices, fur-
rounded with parks agreeably planted with a varie¬
ty of trees; and at a little diftance the houfe of New-
Linton, a delightful feat, where the late earl of Stair
refided during his honourable recefs from courts and
corruption. Nor is it deficient in Roman antiquities.
At Cramond, upon the Frith, four miles to the weft-
ward of Edinburgh, we fee the remains of a great
Roman ftation, in the eftate of Sir John Inglifh. Here
feveral Roman altars have been found, and ftones ha¬
ving infcriptions dug up, together with a great quan¬
tity of Roman coins, brafs, filver, and gold. Great
part of thefe, and many other curious pieces of anti¬
quity, were colleded by the late Sir John Clerk of
Pennycuick, one of the barons of the exchequer, a
gentleman of confiderable fortune, eminent for his
tafte and learning, whofe country-houfe at Mavis Bank,
in this county, is one of the moft agreeable villas in all
Scotland.
LOTION, is, ftri&ly fpeaking, fuch wafhing as
concerns beautifying the Ikin, by cleanfing it of thofe
deformities which a diftempered blood throws upon
it. Medicines of this kind, however, are for the moft
part infignificant, and fometimes very dangerous; the
only proper method of treating thefe diforders is, by
adminiftering fuch medicines as tend to correft the
morbid ftate of the conftitution from whence they
arife.
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard,
frequent in Britain, France, and Holland, in order to
raife money for the fervice of the ftate ; being ap¬
pointed with us by the authority of parliament, and
managed by commiffioners appointed by the lords of
the treafury for that purpofe. It confifts of feveral
number*
1
Lothian i
Lottery
LOT [ 4301 1 L O V
Lottery, numbers of blanks and prizes, which are drawn out of
wheels, one of which contains the numbers, and the
other the correfponding blanks or prizes.
The firft Engliih lottery we find mentioned in hi-
ftory, was drawn A. D. 1569. It confifted of 40,000
lots, at 1 os. each lot: the prizes were plate; and the
profits were to go towards repairing the havens of
this kingdom. It was drawn at the weft door of St
Paul’s cathedral. The drawing began on the 1 ith of
January 1569, and continued inceflantly drawing, day
and night, till the 6th of May following ; as Mait¬
land, from Stowe, informs us in his Hiftory, Vol. I.
p. 257. There were then only three lottery-offices in
London. The propofals for thislottery were publifhed
in the years 1567 and 1568. It was at firft intended
to have been drawn at the houfe of Mr Dericke, her
majefty’s fervant (i. e. her jeweller), but was afterwards
drawn as abovementioned.
Dr Rawlinfon fhewed the Antiquary Society, 1748,
“ A propofal for a very rich lottery, general without
any blankes, contayning a great number of good prizes,
as well of redy money as of plate and certain forts of
merchandizes, having been valued and prifed by the
commandment of the queene’s moft^excellent majeftie’s
order, to the entent that fuch commodities as may
chance to arife thereof after the charges borne may be
converted towards the reparations of the havens and
ftrength of the rtalme, and towards fuch other public
good workes. The number of lotts ftiall be foure
hundred thoufand, and no more; and every lott (hall
be the fum of tenne (hillings fterling, and no more.
To be filled by the feaft of St Bartholomew. The
(hew of prifes are to be feen in Cheapfide, at the fign of
the Queene’s Armes, the houfe of Mr Dericke, gold-
fmith, fervant to the queene. Some other orders about
it in 1567-8. Printed by Hen. Bynneman.”
“ In the year 1612, king James, in fpecial favour
for the prefent plantation of Engliffi colonies in Vir¬
ginia, granted a lottery, to be held at the weft end of
St Paul’s; whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a taylor of
London, had the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns
in fair plate.’’ Baker’s Chronicle.
In the reign of queen Anne, it was thought necef-
fary to fupprefs lotteries, as riuifances to the public.
Since that time, however, they have been licenfed by
an a& of parliament. The following is an abfttaft of
the laft aft for regulating Lottery-offices. It reftrains
any perfon from keeping an office for the falc of tic¬
kets, (hares, or chances, or for buying, felling, infu-
ring, or regiftering, without a licence ; for which li-
cence'each office-keeper muft pay 501. to continue in
force for one year, and the produce to be applied to¬
wards defraying the expences of the lottery. And no
perfon is to be allowed to fell any (hare or chance lefs
than a lixteenth, on the penalty of 50!. All tickets
divided into (hares or chances, are to be depofited in
an office eftabliihed in London by the commifiioners
of the treafury, who are to appoint a perfon to eon-
duft the bufinefs thereof; and all (hares are to be damp¬
ed by the faid officer, who is to give a receipt for every
ticket depofited with him. The numbers of all tickets
fo depofited are to be entered in a book, with the
names of the owners, and the number of (hares into
which they are divided, and 2d. for each (hare is to be
paid to the officer on depofiting fuch tickets, who is
therewith to pay all expences incident to the office. Lot
All tickets depofited in the office to remain there three II
days after drawing. And any perfon keeping an of-
fice, or felling (hares, or who (hall publifti any fcheme
for receiving moneys in confideration of any intereft to
to be granted in any ticket in the faid lottery, &c.
without being in poffeffion of fuch ticket, (hall forfeit
500I. and fuffer three months imprifonment. And no
bufinefs is to be tranfafted at any of the offices after
eight in the evening, except on the evening of the Sa¬
turday preceding the drawing. No perfon to keep any
office for the fale of tickets, &c. in Oxford or Cam¬
bridge, on penalty of 201.
LOTUS, in botany, a genus of the decandria order,
belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants. There are
many fpecies, but only five are ufually cultivated in
our gardens. 1. The tetragonolobus, or winged pea,
hath trailing, (lender, branchy ftalks, about a foot
long ; garnifhed with trifoliate oval leaves ; aryl, from
the axillas of the branches, large, papilionaceous red
flowers, one on each footftalk; fucceeded by tetrago-
nous folitary pods, having a membranous wing or lobe,
running longitudinally at each corner. It flowers in
June and July, and the feeds ripen in autumn. 2. The
creticus, or Cretan filvery lotus, hath a (lender under-
(hrubby ftalk, rifing by fupport three or four feet high,
ornamented-with trifoiliate, bright filvery leaves; and
branches terminated by feveral yellow flowers fucceed¬
ed by fubternate pods. 3. The Jacobaeus, or lotus of
St James’s ifland, hath upright herbaceous ftalks
branching two or three feet high, and, from the upper
part of the branches, long (lender footftalks, termi¬
nated each by three or five yellowilh purple flowers*
appearing mod part of the fummer and autumn, and
fucceeded by fubternate pods filled with plenty of
feeds. 4. The hirfutus, or hairy Italian lotus, hath
upright hairy ftalks branching a yard high; and ter¬
minated by heads of whitifh hoary-cupped flowersap¬
pearing in June, which are fucceeded by oval pods full
of feed,-which ripens in autumn. 5. The dorcynium,
or white Auftrian lotus, hath underftirubby fmooth
ftalks, branching three or four feet high, and the
branches terminated by aphyllous heads of fmall white
flowers appearing in June, fucceeded by (hort pods.
Culture, &c. The firft fpecies is a hardy annual,
and is eafily raifed from feed fown any time from the
month of February to May ; the plants requiring no-
other culture than to be kept free from weeds. It was
formerly cultivated as an efculent; for its young green
feed-pods may be drefled and eat like peafe, or in the
manner of kidney-beans. The other fpecies may be
propagated either by feeds or cuttings, but require to
be kept in pots in the green-houfe during the winter-
feafon.
LOVAGE, in botany. See Ligusticum.
LOVE. See Morals, n° 144.
The fymptoms produced by this paffion are as fol¬
low: The eye-lids often twinkle; the eyes are hollow,,
and yet appear as if full with pleafure: the pulfe is not
peculiar to the paffion, but the fame with that which
attends folicitude and care. When the objeft of this
affeftion is thought of, particularly if the idea is fud-
den. the fpirits are co.nfufed, the pnlfe changes, and
its force and time are very variable : in fome inftances,
the perfon is fad and watchful; in others, the perfon*
not.
LOU [ 4302 ] LOW
Love-apple not being confcious of his fl;ate, pines away, is fiothful,
il and regardlefs of food; tho’the wifer, when they find
Louth. themfelves in love, feek pleafant company and aftive
entertainments. As the force of love prevails, fighs
grow deeper; a tremor affefts the heart and pulfe; the
countenance is alternately pale and red-; the voice is
fupprefled in the fauces; the eyes grow dim ; cold
fweats breaks out; fleepabfents itfclf, at lead until the
morning; the fecretions become difturbed; and a lofs of
appetite, a hedtic fever, melancholy, or perhaps mad-
nefs, if not death, conilitutes the fad cataftrophe. On
this fubjeft the curious may confult JEgineta, lib. iii.
cap. 17. Oribat. Synop. lib. viii. cap. 9. ora treatife
profeffedly written on love, as it is a diftemper, by
James Ferrard, Oxford, printed 1640.
'Law,-Apple. See Solanum.
LOVENTINUM, or Luentinum, (anc. geog.),
a town of the Demeta in Britain, near the mouth of
the -Tuerobis or Tivy. Suppofed to have been after¬
wards fwallowed up by an earthquake, and to have
flood where is now the lake called Lin Savatan in
BreOknockihire.
LOUIS, or Knights of St Louis, the name of a
military order in France, inftituted by Lewis XIV. in
1693. Their colours are of a flame colour, and pafs
from left to right; the king is their grand mafter.
There are in it eight great croffes, and 24 comman¬
ders ; the number of knights is not limited. At the
time of their inflitution, the king charged his revenue
with a fund of 300,000 livres for the penfions of the
commanders and knights.
Louis, Lewis, I^ouis d'or, ox Lewi dor e, a French
coin, firlt ftruckin 1640, under the reign of LouisXIII.
and which has now a confiderable currency. See
MoNEY-7«/;/e.
LOUIS I ANA, a country in North America, bound¬
ed on the fouth by the gulph of Mexico, on the eaft
by the river Miffifippi, on the weft by New Mexico,
and on the north by an unknown country. It extends
from the 29th to the 40th degree of north latitude,
and from about the 80th to the 96th or 97th degree
weft longitude from London. The climate of Louifiana
varies according the latitudes. The fonthern parts are
not fo hot as thofe parts of Africa which lie under the
fame parallel, and the northern parts are colder than
the countries of Europe at the fame diftance from the
pole: the caufes of which are fuppofed to be the thick
forefts which over-run the country, and the great num¬
ber of rivers; the former preventing the fun from heat¬
ing the earth, and the latter fupplying it with moift
vapours ; befides the cold winds which come from the
north over vaft trails of land. They have bad weather;
but it never lafts long, for the rain generally falls in
ftorms and fudden (bowers; the air is wholefome, the
inhabitants healthy, and they who are temperate live
to a great old age. The country is extremely well wa¬
tered; and almolt all the rivers that run through it fall
into the Miflifippi, which difcharges itfelf into the
gulph of Florida.
LOUSE, in zoology. See Pediculus and Lice.
LOUSY DISEASE. PhtFI IRIASIS.
LOUTH, a county in the eaftern part of Ireland,
which extends in the form of a bow or half-moon, on
the fide of the ocean, being much longer than it is
broad ; it is bounded on the fouth and fouth-weft by
the county of Eaft-Meath, on the north-weft by Mo- Louvain,
naghan, on the north by Armagh, and on the north- Low'be11
eaft by the bay of Carlingford, which parts it from
the county of Down; it is 'watered by ftveral fmall ri¬
vers which fall into the fea, and its fouth frontiers^are
watered by the river Boyne, which renders it fruitful
and rich. The molt confiderable places are Droghe¬
da, Ardes, Dundalk, and Carlingford.
LOUVAIN, a city in theAullrian Netherlands, in
the province of Brabant, pleafantly feated on the river
Dyle, in a plentiful and agreeable country. The walls
are about eight or nine miles in circumference ; but they
include feveral fields and vineyards. The caftle Hands
on a high hill, furrounded with fine gardens, and has
a charming profpeft all over the country. This town
contains nine market-places, 14 water-mills, I26ftreets,
16 ftone bridges, and feveral handfome palaces. The
town-houfe is a venerable old building, adorned with
ftatues on the outfide; and the churches are very hand¬
fome, particularly the collegiate church of St Peter:
but the principal ornament is the univerfity, there be¬
ing 60 colleges, which have two courts each; the flu-
dents in divinity conftantly wear gowns and caps, but
the reft only at public exercifes. The Englifli have a
. nunnery here, which is reckoned the beft in the Ne¬
therlands. This town was taken in the year 1746, by
the French. E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 51. 12.
LOW-bell, in birding, a name given to a bell, by
means of which they take birds in the night, in open
champaign countries, and among ftubble, in Octo¬
ber. The method is to go out about nine o’clock at
night in a ftill evening, when the air is mild, and the
fun does not fhine. The low-bell ftiould be of a deep
and hollow found, and of fuch a fize that a man may
conveniently carry it in one hand. The perfon who
carries it is to make it toll all the way he goes, as
nearly as may be, in that manner in which the bell on
the neck of a (beep tolls as it goes on and feeds.
There muft alfo be a box made like a large lanthorn,
about a foot fquare, and lined with tin, but with one
fide open. Two or three great lights are to be fet in
this; and the box is to be fixed to the perfon’s breaft,
with the open fide forwards, fo that the light may be
caft forward to a great dillance. It will ipread as it
goes out of the box; and will diftindlly (hew to the per¬
fon that carries it whatever there is in the large fpace
of ground over which it extends, and confequently all
the birds that rooft upon the ground. Two perfons
muft follow him who carries the box and bell, one on
each fide, fo as not to be within the reach of the light
to fliew themfelves. Each of thefe is to have a hand-
net of about three or four feet fquare, faftened to a long
flick or pole ; and on whichever fide any bird is feen
at rooft, the perfon who is neareft is to lay his net
over it,-and take it with as little noife as pofiible.
When the net is over the bird, the perfon who laid it
is not to be in a hurry to take the bird, but muft flay
till he who carries the light is got beyond it, that the
motions may not be difeovered. The blaze of the
light and the noife of the bell terrify and amaze the
birds in fuch a manner that they remain Hill to be ta¬
ken ; but the people who are about the work muft keep
the greateil quiet and ftillnefs that may be.
Some people are fond of going on this fcheme
alone. The perfon then fixes the light.box to his
breaft,
LOW [ 4303 ] L O X
Lower bread and carries the bell in one hand and the net
_ II in the other ; the net in this cafe may be fomewhat
j0wl ‘ fmaller, and the handle fhorter. When more than
one are out at a time, it is always proper to carry a
gun ; as it is no uncommon thing to fpy a hare when
.on this expedition.
LOWER (Richard) an eminent Englifh phyfician
in the 17th century, was born in Cornwall, and edu¬
cated at Weftminfter-fchool and Oxford. He entered
on the phyfic -line ; and praftifed under Dr Thomas
Willis, whom he inftru&ed in fome parts of anatomy,
efpecially when the latter was writing his Cerebri ana-
tome. He, with Dr Willis, in 1674, difcovered the
medicinal waters at Afliop in Northamptonlhire;
which, upon their recommendations, became very much
frequented. In t666, he followed Dr Willis to Lon¬
don ; praftifed phyfic under him ; and became fellow
of the royal fociety, and of the college of phyficians.
In 1669, he publifhed his Trattatus de eorde; and,
after the death of Dr Willis in 1675, was eft«med
the moil eminent phyfician in London. Upon the
breaking out of the Popilh plot in 1678, fays Mr
Wood in his dthenee Oxonien/is, he clofed with the
Whigs, fuppofing that party would carry all before
them ; but, being miftaken, he loft his credit and
praftice. He died in 1691.
LOWERING, among diftillers, a term ufed to
exprefs the debafing the ftrength of any fpirituous
liquor, by mixing water with it. The ftandard and
marketable price of thefe liquors is fixed in regard to
a certain ftrength in them called proof; this is that
ftrength which makes them when fttook in a vial, or
poured from on high into a glafs, retains a froth
or crown of bubbles for fome time. In this ftate,
fpirits confiftof about half pure or totally inflammable
fpirit, and half water; and if any foreign or home
fpirits are to be expofed to fale, and are found to
have that proof wanting, fcarce any body will buy it
till it has been diftilled again and brought to that
ftrength ; and if it is above that ftrength, the pro¬
prietor ufually adds water to it to bring it down to
that ftandard. See the article Proof.
There is another kind of lowering among the re¬
tailers of fpirituous liquors to the vulgar, by reducing
it under the ftandard-proof. Whoever has the art of
doing this without deftroying the bubble-proof,
■which is eafily done by means of fome addition that
gives a greater tenacity to the parts of the fpirits,
will deceive all that judge by this proof alone. In
this cafe, the beft way to judge of liquors is by the
eye and tongue, and efpecially by the inftrument
called Hydrometer.
LOWTH (William), a learned divine, was the
fon of an apothecary born at London in 1661, and
took his degrees at Oxford. His eminent worth and
learning recommended him to Dr Mew bifhop of
Winchefter, who made him his chaplain, gave him
two livings in Hamplhire, and conferred on him a
prebend in the cathedral of Winchefter. He ac¬
quired an unufual ftiare of critical learning; but the
moft valuable part of his charafter was that which was
dead confpicuous to the world ; that of a pious, dili¬
gent, and hofpitable parilh-prieft. Pie publiftied,
rS. A vindication of the divine authority and infpiration
Vol. VI.
of the Old and New Teftament. 2. Diredlions for
the profitable reading of the Holy Scripture. 3.
Commentaries on the prophetsand other works.
LOXIA, in zoology, the name of a genus of birds
of the order of pafleres : the diftinguilhing charafters
of which are, that the tongue is plain, equal, and
whole; the beak large, thick, and (hort, crooked
and convex both ways. There arc 48 fpecies, princi¬
pally diftinguifhed by the colour. The following are
natives or vifitors of Britain.
1. The coccothrauftes, or haw-groft>eak, vifits us
only at uncertain times, and is not regularly migrant.
They feed on berries; and even on kernels of the
ftrongeft ftones, fuch as thofe of cherries and almonds,
which they crack with the greateft facility : their
bills are well adapted to that work, being remarkably
thick and ftrong. Mr Willughby tells us, they are
common in Germany and Italy ; that in the fummer
they live in woods, and breed in hollow trees, laying
live or fix eggs; but in the winter they come down
into the plains. The length of this fpecies is fe-
ven inches; the breadth, 13: the bill is of a funnel
ftiape ; ftrong, thick, and of a dull pale pink colour;
the bread and whole under-fide is of a dirty flefh
colour ; the neck alh-coloured ; the back and coverts
of the wings of a deep brown, thofe of the tail of a
yellowifh bay : the greater quill-feathers are black,
marked with white on their inner webs. The tail is
fhort, fpotted with white on tlie inner fides. The legs
flelh-colour. The great particularity of this bird, is
the form of the ends of the middle quill-feathers; which
Mr Edwardsjuftly compares to the figure of fome of the
ancient battle-axes; thefe feathers are glofled over with
a rich blue ; but are lefs confpicuous in the female.
2. The enucleator, or pine-grofbeaik, is common to
Hudfon’s Bay, Sweden, and Scotland. Mr Pennant
obferved them flying above the great pine-forefts of
Invercauld in Aberdeenlhire, and imagines they breed
there. They feed on the feeds of the pine. Linnaeus
fays, they fing in the night. It is near twice the
fize of the bulfinch. The bill is ftrong, dufky, forked
at the end ; lefs thick than that of the common bul¬
finch : head, back, neck, and bread, of a rich crim-
fon : the bottoms of the feathers alh-colour : the quill-
feathers and tail dulky; their exterior edges, of a dirty-
white ; legs black: length, nine inches and a half.
'There feems an agreement in colours, as well as food,
between this fpecies and the crofs-bill.
3. The curviroftra, or crofs-bill. There are two
varieties of this bird : Mr Edwards has very accurately-
figured the lefler, which is feen frequently; the other
is very rare. Thefe birds, like the former, are incon-
ftant vifitants of thisifland : in Germany and Switzer¬
land, they inhabit the pine foreft, and breed in thofe
trees as early as the months of January and February.
They feed on,the feeds of the cones of pines and firs ;
and are very dexterous in fcaling them, for which
purpofe the crofs flru&ure of the lower mandible of
their bill is admirably adapted : they feed alfo on
hemp-feed, and the pips or kernels of apples, and are
faid to divide an apple with one ftroke of the bill to
get at the contents. Linnaeus fays, that the upper
mandible of this bird is moveable ; but, on examina¬
tion, Mr Pennant could not difcover its ftru&urc to
24 L differ
L U B [ 4304 1 L U B
differ from that of others of the genus. Thefe birds
change their colours, or rather the lhades of the colours:
that is, the males which are red, vary at certain fea-
fons to deep red, to orange, or to a fort of a yellow;
the females, which are green, alter to different varie¬
ties of the fame colour.
4. The pyrrhula, or bullfinch. The wild note of
this bird is not in the lead mufical; but when tamed it
becomes remarkably. docil, and ritay be taught any
tune after a pipe, or to whiftle any notes in the jufteft
manner: it feldom forgets what it has learned; and
will become fo tame as to come at call, perch on its
mailer’s Ihoulders, and (at command) go through a
difficult mufical leffon. They may be taught to fpeak,
and fome thus inftru&ed are annually brought to
London from Germany.—The male is diltinguilhed
from the female by the fuperior blacknefs of its
crown, and by the rich crimfon that adorns the cheeks,
bread, belly, and throat of the male ; tbofe of the
female being of a dirty colour: the bill is black,
ffiort, and very thick : the head large : the hind part
of the neck and the back are grey : the coverts of the
wings are black ; the lower croffed with a white line :
the quill-feathers dulky, but part of their inner webs
white: the coverts of the tail and the vent-feathers
white : the tail black.
In the fpring thefe birds frequent our gardens; and
are very dedrudive to our fruit-trees, by eating the
tender buds. They btced about the latter end of
May, or beginning of June, and are feldom feen at
that time near houfes, as they choofe fome very retired
place to breed in. They are fometimes wholly black ;
and there are indances of their changing to this co¬
lour after they were full grown, and of recovering
their natural colour in another year. Birds fed on
hempfeed alone are mod apt to change their colour in
this manner.
LOYOLA (Ignatius). See Ignatius.
LOZENGE,in heraldry} a four-cornered figure, re-
fembling a pane of glafs in old cafements. See Heral¬
dry, p. 3597, col. 1. Tho’all heralds agree, that Angle
ladies are to place their arms on lozenges, yet they dif¬
fer with refped to the caufes that gave rife to it. Plu¬
tarch fays, in the life of Thefeus, that in Megara, an
ancient town of Greece, the tomb-dones, under which
the bodies of the Amazons lay, were ihaped after that
form ; which fome conjedure to be the caufe why la¬
dies have their arms on lozenges. S. Petra Santta will
have this fhield to reprefent a cujiiion, whereupon wo¬
men ufed to fit and fpin, or do other houfewifery. Sir
J. Feme thinks it is formed from the ftiield called tef-
fera, which the Romans finding unfit for war, did al¬
low to women to place their enfigns upon, with one of
its angles always uppermod*
Lozenges, among jewellers, are common to bril¬
liant and rofe diamonds. In brilliants, they are form¬
ed by the meeting of the fkill and dar facets on the
bezil; in the latter, by the meeting of the facets in the
horizontal ribs of the crown. See Facets.
LUBEC, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Holltein, in
E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 54. 20. It dands at the
conflux of feveral rivers, the larged of which is the
Trave, 12 miles from the Baltic, where it has a fine
harbour, and 40 north.ead of Hamburg. Bytl eStec- Lubec.
kenitz, another of thofe rivers, it has a cbmmunica- ' ’
tion with the Elbe, and confequently with the Ger¬
man ocean. The city lies on the fide of a hill, with
the Trave, increafed by the Steckenitz on the one fide,
and the Wackenitz on the other; and is drongly forti¬
fied with badions, moats, walls, and ramparts; the
lad of which are planted with trees, and form an a-
greeable walk. Lubec being formerly the chief of the
Hanfe towns, was very powerful, in confequence of
the vad trade it carried on ; but a great part of that
trade is now transferred to Hamburg : however, it is
dill faid to employ 150 of its own ffiips, and has a
great (hare of the Baltic trade. It is about two miles
in length, and more than one in breadth. The houfes
are all of done, but old-fafliioned. Several of the
dreets have on each fide rows of lime-trees, with canals
in the middle, like thofe of Holland. The public
ftru&ures confidof the ancient cathedral of thebifhop-
ric of Lubec, and fevcral other Lutheran churches; a
nunnery for 22 ladies, with an abbefs and priorefs; a
poor-houfe, an alms-houfe, and houfe of correction;
an orpban-houfe ; an hofpital dedicated to the Holy-
Ghod ; a houfe in which poor travellers are entertain¬
ed three days, and then fent forward with a pafs; but
fuch as happen to be fick, are provided with all necef-
faries, till they recover or die; the city-armoury, a
grammar-fchool of feven clafles, the Calvinid church,
and the Popifh chapel. The deputies of the Hanfe-
towns ufed to meet here formerly in the town-houfe.
An alliance dill fubfids between Lubec, Hamburg,
and Bremen ; and thefe cities, under the name of
Hanfe-towns, negotiate treaties with foreign powers-
Here are divers manufa&ures, and the city’s territory
is about 60 miles in compafs. In the diet of the em¬
pire Lubec is pofleffed of the third feat among the Rhe-
ni(h imperial cities; and among thofe of the circle, has
the fird. In the matricula, its affeffment is 480 flo¬
rins, and to the chamber of Wetzlar it pays 557 rix-
dollars and 88 kruitzers. The city is a republic with¬
in itfelf, and both makes and executes laws in regard
to civil and criminal matters, &c. A father and fon,
or two brothers, cannot be in the regency at the fame
time. The famous league of the Hanfe-towns was be¬
gun here in 1164. This city had its charter of privi¬
leges from the emperor Frederic II. Formerly it car¬
ried on wars, both offenfive and defenfive, for feveral
years, not only againd the dukes of Mecklenburg, but
againd the kings of Sweden and Denmark; particu¬
larly in 1428, when it fitted out 250 (hips of force
againd Eric X. king of Denmark. There are about
20 churches in Lubec,. with lofty deeplea or fpires.
Tbe Trave brings (hips of burden into the very heart
of the city ; but the larged unload at Travemunde,
i. e. the mouth of the Trave, eight or ten miles di-
dant. Formerly it is faid to have employed no lefa
than 600 (hips. In the famous cellar here, it is faid
there is wine 200 years old. .The church of St
Mary’s, a noble lofty pile, is fupported by tall pillars,
all of one done each, and has a high fpire, covered
with gilt lead. The town’s garrifon confids of about
700 or 800 men. The revenue of its Lutheran bifliop,
though he is a prince of the empire, is faid not to exceed
3000 pounds.
LUBEN,
LUC [ 4305 ] LUC
f I.uben LUBEN, a city of Germany, in the marquifate of
■ li Lower Lufatia. It isfituated on the river Spree, and
I I,tlCar~ is the capital of a fmall circle of the fame name. It
is the feat of the diets, and of the chief tribunals
and offices ; and has feveral churches, with a noble
land-houfe and hofpital. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat.
52. o.
LUBIENIETSKI (Staniflaus), a Popifli gentle¬
man, defcended from a noble family, and born at
Cracow in 1623, was educated by his father with
great attention. He became a celebrated Socinian mi-
nifter; and took great pains to obtain a toleration
from the German princes for his Socinian brethren.
His labours, however, were ineffedlual ; beiiTg himfelf
perfecuted by the Lutheran minifters, and baniffied
from place to place ; until at length he was banifhed
out of the world, with his two daughters, by poifon,
his wife narrowly efcaping, in 1675. We have of his
writing, A hiftory of the reformation in Poland ; A trea-
tife on cometi ; with other works in Latin.
LUBIN (Eilhard), was profeffor of poetry in the
univerfity of Roftock in 1595 ; and ten years after,
was promoted to the profelforlhip of divinity. He
wrote notes on Anacreon, Juvenal, Perfius, &c. and
feveral other works; but that which made the moft
noife is a Treatife on the nature and origin of evil, in-
titled, Phofphorus de caufa prima et natura mali,
printed at Rollock in 1596; in which we have a cu¬
rious hypothefis to account for the origin of moral
evil. He fuppofed two co-eternal principles ; nox. mat¬
ter and vacuum, as Epicurus did; but God, and Nihi-
lum or Nothing. This being publifhed againft by
Grawer, was defended by Lubin ; but after all, he is
deemed better acquainted with polite literature than
with divinity. He died in 1621.
LUBLIN, a handfome and confiderable town of
Poland, capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
with a citadel, a bilhop’s fee, an univerfity, and a
handfome Jewifh fynagogue. Here the judicial courts
for all Poland are held. It has three fairs, frequented
by merchants from all nations. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Byftrzna. E. Lon. 22. 31. N. Lat. 51. 26.
LUCANUS (Marcus Annaeus), a Latin poet, born
at Corduba in Spain, about A. C. 39. He was the
fon of Annaeus Mela, brother to Seneca, and of Aci-
lia, daughter of Lucanus a very famous orator.
"When he was fcarcely 14 years of age, he declaimed
with applaufe, both in Greek and Latin : and became
the rival of Perfius. Nero, charmed with his wit,
made him augur and quseftor before the due age : but
at laft Nero difparaging his verfes, he was fo offended
•at it, that he engaged himfelf in Pifo’s confpiracy; for
which he had his veins cut, as his uncle Seneca had
before him, A. C. 65. He wrote feveral poems; but
we have none remaining befide his Pharfalia, ot which
an excellent Englilh verfion has been given by Mr Ni¬
cholas Rowe.
LUCAR de Barrameda {St.), an handfome and
iconfiderable town of Spain, with a very good har¬
bour, well defended, in Andalufia. It was once the
greateft port in Spain, before the galleons unloaded
their treafure at Cadiz. It is feated at the mouth of
the river Quadalquiver. W. Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 36.
40.
Lucar de Guadiana (St.), a ftrong town of Spain,
in Andalufia, on the confines of Algarve ; feated on Luca?
the river Guadiana, with a little harbour. W. Long. li
5.59. N. Lat. 37. 32. ucca’
Lucar !a Major (St.), a fmall town of Spain, in
Andalufia, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on
the river Guadiana, in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 37. 2t.
LUCAS (Van Leyden), an excellent painter and
engraver, w’as thus named from the place of his birth,
he being born in Leyden in 1494. He was at firll
a difciple of his father, a painter of fome eminence,
and afterwards of Cornelius Engelbert; and was great¬
ly admired in the Netherlands for his fkill in painting
and engraving. He took much pains with his works,
and was a greitt emulator of Albert Durer; with whom
he at length became fo intimate, that they drew each
other’s pifture: and indeed their ftyle and manner have
in all refpedls fo clofe a refemblance, that it feems as
if they had been both animated with the fame foul.
He lived and dreffed with great magnificence; and
died in the year 1533.
Lucas (Richard), D. D. a learned Englifh di¬
vine, w’as born in 1648, and ftudied at Oxford ; after
which he entered into holy orders, and was for fome
time mafler of the free fchool at Abergavenny. Be¬
ing efteemed an excellent preacher, he became vicar of
St Stephen’s, Coleman-ftreet, in London, and lec¬
turer of St Olave’s, in Southwark. He was do&orof
divinity ; and in 1696, was inftalled prebendary of
Weftminfter. His fight began to fail him in his youth;
but he totally loll it in his middle age. He was great¬
ly efteemed for his piety and learning ; and publifhed
feveral works, particularly, 1. Praftical Chriftianity
2. An inquiry after happinefs. 3. Several fermons.
4. A Latin tranflation of the whole duty of man. He
died in 1715.
LUCCA, a fmall republic of Italy on the coaft of
the Mediterranean, between the territory of Genoa on
the weft, Modena on the north, and Tufcany on the
eaft. According to Keyfler, it is only about 30 miles
in circumference, but is exceedingly fertile and popu¬
lous. It contains, befides the city of Lucca, 15 ovil-
lages. The number of inhabitants are computed
at 120,000. The government is lodged in a gofa-
lonier, whofc power is much the fame with that
of the doges of Venice and Genoa. He is affifted
by nine counfellors : but the power of all the ten con¬
tinues only for two months; during which time they
live in the ftate palace, and at the public expence.
They are chofen out of the great council, which con-
fifts of 240 nobles; but even this council is changed by
a new ele&ion every two years. The revenues of the
republic are about 400,000 feudi or crowns ; out of
which they maintain 500 men byway of regular force,
and 70 Swifs as a guard to their ading magiftrates.
The city of Lucca isfituated in a plain, terminating in
moft delightful eminences, adorned with villas, fum-
mer houfes, corn-fields, and plantations of every kind;
fo that nothing either for ufe or pleafure is here want¬
ing. The city, which is about three Italian miles in
circumference, has regular well lined fortifications ;
and its ftreets, though irregular, are wide, well paved,
and full of handfome houfes. The number of its in¬
habitants are computed to be above 40,000; and they
carry on large manufadures, efpecially of filk-(luffs.
Lucca has a biftiop, who enjoys feveral extraordinary
24 JL. 2 p«-
LUC [ 4306 ] LUC
I.oceria privileges; and its cathedral is Gothic. The city (lands
ii . in E. Long. 11. 27. N. Lat. 43. 52.
St Lucia. LUCERIA, (anc. geog.), a town of Apulia in I-
taly; which in Strabo’s time Hill exhibited marks of
Diomed’s fovereignty in thofe parts. Ptolemy has iVa-
ctria; whether from miilake, or the cuftom of his
time, uncertain. Now Nocera de Pagani, in the
kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 40.
40.
LUCERNE, in botany. See Medicago. For
the culture of this plant, fee Agriculture, n° 137.
LUCIA (St), one of the Caribbee Iflands in the
Weft-Indies, about 22 miles long, and 1 1 broad, the
middle of it lying in N. Lat. 39. 14. W. Long. 27. o.
It was firft fettled by the French in 1650; but was
reduced by the Englifti in 1664, who evacuated it in
1666. The French immediately re-fettled the ifland,
but were again driven away by the Caribbs. As foon
as the favages were gone, the former inhabitants re¬
turned, but only for a (hort time; for being afraid of
falling a prey to the firft privateer that fhould vifit
their coafts, they removed either to other French fet-
tlements that were (Longer, or which they might ex-
pe£l to be better defended. There was then no re¬
gular culture or colony at St Lucia; it was only fre¬
quented by the inhabitants of Martinico, who came
thither to cut wood, and to build canoes, and who had
who had confiderable docks on the ifland. In 1718
it was again fettled by the French ; but four years
after, it was given by the court of London to the duke
of Montagu, whp was fent to take pofleflion of it.
This occafioned fome difturbance between the two
courts; which was fettled, however, by an agreement
made in 1731, that, fill the refpedlive claims (hould
be finally adjufted, the ifland (hould be evacuated by
both nations, but that both (hould wood and water
there. This precarious agreement furniflied an op¬
portunity for private intereft to exert itfelf. The
Englifti no longer molefted the French in their habi¬
tations; but employed them as their afliftants in car¬
rying on with richer colonies a fmugglihg trade, which
the fubje&s of both governments thought equally ad¬
vantageous to them. This trade has been more or
lefs confiderable till the treaty of 1763, when the
property of St Lucia was fecured to the crown of
France. After that time the colony flouriftied confi-
derably. In the beginning of the year 1772, the
numbcV of white people amounted to 2018 fouls, men,
women, and children; that of the blacks to 663 free¬
men, and 12,795 (laves. The cattle confided of 928
mules orhorfes, 2070 head of horned cattle, and 3184
Iheep or goats. There -were 38 fugar-plantations,
which occupied 978 pieces of land; 5,395,889 coffee-
trees; 1,321,600 cocoa plants; and 367 plots of cot¬
ton. There were 706 dwellhtg-places. The annual
revenue at that time was about 175,000!. which, ac¬
cording to the abbe Raynal, muft have increafed one-
eighth yearly for fome time. It was taken by the
Britifti fleet under admirals Byron and Barrington, in
the year 1778.
The foil of St Lucia is tolerably good, even at the
fea-fide; and is much better the farther one advances
into the country. The whole of it is capable of cul¬
tivation, except fome high and craggy mountains which
bear evident marks of old volcanoes. In one deep
valley there are dill eight or ten ponds, the water of 2.ucuuf
which boils up in a dreadful manner, and retains fome Ij
of its heat at the diftance of 6000 toifes from its re- LucillU9,
fervoirs. The air in the inland parts, like that of all
other uninhabited countries, is foul and unwholefomej
but grows lefs noxious as the woods are cleared and
the ground laid open. On fome parts of the fea-
coaft, the air is dill more unhealthy, on account of
fome fmall rivers which fpring from the foot of the
mountains, and have not fu'fficient (lope to wafti down
the funds with which the influx of the ocean Hops
up their mouths, by which means they fpread them-
felves into unwholefome marflies on the neighbouring
grounds.
Lucia (St), a high and mountainous ifland of
Africa, and one of thofe of Cape Verde, is about nine
leagues long, and lies in the latitude of 160 18'N.
according to the Englifli geographers; but according
to all others, it is a degree farther to the northward.
On the eaft-fouth-eaft fide is a harbour, with a bot¬
tom and fliore of white fand ; but its bed road is oppo-
fite to St Vincents to the fouth-weft, where there are
at lead 20 fathoms of water. On the weft fide there
is no water: it abounds with goats, fea and land fowl,
tortoifes, &c. but whether it hath any inhabitants is-
not certainly known.
LUCIAN, a celebrated Greek author in the firft
century, was born at Samofata, of obfeure parents, in
the reign of the emperor Trajan. He ftudied law, and
praftifed fome time as an advocate; but growing weary
of the wrangling oratory of the bar, he commenced
rhetorician. He lived to the time of Marcus Aure¬
lius, who made him regifter of Alexandria in Egypt;
and, according to Suidas, he was at laft worried by
dogs. Lucian was one of the fined wits in all anti¬
quity. His Dialogues, and other works, are written
in Greek. In thefe he has joined the ufeful to the
agreeable, inftrudlion to fatire, and erudition to ele¬
gance; and we every-where meet with that fine and
delicate raillery which charafterifes the Attic tafte.—
Thofe who cenfure him as an impious fcoffer at reli¬
gion, have reafon on their fide, if religion confided in
the theology of the Pagan poets, or in the extravagant
opinions of philofophers; for he perpetually throws
fuch ridicule on the gods and philofophers, with their
vices, as infpires hatred and contempt for them; but
it cannot be faid that he writes any-where againft an
over-ruling providence.
LUCIFER, according to the poets, w-as the fon
of Jupiter and Aurora: in aftronomy, Lucifer is the
bright planet Venus, which either goes before the fun
in the morning, and is our morning-ftar; or in the
evening follows the fun, and then is called Hefperus, or
the evening-ftar.
LUCILIUS (Caius), a Roman knight, and a
Latin poet, was born at Sueffa in Italy, about 140 B. C.
He ferved under Scipio Africanus in the war with the
Numantines; and was in great favour with that cele¬
brated general, and with Laslius. He wrote 30 books
of fatires, in which he laflied feveral perfons of quality
very (harply. Some learned men aferibe the invention
of fatire to him; but M. Dacier has maintained, with
great probability, that Lucilius only gave a better
turn to that kind of poetry, and wrote it with more
wit and humour than his predeceffors Ennius and Pa-
cuvius
LUC [ 4307 ] L U D
Lucina cuvlus had done. His fragments have been carefully
1! colle&ed by Francis Douza at Leyden in 1599, with
Lucu us. noteSi g.)t reqU;rc ftiJl to'be better illuftrated
by feme learned critic.
LUCINA, a goddefs among the Romans, who
prefided over women in labour. Some take her to be
Diana, others Juno. She is called Lucina, becaufe
fire brought children to theiight; from the Latin word
lux, -light.”
LUCIUS, in ichthyology. See Esoi:.
LUCONIA. See Manila.
LUCOPHEREA, in ichthyology. See Perca.
LUCRETIA, the famous Roman matron, wife of
Collatinus, and the caufe of the revolution in Rome
from a monarchy to a republic: this lady being ra-
vifhed by Sextus, the eldeft fon of Tarquin king of
Rome, /tabbed herfelf, 509 B. C. The bloody poi-
nard, with her dead body expofed to the fenate, was
the fignal of Roman liberty; the expulfion of the Tar-
quins, and abolition of the regal dignity, was indantly
refolved on, and carried into execution.
LUCRETIUS, or Titus Lucretius Caius, one
of the molt celebrated of the Latin poets, was born of
an ancient and noble Roman family, and ftudied at
Athens, w-here he became one of Epicurus’s fedt. He
acquired great reputation by his learning and elo¬
quence; but in the flower of his age fell into a frenzy,
occafioned by a philtre given him by his wife, who
was diftradtedly fond of him. Lucretius, during the
intervals of his~ madnefs, put Epicurus’s dodtrines into
verfe, and compofed his fix books Dc rerum natura,
which are ftill extant. It is faid that he killed him-
felf in a fit of madnefs, in the 54th year before the
Chriftian xra, when 51 years old. The moft corredl
edition of Lucretius is that of Simon de Coline. The
cardinal de Polignac has refuted Lucretius’s arguments
in his excellent Latin poem intitled Anti-Lucretius.
His poem De rerum natura has been tranflated into
Englifh by Mr Creech.
LUCRINUS lacus (anc. geogr.), a lake of Cam¬
pania between Baiae and Puteoli, famous for its oy-
iters, (Horace, Martial, Juvenal); I^ucrinenfes (Ci¬
cero), the people dwelling on it. Now a perfedt bay
fince the earthquake in 1538.
LUCULLUS (Lucius Licinius), a Roman ge¬
neral, celebrated for his eloquence, his victories, and
his riches. In his youth, he made a figure at the bar;
and being afterwards made quaeftor in Afia, and praetor
in Africa, governed thofe provinces with great mode¬
ration and juftice. Scarce was he known as a military
man, when he twice beat the fleet of Amilcar, and
gained two great vidlories over him. His happy ge¬
nius was greatly improved by iludy; for he employed
his leifure in reading the belt authors on military af¬
fairs. Being made conful with Aurelius Cotta, du¬
ring the third war with Mithridates king of Pontus,
be was fent againft this prince : and this expedition
was attended with a feries of victories, which did him
lefs honour than an adt of generofity towards his col¬
league; who, willing to take advantage of hisabfence
to fignalize himfelf by fome great exploit, haftened to
fight Mithridates; but wras defeated, and fhut up in
Calcedonia; where he mult have perifhed, Lucullus,
facrificing his refentment to the pleafure of faving a
Roman citizen, had not flown to his afGftar.ce, and
difengaged him. All Pontus then fubmitted to Lu- Lucns
cullus; who being continued in his government of ^ l)Jow
Alia, entered the territories of Tigranes, the moft
powerful king in Afia. That prince marched with a
formidable army againft Lucullus: who defeated him
with a handful of men, and killed great numbers of
his forces; took Tigranocertes, the capital of his king¬
dom ; and was ready to put an end to the war, when
the intrigues of a tribune got him depofed, and Pompey
nominated in his room.
Lucullus having brought home prodigious riches,
now gave himfelf up to excelfive luxury ; and his table
was ferved with a profufion till that time unknown.
He brought from the Eaft a great number of books,
which he formed into a library, and gave admittance
to all men of learning, who frequented it in great num¬
bers. Toward the end of his life, he fell into a kind
of madnefs; and Lucullus, his brother, was appointed
his guardian. He is faid to have been the firit who
brought cherries into Europe, having brought the
grafts from the kingdom of Pontus.
LUCUS, in general, denotes a wood or grove fa-
cred to a deity; fo called a lucendo, becaufe a great
number of lights were ufually burning in honour of
the god, (Ifidorus); a praftice common with idola¬
ters, as we learn from Scripture: hence Homer’s
tt.yy.u6, u\<rof.
LUD, a Britiih king mentioned in our old chro¬
nicles, and faid to have reigned about the year of the
world 3878. He is reported to have enlarged and
walled about Troynovant, or New Troy, where he kept
his court,and made it his capital. The name of I.on-
don is hence derived from Lud's town; and Ludgate,
from his being buried near it: but this is only one
among many other derivations of the name of London ;
which are at lead equally probable. See London.
LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, lived in the reign
of Auguftus Cefar, and excelled in grand compofitions.
He was the firft who painted the fronts of houfes in
the Greets of Rome; which he beautified with great
variety of landfcapes, and many other different fub-
jedls.
LUDLOW (Edmund),'fon of Sir Henry Ludlow,
was born at Maidenhead, and educated in Trinity-
college, Oxford. His father oppofing the king’s in-
tereft, Mr Ludlow joined with the fame party, and
was prefent at the battle of Edgehill as a volunteer un¬
der the earl .of Effex. Upon the death of his father,
he was chofen knight of the fibre for Wilts, and ob¬
tained the command of a regiment of horfe for the de¬
fence of that county. He was one of king Charles I.’s
judges: after vvhofe death he was fent by the parlia¬
ment into Ireland, in quality of lieutenant-general of
the horfe; which employment he difeharged with di¬
ligence and fuccefs till the death of the lord-deputy
Ireton, when he afted for fome time as general, though
without that title; Cromwell, who knew him to be
fincerely in the intereft of the commonwealth, always
finding out fome pretext to hinder the conferring of
that character upon him. The lad ftroke had been
given by Ludlow to the Irifh rebellion, if the ufurpa-
tion of Cromwell had not prevented it. Under his
power he never added; and though Cromwell ufed his
utmoft efforts, he remained inflexible. After Crom¬
well’s death, he endeavoured to retlore the common¬
wealth j
L U D [ 4038 1 LUG
Ludlow, wealth ; but Charles II. being recalled, he thought
Ludolph. proper t0 conceal himfelf, and efcaped into Switzer¬
land, where he fettled. After the revolution, he came
over into England, in order to be employed in Ireland
againfl: king James: but appearing publicly in Lon¬
don, it gave great offence; and an addrefs was prefent-
ed by Sir Edward Seymour to king William III. for
a proclamation in order to apprehend colonel Ludlow,
attainted for the murder of king Charles I. Upon this
he returned to Switzerland, where he died. During
his retirement in Switzerland, he wrote his Memoirs.
Ludlow,a town of Shropfhire in England, fituated
inW. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 52. 28. It ftands at the
conflux of the Teme and Corve ; and had formerly
a ftrong cattle, inclofed by a wall a mile in compafs.
The prettdent of the council of the marches, eftablifli-
ed by Henry VIII. generally kept his courts in it, by
which the town was much benefited, thefe courts not
having been abolifhed till the 1 ft of William and Mary.
Its neighbourhood to Wales makes it a great tho¬
roughfare, and engages many of the Welch to fend
their children of both fexes to it for education. It
was incorporated by Edward IV. and among other
privileges has that of trying and executing criminals
within itfelf. It is one of the neateft towns in Eng¬
land, with walls, and feven gates. From tbecaftle on
the top of the hill on which the town ftands, is a moft
delightful profpeft. In an apartment of the outer-
gatehoufe of the palace, Samuel Butler is faid to have
written the firft part of Hudibras. Here Arthur, elder
brother to Henry VIII. died, and was buried in the
choir of the church. Without the town, on the north-
fide, flood anciently a rich priory; of which there are
hardly any remains. The river Teme here has a good
bridge over it, and dams or weirs acrofs it. In the
church are fome old monuments of the lords prefident,
&c. The neighbouring country is exceeding pleafant,
efpecially that part called Corve’s-Dale, or the val/ey
along the Corve.
LUDOLPH (Job), a very learned writer of the
17th century, was born at Erfurt in Thuringia. He
travelled much, and was matter of 25 languages; vi-
fited libraries, fearched after natural curiofities and an¬
tiquities every where, and converfed with learned men
of all nations. He publilhed a hiftory of Ethiopia,
and other curious books.
Ludolph (Henry William), nephew of Job above-
mentioned, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He came
over to England as fecretary to M. Lenthe, envoy from
the court of Copenhagen to that of London; and be¬
ing recommended to prince George of Denmark, was
received as his fecretary. He enjoyed this office for
i'omeyears, until he was incapacitatedby a violent difor-
der; when he was difcharged with a handfome penfion:
after he recovered, he travelled into Mufcovy, where he
was well received by the czar, and where his knowledge
made the Mnfcovite prietts fuppofe him to be a con¬
juror. On his return to London in 1694, was cut
for the ftone; and as foon as his health would permit,
in acknowledgment of the civilities he had received in
Mufcovy, he wrote a grainmar of their language, that
the natives might learn their own tongue in a regular
method. He then travelled into the Eaft, to inform
himfelf of the ftate of the Chrittian church in the Le¬
vant; the deplorable condition of which induced him,
after his return, with the aid of the bifhop of Worce- I-nei
fter, to print an edition of the New Teftament in the I!
vulgar Greek, to prefent to the Greek church. In Luggus'
1709, when fuch numbers of Palatines came over
to England, Mr Ludolph was appointed by queen
Anne one of the commiffioners to manage the chari¬
ties railed for them ; and he died early the follow- v
ing year. His colledted works were pubiilhed in
17 12.
LUES, among phyficians, is in general ufe for a
difeafe of any kind; but in a mqre particular fenfe is
reftrained to contagious and peftilential difeafes; thus
the lues Gallicia or venerea, fignifies the venereal dif¬
eafe. See (the Index to) Medicine.
LUFF, the order from the pilot to the fteerfman to
put the helm towards the /e?-fide of the (hip, in order
to make the (hip fail nearer the diredtion of the wind.
Hence, luff round, or luff a-lee, is the excefs of this
movement, by which it is intended to throw the (hip’s
head up in the wind, in order t6 tack her, &c. A fhip
is accordingly faid to fpring her luff, when (he yields
to the effort of the helm, by failing nearer to the line
of the wind than (he had done before. See alfo Haul¬
ing the Wind.
I^wv-Tackle, a name given by failors^o any large
tackle that is not deftined for a particular place, but
may be varioufly employed as occafion requires. Jt
is generally fomewhat larger than the jigger tackle,
although fmaller than thofe which ferve to hoift the
heavier materials into and out of the veffel: which lat¬
ter are the main and fore-tackles, the (lay and quar¬
ter tackles, &c.
LUG-sail, a fquare fail, hoitted occafionally on
the matt of a boat, or fmall veffel, upon a yard which
hangs nearly at right angles with the matt. Thtfe are
more particularly ufed in the barca longas, navigated
by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean.
LUGDUNUM, (anc.'geog.), the capital of the-
Segufiani in Gallia Celtica, lituated at the conflux of
the Arar and Rhodanus, on an eminence, as the Cel¬
tic term dune fignifies; built by Manutius Plancus un¬
der Auguftus, while commanding in that part of Gaul;
and whither he led a colony. Now Lyons, capital of
the Lyonois.
Lugdunum Batavorum, (anc. geog.), a town of
the Batavi in Gallia Belgica. Now L.eydtn in Hol¬
land.
Lugdunum Convenartm, (anc. geog.) a town of
Gaul in Aquitain, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Now
S. Bertrand, in Gafcony.
LUGEUS lacus, (anc. geog.) a lakeofjapydia, the
weftmoft dillrift of Iliyricum, to the fouth of the Save,
and near the head of the Arfia. Now commonly called
the Zirichnitz Lake, from a fmall adjoining town : it is
locked on every fide with mountains; from which fcanty
currents run down; the lefs in quantity their waters,
becaufe drunk up by the earth; till at length they are
fwallowed up in rocky furrows fo formed, as to re-
femblc artificial. In thefe the water being fo redun¬
dant, as to refufe receiving anymore, they regurgitate,
and return the water with extraordinary celerity; which
thus fpreading itfelf, forms a lake, in mod places 18
cubits high: and thefe waters afterwards retire with
no lefs celerity than they came on, not only through
the furrows, but pafs through the whole of the bottom,
as
L U L [ 4309 ] L U N
Luke as through a fieve; which when perceived by the in-
(J habitants, they diredly ftop up the larger apertures,
u and thus tahe large quantities of fifh: when the lake
is dry, they cut down their harveft on the fpot where
they fowed, and fow again before the inundation comes
pn: and grafs Ihoots fo quick on it, that it may be cut
down in three weeks time, (Lazius, Wernherus.)
LUKE (St.)j the evangelift, and the difciple of
the apolUes, was originally of Antioch in Syria, and
by profeffion a phyGciaq. He particularly attached
himfelf to St Paul, and was his faithful companion in
his travels and labours. He went with him to Troas
in Macedonia, about the year 51. He wrote-his Go-
fpel in Acltaia about the year 53 ; and, ten years after,
the Afts of the Apollles, which contains a hiftory of
30 years. Of all the infpired writers of the New Te-
llament, his works are written in the mod elegant
Greek. It is believed that St Luke died at Rome, or
in Achaia.
Gofpel of St Luke, a canonical book of the New
Teftament. Some think that it was properly St Paul’s
GofpeU and that, when the apbftle fpeaks of f>is Go*
{pel, he means what is called St Luke's. Irenaens fays,
that St Luke digefted into writing what St Paul preach¬
ed to the Gentiles; and Gregory Nazianzen tells us,
that St Luke wrote with the affiftance of St Paul.
St Luke the Evangelijl's Day, afellival in theChri-
ftian church, obferved on the 18th of October.
LULA, a town of Swedifh Lapland; feated at the
mouth of the river Lula, on the weft fide of the gulph
of Bothnia, 42 miles fouth.weft of Tornea. E. Long.
21.0. N. Lat. 64. 30.
Lula Lapmark, a province of Swedilh Lapland ;
bounded by that of Tornea on the north, by the Both-
nic Gulph on the eaft, by Pithia Lapmark on the fouth,
and Norway on the weft.
LULLI (John Baptift), the moft celebrated and
moft excellent mufician that has appeared in France
fince the revival of learning, was born at Florence. He
was taken to France when very young by a perfon of
quality; and he carried the art of playing on the vio¬
lin to the higheft perfection. Lewis XIV. made him
fuperintendant of mufic. Some time after, Perinna ha¬
ving introduced operas into France, and quarrelling
with his company, he refigned his privilege to Lulli.
Operas were then carried to the utmoft perfection by
this celebrated mufician, and were attended with con¬
tinual applaufe. Lnlli every year, after this time, gave
a piece of his own compofttion, till his death, which
happened in 1687. ■
LULLY (Raymond), a famous writer, furnamed
the Enlightened Doftor, was born in the ifland of Ma¬
jorca in 1225. He applied himfelf with indefatigable
labour to the ftudy of the Arabian philofophy, to che-
miltry, phyfic, and divinity ; and acquired great re¬
putation by his works. He at length went to preach
the gofpel in Africa ; and was ftoned to death in Mau¬
ritania, at the age of 80. He is honoured as a martyr
at Majorca, whither his body was carried. He wrote
many treatifes on all the fcienoes, in which he ftiews
much ftudy and fubtilty, but little judgment or foli-
dity. A complete edition of his works has been print¬
ed at Mentz.—He ought not to be confounded with
Raymond Lully of Terraca, furnamed Neophyta, who,
from being a Jew, turned Dominican friar. This laft
Lully maintained feveral opinions that were condem- Lumbago
ned by pope Gregory XI. Il .
LUMBAGO, a fixed pain in the fmall of the back. Lunatic-
See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and
veins which fpread over the loins.
LUMBRICAL, a name given to four mufcles of
the fingers, and to as many of the toe?.
LUMBRICUS, the Earth-worm, in zoology, a
genus of infefis belonging to the order of vermes in-
teftina. The body is cylindrical, annulgted, with an
elevated belt near the middle. There is but one fpe-
cies of tins animal. It lives under ground, and feeds
upon the roots and feeds of plants. It comes above
ground in the night, or during rain, for the purpofe of
copulation. For the eftetts of thcfe animals in the hu¬
man body, and the method of expelling them, fee (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
LUMELLO, a village in Italy, which gives name
to the Lumellin, a fmall diftridf in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, lying along the river Po, and of which Mortaria
and Valencia are the principal places. It was ceded
to the duke of Savoy in 1707, and confirmed by the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. E. Long. 8.42. N. Lat.
45- 5-
LUMINOUSNESS of the Sea. See Light and
Sea.
Luminousness of Putrefcent Suhftances. See
Light.
LUMP-fish. See Cvclopterus.
LUNA, in aftronomy, the moon. See Astrono¬
my, pajftm.
Luna Cornea. See Chemistry, n° 239, 366.
LUNACY, the madnefs of a perfon who formerly
hath had the ufe of his reafon, but hath loft it by dif-
eafe, grief, or fome other accident. See Medicine.
Lunacy, inlaw. See Idiocy and Lunatic.
LUNATIC, a perfon affe&ed with lunacy. The
word is indeed properly applied to one that hath lucid
intervals; fometimesenjoying his fenfes, and fometimes
not ; and that frequently fuppofed to depend on the in¬
fluence of the moon.
Lunatic, in law. Under the general term of non
compos mentis, (which Sir Edward Coke fays is the
moft legal name) are comprized not only lunatics, but
perfons under frenzies, or who lofe their intellefts by
difeafe; thofe that deaf, dumb, and blind, not
being lisTTz fo ; or fuch, in Ihort, as are judged by the
court of chancery incapable of conducing their own
affairs. To thefe alfo, as well as idiots, the king is
guardian, but to a very different purpofe. For the
law always imagines, that thefe accidental misfortunes
may be removed; and therefore only conftitutes the
crown a truftee for the unfortunate perfons, to proteft
their property, and to account to them for all profits
received, if they recover, or after their deeeafe to their
reprefentatives. And therefore it is declared by the
ftatute 17 Edw. II. c. 10. that the king fhall provide
for the cuftody and fuftentation of lunatics, and pre-
ferve their lands, and the profits of them, for their ufe
when they come to their right mind ; and the king
fhall take nothing to his own ufe : and if the parties die
in fuch eftate, the refidue fhall be diftributed for their
fouls by the advice of the ordinary, and of courfe
(by the fubfequent amendments of the law of admi.
ai-
Lunatic
I,mien-
burg.
L U N [ 4010 ] . L U N
niftrations) fhall now go to their executors or admini-
ftrators.
On the firft attack of lunacy, or other occafional
-infanity, when there may be hopes of a fpeedy reiti-
tution of reafon, it is ufual to confine the unhappy ob-
jefts in private cuftody under the dire<5tion of their
neareft friends and relations: and the legiflature, to
prevent all abufes incident to fuch private cuftody,
hath thought proper to interpofe its authority, by
14 Geo. III. c. 49. for regulating private mad-
honfes. But, when the diforder is grown perma¬
nent, and the circumftances of the party will bear
fuch additional expence, it is thought proper to ap¬
ply to the royal authority to warrant a lading con¬
finement.
The method of proving a perfon non compos is very
fimilar to that of proving him an idiot. The lord
chancellor, to whom, by fpecial authority from the
king, the cuftody of idiots and lunatics is intrufted,
upon petition or information, grants a commiffion in
nature of the writ de idiota inquirendo, to inquire into
the party’s ftate of mind ; and if he be found non com¬
pos, he ufually commits the care of his perfon, with a
fuitable allowance for his maintenance, to fome friend,
who is then called his committee. However, to pre¬
vent finifter practices, the next heir is feldom permit¬
ted to be of this committee of the perfon ; becaufe it
is his intereft that the party (hould die. But, it hath
been faid, there lies not the fame objedfion againft his
next of kin, provided he be not his heir; for it is his
intereft to preferve the lunatic’s life, in order to in-
creafe the perfonal eftate by favings, which he or his.
family may hereafter be entitled to enjoy. The heir
is generally made the manager or committee of the
eftate, it being clearly his intereft by good manage¬
ment to keep it in condition ; accountable, however, to
the court of chancery, and to the non compos him-
felf, if he recovers ; or otherwife, to his adminiftra-
tors. See Idiocy.
LUNDEN, a confiderable town of Sweden, in
Gothland ; and capital of the territory of Schonen,
with an archbilhop’s fee, and an univerfity. It was
ceded to the Swedes by the Danes in 1658. E. Long.
13. 25. N. Lat. 55.40.
LUNENBURG, or Luneburg Zell, a principa¬
lity of Germany, bounded to the fouth by that of Ca-
lenberg, the diocefe of Hildeftieim, and the duchy of
Brunfwic ; to the north, by the duchy of Lauenburg
and the Elbe, by the laft of which it is feparated
from the territory of the imperial city of Hamburg ;
to the eaft, by the duchy of Brunfwic, the Alte-Mark,
and the duchy of Mecklenburg; and to the weft, by
the duchies of Bremen and Verden, the county of Hoya,
and the principality of Calenberg. The foil, except
along the Elbe, After, and Jetz, is either fand, heath,
or moors. In the more fruitful parts of it are produ¬
ced wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, buck-wheat, flax,
hemp, hops, pulfe, oak, beech, firs, pines, birch, and
alder, together wdth black cattle and horfes. The
heaths abound with bees and honey, and a fmail kind
of (beep whofe wool is long and courfe. Lunenburg
is weft furnifhed with fait fprings and limeftone, and
the foreft of Gorde with venifon. The rivers Elbe, II-
menau, and After, are navigable ; and confequently
very advantageous to the country, independent of the
fi(h which they yield. The general diets of this prin¬
cipality are convened by the fovereign twice a- year, and
held at Zell. Theyconfift of the deputies of the no¬
bility and the towns of Luneburg, Uelzen, and Zell,
who have the nomination of the members of the high
colleges, and other officers, jointly with the fovereign.
There are near 200 Lutheran churches in the country,
under two general and 15 fubordinate fuperintendants,
feveral grammar-fchools, two Calvinift churches at Zell,
and an academy of exercifes at Luneburg. The ma¬
nufactures are chiefly linen cloth, cottons, ribbons,
ftoekings, hats, (larch, bleached wax, refined fugar,
gold and (ilver wires, all kinds of wooden wares, bar¬
ges, boats, and (hips. The exports of thefe to Ham¬
burg, Lubec, and Altena, are confiderable. The
neighbourhood of thefe cities, with the facility of
conveying goods and merchandize to them and other
places, either by land or water, is very advantageous
to this country, and contributes greatly to its fubfift-
ence. On account of this principality, the king of
Great Britain has a feat and voice both in the col¬
lege of the princes of the empire, and of the circle
of Lower-Saxony. Its quota in the Matricula is
20 horfe and 120 foot, or 720 florins in lieu of
them. The revenues of the principality arife chiefly
from the demefnes, tolls on the Elbe, contributions,
duties on cattle, beer, wine, brandy, and other com¬
modities, which all together muft be very confiderable,
fome bailiwics alone yielding upwards of 20,000 rix-
dollars.
Luneburg, the capital of the principality of the
fame name, is a pretty large town of Germany, on the
river Elmen, or the Ilmenau, which is navigable from
the town to the Elbe, at the diftance of 13 miles. It
is 27 miles from Hamburgh, 43 from Zell, 65 from
Brunfwic, 76 from Bremen, 68 from Hanover; and
Hands in E. Long. 10. 40. N. Lat. 53. 28. Its in¬
habitants are reckoned at between 8000 and 9000.
Formerly this town was one of the Hanfe, and an im¬
perial city. Some derive its name from Lina, the
ancient.name of the Ilmenau; others from Luna, the
moon, an image of which is faid to have been wor-
fhipped by the inhabitants in the times of Paganifm.
Here were anciently feveral convents, viz. one of Mi¬
nims, another of Premonftratenfians, another of Be-
nedidlines, and a fourth of Minorites. Out of the re¬
venues of the Benedidtine monaftery was founded an
academy for the martial exercifes, where young
gentlemen of the principality of Lunebtirg are
maintained gratis, and taught French, fencing, ri¬
ding, and dancing ; but foreigners are educated at
a certain fixed price. A Latin fchool was alfo
founded, confiding of four claffes, and well-endowed
out of thefe revenues. The fuperintendency and ma¬
nagement of thefe, and the eftates appropriated to
their maintenance, belongs to the landfchaft dirtdlor,
and the aufreiter, who are both chofen from among
the Luneburg nobility. The firft came in place of the
Popifli abbot, and as fuch is head of the dates of
the principality, and prefident of the provincial col¬
lege. He has the title of excellency; and in public in-
ftruments (Ivies himfelf, by the grace of God landfchaft
direttor, and lord of the manfton of St Michael in Lu¬
neburg. The chief public edifices are three parifli-
churches, the ducal palace, three hofpitals, the town-
houfe,
burg.
L U P [43
Lungs houfe, the fak-magazine, the anatomical theatre, the
. II academy; the conventual church of St Michael, in
■jLtiptfcalia. which lie interred the ancient dukes; and in which is
the famous table eight foot long, and four wide, pla¬
ted over with chafed gold, with a rim embellifhed with
precious ftones, of an immenfe value, which was ta¬
ken from the Saracens by the emperor Otho, and pre-
fented to this church; but in 1698, a gang of thieves
ftripped it of 200 rubies and emeralds, together with
a large diamond, and moft of the gold, fo that at
prefent but a fmall part of it remains. Here are fome
very rich falt-fprings. Formerly, when there was a
greater demand for the fait, upwards of 120,000 tons
have been annually boiled here, and fold off: but
fmce the commencement of the prefent century, the
fait-trade hath declined greatly. A fifth of the fait
made here belongs to the king, but is farmed out. It
is faid to excel all the other fait made in Germany.
This town is well fortified ; and has a garrifon, which
is lodged in barracks. In the neighbourhood is a good
lime-ftone-quarry ; and along the Ilmenau are ware-
houfes, in which are lodged goods brought from all
parts of Germany, to be forwarded by the Elmenau
to Hamburg, or by the Afche to Lubec, from whence
other goods are brought back the fame way. The town
itfelf drives a confiderable traffic in wax, honey, wool,
flax, linen, fait, lime, and beer.
LUNGS. See Anatomy, n° 381.
l^Xmc-lVort, in botany. See Pulmonaria.
Lungs of Infers. In the fly-clafs, the ftigmata
are extremely numerous ; and the trachea which they
terminate are branched and divaricated all over the
body in an amazing manner, as if every part and par¬
ticle of the bodies of thefe little creatures had occafion
for its particular air-vellels: befides thefe, however,
flies are provided with proper lungs. They have two ;
and thofe fo very large, that they frequently take up
half, and fometimes two thirds, of the body of the ani¬
mal.—Thefe are two bladders placed fide-ways, one by
the other, alike in (hape and fize; and having their
origin at the junftion of the corcelet and body, and, in
many flies whofe bodies are compofed of five rings,
extending to the third, and fometimes to the fourth.
The fize and figure of each of thefe bladders is fuch
as is neceffary to fill almoft entirely that cavity of the
body in which it is lodged. They each of them touch
the Tides of this cavity ; the part where they join one
another is flat, and this commiffure forms a line run¬
ning ftraight down the body ; they are, however; in
this part, though fo clofely in contadf, yet not at all
joined to one another. This commiflure, however, does
not reach quite up to the back, or quite down to the
belly : there is a fmall cavity left between each, which
was very neceffary in both places; the one to give paf-
fage to the great artery, the other to the excrements.
LUNISOLAR year, in chronology, the fpace of
532 common years; found by multiplying the cycle of
the fun by that of the moon.
LUNULA, in geometry, a plane figure like a
crefcent or half-moon.
LUPERCALIA, feafls inftituted in ancient Rome,
in honour of the god Pan. —The word comes from
Lupercal, the name of a place under the Palatine
mountain, where the facrifices were performed.
The lupercalia were celebrated on the 15th of the
Vol. VI.
it ] L U S
kalends of March, that is, on the 15th of February, Lup'-rci
or, as Ovid obferves, on the third day after the ides. * .
They are fuppofed to have been eftablifhed by E- utlitia‘
vander.
On the morning of this feaft, the luperci, orpriefls
of Pan, ran naked thro’ the ftreets of Rome, linking
the married women they met on the hands and belly,
with a thong, or (trap of goat’s leather, which was
held an omen promiling them fecundity and happy
deliveries. See Luperci.
This feaft was abolifhed in the time of Auguftus; but
afterwards reftored, and continued to the time of the
emperor Anaftafius. — Baronius fays, it was abolifhed
by the pope in 496.
LUPERCI, a name given to the priefts of the god
Pan. See Lupercalia.
The luperci were the moft ancient order of priefts
in Rome; they were divided into two colleges, or
companies, the one called Fabii, and the other Shiin-
tilii. To thefe Caefar added a third, which he called
Julii.
LUPINUS, lupine ; a genus of the diadelphia or¬
der, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. There
are feven fpecies, fix of them hardy herbaceous flowery
annuals, and one perennial ; rifing with upright ftalks
from one to three or four feet high ; ornamented with
digitate or fingered leaves, and terminated by long
whorled fpikes of papilionaceous flowers, white, blue,
yellow, and rofe-coloured. They are all ealily rai¬
led from feed; and fucceed in any open borders, where
they make a fine variety.
LUPULUS, in botany. See Humulus.
LUPUS, in zoology. See Canis.
I^vvvs-Marinus. See Anarrhichas.
Lupus, in aftronomy. See there, n° 206.
LURCHER, a kind of hunting-dog much like a
mongrel gre-hound, with pricked ears, a fhagged coat,
and generally of a yellowifh white colour: they are
very fwift runners, fo that if they get between the
burrows and the conies, they feldom mils ; and this
is their common pradlicc in hunting : yet they ufe o-
ther fubtilties, as the tumbler does, fome of them
bringing in their game, and thofe are the beft. It is
alfo obfervable, that a lurcher will run down a hare at
ftretch.
LURE, in falconry, a device of leather, in the
fhape of two wings, ftuck with feathers, and baited
with a piece of flefh, to call back a hawk when at con¬
fiderable diftance.
LURIDiE, the name of the 28th order in Lin¬
naeus’s fragments of a natural method, confiding of
plants whofe pale and ominous appearance Teems to
indicate fomething baleful and noxious in their nature
and quality. This order contains the following ge¬
nera, viz. atropa, browallia, capficum, cateffiaea, cel-
fia, ceftrum, datura, digitalis, ellifia, hyofcyamus, ly-
cium, nicotiana, padalium, phyfalis, fefamum, fola-
num, ftrychnus, and verbafcum.
LUSATIA, a marquifate of Germany, in-Upper
Saxony; bounded to the eaft by Silefia, to the weft by
Mifnia, to the fouth by Bohemia, and to the north by
the marquifate by Brandenburg. Till towards the
middle of the 15th century, the Upper Lufatia was
called the Mark, i. e. the marquifite or the land, ofBu-
difzin and Gorlitz; and the Lower only Lufatia,
24 M which.
. I. u S [43
l.iifatia. which, it is faid, in the Sclavonic, fignifies a woody
or marlhy country. The air of the Upper Lufatia,
which is hilly or mountainous, is better than that of
the Lower, a great part of which is moorifh and bog¬
gy. Both abound in wood, efpecially the Lower, and
turf for fuel. The heathy and mountainous trafts are
generally barren ; but the lower champaign and marfti
lands, are tolerably fertile, producing pafture, wheat,
rye, oats, barley, buck-wheat, peafe, lentils, beans,
and millet ; together with flax, hops, tobacco, fome
white and red wine, and what is called manna. Of
feveral of thefe articles, however, confiderable quan¬
tities are imported. In this country are found alfo
quarries of ftone, medicinal fprings, baftard diamonds,
agates, and jafpers, earths and clays for tobacco-
pipes and all forts of earthen ware, alum, good iron,
fione, vitriolic and copper water; nor is it deftitute
of cattle, fifh, and venifon. The rivers Spree, the
Schwarze or Black Elder, and the Pulznitz, have
their fources in the Lufatias, which are alfo watered by
the NeiiTe and Qneis. The ancient inhabitants of
this country were the Saxons, who were fucceeded by
the Vandals, and thefe by the Sorber Wends, a Scla-
vonian people. The prefent inhabitants, the defcen-
dants of the Wends, have an odd drefs ; and the lan¬
guage is fo inarticulate and guttural, that it hath been
faid, it might be pronounced without lips, teeth, or
tongue : but the towns are almoft wholly peopled by
Germans.
In the Upper Lufatia are fix towns which appear
at the land-diets, 16 fmaller country-towns, and four
market towns. In the Lower are four diet;towns, 13
country towns, and two market ones. Both marqui-
fates were formerly fubjeft either to the kings of Bo¬
hemia, the archdukes of Auftria, or eleftors of Bran¬
denburg ; but, in 1636, both were abfolutely ceded
to the ele&or of Saxony, in lieu of the 72 tons of
gold, which he expended in affiding the emperor Fer¬
dinand II. againft the Bohemians.
Chriftianity was firft planted in Lufatia in the fe-
venth century; but it was feveral centuries after that,
before Popery was fully eftablilhtd. In the 1 ith cen¬
tury many cloifters were erefled in the country ; but
at the reformation fuch, numbers embraced Lutheran-
ifm, that it became the predominant religion, and ftill
continues, though there are ftill feverai Roman Ca¬
tholic foundations, churches, market towns, and vil¬
lages. The enthufiaftic fe£l of Ilernhuters pof-
feffes a great influence and cfteem here. There are
confiderable manufactures of woollen and linen fluffs in
the Lufatias, tfpecially the Upper. At Budiffen, and
in the adjacent country, prodigious quantities of ftock-
ings, fpatterdafhes, caps, and gloves, are made. The
linen manufactures alfo flourifli here, chiefly in theUp-
per-Lufatia, where all forts of linen are made, print¬
ed, and dyed. Exclnfive of thefe, there are confider¬
able manufactures of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder,
iron, glafs, bleached wax, &c. Though the demand
and exportation of thefe commodities, particularly li¬
nens and woollens, is not fo great as formerly, yet it
is ftill confiderable, and more than over-balances their
importations in wool, yarn, filk, wines, fpices, corn,
frelh and baked fruits, garden-ft if ff, and hops. Dif-
putes of many years (landing have fubfifted between
the country artificers and linen manufacturers on the
12 ] l u s
one fide, and the diet-towns on the other; the latter I^fatia,
unjuftly feeking to exclude the former from any fhare Lufi'ama-
in the linen-trade. The natives of this country are faid
to have quick natural pans, but to be fordidly penu¬
rious. We are told theyobferve the Saxon laws much
better than they did the Bohemian. Learning hath
been much efteemed and encouraged in both marqui-
fates fince the reformation. The fchools in the fix
diet-towns of Upper-Lufatia, particularly at Gorlitz,
Budiffen, and Zittau, greatly diftinguifh themfelves,
having handfome ftipends. In Lower Lufatia alfo are
fome good fchools, with ftipends for the maintenance
of ftudents. Printing is faid to be much followed, and
brought to great perfection in this country.
In Upper-Lufatia, the flates confift, ift, of thofe
czWz&flate-krds; zdly, of the prelates ; 3dly, of the
gentry and commonalty, under which are comprehend¬
ed the counts, barons, nobles, and burgeffes, poffef-
fors of fees and fief-eftates; and, 4thly, of the repre-
fentatives of the fix principal towns. Without the
confent of thefe ftates no taxes can be impofed, nor
any thing of importance, that regards the public, tranf-
aCled. The diets are ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary meet once in three years, and the extraordi¬
nary when fummoned by the fovereign upon particular
emergencies. As to ecclefiaftical matters, the dean of
Budiffen and his confiftory exercife all manner of epif-
copal jurifdiClion ; and, among the Proteftants, the
jurifdi&ion belongs either to the fuperior, the upper-
office, or the patrons. The revenues arifing to the
fuperior or fovereign, from Upper-Lufatia, confift
partly of the fubfidies granted by the ftates, among
which, at prefent, are reckoned capitation and eftate-
money ; and partly of the beer-tax, excife, tolls, &c.
—Upper Lufatia is divided into two great circles, viz.
thofe of Budiffen and Gorlitz, which are again divided
into Leffer circles.
The land-ftates of Lower Lufatia confift, like thofe
of the Upper, of prelates, lords, and knights, and
the reprefentatives of the ftate towns, which are Luc-
kau, Gubben-Lubben, and Kalau. Two land-diets
are yearly held at Lubben, called voluntary-diets ; but
when the foperior caufes the ftates to be fummoned
together at his diferetion, and propofitions to be laid
before them, by commiffaries deputed for that pur-
pofe, fuch convention is called a great land-diet. The
marquifate is divided into five circles, each of which
holds a circle-affembly in its circle-town. The chief
officers appointed either by the fuperior or the ftates,
are, the prefident of the upper-office, the land cap¬
tain, and the land judge. The principal tribunals are,
the land-court, and the upper-office, to which lie ap¬
peals from the inferior judicatories. There are alfo of¬
ficers for the feveral circles. Spiritual matters belong
here to a confiftory, erected io 1668. The ordinary
taxes are paid in the cheft of the circle; and from thence
configned to the general cheft, of which the upper tax-
receiver is fuperintendant. By him an annual account
of the receipts is made out, which is examined and
paffed by the deputies of the Rates.
LUSITANIA, (anc. geog.) one of the divifionsof
Spain, extending to the north of the Tagus, quite to
the fea of Cantabria, at leaft to the Promontorium
Celticum. But Auguflus, by a new regulation, made
the Anas its boundary to the fyuth, the Durius to
the
I, uflr.it ion,
JLtAre.
L U S [43
the north ; and thus conftituting only a part of the
modern Portugal. Lufitani the people, (Diodorus,
Stephanus).
LUSTRATION, in antiquity, facrifices or cere¬
monies by which the ancients purified their cities,
fields, armies, or people, defiled by any crime or im¬
purity. Some of thefe luftrations were public, others
private. There were three fpecies or manners of per¬
forming hnlration, viz. by fire and fulphur, by water,
and by air; which latt was done by fanning and agi¬
tating the air round the thing to be purified. Some
of thefe luftrations were necellary, e. could not be
difpenfed with ; as luftrations of houfes in time of a
plague, or upon the death of any perfon : others again
were done out of choice, and at pleafure. The public
luftrations at Rome were celebrated every fifth year;
in which they led a victim thrice round the place to
be purified, and in the mean time burnt a great quan¬
tity of perfumes. Their country luftrations, which
they called ambarvalia, were celebrated before they
began to reap their corn : in thofe of the armies, which
they called arrniiuftria, fome chofen foldiers crowned
with laurel, led the victims, which were a cow, a ftitep,
and a bull, thrice round the army ranged in battle-
orray in the field of Mars, to which deity the vidtims
were afterwards facrificed, after pouring out many
imprecations upon the enemies of the Romans. The
luftrations of their flocks were performed in this man¬
ner : the fhepherd fprinkied them with pure water,
and thrice furrounded his fheepfold with a compofition
of favin, laurel, and brimtfone fet on fire; and after¬
wards facrificed to the goddefs Pales an offering of
milk boiled, wine, a cake, and millet. As for private
houfes, they were luftrated with water, a fumigation
of laurel, juniper, olive-tree, favin, and fuch like; and
the vi&im commonly was a pig. Luftrations made
for particular perfons were commonly called expiations,
and the vi&lms piacula. There were alfo a kind of
luftration ufed for infants, by which they were purified,
girls the third, and boys the ninth day after their birth ;
which ceremony was performed with pure water and
fpittle. See the article Ambarvalia. In their lu-
liratory facrifices, the Athenians facrificed two men,
one for the men of their city, and the other for the
women. Divers of thefe expiations were auftere : fome
failed; others abftained from all fenfual pleafureS; and
fome, as the priefts of Cybele, caftrated themfelves.
The poftures of the penitents were different, according
to the different facrifices. The priefts changed their ha¬
bits according to the ceremony to be performed; white,
purple, and black, were the molt ufual colours. They
caft into the river, or at lead out of the city, the ani¬
mals or other things that had ferved for a luftration or
facrifice of atonement; and thought themfelves threa¬
tened with fome great misfortune when by chance they
trod uporf them. Part of thefe ceremonies were abo-
lilhed by the emperor Conftantine, and his fucceffors;
the reft fubfifted till the Gothic kings were mafters of
Rome; under whom they expired, excepting what
the popes thought proper to adopt and bring into the
church.
For the luftration, or rather expiation, of the ancient
Jews, fee Expiation.
LUSTRE, the glofs or brightnefs appearing on
any thing, particularly on manufactures of iilk, wool,
13 1 . . . L u T .
or (luff. It is likewife ufed to denote the compofition Luftn
or manner of giving that glofs. ^
The luftre of filks is given them by wafhing in foap, ‘1 '
then clear water, and dipping them in alum-water cold.
To give ftuffs a beautiful luftre: For every 8 pounds
of fluff allow a quarter of a pound of linfeed ; boil it
half an hour, and then ftraiu it through a cloth, and
let it Hand till it is turned almoft to a jelly: after¬
wards put an ounce and a half of gum to d'ffolve 24
hours; then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
this mixture; take it out, dry it in the (hade, and prefs
it. If once doing is not fufficient, repeat the operation.
Curriers give a lultre to black leather firll with juice
of barberries, then with gum-arabic, ale, vinegar, and
Flanders-glue, boiled together. For coloured leather,
they ufe the white of an egg beaten in water. Mo-
roccoes have their luftre from juice of barberries, anti
lemon or orange. For hats, the luftre is frequently
given with common water ; fometimes a little black,
dye is added: the fame luftre ferves for furs, except
that for very black furs they fometimes prepare a luftre
of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox’s marrow, and other
ingredients.
LUSTRUM, in Roman antiquity, a general mufter
and review of all the citizens and their goods, which
was performed by the cenfors every fifth year, who
afterwards made a folemn luftration. See the article
Lustration.
This cuftom was firft inftituted by Servius Tullius,
about 180 years after the foundation of Rome. In
courfe of time the luftra were not celebrated fo often,
for we find the fifth luftrum celebrated at Rome only-
in the 574th year of that city.
LUTE, or Luting, among chemifts, a mixed, te¬
nacious, dudtiie fubltance, which grows folid by dry¬
ing, and, being applied to the jun&ure of veffels, ftops
them upfo as to prevent the air from getting either in
or out. See Chemistry, n° 78:—81.
Lute, is alfo a mufical inttrument with firings.—
The lute confifts of four parts, viz. the table, the body
or belly, which has nine or ten fides; the neck, which
has nine or ten ftops or divifions, marked with firings;
and the head, or crofs, where the ferew for railing and
lowering the firings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed.
In the middle of the table there is a rofe or paffage for
the found; there is alfo a bridge that the firings are
faftened to, and apiece of ivory between the head and
the neck to which the other extremities of the firings
are fitted. In playing, the firings are ftruck with the
right hand, and with the left the flops are preffed.
The lutes of Bologna are efteemed the befl on account
of the wood, which is faid to have an uncommon dif-
pofition for producing a fweet found.
LUTHER (Martin), the celebrated author of the
Reformation, was a native of Eifleben in Saxony, and
born in 1483. Tho* his parents were poor, he received
a learned education; during the progrefs of which, he
gave many indications of uncommon vigour and acute-
nefs of genius. As his mind was naturally fufceptible
of ferious impreffions, and tinctured with fomewhat of
that religious melancholy which delights in the foli-
tude and devotion of a monaflic life, he retired into a
convent of Auguflinian friars ; where he acquired
great reputation, not only for piety, but for love of
knowledge, and unwearied application to ftudy. The
24 M 2 caufe
L U T [ 43
Luther- caufe of this retirement is faid to have been, that he
was once (truck by lightning, and his companion killed
by his fide by the fame flafh. He had been taught
the fcholaitic philofophy which was in vogue in thofe
days, and made confiderable progrefs in it: but hap¬
pening to find a copy of the Bible which lay neglefted
in the library of his monaftery, he applied himfelf to
the ftudy of it with fuch eagernefs and affiduity, as
quite allonifhed the monks; and increafed his reputa¬
tion for fandtity fo much, that he was chofen profefibr
firft of philofophy, and afterwards of theology, at Wit-
temberg on the Elbe, where Frederic elector of Saxony
had founded an univerfity.
While Luther continued to enjoy the higheft repu¬
tation for fan&ity and learning, Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, came to Wittemberg in order to publilh indul¬
gences. Luther beheld his fuccefs with great con¬
cern; and having fitft inveighed againft indulgences
from the pulpit, he afterwards publifhed 95 thefes,
containing his fentiments on that fubje&. Thefe he
propofed, not as points fully eftablifhed, but as fub-
jefts of inquiry and deputation. He appointed a day
on which the learned were invited to impugn them
either in perfon or by writing ; and to the whole he
fubjoined folemn proteftations of his high refpedt for
the apoftolic fee, and of his implicit fubmiffion to its
authority. No opponent appeared at the time pre¬
fixed; the thefes fpread over Germany with aftonifh-
ing rapidity, and were read with the greateft eager¬
nefs.
Though Luther met with no oppofition for fome
little time after he began to publifh his new dodtrines,
it was not long before many zealous champions arofe
to defend thofe opinions with which the wealth and
power of the clergy were fo ftridfly connedted. Their
caufe, however, was by no means promoted by thefe
endeavours ; the people began to call in queftion even
the authority of the canon law, and of the pope him¬
felf.—The court of Rome at firft defpifed thefe new
dodfrines and difputes ; but at laft the attention of
the pope being raifed by the great fuccefs of the re¬
former, and the complaints of his adverfaries, Luther
was fumtnoned, in the month of July 1518, to ap¬
pear at Rome, within 60 days, before the auditor of
the chamber. One of Luther’s adverfaries, named
Prierias, who had written againft him, was appointed
to examine his dodtrines, and to decide concerning
them. The pope wrote at the fame time to the elec¬
tor of Saxony, befeeching him not to protedf a man
whofe heretical and profane tenets were fo (hocking to
pious ears; and enjoined the provincial of the Au-
guftinians to check by his authority the rafhnefs of an
arrogant monk, which brought difgrace upon their
,©rd£r, and gave offence and difturbance to the whole
church.
From thefe letters, and the appointment of his open
enemy Pereiras to be his judge, Luther eafily faw
what fentence he might expedt at Rome; and there¬
fore difcovered the utmoft folicitude to have his caufe
tried in Germany, and before a lefs fufpedted tri¬
bunal. He wrote a fubmifiive letter to the pope, in
which he promifed an unreferved obedience to his will,
for as yet he entertained no doubt of the divine ori¬
ginal of the pope’s authority ; and by the interceffion
of the other profeffors, Cajetan the pope’s legate in
[4 ] L U T
Germany was appointed to hear and determine the lather,
caufe. Luther appeared before him without hefita- ’
tion : but Cajetan thought it below his dignity to
difpiite the point with a perfon fo much his inferior
in rank; and therefore required him, by virtue of the
apoftolic powers with which he was clothed, to retradl
the errors which he had uttered with regard to indul¬
gences and the nature of faith, and to abftain for the
future from the publication of new and dangerous
opinions ; and at the laft forbad him to appear in his
prefence, unlefs he propofed to comply with what had
been required of him.
This haughty and violent manner of proceeding,
together with fome other circumftances, gave Luther’s
friends fuch ftrong reafons to fufpedt that even the
imperial fafe-conduft would not be able to protedt
him from the legate’s power and refentment, that
they prevailed on him fecretly to withdraw from
Augfburg, where he had attended the legate, and to
return to his own country. But before his departure,
according to a form of which there had been fome
examples, he prepared a folemn appeal from the pope,
ill-informed at that time concerning his caufe, to the
pope, when he (hould receive more full intimation
with refpedl to it.—Cajetan, enraged at Luther’s
abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal,
wrote to the eledtor of Saxony, complaining of both ;
and requiring him, as he regarded the peace of the
church, or the authority of its head, either to fend
that feditipus monk a prifoner to Rome, or to banifh
him out of his territories. Frederic.had hitherto, from
political motives, protedfed Luther, as thinking he
might be of ufe in checking the enormous power of
the fee of Rome; and though all Germany refounded
with his fame, the eledtor had never yet admitted
him into his prefence. But upon this demand made
by the cardinal, it became neceffary to throw off
fomewhat of his former referve. He had been at
great expence and beftowed much attention on found¬
ing a new univerfity, an objedl of confidtrable impor¬
tance to every German prince ; and forefeeing how
fatal a blow the removal of Luther would be to its
reputation, he not only declined complying with either
of the pope’s requefts, but openly difcovered great con¬
cern for Luther’s fafety.
The fituation of our reformer, in the mean time,
became daily more and more alarming. He knew
very well what were the motives which induced the
eleftor to afford him protedfion, and that he could by
no means depend on a continuance of his friendlhip.
If he (hould be obliged to quit Saxony, he had no
other afylum, and muft ftand expofed to whatever
punifhment the rage or bigotry of his enemies could
inflidt; and fo ready were his adverfaries to condemn
him, that he had been declared a heretic at Rome
before the expiration of the 60 days allowed him in
the citation for making his appearance. Notwith-
ftanding all this, however, he difcovered no fymptons
of timidity or remiffnefs; but continued to vindicate
his own condudl and opinions, and to inveigh againft
thofe of his adverfaries with more vehemence than
ever. Being convinced, therefore, that the pope would
foon proceed to the moil violent meafures againft
him, he appealed to a general council, which he
affirmed to be the reprefentative of the Catholic church.
L U T [ 43
Luther, and fuperior in power to the pope, who, being a
- ' “fallible man, might err, as St Peter, the moft perfedt
of his predeceffors, had done.
The court of Rome were equally affiduous in the
mean time to crufh the. author of thefe new dodtrines,
which gave them fo much uneafinefs. A bull was
iffued by the pope, of a date prior to Luther’s ap¬
peal, in which he magnified the virtues of indulgences,
and fubjedted to the heavieft ecclefiaftical cenfures all
who prefumed to teach a contrary dodfrine. Such a
clear deciffon of the fovereign pontiff againft hirn
might have been very fatal to Luther’s caufe, h^d hot
the death of the emperor Maximilian, which happened
on January 17th 1519, contributed to give matters a
different turn. Both the principles and intereft of
Maximilian had prompted him to fupport the authori¬
ty of the fee of Rome: but, in confequence of his
death, the vicariate of that part of Germany which is
governed by. the Saxon laws devolved to the eledtor
of Saxony ; and, under the (belter of his friendly ad-
miniftration, Luther himfelf enjoyed tranquillity, and
his opinions took fuch root in different places, that
they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the
fame time, as the eledtion of an emperor was a point
more interefting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theolo¬
gical controverfy which he did not underftand, and of
which he could not forefee the confequences, he was
fo extremely folicitous not to irritate a prince of fuch
confiderable influence in the eledforal college as Fre¬
deric, that he difcovered a great unwillingnefs to pro¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againft Lu¬
ther, which his adverfarics continually demanded with
the moft clamorous importunity.
From the reafon juft now given, and Leo’s natu¬
ral averfion to fevere meafures, a fufpenfion of pro¬
ceedings againft Luther took place for 18 months,
though perpetual negociations were carried on during
this interval in order to bring the matter to an ami¬
cable iflue. The manner in which thefe were con-
dudted having given our reformer many opportunities
of obferving the corruption of the court of Rome, its
obftinacy in adhering to eftablifhed errors, and its in¬
difference about truth, however clearly propofed or
ftrongly proved, he began, in 1520, to utter fome
doubts with regard to the divine original of the papal
authority which he publicly difputed with Eccius,
one of his moft learned and formidable antagonifts.
The difpute was indecifive, both parties claiming the
vi&ory; but it muft have been very mortifying to
the partizans of the Romifh church to hear fuch an
effential point of their doctrine publicly attacked.
The Papal authority being once fnfpedied, Luther
proceeded to pufh on his inquiries and attacks from
one do&rine to another, till at laft he began to fhake
the firmeft foundations on which the wealth and power
of the church were eftablifhed. Leo then began to
perceive that there were no hopes of reclaiming fuch
an incorrigible heretic; and therefore prepared to de¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againft him.
The college of cardinals was often affembled, in order
to prepare the fentence with due deliberation; and the
ableft canonifts were confulted how it might be ex-
preffed with unexceptionable formality. At laft it was
iffued on the 15th of June 1520. Forty-one propofi-
tions, extruded out of Luther’s works? were therein
15 1 L U T
condemned as heretical, fcandalous, and offenfive to Liuher.
pious ear; all ptrfons were forbidden to read Lis wri- 
tings, upon pain of excommunication ; fuch as had any
of them in their cuftody were commanded to commit
them to the flames; he himfelf, if he did not, within
60 days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books,
was pronounced an obftinate heretic, excommunicated,
and delivered to Satan for the deftrudtion of the flefh;
and all fecular princes were required, under pain of
incurring the famecenfure, to feize his perfon, that he
might be punifhed as his crimes deferved.
Luther was not in the leaft difconcerted by this fen¬
tence, which he had for fome time expe&ed. He re¬
newed his appeal to the general council ; declared the
pope to be that antichrift, or man of fin, whofe ap¬
pearance is foretold in the New Teftament; de¬
claimed againft his tyranny with greater vehemence
than ever; and at laft, by way of retaliation, having
aflembled all the profefibrs and ftudents in the univer-
fity of Wittemberg, with great pomp, and in the pre-
fence of a vaft multitude of fpeftators, he caft the vo¬
lumes of the canon law, together with the bull of ex-
communication, into the flames. The'mannerin which
this a&ion was juftified, gave ftill more offence than
the adfion itfelf. Having collefted from the canon law
fome of the moft extravagant propofitions with regard
to the plenitude and omnipotence of the pope’s power,
as well as the fubordination of all fecular jurifdidioa
to his authority, he publifhed thefe with a commen¬
tary, pointing out the impiety of fuch tenets, and their
evident tendency to fubvert all civil government.
On the accelfion of Charles V. to the empire, Lu¬
ther found himfelf in a very dangerous fituation.
Charles, in order to fecure the pope’s fricndfhip, had
determined to treat him with great feverity. His ea-
gernefs to gain this point, rendered him not averfe to
gratify the papal legates in Germany, who infifted,that,
without any delay or formal deliberation, the diet then
fitting at Worms ought to condemn a man whom the
pope had already excommunicated as an incorrigible
heretic. Such an abrupt manner of proceeding, how¬
ever, being deemed unprecedented and unjuft by the
members of the diet, they made a point of Luther’s
appearing in perfon, and declaring whether he adhered
or not to thofe opinions which had drawn upon him
the cenfures of the church. Not only the emperor, but
all the princes through whofe territories he had to
pafs, granted him a fafe conduft ; and Charles wrote
to him at the fame time, requiring his immediate at¬
tendance on the diet, and renewing his promifesof pro-
teftion from any injury or violence. Luther did not
hefitate one moment about yielding obedience ; and
fet out for Worms, attended by the herald who had
brought the emperor’s letter and fafe-condu&. While
on his journey, many of his friends, whom the fate of
Hufs, under fimilar circumftances, and notwithftand-
ing the fame fecurity of an imperial fafe-condudf, fill¬
ed with folicitude, advifed and intreated him not to
rufti wantonly into the midft of danger. But Luther,
fuperior to fuch terrors, filenced them with this reply,
“ I am lawfully called (laid he) to appear in that
city ; and thither will I go in the name of the Lord,
though as many devils as there are tiles on the houfes
were there combined againft me.”
The reception which he met with at Worms, was
fuch
L U T [43
fuch as might hare been reckoned a full reward of all
his labours, if vanity and the love of applaufe had been
the principles by which he was influenced. Greater
crowds affembled to behold him, than had appeared
at the emperor’s public entry ; his apartments were
daily filled with princes and perfonages of the highell
rank ; and he was treated with an homage more fin-
cere, as well as more flattering, than any which pre¬
eminence in birth or condition can command. At his
appearance before the diet, he behaved with great de¬
cency, and with equal firmnefs. He readily acknow¬
ledged an excefs of acrimony and vehemence in his
controverfial writings; but refufed to retraft his opi¬
nions unlefs he w'ere convinced of their falfehood, or
to confent to their being tried by any other rule than
the word of God. When neither threats nor intreaties
could prevail on him to depart from this refolution,
fome of the ecclefiaftics propofed to imitate the ex¬
ample of the council of Conftance, and, by punifhing
the author of this pellilent herefy, who wTas now in
their power, to deliver the church at once from fuch
an evil. But the members of the diet refilling to ex-
pofe the German integrity to frefh reproach by a fe-
cond violation of public faith, and Charles being no
lefs unwilling to bring a ftain upon the beginning of
his adminiftration by fuch an ignominious a&ion, Lu¬
ther was permitted to depart in fafety. A few days
after he left the city, a fevere edict was publilhed in
the emperor’s name, and by autliority of the diet, de¬
priving him, as an obftinate and excommunicated cri¬
minal, of all the privileges which he enjoyed as a fub-
jeft of the empire, forbidding any prince to harbour
or proteft him, and requiring all to feize his perfon as
foon as the term fpecified in his prote&ion fhould be
expired.
But this rigorous decree had no confiderable effed;
the execution of it being prevented partly by the mul¬
tiplicity of occupations which the commotions in Spain,
together with the wars in Italy and the Low Coun¬
tries, created to the emperor ; and partly by a pru¬
dent precaution employed by the eledtor of Saxony,
Luther’s faithful patron. As Luther, on his return
from Worms, was palling near Altenftrain in Thurin¬
gia, a number of horfemen in mnfles rulhed fuddenly
out of a wood, where the eleftor had appointed them
to lie in wait for him, and, furrounding his company,
carried him, after difmifiing all his attendants, to
Wortburg, a ftrong calfle not far diltant. There the
ekclor ordered him to be fupplied with every thing
f.eceflary or agreeable; but the place of his retreat was
carefully concealed, until the fury of the prefent florin
againfl him began to abate, upon a change in the po¬
litical fyflem of Europe. In this folitude, where he
remained nine months, and which he frequently called
his Patmos, after the name of that illand to which the
apoftle John was bapilhed, he exerted his ufual vigour
and induflry in defence of his do&rines, or in confu¬
tation of his adverfaries, publilbing feveral treatifes,
which revived the fpirit of his followers, aftonifhed to
a great degree and diflieartened at the fudden difap-
pearance of their leader.
Luther, weary at length of his retirement, appeared
publicly again at Wittemberg, upon the 6th of March
1522. He appeared indeed without the eleftor’s leave;
but immediately wrote him a letter, to prevent his ta-
16 ] L U T
king it ill. The edi& of Charles V. as fevere as it was,
had given little or no check to Luther’s do&rine: for
the emperor was no fooner gone into Flanders, than
his edi<fl was negletled and defpifed, and the doflrine
feemed to fpread even failer than before. Carolofta-
diiis, in Luther’s afcfence, had pulhed things on fafter
than his leader; and had attempted to abolilh the life
of mafs, to remove images out of the churches, to fet
afide auricular confeffion, invocation of faints, the ab-
flaintng from meats; had allowed the monks to leave
their monafttries, to negledt their vows, and to marry;
in fhort, had quite changed the doclrine and difeipline
of the church at Wittemberg: ajl which, though not
againft Luther’s fenttments, was yet blamed by him,
as being rafldy and unfeafonabiy done. Lutheranifm
was ftiil confined to Germany: it was not got to France;
and Henry VIII. of England made the moil rigorous
arts to hinder it from invading his realm. Nay, he
did fomething more: to (hew his zeal for religion and
the holy fee, and perhaps his fkill in theological learn¬
ing, he w^ote a treatife Of the feven facramsnts, againft
Luther’s book Of the captivity of Babylon; which he
prefented to Leo X. in October 1521. The pope
received it very favourably; and was fo well pleafed
with the king of England, that he complimented him
with the title of Defender of the faith. Luther, how¬
ever, paid no regard to his kinglhip; but anfwered him
with great ftiarpnefs, treating both his perfon and per¬
formance in the molt contemptuous manner. Henry
complained of Luther’s rude ufage of him to the princes
of Saxony ; and Fifher, bilhop of Rochefler, replied
to his anfwer, in behalf of Henry’s treatife: but nei¬
ther the king’s complaint, nor the bilhop’s reply, was
attended with any vifible effefls.
Luther, though he had put a flop to the violent
proceedings of Carolofladius, now made open war with
the pope and bifhops; and, that he might make the
people defpife their authority as much as much as pof-
iible, he wrote one book againfl the pope’s bull, and
another againft the order falfely called the order of bi-
Jhops. The fame year 1522, he wrote a letter, dated
July the 29th, to the aflembiy of the dates of Bohemia ;
in which he a {lured them that he was labouring to
eftablifti their doftrine in Gerrpany, and exhorted them
not to return to th? communio.fi of the church of Rome •
and he publiftied alfo this year, a tranflation of the
New Teflament in the German tongue, which was af¬
terwards correfted by himfelf and Melan&hon. This
tranflation having been printed feveral times, and be¬
ing in every body’s hands, Ferdinand archduke of Ati-
ftria, the emperor’s brother, made a very fevere edidl,
to hinder the farther publication of it; ancj forbad all
the fubjefts of his imperial majefty to have any copies
of it, or of Luther’s other books. Some other princes
followed his example; and Luther was fo angry at it,
that he wrote a treatife Of the fecular power, in which
he accufes them of tyranny and impiety. The diet of
the empire was held at Nurenburg, at the end of the
year; to which Hadrian VI. fent his brief, dated No¬
vember the 25th: for Leo X. died upon the 2d of De¬
cember t52i, and Hadrian had been eledled pope up¬
on the 9th of January following. In this brief, among
other things, he obferves to the diet, how he had heard,
with grief, that Martin Luther, after the fentence of
Leo X. which was ordered to be executed by the edidt
Luther, of Worms, continued to teach the fame errors, and
daily to publiih books full of herefies: that it appear¬
ed ft range to him, that fo large and fo religious a na¬
tion could be feduced by a wretched apoftate friar:
that nothing, however, could be more pernicious to
Chriftendom: and that therefore he exhorts them to
ufe their utmoft endeavours to make Luther, and the
authors of thefe tumults, return to their duty; or, if
they refufe and continue obftinate, to proceed againft
them according to the laws of the empire, and the fe-
verity of the laft edi£.
The refolution of this diet was publilhed in the form
of an edi<ft, upon the 6th of March 1523; but it bad
no effeft in checking the Lutherans, who ftill went on
iu the fame triumphant manner. This year Luther
wrote a great many pieces: among the reft, one up¬
on the dignity and office of the fupreme magiftrate ;
which Frederic ele&or of Saxony is faid to have been
highly pleafed with. He fent, about the fame time,
a writing in the German language to the Waldenfcs,
or Pickards, in Bohemia and Moravia, who had ap¬
plied to him “ about vvorfhipping the body of Chrift
in the eucharift.” He wrote alfo another book, which
he dedicated to the fenate and people of Prague,
“ about the inftitution of minifters of the church.”
He drew up a form of faying mafs. He wrote a piece,
entitled, An example of popijh doftrine and divinity ;
which Dupins calls a fttire again/} nuns and thofe who
profefs a vionafic life. He wrote alfo againft the vows
of virginity, in his preface to his commentary on
1 Cor. viii. And his exhortations here were, it feems,
followed with effects: for foon after, nine nuns, among
whom was Catharine de Bore, eloped from the nun¬
nery at Nimptfchen, and were brought, by the affift-
ance of Leonard Coppen, a burgefs of Torgan, to Wit-
temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding might give
to the Papifts, it w'as highly extolled by Luther; who,
in a book written in the German language, compares
the deliverance of thefe nuns from the flavery of a mo¬
nadic life, to that of the fouls which Jtfus Chrift has
delivered by his death. This year Luther had occa-
fion to canonize two of his followers, who, as Melchior
Adam relates, were burnt at Brufiels in the beginning
of July, and were the firft who fuffered martyrdom for
bis doctrine. He wn-ote alfo a confolatory epiftle to
three noble ladies at Mifnia, who were banilhed from
the duke of Saxony’s court at Friburg, for reading his
hooks.
In the beginning of the year 1524, Clement VII.
fent a legate into Germany to the diet, which was to be
held at Nurenburg. Hadrian VI. died in October
1523, and was fuccecded by Clement upon the 19th of
November. A little before his death he canonized
. Benno, who was bilhop of Meiffen in the time of Gre¬
gory VII. and one of the moft zealous defenders of
the holy fee. Luther, imagining that this was done di-
redtly to oppofe him, drew up a piece with this title,
Againf the new idol and old devil fet up at Meijfen ;
in which he treats the memory of Gregory with great
freedom, and does not fpare even Hadrian. Cle¬
ment VII.’s legate reprefented to the diet of Nuren¬
burg, the neceffity of enforcing the execution of the
edift of Worms, which had been ftrangely neglefted
by the princes of the empire : but, notwithftanding
the legate’s felicitations, which were very prtfiing, the
17 ] L U T
decrees of that diet were thought fo intffe&nal, that l€r-
tbey were condemned at Rome, and rejefted by the
emperor. It was in this year that the difpute between
Luther and Erafmus, about free-will, began. Erai-
mus had been much courted by the Papifts to write
againft Luther ; but he was all along of opinion, that
writing would not be found an effe&ual way to end the
differences and eftabliftt the peace of the church.
However, tired out at length with the importunities of
the pope and the Catholic princes, and defirous at the
fame time to clear himfelf from the fufpicion of favour¬
ing a caufe which he would not feem to favour, here-
folved to write againft Luther, though, as he tells Me-
lan&hon, it was with fome reluftance, and chofe free¬
will for the fubjefb His book was intitled A diatri-
ba, or conference about free-will; and was written with
much moderation, and without perfonal refledtions.
He tells Luther in the preface, “ That he ought not
to take his diffenting from him in opinion ill, becaufe
he had allowed himfelf the liberty of differing from the
judgment of popes, councils, nniverfities, and dodlors
of the church. Luther was fome time before he an-
fwered Erafmus’s book; but at laft publiftied a treatife
De fervo arbitrio, or Of the fervitude of man's will;
and though Melan&hon had promifed Erafmus, that
Luther fhould anfwer him with civility and modera¬
tion, yet Luther had fo little regard to Melandlhon’s
promife, that he never wrote any thing fharper. He
accufed Erafmus of being carelefs about religion, and
little folicitous what became of it, provided the world
continued in peace ; and that his notions were rather
philofophical than Chriftian. Erafmus immediately re¬
plied to Luther, in a piece called Hyperafpifes; in the
firft part of which he anfwers his arguments, and in
the fecond his perfonal refle&ions.
In O&ober 1524, Luther flung off the monaftic ha¬
bit ; which, though not premeditated and defigned,
was yet a very proper preparative to a ftep he took
the year after; we mean, his marriage with Catharine
de Bore. Catharine de Bore was a gentleman’s daugh¬
ter, who had been a nun, and was taken, as we have
obferved, out of the nunnery of Nimptfchen, in the
year 1523. Luther had a defign, as Melchior Adam
relates, to marry her to Glacius, a minifter of Oita-
munden: but flie did not like Glacius; and fo Luther
married her himfeif, upon the 13th of June 1525.
This conduft of his was blamed not only by the
Catholics, but, as Melanflhon fays, by thofe of hia
own party. He was even for fome time alhamed of
it himfelf; and owns, that his marriage had made him
fo defpicable, that he hoped his humiliation would re¬
joice the angels, and vex the devils. Melan&hon found
him fo afflifted with what he had done, that he wrote
fome letters of confolation to him. It was not fo much
the marriage, as the circumftances of the time, and the
precipitation with which it w-as done, that occafiontd
the cenfures paffed upon Luther. He married all of a
fudden, and at a when Germany was groaning under
the miferies of a war, which was faid at leaft to be
owing to Lutheranifm. Then, again, it was thought
an indecent thing in a man of 42 years of age, who
was then, as he pretended, reftoring the Gofpel and re¬
forming mankind, to involve himfelf in marriage with
a woman of 26, either through incontinence, or any
account whatever. But Luther, as foon as he had re¬
covered
I. u T [431
Lmher. covered himfelf a little from this abalhrrient, affiimed
his former air of intrepidity, and boldly fupported what
he had done with reafons. “ I took a wife, (fays he),
in obedience to my father’s commands ; and haftened
the confummation, in order to prevent impediments,
and ftop the tongues of flanderers.'’ It appears from
his own confeflion, that this reformer was very fond
of Mrs de Bore, and ufed to call her Catharine;
which made profane people think and fay wicked
things of him : “ And therefore,” fays he, “ I am mar¬
ried of a fudden, not only that I might not be obliged
to hear the clamours which I knew would be railed
againft me, but to ftop the mouths of thofe who re¬
proached me with Catharine de Bore.” Luther alfo
gives us to underftand, that he did it partly as con¬
curring with his grand fcheme of oppofnig the Catho¬
lics.
Luther, notwithftanding, was not himfelf altogether
fatisfied with thefe reafons. He did not think the ftephe
had taken could be fufficiently juftified upon the prin¬
ciples of human prudence ; and therefore we find him,
in other places, endeavouring to account for it from a
fupcrnatural impulfe. But whether there was any
thing divine in it or not, Luther found himfelf ex¬
tremely happy in his new ftate, and efpecially after his
wife had brought him a fon. “ My rib Kate (fays
he in the joy of his heart) defires her compliments to
you, and thanks you for the favour of your kind let¬
ter. She is very well, through God’s mercy. She is
obedient and complying with me in all things; and more
agreeable, I thank God, than I could have expefted;
fo that 1 would n6t change my poverty for the wealth
of Croefus.” He was heard to fay, (Seckendorf tells
us,) that he would not exchange his wife for the king¬
dom of France, nor for the riches of the Venetians;
and that for three reafons : firft, Becaufe Ihe had been
given him by God, at the time when he implored the
afliftance of the Holy Ghoft in finding a good wife ;
fecondly, Becaufe, though ftie was not without faults,
yet Ihe had fewer than other women: and, thirdly,
Becaufe fhe religioufly obferved the conjugal fidelity (he
owed him. There went at firft; a report, that Catha¬
rine de Bore was brought to bed fgon after her mar¬
riage with Luther ; but Erafmus, who had wrote that
news to his friends, acknowledged the falfity of it a
little after.
His marriage, however, did not retard his aftivity
and diligence in the work of reformation. He revifed
the Augfburg confeffion of faith, and apology for the
Proteftants, when the Proteftant religion was firft efta-
blifhed on a firm balls. See Protestants and Re¬
formation.
After this, Luther had little elfe to do than to
fit down and contemplate the mighty work he had
finifhed ; for that a lingle monk ftiould be able to
give the church fo rude a fhock, that there need¬
ed but fuch another entirely to overthrow it, may
very well feem a mighty work. He did indeed little
elfe : for the remainder of his life was fpent in exhort-
ing princes, ftates, and univerfities, to confirm the re¬
formation which had been brought about thro’ him ;
and publifhing from time to time fuch writings as
might encourage, direft, and aid them in doing it.
The emperor" threatened temporal punifhment with
armies, and the pope eternal with bulls and anathe-
8 ] L U T
mas ; but Luther cared for none of their threats. His Luther,
friend and coadjutor MedamShon was not fo indiffe-
rent ; for Melanfthon had a great deal of foftnefs, mo¬
deration, and diffidence in his make, which made him
very uneafy, and even forrowful, in the prefent difor-
ders. Hence we find many of Luther’s letters writ¬
ten on purpofe to fupport and comfort him under thefe
feveral diftreffesand anxieties.
In the year 1533, Luther wrote a confolatory
epiftle to the citizens of Ofchatz, who had fuffered
fome hardfhips for adhering to the Augftmrg confef¬
fion of faith ; in which, among other things, he fays:
“ The devil is the hoft, and the world is his inn ; fo
that w'herever you come, you {hall be fure to find
this ugly hoft.” He had alfo about this time a ter.
rible controverfy with George duke of Saxony, who
had fuch an averfion to Luther’s doftfine, that he
obliged his fubjedls to take an oath that they would
never embrace it. However, 60 or 70 citizens of Leip-
fic were found to have deviated a little from the Catho¬
lic way in fome point or other, and they were known
previonfly to have confulted Luther about it; upon
which George complained to the ele&or John, that
Luther had not only abufed his perfon, but alfo
preached up rebellion among his fubjedls. The ele&or
ordered Luther to be acquainted with this; and to be
told at the fame time, that if he did not clear himfelf
of the charge, he could not poffibly efcape punifh¬
ment. But Luther eafily refuted the accufation, by
proving, that he had been fo far from ftirring up his
fubje&s againft him, on the fcore of religion, that, on
the contrary, he had exhorted them rather to undergo
the greateft hardfhips, and even fuffer themfelves to be
baniftied.
In the year 1534, the Bible tranflated by him into
German was firft printed, as the old privilege, dated
at Bibliopolis, under the eleflor’s hand, {hows ; and
it was publiftied the year after. He alfo publifhed
this year a book againft mafles and the confecration of
priefts, in which he relates a conference he had with
the devil upon thofe points ; for it is remarkable in
Luther’s whole hiftory, that he never had any confli&s
of any kind within, but the devil was always his anta-
gonift. In February 1537, an affembly was held at
Smalkald about matters of religion, to which Luther
and Melanfthcm were called. At this meeting Lu¬
ther was feized with fo grievous an illnefs, that there
were no hopes of his recovery. He was afflidled with
the ftone, and had a ftoppage of urine for 11 days. In
this terrible condition he would needs undertake to tra¬
vel, notwithftanding all that his friends could fay or do
to prevent him : his refolution, however, was attend¬
ed with a good effe&; for the night after his departure,
he began to be better. As he was carried along, he
made his will, in which he bequeathed his deteftation
of Popery to his friends and brethren ; agreeably to
what he often ufed to fay: P eft is eram vivus, moriens
era mors tua, papa; that is, “ I was the plague of
Popery in iny life, and (hall continue to be fo in my
death.”
Thi^ year the Pope and the court of Rome, finding
it impoffible to deal with the proteftants by force, be¬
gan to have recourfe to ftratagem. They affe&cd there¬
fore to think, that though Luther had indeed carried
things on with a high hand and to a violent extreme,
L U T [43
Luther, yet what he had pleaded in defence of thefe meafures
' was not entirely without foundation. They talked with
a feeming (how of moderation ; and Pius III. who fuc-
ceeded Clement VII. propofed a reformation firft
among themfelves, and even went fo far as to fix a place
for a council to meet at for that purpofe. But Luther
treated this farce as it deferred to be treated; unmafited
and detected it immediately ; and, to ridicule it the
more ftrongly, caufed a pidlure to be drawn, in which
was reprefented the pope feated on high upon a throne,
fome cardinals about him with foxes tails on, and
feeming to evacuate upwards and downwards, (furfum
deorfum repurgare, as Melchior Adam expreffes it.)
This was fixed over-againft the title-page, to let the
% readers fee at once the feope and defign of the book;
which was, to expofe that cunning and artifice with
which thofe fubtle politicians affefied to cleanfe and
purify themfelves from their errors and fuperfiitions.
Luther publifhed about the fame time a confutation of
the pretended Grant of Conftantine to Sylvefter bifhop
of Rome; and alfo fome letters of John Hufs, written
from his prifon at Conflance, to the Bohemians.
In this manner was Luther employed till his death,
which happened in the year 1546. That year, accom¬
panied by Melan&hon, he paid a vifit to his own coun¬
try, which he had not feen for many years, and return¬
ed again in fafety. But foon after, he was called thi¬
ther again by the earls of Mansfeldt, to compofe
>• fome differences which had arifen about their boun¬
daries. Luther had not been ufed to fuch matters;
but becaufe he was born at Ifleben, a town in the
territory of Mansfeldt, he was willing to do his
country what fervice he could, even in this way.
Preaching his lafl fermon therefore at Wittemberg,
upon the 17th of January, he fet off on the 23d; and
at Hall in Saxony lodged with Juitus Jonas, with
whom he ftayed three days, becaufe the waters were
out. Upon the 28th, he paffed over the river with his
three fons and Dr Jonas; and being in fome danger,
he faid to the Do&or, “ Do not you think it would
rejoice the devil exceedingly, if I and you, and my
three fons, (hould be drowned?” When he entered the
territories of the earls of Mansfeldt, he was received by
too horfemen, or more, and conduced in a very ho¬
nourable manner; but was at the fame time fo very ill,
that it was feared he would die. He faid, that thefe
fits of ficknefs often came upon him, when he had any
great bufinefs to undertake: of this, however, he did
not recover; but died upon the 18th of February, in
the 63d year of his age. A little before he expired,
he admonifhed thofe that were about him to pray to
God for the propagation of the Gofpel ; “ becaufe,
(faid he), the council of Trent, which had fat once or
twice, and the pope, would devife ftrange things againft
it.” Soon after, his body was put into a leaden cof¬
fin, and carried with funeral pomp to the church at
Ifleben, when Dr Jonas preached a fermon upon the
occafion. The earls of Mansfeldt defined that his body
Ihould be interred in their territories ; but the ele&or
of Saxony infilled upon his being brought back to Wit¬
temberg: which was accordingly done; and there he
was buried with the greateft pomp that perhaps ever
happened to any private man. Princes, earls, nobles,
and (Indents without number, attended theproceffion; '
and Melanfthon made his funeral oration.
Vox.. VI.
19 ] L U T
A thoufand lies were invented by the Papifts about Luther,
Luther’s death. Some faid that he died fuddenly ;
others, that he killed himfelf; others, that the devil ni n>*
ftrangled him ; others, that his corpfe flunk fo abo¬
minably, that they were forced to leave it in the way,
as it was carried to be interred. Nay, lies were in¬
vented about his death, even while he was yet alive.
Luther, however, to give the mod effectual refutation
of this account of his death, put forth an advcrtife-
ment of his being alive; and, to be even with the Pa¬
pifts for the malice they had (hewn in this lie, wrote
a book at the fame time to prove, that ^ the'papacy
was founded by the devil.”
Luther’s works were collected after his death', and
printed at Wittemberg in 7 vols folio. Catharine de
Bore furvived her hufband a few years; and continued
the firlt year of her widowhood at Wittemberg, tho’
Luther had advifed her to feek another place of refi-
dence. She went from thence in the year 1547, when
the town was furrendered to the emperor Charles V.
Before her departure, (lie had received a prefent of 50
crowns from Chriftian III. king of Denmark; and the
eleftor of Saxony, and the counts of Mansfeldt, gave
her good tokens of their liberality. With thefe addi¬
tions, to what Luther had left her, (he had wherewith¬
al to maintain herfelf and her family handfomely. She
returned to Wittemberg, when the town was reftored
to the eledlor; where (he lived in a very devout and
pious manner, till the plague obliged her to leave it
again in the year 1552. She fold what (he had at Wit¬
temberg; and retired to Torgau, with a refolution to
end her life there. An unfortunate mifchance befel
her in her journey thither, which proved fatal to her.
The horfes growing unruly, and attempting to run
away, (lie leaped but of the vehicle (he was conveyed
in ; and, by leaping, got a fall, of which (he died about
a quarter of a year after, at Torgau, upon the 20th of
December 1552. She was buried there in the great
church, where her tomb and epitaph are ftill to be feen;
and the univerfity of Wittemberg, which was then
at Torgau becaufe the plague raged at Wittem¬
berg, made a public programma concerning the funeral
pomp.
LUTHERANISM, the fentiments of Martin Lu¬
ther with regard to religion.
Lutheranifm has undergone fome alterations fince
the time of its founder.—Luther reje&ed the epiftleof
St James, as inconfiflent with the doftrine of St Paul,
in relation to juftification ; he alfo fet afide the apoca-
lypfe : both which are now received as canonical, in
the Lutheran church.
Luther reduced the number of facraments to two,
viz. baptifm, and the eucharift : but he believed the
impanation, or confubftantiation, that is, that the
matter of the bread and wine, remain with the body
and blood of Chrift; and it is in this article that the
main difference between the Lutheran and EngK(h
churches confifts.
Luther maintained the mafs to be no facrifice ; ex¬
ploded the adoration of the boft, auricular confeffion,
meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the wor-
(hip of images, &c. which had been introduced in the
corrupt times of tic Romifti church. He alfo oppo-
fed the doflrine of free will, maintained predeflina-
tion, and aflerted our juflification to be folely by the
24 N im-
I.utkeran
Luxem¬
burg.
LUX [43
5 imputation of the merits and fatisfa&ion of Chrift.
He alfo oppofed the failings in the Romiih church,
monailical vows, the celibate of the clergy, &c.
— LUTHERANS, the Chriltians who follow the opi¬
nions of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers
of the church in the t6th century. See Luther.
LUTHERN, in architedlure, a kind of window-
over the cornice,-in the roof of a building; (landing
perpendicularly over the naked of a wall, and ferving
to illuminate the upper (lory.
Lutherns are of various forms, as fquare, femicir-
cular, round, called bull’s eyes, flat arches, &c.
LUTRA, in zoology. See Mustela.
LUTTI (Beneditto), an eminent painter, born at
Florence in 1666. He was thedifciple of Antonio Do-
minico Gabiani, and hismerit was judged equal to that
of his mailer: he painted few befide eafel-picces; and
his works were much valued and fought for in England,
France, and Germany. The emperor knighted him;
and the ele&or of Mentz, together with his patent of
knighthood, fent him a crofs fet with diamonds. Lutti
was never fatisfied in finiiliing his pi&ures ; yet tho’ he
often retouched them, they never appeared laboured.
He died in 1724.
LUTZEN, a town of Upper Saxony, in Germany;
famous fora battle fought here in 1632, when Guita-
vus Adolphus king of Sweden was killed. It is fi-
tuated on the river Elder, in E. Long. 12. 37. N.
Lat. 51. 20.
LUXATION, is when any bone is moved out of
its place or articulation, fo as to impede or deftroy its
proper office or motion. See Surgery.
LUXEMBURG, a city of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It
is feated partly on a hill, and partly on a plain ; but
is very itrong, both by art and nature. It is but in¬
differently built, though there are fome good (lone
houfes in it. There is nothing very remarkable among
the ftruflures but the Jefuits church; which is a hand-
fome edifice, after the modern taile. It was taken by
Lewis XIV. in 1684; who fo augmented the fortifica¬
tions, that it is now one of the ftrongefl towns in Eu¬
rope. It was ceded to Spain by the treaty of Ryf-
wick; but the French took it again in 1701, and
gave it up to the houfe of Auftria by the treaty of
Utrecht. It is 25 miles fouth-weil of Treves, and 100
weft of Mentz. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 49. 52.
Luxemburg, the duchy of, is one of the 17 pro¬
vinces of the Netherlands. It is bounded on the eaft
by the archbifhoprick of Treves ; on the fouth, by
Lorrain ; on the weft, partly by Champagne, and
partly by the biihoprickof Liege, which likewife, with
part of Limburg, bound it on the north. It lies in
the foreft of Ardenne, which is one of the moil famous
in Europe. In fome places it is covered with moun¬
tains and woods, and in general it is fertile in corn and
wine; and here are a great number of iron-mines. The
principal rivers are, the Mofelle, the Sour, the Ourte,
and the Semoy. It belongs partly to the houfe of Au¬
ftria, and partly to the French ; and Thionville is the
capital of the French part.
LUXEMBURG (Francois Henry de Montmo-
renci) duke of, and marfhal of France, a renowned ge¬
neral in the fervice of Lewis XIV. was born in 1628.
He was with the prince of Conde at the battle of Ro-
20 ] LUX
croy, in 1643 5 and in 1668 diftinguiihed himfelf at I-
the conqueit of Tranche Compte. In 1672, he com-~
manded in chief the French army in Holland; when
he defeated the enemy near Woerden and Bodegrave,
and was univerfally admired for the fine retreat he
made in 1673. He became marfhal of France in 1675 ;
gained the battle of Flerus in 1690, that of Steenkirk
in 1692, and that of Nerwind in 1693. He died at
Verfailles, in 1695.
LUXURIANS flos, “ a luxuriant or double
flower;” a flower, fome of whofe parts are increafed in
in number, to the diminution or entire exclufion of
others.
The parts that are augmented or multiplied in luxu¬
riant flowers, are the flower-cup and petals, which
Linnasus confiders as the teguments or covers of the
flower ; the parts that arc diminifhed, or entirely ex¬
cluded, are the (lamina or chives, which the fame au¬
thor denominates the male organs of generation.
Luxuriance in flowers is capable of the three follow¬
ing varieties.
1. A flower is faid to be multiplied, (flos multi-
plicatus), when the increafe of the petals is not fuck
as to exclude all the ftamina : in thisfenfe, flowers are
properly faid to be double, triple, or quadruple, ac¬
cording to the number of multiplications of the petals.
2. A flower is faid to be full, (flos penus), when,
by the multiplication of the petals, all the ftamina are
excluded. Such are moil of the double flowers that
engage the attention of florifts.
3. A flower is faid to be prolific, (flos prolifer)^
which produces flowers, and fometimes leaves, from its
centre.
For a particular defeription of each of thefe kinds
of luxuriance in flowers, fee the articles Multiplica-
tus Flos, Plenus Flos, and Prolifer//W.
Many natural orders of plants do not in any circum-
ftances produce luxuriant flowers. Of this kind are
the mafqued-flowers of Tournefort, excepting calve’s-
fnout; the rough-leaved, umbelliferous, ftarry-plants,
and fuch as flower at the joints, of Ray: fome umbel¬
liferous flowers, however, are prolific.
The pea-bloom or butterfly-fhaped flowers are
rarely rendered double ; fome inftances, however, of
luxuriance, are obferved in a fpecies of ladies-finger,
coronilla, and broom.
All luxuriant flowers are vegetable monfters. Such
as are perfedlly full, by which we mean the greatefi:
degree of luxuriance, cannot be propagated by feeds;
becaufe thefe, for want of impregnation, can never ri¬
pen. Full flowers, therefore, are very properly deno¬
minated by Linnaeus, This higheil degree
of luxuriance is very common in carnation, lychnis, a-
nemone, flock, Indian erefs, rofe, marfh marigold,
ranunculus, violet, pceony, and narciflus.
Flowers which do not exclude all the ftamina, per-
fe& their feeds. Of this kind are poppy, fennel-flower,
campanula, and fome others.
Some flowers, as thofe of the water-lily, fig-mari¬
gold, and cadlus, have many rows or feries of petals,
without the number of ftamina being in the leaft di¬
minifhed. Such flowers are by no means to be reckon¬
ed luxuriant, in the flighteft degree.
Luxuriance in flowers is generally owing to excefs
of nourifhment.
LUXURY;
Luxury
'J
Lychnis.
L Y C [ 432. ] L Y C
LUXURY; voluptuoufncfs, or an extravagant in¬
dulgence in diet and drefs.
Concerning the general utility of luxury to a ftate,
there is much controverfy among the political wri¬
ters. Baron Montefqnieu lays it down, that luxury
is neceffary in monarchies, as in France ; but ruin¬
ous to democracies, as in Holland. With regard
therefore to Britain, whofe government is compound¬
ed of* both fpecies, it may ftill be a dubious que-
ftion, how far private luxury is a public evil ; and, as
fuch, cognizable by public law's. And indeed our le-
giflators have feveral times changed their fentiments as
to this point: for formerly there were a number of pe¬
nal laws exifting, to rellrain excefs in apparel ; chief¬
ly made in the reigns of Edward III. IV. and Hen¬
ry VIII. againft picked (hoes, (hort doublets, and
long coats ; all of which were repealed by flatute
i Jac. I. c. 25. But, as to excefs in diet, there ftill
remains one ancient ftatute unrepealed, 10 Edvv. III.
ft. 3. which ordains, that no man (hall beferved, at din¬
ner or fupper, with more than two courfes ; except up¬
on feme great holidays there fpecified, in which he may
be ferved with three.
LYBIA, or Libya, a name anciently given to all
that part of Africa lying between the border of E-
gypt and the river Triton ; and comprehending Cyre-
naica, Marmarica, and the Regio Syrtica. See thefe
articles.
LYC^EUM, in Grecian antiquity, an academy fi-
tuated on the banks of the Iliflus at Athens. It was
compofed of porticoes and walks, where Ariftotle
taught philofophy; walking there conftantly every day
till the hour of anointing, whence he and his followers
bad the name of Peripatetics.
LYCJEUS, ^anc. geog ), a mountain of Arcadia,
facred to Jupiter; whence Jupiter Lyceeus. (Pliny.)
Sacred alfo to Pan, (Virgil) : and hence Lyceea, the
rites performed to Pan on this mountain ; which E-
vander carrying with him to Latium, were called Z«-
percalia, (Virgil).
LYCAONIA, (anc. geog.) a fmall country of the
Hither Afia, contained between Pamphylia tothe fouth,
Cappadocia to the north, Pifidia and Phrygia to the
weft, and Armenia Minor to the eaft. Lycaones> the
people. This country, tho’ fituated very near mount
Taurus, and part of it on it, yet the Romans reckon¬
ed it to Afia intra Taurum. Arcadia, anciently call¬
ed Zycatwn*, (Stephanus.) Alfo an ifland in the Ti¬
ber, joined to Rome by a bridge, and to the land by
another, namely, the Ceftius and Fabricius.
LYCHNIS, campion, including alfo the batche-
lor’s button, catch fly, &c.; a genus of the pentagynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
Species, &c. i. The Chalcedonica, or Chalcedonian
fcarlet lychnis, hath a fibrated perennial root; up¬
right, ftraight, hairy, annual ftalks, rifing three or
four feet high ; garnifhed with long, fpear-pointed,
clofe-fitting leaves, by pairs oppofite ; and the (talk
crowned by a large, compaft, flat bunch of beautiful
fcarlet or flame-coloured flowers, appearing in June
and July. Of this there are varieties, with Angle
fcarlet flowers, with large double fcarlet flowers, of
exceeding beauty and elegance, with pale-red flowers,
and with white flowers. Of thefe varieties, the dou¬
ble fcarlet lychnis is fuperior to all for fize and e!e- Lychnis,
gance : the flowers being large, very double, and col-L3'co^ontM
le£ted into a very large bunch, exhibite a charm-
ing appearance ; the (ingle fcarlet kind is alfo very
pretty ; and the others effeft an agreeable variety with
the fcarlet kinds. 2 The dicecia, or dioecious lychnis,
commonly called bachelors buttcn, hath librated pe¬
rennial roots ; upright ftalks, branching very diffufe
and irregular, two or three feet high ; having oval,
acute-pointed, rough leaves, by pairs oppofite; and
all the branches terminated by clufters of dioecious
flowers of different colours and properties in the va¬
rieties ; flowering in April and May. The varieties,
are the common (ingle red-flowered bachelors button,
double red, double white, and Angle white-flowered.
The double varieties are exceedingly ornamental in
their bloom; the flowers large, very double, and
continue long in blow ; the Angle red fort grows
wild by ditch Aides and other moift places in many
parts of England ; from which the doubles were ac¬
cidentally obtained by culture in gardens. The flowers
are often dioecious, /. e. male and female on diftindt
plants. 3. The vifcaria, or vifcous German lychnis, com¬
monly called catch-fly, hath fibry perennial roots;
crowned by a tuft of long, graffy leaves clofe to the
ground ; many ereift, ftraight, Angle ftalks, rifing a
foot and a half or two feet high, exfuding from their
upper part a vifcous or clammy matter; garnilhed with
long narrow leaves, by pairs oppofite; and terminated
by many reddifli-purple flowers, in clufters one above
another, forming a fort of long loofe fpike ; all the
flowers with entire pentals ; flowering in May. Of
this alfo there are varieties, with Angle red flowers,
with double red flowers, and with white flowers. The
double variety is confiderably the mod eligible for
general culture, and is propagated in plenty by part¬
ing the roots. All the varieties of this fpecies
emitting a glutinous liquid matter from their ftalks,
flies happening to light thereon fometimes (lick
and entangle themfelves, whence the plant obtain
the name Catch-fly. 4. The flos-cuculi, cuckoo¬
flower lychnis, commonly called ragged-robin, hath
fibry perennial roots ; upright, branchlefs, channelled
ftalks, rifing near two feet high ; garniftied with long,
narrow, fpear-fhaped leaves, in pairs oppofite ; and
terminated by branchy foot-ftalks, fuftaining many
purple, deeply quadrifid flowers; appearing in May.
The flowers having each petal deeply quadrifid in a
torn or ragged-like manner, the plant obtained the
cant name of Ragged-robin. There are varieties with
Angle flowers and double flowers. The double fort is
a large, very multiple, fair flower: it is an improved
variety of the Angle, which grows wild in mod of our
moift meadows, and is rarely cultivated; but the
double, being very ornamental, merits culture in every
garden. All the four fpecies and refpedive varieties
are very hardy ; all fibrous-rooted, the roots peren¬
nial ; but are annual in ftalks, which rife in fpring,
flower in fummer, fucceeded in the Angles by plenty
of feed in autumn, by which all the Angle varieties
may be raifed in abundance, but the doubles only by
dividing the roots, and fome by cuttings of theflower-
ftalks.
LYCODONTES, in natural hiftory, the petrified
24 N 2 teeth
L Y C [ 4322 ] L Y C
Lyeoper* teeth of the lupus-pifcis, or wolf-filh, frequently
don. founcj fofllle. They are of different (hapes; but the
mod common kind rife into a femiorbieular form, and
are hollow within, fomewhat refembling an acorn-cup:
this hollow is found fometirnes empty, and fometimes
filled with the ftratum in which it is immerfed. Many
of them have an outer-circle, of a different colour
from the reft.
LYCOPERDON, in botany ; a genus of the order
of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia ejafs of plants.
There are ten fpecies, of which the following are the
moft remarkable, i. The tuber, truffles, or fubter-
raneous puff-balls, is a native of woods both in Scotland
and England. It is a fubterraneous fungus, growing
generally in clufters three or four inches under ground,
without any vifible root. The figure of it is nearly
fpherieal, the fize that of a potatoe ; the exterior
coat at fir ft white, afterwards black, and ftudded with
pyramidical or polyhedrons tubercles; the internal
fubftance folid and callous, of a dirty-white or pale-
brown colour, grain’d like a nutmeg with ferpemine
lines; in which, according to Micheli, are imbedded
minute oval capfules, containing each from two to
four round warted feeds. The truffles of Great Bri¬
tain feldom exceed three or four ounces in weight ;
but in Italy, and fome other parts of the continent,
they are faid to have been found of the enormous fize
of eight and even 14 pounds. They are received at
our tables, either frefh and roafted like potatoes, or
dried and fiiced into ragouts. They have a volatile
and fomewhat urinous fmell, and are reputed to be
aphrodifiacal. Dogs are with much pains taught to
hunt for them by the feent, and to fcratch up the
ground under which they lie.
2. The bovifta, or common puff-ball, is frequent in
meadows and paftures in the autumn. It varies ex¬
ceedingly in fize, figure, fuperficies, and colour.
In general, it confifts of a fack or bag, having a root
at its bafe, and the bag compofed of three mem-
brances, an epidermis, a tough white fkin, and an
interior coat which adheres clofely to the central pith.
The pith in the young plants is of a yellowiih colour,
at firft: firm and folid, but foon changes into a cellular
fpongy fubftance, full of a dark dull-green powder,
which difeharges itfelf through an aperture at the
top of the fungus, which aperture is formed of la¬
cerated fegments, in fome varieties reflexed. The
powder is believed to be the feeds, which through a
microfcope appear of a fphasrical form, and to be an¬
nexed to elaftic hairs. See Haller's Hijl. Helvet. n.
2172.
Among the numerous varieties of this fungus, the
glabrum is moft remarkable. It is a fmooth feflile
kind, of a nearly fpherical form, puckered or con-
tradted at the root. This fometimes grows to an
enormous fize. It has been found in England as big
as a man’s head ; and at Carraria, near Padua in Italy,
fpecimens have been gathered, weighing 25 pounds,
and meafuring two yards in circumference : but its
more ordinary fize is that of a walnut or an apple.
The varieties of this fpecies have no limits, being
frequently found to run into one another; the fcaly,
warty, and echinated coats turning fmooth as the
plants grow old, and the neck of the fungus having
no determinate length. The natural colour of the
puff-ball is either white, grey, or aih-coloured : but Eycopo-
is fometimes found yellowilh, tawny, and brownifti. diulTI»
The internal fpongy part of it, bound on to wounds,
is efteemed good to flop bleedings. Preffed and dried
in an oven, the puff-ball becomes a kind of tinder,
the fmoke of which is faid to intoxicate bees. See
Gent. Mag. July 1766. The Italians fry the great
variety, and indeed any of the others when young,
and eat them with fait and oil, according to" the
relation of Marfigli.
LYCOPODIUM, or club-moss; a genus of the
order of mufei, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. There are 24 fpecies ; of which the following
are the moft remarkable. 1. The clavatum, or com¬
mon club-mofs, is common in dry and mountainous
places, and in fir forefts. The ftalk is proftrate,
branched, and creeping, from a foot to two or three
yards long; the radicles woody. The leaves are nu¬
merous, narrow, lanceolated, acute, often incurved at
the extremity, terminated with a long white hair, and
every where furround the ftalk. The peduncles are
eretft, firm, and naked (except being thinly fet with
lanceolate fcaks); and arife from the ends of the
branches. They are generally twro or three inches
long, and terminated with two cylindrical yellowifh
fpikes, imbricated with oval-acute feales, finely lace¬
rated on the edges, and ending with a hair. In the
ala or bofom of each fcale is a kidney lhaped capfule,
which burfts with elafticity when ripe, and throws
out a light yellow powder, which, blown into the
flame of a candle, flafhes with a fmall explofion. The
Swedes make mats of this mofs to rub their fhoes
upon. In Ruffia, and fome other countries, the pow¬
der of the capfules is ufed in medicine to heal galls in
children, chops in the fkin, and other fores. It is alfo
ufed to powder over officinal pills, and to make artifi¬
cial lightning at theatres. The Poles make a decoc¬
tion of the plant, and, dipping a linen cloth into it,
apply it to the heads of perfons affli&ed with the dif-
eafe called the plica polonica> which is faid to be cured,
by this kind of fomentation.
2. The felago, or fir club-mofs, is common in the
Highland mountains of Scotland, and in the Hebrides.
The ftalk at the bafe is fingle and reclining; but a
little higher is divided into upright dichotomous
branches, from two to fix inches high, furrounded
with eight longitudinal oblique feries of lanceolate,
fmooth, rigid; imbricated leaves. Near the fummits
of the branches, in the aU of the leaves, are placed
fingle kidney-fhaped capfules, confifting of two valves,
which open horizontally like the fhells of an oyfter,
and call out a fine yellow powder. Thefe capfules
Linnaeus fuppofes to be anther#, or male parts of
fru&ification. In the a!# alfo of many of the leaves,
near the tops of the branches, are often found what
the fame great author calls female flowers, \>v\ which
the ingenious Haller efteems to be only gems or buds
of a future plant. They coafift, firft, of four ftiff,
lanceolate, incurved, minute leaves, one of the outer-
moft longer and larger than the reft. Thefe are fup-
pofed to correfpond to the calyx in regular flowers.
Again, at the bottom of this calyx, are five fmall pel¬
lucid fubftances refembling leaves, vifible only by a
microfcope, which are fuppofed analogous to piftils,
Thefe, in time, grow up into three large broad leaves,
two
L Y D [ 4323 ] L Y D
&,ycophron two of the five united together like the hoof of an ox;
ll with a third narrower one annexed at the bafe, and
Ly gate. twQ m;nnte one8 oppofite to the other three.
Thefe five leaves are joined at the bafe; and in autumn,
falling from the calyx, vegetate, and produce a new
plant. See a diflertation D: feminibns mufcorum, Amtxnit.
Acadcm. II. p. 261. In the ifland of Raafay, near
Sky, in Rofsfhire, and fome other places, the inhabi-
tants'ttiake ufe of this plant inftead of alum, to fix
the colours in dyeing. The Highlanders alfo fome-
times take an infufion of it as an emetic and cathartic:
but it operates violently; and, unlefs taken in a fmall
dofe, brings on giddinefs and convulfions. Linnaeus
informs us, that the Swedes ufe a decodlion of it to
deftroy lice on fwine and other animals.
LYCOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and gram¬
marian, born at Colchis in Euboea, flourilhed about
304 B. C. and, according to Ovid, was killed by an
arrow. He wrote 20 tragedies; but all his works are
loft, except a poem intitled Cajfandra, which contains
a long train of predidtions, which he fuppofes to
have been made by Caflandra, Priam’s daughter.
This poem is extremely obfcure. The beft edition
of it is that of Dr Potter, printed at Oxford, in 1697,
folio.
LYCURGUS, the celebrated legiflator of the
Spartans, was the fon of Eunomes king of Sparta.
 He travelled to Greece, to the ifle of Crete,
to Egypt, and even to the Indies, to converfe with
the fages and learned men of thofe countries, and to
learn their manners, their cuitoms, and their laws.
After the death of his brother Polydidtes, who was
king of Sparta, his widow offered the crown to Ly-
curgus, promifmg that (he would make herfelf mif-
carry of the child of which (he was pregnant, provided
he would marry her ; but Lycurgus nobly refufed
thefe advantageous offers, and afterwards contented
himfelf with being tutor to his nephew Charillus, and
reftored to him the government when he came of age:
but notwithftanding this regular and generous con-
du£I, he was accufed of a defign to ufurp the crown.
This calumny obliged him to retire to the ifland of
Crete, where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the
laws and cuftoms of nations. At his return to Lace¬
daemon, he reformed the government: and, to prevent
the diforders occafioned by luxury and the love of
riches, he prohibited the ufe of gold and filver; placed
all the citizens in a ftate of equality; and introduced the
ftrideft temperance, the moft exad difcipline, and
thofe admirable laws, which (a few excepted) have
been celebrated by all hiftorians. It is faid, that, to
engage the Lacedaemonians to obferve them inviola¬
bly, he made them promife with an oath not to change
any part of them till his return ; and that he after¬
wards went to the ifland of Crete, where he killed
himfelf, after having ordered that his afhes fliould be
thrown into the fea, for fear left if his body fliould be
carried to Sparta the Lacedaemonians would think
themfelv.es abfolved from their oath. He flouriftied
about 870 B. C.
LYDGATE (John), called the Monk of Bury ;
not, as Cibber conjedlures, becaufe he was a native of
that place, for he was born about the year 1380, in
the village of Lydgate ; but becaufe he was a monk
of the Benedidine convent at St Edmund's-Bury.
After ftudying fome time in our Englifli univerfities, Lydia,
he travelled to France and Italy; and, having acquired Lydyat-
a competent knowledge of the languages of thofe
courffries, he returned to London, where he opened a
fchool, in which he inftrufted the fons of the nobility
in polite literature. At what time he retired to the
convent of St Edmund’s-Bury, does not appear;
but he was certainly there in 1415. He was living
in~i446, aged about 66; but in what year he died,
is not known. Lydgate, according to Pits, was an
elegant poet, a perfuaiive rhetorician, an expert ma¬
thematician, an acute philofopher, and a tolerable di¬
vine. He was a voluminous writer; and, confidering
the age in which he lived, an excellent poet. His
language is lefs obfolete, and his verfification much
more harmonious, than the language and verfification
of Chaucer, who wrote about half a century before
him. He wrote, 1. Hiftory of the Theban war,
printed at the end of Chaucer’s works, 1561, 1602,
1687. 2. Poemation of goodcounfel; at the end of
Chaucer’s works. 3. The life of He&or; London
1594, fol. printed by Grofs, dedicated to Henry V.
3. Life of the Bleffed Virgin ; printed by Caxton.
4. The proverbs of Lydgate upon the fall of princes;
printed by Winck. Word. Lond 410. 5. Dis¬
pute of the horfe, the flieep, andthegoofe; printed
in Caxton’s Colleft. 410. 6. The temple of brafs ;
among the works of Chaucer. 7. London lickpenny;
vide Stow’s hiftory, &c. &c. Bcfides an incredible
number of other poems and tranflations preferved in
various libraries, and of which the reader will find a
catalogue in bilhop Tanner..
LYDIA (anc. geogr), the fame with M.i:onia;
though fome reckoned this laft only a part, by the
name of Lydia Superior, (Callimachus, Paufanias);
inhabited by the people called Meeones, (Strabo) ;
Meones, (Homer, Dionyfius Periegetes); the Lower
Lydia, or that towards the fea-coaft, being inhabited
by the Lydi. Thus the cafe anciently flood; though
not fo conftantly, but that thofe towards the Lower
Lydia were called Meones; and Lydi, thofe towards
the Higher. Afterwards, the colony of the lonians
prevailing, and the name Meones becoming gradually
to ceafe, the lower part came to be called Ionia, the
name Lydia being appropriated to the higher. This
latter had Ionia on the weft, Phrygia on the eaft,
Myfia to the north, and Caria to the fouth. In Crce-
fus’s time, the kingdom of Lydia extended from the
Halys on the eaft, to the Egean fea on the weft, fide.
Lydi, the people, defendants of Lud, the fon of Shem.
They were the firft who coined gold and filver, (He¬
rodotus); were called Afir/r, from their vicious cha¬
racter, (Athenasus); proftituted their daughters, (He¬
rodotus, Horace) ; anciently a brave people, all ex¬
cellent horfemen, (idem); Lydius, the epithet. Lydius
mos, denotes effeminacy.
LYDYAT (Thomas), a learned Englifli divine,
born in 1572, and educated at Oxford. About the
year 1609, he became acquainted with Dr James
Uflier, afterwards archhiftiop of Armagh, who carried
him to Ireland. He was at Dublin college for about
two years, after which he returned to England ; and the
reCtory of Alkrington becoming vacant, he was pre-
fented to it: but at length, being engaged for the
debts of a near relation, which for the prefent he was
unable.
L Y M [ 4324 ] L Y M
Lydius unable to pay, having before fpent his patrimony in
N printing feveral books, he was fent to prifon ; and was
"ymp confined at Oxford, in the King’s-bench, and elfe-
where, till Sir William Bofwell, a generous patron of
learned men, Dr Robert Pink, warden of New-college,
bifhop Uiher, and Dr Laud, difcharged the debt. In
the civil wars, he fuffered much in his reftory of Alk-
rington from the parliament-party ; was four times
pillaged to the value of at leaft 70 1.; and was forced
for a quarter of a year together to borrow a Ihirt to
fhift himfelf. He died in 1646. He wrote fome
pieces in Englifh, and many works in Latin, on chro*
nology and natural hiltory.
LYDIUS LAPIS, in the natural hiftory of the an¬
cients; the name of the (lone ufed by way of touch-
ftone for the trial of gold and filver, and called by
fome Heraclius Lapis; both of which names were alfo
applied by the ancients to the load-ftone, and hence
has arifen no fmall mifunderftanding of their works.
Pliny has obferved, that both the load-ftone and
touch ftone were at times called Lydius and Heraclius
Lapfs.
The true lapis Lydius, or the touch ftone, was an¬
ciently found only in the river Tmolus; but was after¬
wards found in many other places, and is notv very
common in many of the German rivers. The ancients
give us very remarkable and circumftantial accounts of
the ufes they made of it; and it is plain they were able
to difeern the alloys of gold by means of it with very
great exa&nefs. We at prefent ufe feveral different (tones
under this name, and for the fame purpofe. In Italy,
a green marble called wn/e/Zo, is mod frequently ufed;
and with us, very frequently fmall pieces of the ba-
falies, the fame with that vaft piece of black marble
called the Giant's Caufeway in Ireland. See Ba-
saltes ; Giant’/ Caufeiuay; Iceland, n°9; Staffa;
and Volcano.
LYING-in-Women. See Midwifery.
Lying-TV, or Lying-By, the fituation of a (hip,
when (be is retarded in her courfe, by arranging the
fails in fuch a manner as to counteraft each other with
nearly an equal effort, and render the (hip almoft im¬
moveable, with refpeft to her progreffive motion, or
head-way. A (hip is ufually brought-to by the main
and fore-top fails, one of which is laid aback, whilft
the other is full; fo that the latter pufhes the (hip for¬
ward, whilft the former refills this impulfe by forcing
her aftern. This is particularly pradlifed in a general
engagement, when the hoftile fleets are drawn up
in two lines of battle oppofite each other. It is alfo
ufed to wait for fome other (hip, either approaching or
expedled; or to avoid purfuing a dangerous courfe,
efpecially in dark or foggy weather, &c.
LYME, a fea-port town of Dorfetlhire, in Eng¬
land, feated on the fea-(hore, with a good harbour. It
is fo called from a little river which runs through the
middle of the town, and falls into the fea. It is a large
well-built corporation town, is a place of good trade,
and fends two members to parliament. The duke of
Monmouth landed here with a handful of men in 1685,
which were foon increafed to 6000, and was then pro¬
claimed king; but he was defeated by king James’s
army, taken prifoner, and beheaded. W. Long. 3. 5.
N. Lat. 50. 40.
LYMPH, a fine colourlefs fluid, feparated in the
body from the mafs of blood, and contained in pecu- Lymph,
liar veffels called lymphatics. 5
The late ingenious Mr Hewfon publiftied a diflerta-
tion on the lymph and lymphatic fyftem in the human
body, and that of other animals. The lymph he con-
fiders both as contained in its proper ve(Tels, and ex¬
haled into the different cavities of the body. In each
of thefe dates, the lymph coagulated when expofed to
the air, and feemed more to refemble the buffy coat of
the blood than its watery parts, to which it hath been
compared by authors. This coagulnm, Mr Hewfon
found to vary confiderably in its degree of cohefion,
being always firm in ftrong animals, but in weak ones
of a much loofer texture. And, in the courfe of his
experiments, he obferved, that the fluid colle£ted from
the different cavities of the body uniformly agreed
with that found in the lymphatic veffels of the fame
animal, both in degree of tenacity, and time of coagu¬
lation. Thus far thefe fluids cofrefpond with the
coagulable part of blood; but they differ from it in
the time neceffary to form the coagulum, the blood
always jellying much fooner than the lymph, and later
in ftrong than in weak animals; the very reverfe of
what happens to that fluid.
From the following obfervations, Mr Hewfon is of
opinion, that the veffels exhaling fluids into the cavi¬
ties of the body, whatever their ftrufture may be, have
a power of changing the nature of their contents.
1. A coagulum is often found covering the internal
furface of inflamed cavities, without the fmalleft ero-
fion. This can only be the natural exhalation, thrown
out by inflamed veffels, with a ftrong difpofition to
coagulate.
2. As the lymph is difcharged, varioufly changed
in tenacity and other properties, by difeafe ; and as pus
is fometimes found in the fame manner in cavities,
without any ulceration ; the author thinks it at leaft
probable, that this purulent matter is only the lymph
itfelf, dill more altered by flowing through veffels in a
higher or different degree of inflammation ; and in
this notion he is confirmed, by obferving, with the
microfcope, globules in pus like thofe of the milk, a
fecreted liquor.
On a review of his experiments, he thinks they evi¬
dently point out the following general conclufions:
that the lymph and exhalations are of a fimilar nature,
but differ widely from the watery part of the blood;
that they coagulate on expofure to air, and are pro¬
bably a fpecies of the lymph of the blood ; that they
differ in the time and firmnefs of coagulation, in va¬
rious degrees, from the cahe&ic habit, where they
fcarcely jelly at all, to the inflammatory, where very
(hort time is requifite to a ftrong cohefion; and that, in
fome cafes, the inflamed veffels can even convert the
fluid paffing through them into real purulent matter.
Having thus given a corredl idea of the properties
of the lymph, he goes on to trace it from the circula¬
ting mafs, and to inveftigate the manner ofits fepara-
tion ; with regard to which, heobferves, two different
opinions have been entertained. The firft and moft
general is, that the lymph is poured into cavities, ei¬
ther by exhalent arteries, or pores of an organifed na¬
ture on the fides of veffels. The other has lately been
darted by Dr Hunter, who confiders the lymph as
merely a tranfudation of the thinner parts of the blood
through
L Y M [ 4325 ] L Y M
Lymph, through interftices or inorganized pores In the veflels
circulating the red-blood ; which, tho’ they retain the
ferum, allow the more fluid parts to pafs with eafe. In
fupport of this new doftrine, Dr Hunter adduces the
following faffs.
1. Water inje&ed into the blood-veflels of a dead ani¬
mal readily imitates this tranfudation.
2. Blood itfelf tranfudes after death, the lymph to
which it owed its confiftence being coagulated.
3. Bile tranfudes through the gall-bladder; for, on
opening an animal, all the adjacent parts are tinged.
With a view to difprove this notion, Mr Hewfon
maintains, that there is a tenfion in the veflels of a li¬
ving body, forfaking them with life ; and that, did
fuch an exfudation take place, it would defeat one
great intention of veflels, the conveyance of fluids,
and involve us in a continual round of exhalation and
abforption, very contrary to the common fimplicity of
nature.
A fecond obje&ion of Mr Hewfon is, that, if li¬
quors thus filtrate into cavities, not only muft the vef-
fels, creeping on their fides, but the membranes lining
thefe cavities, be porous. But, if thefe pores are ad¬
mitted in every part, we cannot deny them to the whole
extent of thefe membranes. And, were this the cafe,
a partial dropfy could never occur ; as a fluid would as
eafily efcape, from within, outwards, as it formerly in-
finuated itfelf from the veflels into any cavity.
Another argument againft the opinion of Dr Hun¬
ter, is drawn by Mr Hewfon from his former experi¬
ment, where he found the lymph, in different ftates of
the body, fo various in degree of vifcidity. He is
at a lofs to conceive, how pores of an inorganized na¬
ture fhould pour out fluids fo different in confiftence,
much lefs filtrate pus from the blood, where it never
exifted.
The argument of Dr Hunter, founded on the tran¬
fudation of blood, proceeds, he thinks, on an erro¬
neous principle ; for the blood of a living animal is
aftually thinned by the prefence of the coagulable
lymph : and, if this tranfudation takes place in a dead,
and not in a living animal, it ought rather to be attri¬
buted to a change in the veflels, than their contents.
And tbisisalmoft proven by the attentive examination
of one of the ftrongeft of the do&or’s own fadfs, viz.
the bilious tinge on parts contiguous to the gall¬
bladder, which only takes place after an animal has
been fome time dead ; but is never found in one re¬
cently killed.
From all thefe, the author concludes, that, as the
lymph is very different from water, it cannot be filtra¬
ted by inorganical paffages; and that the common o-
pinion is founded on reafon and experiment, the lymph
being not only tranfmitted thro’ exhalant veflels, but
by them changed in its properties, and adapted to the
office of lubricating parts.
The manner in which the lymph is difcharged into
the cavities of the body being thus afcertained with a
great degree of probability, Mr Hewfon proceeds to
examine how it is again abforbed, whether by the
common veins, or by the lymphatic fyftem. Befides the
authority of all the ancients, the advocates for the firft
opinion think they are poflefled of feveral conclufive
arguments in its favour.
They allege, that, in dead bodies, injediqns eafily
flow from the veins into feveral cavities. This Mr Hew- Lymph,
fon thinks, for many reafons, to have little force. The *
veins are very delicate, and may be ruptured by a very
fmall diftending power. And this feems in general to
have been the cafe ; for mod of the injedfions ufed in
thefe experiments were far too grofs to reach the ex¬
tremities of the veins. And when thofe of a more pe¬
netrating nature are employed, they imitate that tran¬
fudation from vafcular laxity, which takes place after
death.
A fecond argument adduced in favour of the old
opinion is, that chyle has been feen in the mefenteric
veins. But this is a very inconclufive one, as the whole
ferum has been found of a white colour, and, in thefe
veflels, might eafily be miftaken for chyle. Another
has been furniflied by the ftrudture of the penis : but
this analogy is now given up; it being generally allow¬
ed, that the blood is not abforbed, but forced from its
cells into the venous fyftem.
Ligatures and compreffion on veins have afforded a
fourth argument; but two circumftances unite to ren¬
der this lefs fatisfaftory : 1/?, The lymphatics, being
contiguous to the veins, may be affedfed by the fame
caufe. And, 2d, the compreffion of a vein will throw
a greater quantity of fluids on the exhalant arteries, by
obftrudUng their flow through the red ones.
It has been farther alleged, that there is no conti¬
nuation of veffels nor any lymphatics in the placenta,
though abforption evidently takes place. To this Mr
Hewfon replies, that there may be lymphatics, though
not difeovered, and continued veffels from the mother
to the foetus, though never injedted.
The fixth argument is fupplied by an experiment of
Kaau Boerhaave. He injefted a fluid into the inte-
ftines, which foon appeared in the meferaic veins. But
Mr Hewfon is much inclined to believe that there was
fome deception in this experiment, as it has been often
repeated, without fimilar fuccefs. Did the fadt even
happen, it could never be by abforption, that ceafing
foon after death, while this happened at the end of fe¬
veral hours ; and, as preffure was applied to the fto-
mach, the author thinks a venous rupture might give
rife to the appearances obferved by Kau Boerhaave.
The feventh and laft argument in favour of abforp¬
tion by the veins was, that many animals were defti-
tute of any other veffels capable of performing that of¬
fice, as birds, fifties, and amphibia ; but the difeovery
of lymphatics in every one of thefe, has totally over¬
thrown this argument-
To all thefe, the ingenious Mr Meckel has, of late,
added fome others, derived from injedlions of mercury
into the lymphatic glands, veficulse feminales, bladder,
and ladleal dudts of the breaft, which he founft to pafs
readily, and without extravafation, into the adjacent
veins. But Mr Hewfon obferves, that extravafation
is detedled with difficulty ; and as the lymphatic vef¬
fels often lie contiguous to veins, it is not impoffible
that, in fome cafes, the mercury might burft from the
one of them into the other, as often happened to Mr
Hewfon in the mefentery of the turtle. From all thefe,
the author confiders the old opinion as at leaft open
to many and weighty obje&ions.
Unfatisfied, however, with this negative proof, he
goes on to (how, that abforption in reality is carried
on by the lymphatic fyftem, from the analogy of all
thefe
L Y M [ 4326 ] L Y N
Lymphatics thefe veffels with the lafteals, which form a part of
" ’ that fyftem, and are without doubt abforbents. Be-
fides this, the courfe by which poifons reach the cir¬
culating fluids when externally applied, evidently points
out that they enter the lymphatic vefiels alone, and are
by them conveyed towards the heart. To thefe Mr
Hcvvfon adds his obfervation, that the fame fluid is al¬
ways found in thefe veffels, and the cavities whence
they arife. Thus there will remain little doubt of the
abforbent power of lymphatics, a fun£lion of fuch im¬
portance in the oeconomy, that, for it alone, nature has
provided a diftimfl fet of veffels : they had indeed, by
fome, been fufpe&ed to be only refle&ed arterial
branches ; but this has been long confuted by the ex¬
periments of Dr Monro and Dr Hunter.
Lymphatics, in anatomy, the veffels in which the
lymph is contained, and the glands by which it is fe-
parated in the human and other bodies. An account
of the ftrudlure and offices of the lymphatic glands and
veffels has lately been publifhed, from Mr Hewfon’s
experiments, by Mr Falconer of London. He ob-
ferves, that each lymphatic gland is a congeries of
tubes, confiding of arteries, veins, lymphatic veffels,
and nerves, conne&ed by the cellular fubftance. Glands
of this kind, he remarks, are nowhere to be found but
in the courfe of the larger lymphatic veffels. Thefe
veffels, in their paffage from the extreme parts of the
body towards the thoracic dud, enter and pafs thro’ the
lymphatic glands in the following manner :
About a quarter of an inch before a lymphatic en¬
ters a gland, it divides into two, three, or four
fmaller branches, fometimes into a greater number.
Thefe enter the gland at the part fartheft from the
thoracic dud ; and are then fubdivided into branches,
as fmall as the ramifications of the arteries and veins
which accompany them to every part of the gland.
After being thus minutely divided, they reunite, and
gradually become larger as they approach the oppofite
iide of the gland, forming three or four branches,
which are joined by other lymphatics that arife from
the cells of the gland. All thefe branches unite to¬
gether about a quarter of an inch from that part
where they came out of the gland, and form a com¬
mon trunk, larger than that below the gland, by the
additional lymphatics it receives from the cells of the
gland.
Although, in every lymphatic gland, very fmall
cells can be difcovered by the microfcope, thofe appear¬
ances in fuch glands which have commonly been called
cellular, are by no means of that nature, being only,
our author obferves, little eminences formed by the
bending of one veffel round another. On cutting into
a frefli lymphatic gland, it is found to contain a
thickiih, white, milky fluid ; and if this fluid be care¬
fully walked from any part of it, and the gland then
examined with the microfcope, an infinite number of
very fmall cells are obferved, which cannot be difco¬
vered by the naked eye.
Mr Falconer adopts the opinion of the late Mr Hew-
fon with refpedf to the ufe likewife of the lymphatic
fyftem. The glands he confiders as organs intended
for the pnrpofe of fecreting a fluid of a particular na¬
ture from the blood; and the lymphatic veffels he
looks upon as fo many excretory duffs. In proof of
this affertion, he obferves, that, if the arteries and
veins of a lymphatic gland have been previoufly injec- Lynceus
ted with a coloured fluid, and a part of the gland be II
then viewed thro’ the microfcope, thefe cells, formerly I/ynx'
taken notice of, appear extremely vafcular. And it
is into their cavities that the whole fluid found in the
gland is fecreted. This fluid is abforbed by the lym¬
phatic veffels which arife from the cells of the glands,
and is by them, in common with the other fluids, car¬
ried into the courfe of the circulation. The lym¬
phatic veffels, therefore, which originate from the cells
of the gland, are, in the lymphatic glands, analo¬
gous to the excretory duffs of other glands. We have
the fame proofs, our author afferts, that the lympha¬
tic glands fecrete this white fluid, and that it is carried
from the lymphatic glands by the lymphatic veffels,
that we have of glands in other parts of the body fe-
parating different fluids and having excretory duffs.
For, if we cut into a lymphatic gland, we find a white
fluid ; and, if a ligature be made on the lymphatic
veffel coming from that gland, we find a fluid of
the fame kind contained in thofe lymphatic vefftls.
This, Mr Falconer obferves, is as convincing a proof
that the lymphatic veffels are excretory dufts to the
lymphatic glands; and as fatisfaffory, as that the he¬
patic duff is the excretory duff of the liver. We know
the liver fecrets bile, becaufe we find it in that vifeus;
and we know the duflus hepaticus is its excretory duff,
becaufe we find bile contained in it. The proofs are fi-
milar, and therefore equally conclufive.
LYNCEUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the 50 fons
of jEgeus, married Hypermncftra, one of the 50 daugh¬
ters of Danaus. See Hypermn£stra.
Lynceus, in fabulous hiftory, one of the Argo¬
nauts, who went with Jafon in the expedition to ob¬
tain the golden fleece. He was of great ufe to the
Argonauts, by enabling them to avoid the fand-banks
and rocks they found in their way. The poets fay, that
Lynceus had fo piercing a fight, that it could not only
penetrate to the bottom of the fea, but even to hell.
Some mythologifts fuppofe, that this fable is taken
from Lynceus’s fkill in obferving, the ftars, and difeo-*
vering the mines of gold and filver concealed in the
earth.
LYNCURIUM, a ftone thought to be the fame
with the tourmalin. The name is derived from
lynx, and urine.
LYNCURIUS Lapis, a ftone capable of produ¬
cing muftirooms. See Agaricus.
LYNN regis, a town of Norfolk, in England, fi-
tuated in E. Long. o. 33. N. Lat. 52. 46. It is a hand-
fome, large, well-built corporation-town, and fends two
members to parliament; is encompaffed with a wall and
a deep trench; and there are two fmall rivers that
run through its ftreets, over which there are about 15
bridges. It is a trading place on account of its commodi¬
ous harbour; is governed by a mayor, recorder, high-
fteward, 12 aldermen, and 18 common councjl-men.
Formerly it was well fortified; but it has now only
a battery of 10 guns. It has two churches, a very
large chapel, and two diffenting meeting-houfe. Here
are about 2000 houfes, moftly pretty good ones, built
with brick: the ftreets are narrow, but well-paved;
it has a good market-place, with an elegant crofs;
and there are here fome remains of monafteries.
LYNX, in zoology. See Felis.
LYON,
L Y O [ 4327 ] L Y O
Lyon'. LYON King of Arms. See King; and Law,
 N° clviii. 16^
This office is of great antiquity and refpe& in Scot¬
land; but although the precife time of its inftitution
is unknown, yet it muft have been as early as the in-
troduftion of armorial figures as hereditary marks of
gentility and didindtion into this country, which was
in the 12th century. His regalia are, a crown of gold,
with a crimfon velvet-cap, a gold taffel, and an ermine
lining; a velvet-robe reaching to his feet, with the arms
of the kingdom embroidered thereon before and be¬
hind in the proper tindlures; a triple row of gold chain
round his neck, with an oval gold medal pendent there¬
to, on one fide of which is the royal bearing, and on
the other St Andrew with his crofs enamelled in pro¬
per colours, and a baton of gold enamelled green, pow¬
dered with the badges of the kingdom. The Lord Ly¬
on’s rank is fuperior to that of any other king of arms,
as he holds his office immediately from the fovereign
by commiffion under the great feal; whereas the kings
of arms in England are deputies to the Earl Marfhal,
and aft under his authority. Formerly Scotland was
divided into two provinces, the one on the north and
the other on the fouth fide of Forth ; and thefe pro¬
vinces were under the management of two deputies ap¬
pointed by the Lord Lyon to fuperintend the execution
of all the bufinefs of his office. Before the revolution,
the Lord Lyon at his admiffion into office was moft fo-
lemnly crowned by the fovereign, or his commiffioner,
in prefence of the nobility, the officers of ftate, and
other great men, after a fuitable fermon preached in the
royal-chapel; and his crown was of the fame form with
the impfjjal crown of the kingdom. On folemn occa-
fions, he wears the regalia above defcribed ; at all other
times, he wears the oval gold-medal or badge on his
breaft fufpended by a broad green ribbon. He has the
abfolute difpofal of all the offices in his own court,
and of the heralds and purfuivants places. The mef-
feugers at arms throughout Scotland are alfo created
by him, and are amenable to his jurifdiftion. And the
powers vefted in him by his commiffion are the fame
with thofe of the fovereign in all matters relative to the
marks of gentility.
To give the reader a more complete idea of the dig¬
nity and nature of this office, we lhall fubjoin,
The order ohferved at the coronation of Sir Alexander
Arafkine of Cambo, Baronet, Lord-Lyon King of Arms,
at the royal palace of Holyrood-houfe, on the Z'jth day of
July 1681 ; his royal highnefs James duke of Albany
and York being his majefy’’s high commijfioner. I. The
chair of ftate being placed upon a throne of two fteps
in height, under the royal canopy, in , the diamber of
prefence ; and the imperial crown, fceptre, and fword
of ftate, being placed on a table before the throne, the
faid table covered with purple velvet fringed with gold;
his majefty’s high-commiffioner was conveyed by the
officers of ftate and the nobility to the throne, when
he fat down in the chair of ftate, the nobility ftanding
on each fide.
II. Then Sir Alexander Aralkine was introduced in
this manner :
1. The king’s fix trumpets in their coats, two and
two, founding.
2. The fix purfuivants at arms in their coats, two
and two.
Vol. VI.
3. The fix heralds in their robes, two and two, the
Jaft five bearing theLord Lyon’s regalia thus: the eldeft
his crown, the fecond his robe, the third his furcoat,
the fourth his collar of gold and medal-pendant, the
faid collar being compofed of three rows, and the fifth
his baton.
III. Mr Robert Innes, Lyon-depute, bearing his
patent under the great feal.
IV. The mafter of the ceremonies.
V. The Lord Lyon fupported by two baronets, viz.
Sir William Sharp of Scotfcraig, and Sir John Mait¬
land ; and attended with the fix macers on either fide,
with their filver maces.
VI. Then having three feveral times done their ho¬
mage to his majefty’s high commiffioner, viz. at the
door, in the middle of the chamber, and before the
throne, thofe who carried the patent and regalia drew
near to the chair of ftate ; the reft of the heralds and
purfuivants retiring to the windows, and the trumpets
to a place allotted for them.
VII. The mafter of the ceremonies brought the
Lord Lyon to his majefty’s high commiffioner, and he
kneeled down before him on a velvet-culhion, and was
dubbed knight with the fword of ftate.
VIII. The mafter of the ceremonies called for the
patent under the great feal, and gave it to one of the
clerks of the privy council, who read it aloud. He
then delivered it to his royal highnefs, and from him
to the Lord Lyon, ffiewing him the king’s pleafure, his
duty, and the importance of the honour conferred up¬
on him by fo gracious a mafter.
IX. His royal-highnefs caufed theLord Lyon to
fwear the oath of allegiance, and take the declaration,
the fame being read by one of the clerks of the privy-
council.
X. The mafter of the ceremonies took the furcoat
of arms, and gave it to his royal highnefs, who, with
his affiftance, put it on the Lord Lyon; his highnefs fay¬
ing, “ I do veft you with this coat and robe of your
office during all the days of your lifetime, which you
(hall wear on all honourable occafions, keeping the
fame free from all fpot of treafon, villainy, and dif-
grace.”
XI. The mafter of the ceremonies took the crown,
and delivered the fame to his royal highnefs ; who put
it on the Lord Lyon’s head, faying, “ In the name of
his moft facred majefty the king, I crown you. Sir
Alexander Aralkine of Cambo, baronet, Lyon King of
Arms throughout all the kingdom of Scotland, and the
ifles, colonies, and dependencies thereunto belonging,
with all the powers, privileges, liberties, honours, and
dignities, belonging to that office.’’
XII. The mafter of the ceremonies gave the baton
to his royal highnefs; who, delivering it to the Lord
Lyon, faid, “ I deliver to you this baton of your of¬
fice, in token of that command and regal authority
which his majefty gives you over all who bear his
majefty’s arms under you in this kingdom of Scot¬
land.”
XIII. The mafter of the ceremonies gave the col¬
lar to his royal highnefs; who put it about the Lord-
Lyon’s neck, faying, “ This royal token and badge
of your mailer’s favour,*! give you to be worn by you
all the days of your life, in token of your precedency
before all others of under degree and quality, in con-
1 24 O fequence
Lyon.
L Y O [ 4328 ] L Y R
■Lyon fequence of your good and faithful fervices done and
II to be done.”
kyons‘ XIV. Then his royal highnefs bleffed the Lord Lyon,
and took his oath in the terms following: “ I (hall
defend the Catholic faith to the uttermoft of my power.
I (hall be leal and true, fecret and ferviceable, to
our fovereign lord the king, and to all eftates, that
is to fay, to emperors, kings, princes, archdukes,
dukes, marqm’fles, earls, vifcounts, lords, or barons,
knights, efquires, gentlemen, ladies, widows, and
maidens of good fame, and (hall forward their lawful
bufinefs upon their expence: and what ambaflage or
meffage I take in hand to do, I (hall do the fame tru¬
ly, without adding or taking from. I (hall forbear
all open vices, common bordells, common hazard, and
common drinking in taverns. I (hall fortify and de¬
fend the privileges of the noble office of arms with all
my power; and (hall never reveal any man’s fecrets,
treafon excepted. I (hall obferve and keep all the
forenamed points: So help me, God ; and by my part
of paradife.”
XV. Then one of the heralds, with found of trum¬
pet, proclaimed out of one of the windows Sir Alexan¬
der Aralldne of Cambo, baronet, Lyon King of Arms
throughout all the kingdom of Scotland, and the ifles
and dependencies thereunto belonging, with all the ho¬
nours and privileges that to this office appertain.
XVI. His royal highnefs, taking the Lord-Lyon by
both hands, raifed him; who, taking off his crown,
gave his highnefs his humble thanks, and then cried
aloud, “ A largefs of the mod high and mighty mo¬
narch Charles, by the grace of God, king of Scot¬
land, England, France, and Ireland, defender of the
faith, &c.”
XVII. Then by found of trumpets all the heralds
and purfuivants proclaimed the fame words out of the
windows.
XVIII. The Lord-Lyon, in his robes, collar, and
crown, with the baton of command in his hand, was
attended back to the chamber from whence he came,
in the fame order as before, the heralds and purfui¬
vants proclaiming round the court in their return, “ A
Largefs,” &c. fupra.
LYONNOIS, a large province of France; bound¬
ed on the north, by Burgundy ; on the eaft, by Dau-
phiny, Breffe, and the principality of Dombs ; on
the fouth, by Vivarais and Velay ; and on the weft, by
Auvergne and a fmall part of Bourbonnois. It com¬
prehends Lower Lyonnois, Beaujolois, and Forez ;
and it produces corn, wine, fruits, and more efpe-
cially excellent chefnuts. The principal rivers are
the Soane, the Rhone, and the Loire. Lyons is the
capital town. .
LYONS, a large, rich, handfome, ancient, and
famous town of France, being the mod confiderable in
the kingdom, next to Paris, with an archbilhop’s fee,
an academy of fciences and belles lettres, and an aca¬
demy of arts and fcrences fettled here in 1736. It is
feated in the centre of Europe, on the confluence of
the rivers Rhone and Scan : on the fide of it are
two high mountains; and the mountain of St Seba-
ftian ferves as a bulwark againft the north winds,
which often blow here with great violence. It con¬
tains about 150,000 inhabitants; and the houfes,
in general, are high and well built. It has fix
gates, and as many fuburbs. The town-houfe, the f-yrs*
arfenal, the amphitheatre built by the ancient Ro- L),re-
mans, the hofpital, and the numerous palaces,, are
worthy of a traveller’s attention. The cathedral is
a fuptrb ftru&ure, and the canons that compofe the
chapter are all perfons of ditlinftion. It is a place of
very great trade, which is extended not only through
France, but to Italy, Swillerland, and Spain ; and
there are four celebrated fairs every year, which are
frequented by great numbers of people. It derives
vaft advantages from the rivers it (lands upon j and is
fituated in E. Long. 4. 55. N. Lat. 45. 46.
LYRA, in ichthyology. See Callyonimus.
LYRE, a mufical inftrument of the ttringed kind,
much ufed by the ancients.
Concerning the number of firings with which this
inftrument was furnifhed, there is great controverfy.
Some aflert it to be only three; and that the founds
of the two remote were acute, and that of the inter¬
mediate one a mean between thofe two extremes:
that Mercury, the inventor, refembled thofe three
chords to as many feafons of the year, which were all
that the Greeks reckoned, namely, Summer, Winter,
and Spring ; afligning the acute to the firft, the grave
to the fecond, and the mean to the third.
Others aflert that the lyre had four firings; that the
interval between the firft and the fourth was an oc¬
tave; that the fecond was a fourth from the firft, and
the fourth the fame diftance from the third, and that
from the fecond to the third was a tone.
Another clafs of writers contend that the lyre of
Mercury had feven firings. Nicomachus, a follower of
Pythagoras, and the chief of them, gives the follow¬
ing account of the matter : “ The lyre made of the
(hell was invented by Mercury; and the knowledge of
it, as it was conftrufted by him of feven firings, was
tranfmitted to Orpheus: Orpheus taught the ufe of it
to Thamyris and Linus; the latter of whom taught it
to Hercules, who communicated it to Amphion the
Theban, who built the feven gates of Thebes to the
feven firings of the lyre.” The fame author proceeds
to relate “ That Orpheus was afterwards killed by
the Thracian women; and that they are reported to
have caft his lyre into the fea, which was afterwards
thrown up at Antifla, a city of Lelbos : that certaia
fifhers finding it, they brought it to Terpander, who
carried it to Egypt, exquifitely improved, and, (hewing
it to the Egyptian priefts, afliimed to himfelf the ho¬
nour of its invention.”
This difference among authors feems to have arifen
from their confounding together the Egyptian and the
Grecian Mercuries.—The invention of the primitive
lyre with three firings was due to the firft Egyptian
Hermes, as mentioned under that article.—The lyre
attributed to the-Grecian Mercury is deferibed by al-
moft all the poets to be an inftrument of feven firings*. « fce
Vincenzio Galilei has collefted the various opinions of wry,
the feveral Greek writers who have mentioned the in¬
vention of the chelys or teftudo; and the late Mr
Spence has done the fame in a very circnmftantial, but
ludicrous manner. “ Horace talks of Mercury as a
wonderful mufician, and reprefents him with a lyre.
There is a ridiculous old legend relating to this inven-
vention, which informs us, that Mercury, after dealing
feme bulls frons Apollo, retired to a fecret grotto,
which
L Y R
Lyre, which he ufed to frequent, at the foot of a mountain
“ in Arcadia, Juft as he was going in, he found a tor-
toife feeding at the entrance of his cave: he killed the
poor creature, and, perhaps, eat the fldh of it. As he
was diverting himfelf with the ftiell, he was mightily
pleafed with the noife it gave from its concave figure.
He had poffihly been cunning enough to find out, that
a thong pulled ftrait and fattened at each end, when
ftruck by the finger, made a fort of mufical found. How¬
ever that was, he went immediately to work, and cut fe-
veral thongs out of the hides he had lately ftolen, and
fattened them as tight as he could to the fhell of this
tortoife; and, in playing with them, made a new kind
of mufic with them to divert himfelf in his retreat.
This, confidered only as an account of the firft inven¬
tion of the lyre, is not altogether fo unnatural.”
- The moft ancient reprefentations of this inftrument
agree very well with the account of its invention: the
lyre, in particular on the old celettial globes, was re-
prefented as made of one entire (hell of a tortoife; and
that Amphion in the celebrated group of the Dirce,
or Toro, in the Farnefe palace at Rome, which is of
Greek fculpture, and very high antiquity, is figured
in the fame manner. See Plate CLXI. fig. 9.
There have, however, been many other claimants to
the feven-ttringed lyre. For though Mercury invent¬
ed this inftrument in the manner already related, it is
fa id he afterwards gave it to Apollo, who. was the firft
that played upon it with method, and made it the con-
ftant companion of poetry. According to Homer’s ac¬
count of this tranfa&ion, in his hymn to Mercury, it
was given by that god to Apollo, as a peace-offering
and indemnification for the oxen which he had ftolen
from him :
T<> Phoebus Maia’s fon prefents the lyre,
A gift intended to appeafe his ire.
The god receives it g!ad)}% and eflays
The novel inftrument a thoufand ways:
With dext’rous fkill the pleftrum wields; and lings,
With voice accordant to the trembling ftrings,
Such drains as gods and men approv’d, from whence
The fw'eet alliance fprung of fonnd and lenfe.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo foon repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marsyas in
confeqnence of their mufical conteft, broke the ftrings
of the lyre, and by that means put a flop for a time
to any further progrefs in the pra&ice of that new in ¬
ftrument. “ The mufes (adds he) afterwards added
to this inftrument the ftring called mefe; Linus, that
of lichanos; and Orpheus and Thamyras, thofe ftrings
which are named bypate and parbypate (a).
Again, many ancient and refpedlable authors tell
L Y R
us, that, before the time of Terpander, the Grecian Lyre,
lyre had only four ftrings; and, if we may believe
Suidas, it remained in this ftate 856 years, from the
time of Anr.phion, till Terpander added to it three new
firings, which extended the mufical fcale to a hepta¬
chord, or feventh, and fupplied the player with two
conjoint tetrachords. It was about 150 years after
this period, that Pythagoras is faid to have added an
eighth ftring to the lyre, in order to complete the oc¬
tave, which confifted of two disjundt tetrachords.
Boethius gives a different hiltory of the fcale, and
tells us, that the fyftem did not long remain in fuch
narrow limits as a tetrachord. Choraibus, the fon of
Athis, or Atys, king of Lydia, added a fifth ftring;
Hyagnis, a lixth; Terpander, a feventh; and, at length,
Lychaon of Samos, an eighth. But all thefe accounts
are irreconcileable with Homer's hymn to Mercury,
where the chelys, or teftudo, the invention of whicli
he aferibes to that god, is faid to have-had feven ftrings.
There are many claimants among the mulicians of an¬
cient Greece, to the ftrings that were afterwards added
to thefe, by which the fcale, in the time of Ariftoxenus,
was extended to two odlaves. Athenseus, more than
once, fpeaks of the nine-ftringed inftrument ; and Ion
of Chios, a tragic and lyric poet and philofopher, who
firft recited his pieces in the 8zd olympiad, 452 B. C.
mentions, in fome verfes quoted by Euclid, the ten-
ftringed lyre; a proof that the third conjoint tetra¬
chord was added to the fcale in his time, which was
about 50 years after Pythagoras is fuppofed to have
conftrudled the oftachord.
The different claimants among the Greeks to the
fame mufical difeoveries, only prove, that mufic was cul¬
tivated in different countries; and that the inhabitants
of each country invented and improved their own in-
ftruments, fome of which happening to refemble thofe
of other parts of Greece, rendered it difficult for hi-
ftorians to avoid attributing the fame invention to dif¬
ferent perfons. Thus the fingle flute was given to Mi¬
nerva, and to Marfyas; the fyrinx, or tiftula, to Pan,
and to Cybele; and the lyre, or cithara, to Mercury,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. Indeed, the
mere addition of a ftring or two to an inftrument with¬
out a neck, was fo obvious and eafy, that it is fcarce
poflible not to conceive many people to have done it
at the fame time.
With refpeft to the form of the ancient lyre; as
little agreement is to be found among authors as about
the number of ftrings. The bell evidences concerning
it are the reprefentations of that inftrument in the hands
of ancient ftatues, bas-reliefs, &c. Sec Plate CLXI.
24 O 2 where
[ 4329 1
(a) It has been already related, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian Mercury had but three ftrings; and by put¬
ting thefe two circumftances together, Dr Burney obferves, we may perhaps acquire fomc knowledge of the progrefs
of mufic, or, at leaft, of the extenfion of its fcale, in the higheft antiquity.
Meje, in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond tetrachord of the great fyftem, and firft tetrachord in¬
vented by the ancients, anfwering to our A, on the fifth fine in the bafe. If this found then was added to the former
three, it proves two important points: firft, that the moft ancient tetrachord was that from E in the bafe to A ; and
that the three original ftrings in the Mercurian and Apollonian lyre were tuned E, F, G, which the Greeks called Hy-
pate Mefon, Parbypate Mefcn, Mefott Diatonos. The addition therefore of Mefe to thefe, completed the firft and
moft ancient tetrachord, E, F, G,A.
The ftring lichanos, then, being added to thefe, and anfwering to our D on the third line in the bafe, extended the
compafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular feries of five founds in the Dorian mode, the moft ancient
of all the Greek modes; and the two ftrings called Hypate and Parhypate, correfponding with our B and C in the
bafe, completed the heptachord, or feven founds, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, a compafs that received no addition till after
-the time of Pindar, who calls the inftrument then in ufe the feven-tongued lyre.
L Y R [ 4330 ] L Y R
Lyre, where,
Fig. 9. is a reprefentation of the teftudo, or lyre of
Amphion, in front, as it appears on the bafe of the ce¬
lebrated Toro Farnefe at Rome. This admirable work,
confilting of four figures bigger than the life, befides
the toro, or bull, was found in Caracalla’s baths, where
the Farnefe Hercules was likewife difcovered; and, ex¬
cept the Laocoon, is the only piece of Greek fculpture
mentioned by Pliny, that is now remaining. The two
projedtions near the bottom feem to have been faftert-
ings for the ftrings, and to have anfwered the purpofe
of tail-pieces in modern inftruments.
10. The lyre held by Terpfichore, in the pi&ure of
that mnfe dug out of Herculaneum.
11. The Abyffinian teftudo or lyre in ufe at prefent
in the province of Tigre, from a drawing of Mr Bruce’s,
communicated to Dr Burney. “ Thisinftrument, (fays
he) has fometimes five, fometimes fix, but moft frequently
feven ftrings, made of the thongs of raw fheep or goat
fkins, cut extremely fine, and twifted; they rot foon,
are very fubjeft to break in dry weather, and have
fcarce any found in wet. From the idea, however, of
this inftrument being to accompany and fuftain a voice,
one would think that it was better mounted formerly.
“ The Abyffinians have a tradition, that the fiftrum,
lyre, and tambourine, were brought from Egypt into
Ethiopia, by Thot, in the very firft ages of the world.
The flute, kettle-drum, and trumpet, they fay, were
brought from Paleftine, with Menelek, the fon of their
queen of Saba by Solomon, who was their firft Jewifh
king.
“ The lyre in Amharic is called leg% ‘ the ftteep;’
in Ethiopic, it is called meftnko; the verb Jinko fignifies
to ftrike ftrings with the fingers: no ple&rum is ever
ufed in Abyffinia ; fo that mefinko, being literally in¬
terpreted, will fignify the * ftringed inftrument play¬
ed upon with the fingers.’
“ The fides which conftitute the frame of the lyre
were anciently compofed of the horns of an animal of the
goat kind, called agazan, about the fize of a fmall cow,
and common in the province of Tigre. I have feen feve-
ralof thefe inftruments very elegantly madeof fuch horns,
which nature feems to have (haped on purpofe. Some
of the horns of an African fpecies of this animal may
be feen in M. Buffon’s hiftory of the king of France’s
cabinet. They are bent, and lefs regular than the
Abyffinian; but after fire-arms became common in the
province of Tigre, and the woods were cut down, this
animal being more fcarce, the lyre has been made of a
light red wood; however, it is always cut into a fpiral
twifted form, in imitation of the ancient materials of
which the lyre was compofed. The drawing I fend
you was one of thefe inftruments made of wood.
“ The kingdom of Tigre, which is the largeft and moft
populous province of Abyffinia, and was, during many
ages, the feat of the court, was the firft which received
letters, and civil and religious government; it extend¬
ed once to the Red Sea : various reafons and revolu¬
tions have obliged the inhabitants to refign their fea-
cokft to different barbarous nations, Pagan and Maho¬
metans : while they were in poffeffion of it, they fay
that the Red Sea furnifhed them with tortoife-ihells,
of which they made the bellies of their lyres, as the
Egyptians did formerly, according to Apollodorus
and Lucian; but having now loft that refource, they
have adopted, in its place, a particular fpecies of gourd, Lyre,
or pumpkin, very hard and thin in the bark, ftill imi-
tating with the knife the fquares, compartments, and
figure of the (hell of the tortoife.
“ The lyre is generally from three feet, to three
feet fix inches high; that is, from a line dravyn thro’
the point of the horns, to the lower part of the bafe of
the founding-board. It is exceedingly light, and eafy
of carriage, as an inftrument fhould naturally be in fo
rugged and mountainous a country.
“ When we confider the parts which compofe this
lyre, we cannot deny it the earlieft antiquity. Man in
his firft ftate, was a hunter and a filher, and the oldeft
inftrument was that which partakes moft of that ftate.
The lyre, compofed of two principal pieces, owes the
one to the horns of an animal, the other to the (hell of
a fifh.
“ It is probable, that the lyre continued with the
Ethiopians in this rude ftate, as long as they confined
themfelves to their rainy, fteep, and rugged mountains;
and afterwards, when many of them defcended along
the Nile in Egypt, its portability would recommend it
in the extreme heats and wearinefs of their way. Up¬
on their arrival in Egypt, they took up their habita¬
tion in caves, in the fides of mountains, which are in¬
habited to this day. Even in thefe circumftances, an
inftrument larger than the lyre muft have been incon¬
venient and liable to accidents in thofe caverns; but
when thefe people increafed in numbers and courage,
they ventured down into the plain, and built Thebes.
Being now at their eafe, and in a fine climate, all na¬
ture fmiling around them, mufic, and other arts, were
cultivated and refined, and the imperfed lyre was ex¬
tended into an inftrument of double its compafs and
volume. The fize of the harp could be now no lon¬
ger an objedion; the Nile carried the inhabitants every
where eafily, and without effort; and we may naturally
fuppofe in the fine evenings of that country, that the
Nile was the favourite fcene upon which this inftru¬
ment was pradifed; at lead the fphinx and lotus upon
its head, feem to hint that it was fomeway conneded
with the overflowings of that river.” See Harp,
12. An Etrufcan lyre, with feven ftrings, in the col¬
lodion of Etrufcan, Greek, and Roman antiquities,
publiihed from the cabinet of the Hon. Sir William
Hamilton, Vol. I. Naples 1766. PI. cix. With re-
fped to this inftrument, it is worthy of obfervation,
that though the vafe upon which it is reprefented is of
fuch indifputable and remote antiquity, the tail-piece,
bridge, belly, and found-holes, have a very modern ap¬
pearance, and manifeft a knowledge in the conftrudion.
of mufical inftruments among the Etrnfcans fuperior to
that of the Greeks and Romans in much later times.
The lower part of the inftrument has much the appear¬
ance of an old bafs-viol, and it is not difficult to dif-
cover in it more than the embryo of the whole violin
family. The ftrings lie round, as if intended to be
played on with a bow; and even the crofs lines on the
tail-piece are fuch as we frequently fee on the tail¬
pieces of old viols.
13. The tripodian lyre of Pythagoras the Zacyn-
thian, from a bas-relief in the Maffei palace at Rome
reprefenting the whole choir of the mufes. Athenasus
gives the following account of this extraordinary in¬
ftrument, lib* xiv. cap. 15. />. 637. “ Many ancient
inftru-
L Y T [ 4331 ] L Y T
|f Lyre inftruments are recorded, (fays Artemon), of which
|| li we have fo little knowledge, that we can hardly be
^Lythrnm. cert3;n 0f thtir exiftence; fuch as the tripod of Py¬
thagoras the Zacynthian, which, on account of its
difficulty, continued in ufe but a fhort time. It
refembled in form the Delphic tripod, whence it
had its name. The legs were equidiftant, and fix¬
ed upon a moveable bafe that was turned by the
foot of the player; the firings were placed between
the legs of the fiool; the vale at the top ferved for the
purpofe of a found-board, and the firings of the three
ilides of the inflrument were tuned to three different
modes, the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian. The per¬
former fat on a chair made on purpofe ; ftriking the
firings with the fingers of the left hand, and ufing the
pleftrum with the right, at the fame time turning the
inftrument with his foot to whichever of the three
modes he pleafed ; fo that by great praftice he was
enabled to change the modes with fuch velocity, that
thofe who did not fee him, would imagine they heard
three different performers playing in three different
modes. After the death of this admirable mufician,
no other inftrument of the fame kind was ever con-
ftru&ed.”
14. A lyre in the famous ancient pifture dug out
of Herculaneum, upon which Chiron is teaching the
young Achilles to play. See Chiron.
Lyre, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, n° 206.
LYRIC, in general, fignifies fomething fung to or
played on the lyre: but it is more particularly ap¬
plied to the ancient odes and ftanzas anfwering to
our airs and fongs, and may be played on inftruments.
See Poetry, n° 52.
LYSANDER, a famous Spartan general. See
Sparta.
LYSIMACHIA, loosetrife ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are ten fpecies, but only four are
commonly cultivated in gardens. Thefe are hardy,
herbaceous perennials and biennials, rifing with ereft
ftalks from 18 inches to two or three feet high ;
garniflied with narrow entire leaves ; and terminated
by fpikes and clufters of monopetalous, rotated, five-
parted fpreading flowers of white and yellow colours.—
They are eafily propagated by feeds, and will thrive
in any foil or fituation.
LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek ftatuary^ was
born at Sicyone, and at firft followed the bufintfs of
a lockfmith, which he quitted in order to pra&ife
painting. But he afterwards applied himfelf entirely
to fculpture; in which he acquired an immortal re¬
putation, and made a great number of ftatues that
were the admiration of the people of Athens and Rome.
His grand ftatue of the fun reprefented in a car drawn
by four horfes, was worlhipped at Rhodes he made
feveral ftatues of Alexander and his favourites, which
were brought to Rome by Metellus after he had
reduced the Macedonian empire ; and the ftatue of a
man wiping and anointing himfelf after bathing, be¬
ing particularly excellent, was placed by Agrippa
before his baths in that city. He lived in the time
of Alexander the Great, about 334 B. C.; and left
three fans, who were all famous ftatuaries.
LYTHRUM, purple loosestrife ; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the dodecandria
clafe of plants. There are ten fpecies* of which the Lyttelton,
moft remarkable are, x. The falicaria, or common
purple loofeftrife, with oblong leaves, is a native of
Britain, andgrows naturally by the fides of ditches and
rivers. It hath a perennial root, from which come
forth feveral upright angular ftalks, rifing from three
to four feet high, gamiflied with oblong leaves placed
fometimes by pairs ; but fometimes there are three
leaves at each joint Handing round the ftalk. The
flowers are purple, and produced in a long fpike at
the top of the ftalk ; fo make a fine appearance. 2.
The hyfpanum, or Spanifh loofeftrife, with an hyffop
leaf, grows naturally in Spain and Portugal. It
hath a perennial root. The ftalks are flender, not
more than nine or ten inches long, fpreading out on
every fide. The lower part of the ftalks is garnifhed
with oblong oval leaves placed oppofite. The flowers
come out iingly from the fide of the ftalks at each
joint; they are larger than thofe of the common fort,
and make a fine appearance in the month of July
when they are in beauty. The firft kind is propa¬
gated by parting the roots in autumn, but requires a
moift foil;—the fecond is propagated by feeds brought
from thofe countries where it is native.
LYTTELTON (Edward), lord Lyttelton, keeper
of the great feal in the reign of Charles I. was emi¬
nent for his probity and his moderation at the com¬
mencement of that monarch’s difputes with his fubjedts.
Without forfeiting his fidelity to the king,'he pre-
ferved the efteem of the parliament till 1644, when
he was made colonel of a regiment in the king’s army
at York. He died in 1645. Befides feveral of his
fpeeches which have been printed, he wrote reports
in the common pleas and exchequer printed at Lon¬
don in 1683, in folio; feveral arguments and dif-
courfcs, &c.
Lyttelton (George lord) eldeft fon of Sir Thomas
Lyttelton, bart. defeended from the great judge Lit¬
tleton, was born in 1700, at feven months; and the
midwife fuppofing him to be dead, threw him carelefsly
into the cradle; where, had not fome figns of life
been taken notice of by one of the attendants, he
might never have recovered. He received the elements
of his education at Eaton-fchool, where he fhewed an
early inclination to poetry. His paftorals and fome
other light pieces were originally written in that femi-
nary of learning ; from whence he was removed to the
univerfity of Oxford, where he purfued bis claflical
ftudies with uncommon avidity, and iketched the plan
of his Perfian Letters, a work which afterwards pro¬
cured him great reputation, not only from the ele¬
gance of the language in which they were compofed,
but from the excellent obfervations they contained on
the manners of mankind.
In the year 1728, he fet out on the tour of Europe ;
and, on his arrival at Paris, accidentally became ac¬
quainted with the honourable Mr Poyntz, then our
minifter at the court of Verfailles ; who was fo Itruck
with the extraordinary capacity of our young traveller,
that he invited him to his houfe, and employed him in
many political negociations, which he executed with
great judgment and fidelity.
Mr Lyttelton’s conduft, while on his travels, was
a leffon of inftru&ion to the reft of his countrymen.
Inftead of. lounging away his hours at thccoffee-houfes
frequented.
L Y T [ 4332 ] L Y T
Lyttelton, frequented by tie r^nglilh, and adopting the falhion-
 able follies and vices of France and Italy, his time was
paffed alternately in his library, and in the fociety of
men of rank and literature. In this early part of his
life, he wrote a poetical epiftle to Dr Ayfcoogh, and
another to Mr Pope, which ihew lingular talle and
corre&nefs.
After continuing a confiderable time at Paris with
Mr Poyntz, who, to ufe his own words, behaved like
a fecond father to him, he proceeded to Lyons and
Geneva ; and from thence to Turin, where he was
honoured with greatmarks of friendlhip by his Sardinian
majefty. He then vifittd Milan, Venice, Genoa, and
Rome, where he applied himfelf clofely to the lludy
of the fine arts; and was, even in that celebrated
metropolis, allowed a perfedl judge of painting, fculp-
ture, and archke&ure.
During his continuance abroad, he conftantly cor-
refponded with Sir Thomas, his father. Several of
his letters are yet remaining, and place his filial
affeftion in a very diftinguifheo light. He foon after
returned to his native country, and was ele&ed repre-
fentative for the borough of Okehampton in Devon-
fhire; and behaved fo much to the fatisfadiion of his
condiments, that they feveral times re-eledied him for
the fame place, without putting him to the lead expence.
About this period, he received great marks of friend-
ftiip from Frederic prince of Wales, father of his pre-
fent majedy; and was, in the year 1737, appointed
principal fecretary to his royal highnefs, and continued
in the drifted intimacy with him till the time of his
death. His attention to public bufinefs did not, how¬
ever, prevent him from exerciling his poetical talent.
A mod amiable young lady, Mifs Fortefcue, iufpired
him with a paffion, which produced a number of little
pieces, remarkable for their tendernefs and elegance;
and he had a happy facility of driking out an ex¬
tempore compliment, which obtained him no fmall
flrare of reputation. One evening being in company
with lord Cobham and feveral of the nobility at
Stowe, his lorddiip mentioned his defign of putting
up a bud of lady Suffolk in his beautiful gardens ; and,
turning to Mr Lyttelton, faid, “ George, you mud
furnidt me with a motto for it.” “ I will, my lord,’’
anfwered Mr Lyttelton; and direftly produced the
following couplet:
Her wit and beauty for a court were made,
But truth and goodnefs fit her for a (hade.
When Mr Pitt, the late earl of Chatham, lod his
commiffion in the guards, in confequence of his fpirited
behaviour in parliament, Mr Lyttelton was in waiting
at Leiceder-houfe, and, on hearing the circumdance,
immediately wrote thefe lines:
Long had thy virtue mark’d thee out for fame,
Far, far fuperior to a cornet’s name;
This generous Walpole faw, and griev’d to find
So mean a pod difgrace that noble mind;
The fervile dandard from thy free-born hand
‘ He took, and bade thee lead the patriot-band.
In the year 1742, he married Lucy, the daughter
<jf Hugh Fortefcue, Efq; of Filleigh in the county
of Devon, the lady abovementioned, whofe exemplary
c^nduft, and uniform practice of religion and virtue,
edabliihed his conjugal happinefs upon the mod folk! Lytteltos
bafis.
In 1744, he was appointed one of the lords com-
roiffioners of the treafury; and, during his continuance
in that dation, condantly exerted his influence in re¬
warding merit and ability. He was the friend and
patron of the late Henry Fielding, James Thomfoti
author of the Seafons, Mr Mallet, Dr Young, Mr
Hammond, Mr Wed, Mr Pope, and Voltaire. On
the death of Thomfon, who left his affairs in a very
embarraflcd condition, Mr Lyttelton took that poet’s
fitter under his proteftion. He revifed the tragedy of
Coriolanus, which that writer had not put the lad
hand to; and brought it out at the theatre-royal.
Covent-garden, with a prologue of his own writing,
in which he fo affeftingly lamented the lofs of that
delightful bard, that not only Mr Quin, who fpoke
the lines, but almod the whole audience, fpontaneoufly
burd into tears.
In the beginning of the year 1746, his felicity was
interrupted by the lofs of his wife, who died in the
29th year of her age; leaving him one fon, Thomas,
the late lord Lyttelton; and a daughter, Lucy, who
fome time fince married lord vifcount Valentia. The
remains of his amiable lady were depofited at Over-
Arley, in Worcederfhire; and an elegant monument
was erfcfted to her memory in the church of Hagley,
which contains the following infcription written by
her hufband:
Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes:
Tho’ meek, magnanimous; tho’ witty, wife;
Polite, as all her life in courts had been;
Yet good, as (he the world had never feen:
The noble fire of an exalted mind,
With gentled female tendernefs combin’d.
Her fpeech was the melodious voice of love.
Her long the warbling af the vernal grove;
Her eloquence was fweeter than her fong,
Soft as her heart, and as her reafon drong.
Her form each beauty of her mind exprefs’d,
Her mind was virtue by the graces drefs’d.
Befides thefe beautiful lines, Mr Lyttelton wrote a
monody on the death of his lady, which will be re¬
membered while conjugal afftftion and a tade for
poetry exifl in this country.
His mafterly obfervations on the converfion and
apodlefhip of St Paul, were written at the defire of
Gilbert Wed, Efq; in eonfequence of Mr Lyttelton’s
aflerting, that, befide all the proofs of the Chridian
religion, which might be drawn from the prophecies
of the Old Tedament, from the neceffary connec¬
tion it has with the whole fydem of the Jewifh
religion, from the miracles of Chrid, and from the
evidence given of his refurreftion by all the other
apodles, he thought the converfion of St Paul alone,
duly confidered, was of itfelf a demondration fufficient
to prove Chridianity to be a divine revelation. Mr
Weft was druck with the thought; and affured his
friend, that fo compendious a proof would be of great
ufe to convince thofe unbelievers that will not attend
to a longer feries of arguments ; and time has diown
he was not out in his conjecture, as the traft is edeemed
one of the bed defences of Chridianity which has hi¬
therto been publifhed.
*
M A B [ 4333 ] MAC
fcytteltott In 1754, he refigned his office of lord of the trea-
1 ]1 fury, and was made cofferer to his majefty’s houfe-
IJaliillon. })0|(jj an(j fworn of the privy-council: previous to
which, he married, a fecond time, Elizabeth, daughter
of field-marfhal Sir Robert Rich, whofe indifereet
condudt gave him great uneafinefs, and from whom
he was feparated, by mutual confent, a few years after
his marriage.
After being appointed chancellor and under-trea-
furer of the court of exchequer, he was, by letters-
patent dated the 19th of November 1757, 31 Geo. II.
created a peer of Great Britain, by the ftyle and title
of Lord Lyttelton, laron of Frankky, in the county of
Worcefter. His fpeeches on the Scotch and mutiny
bills in the year 1747, on the Jew bill in 1753, and
on the privilege of parliament in 1763, ffiowed found
judgment, powerful eloquence, and inflexible inte¬
grity. During the laft 10 years he lived chiefly Lytteltos
in retirement, in the continual exercife of all the li .
virtues which can ennoble private life. His laftMacaronl*-
work was Dialogues of the Dead, in which the mo¬
rality of Cambray and the fpirit of Fontenelle are hap¬
pily united.
He was fuddenly feized with an inflammation of
the bowels, in the middle of July 177-3, at his feat at
Hagley 5 which terminated in his death, on the 22d of
that month. His laft moments were attended with
unimpaired underftanding, unaffe&ed greatnefs of
mind, calm refignation, and humble but confident
hopes in the mercy of God. As he had lived
univerfally efteemed, he died lamented by all parties.
A complete colleAion of his works has been pub-
liftied fince his deceafe, by his nephew George Ayf-
cough, Efq.
M.
MA liqj/id confonant, and the 12 th letter of the
* alphabet.
The found of this letter is formed by fhutting the
lips, and thereby intercepting the breath, as it is
ftrongly exprefled through the mouth and noftrils
jointly. Its found is always the fame in Englifh; it
fuffers no confonant after it in the beginning of words
and fyllables, unlefs in fome derived from the Greek,
as amnejly, &c.
M, in prefeription, fignifies a maniple, or handful;
and at the end of a receipt it imports mifee, or mingle.
M, in aftronomy, ice. denotes meridional, fouther_n;
fometimes meridies, or mid-day.
M, in law, the brand of a perfon convi&ed of man-
flaughter, and admitted to the benefit of clergy; it is
burnt on the brawn of the left thumb.
M, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, fig-
nifying one thoufand; and when a dafh was added at
the top of it, as M, it fignified a thoufand times a
thoufand.
MABILLON (John), a very learned writer of
France in the 17th century, was born at Perre-monte,
On the frontiers of Champagne, in 1632. He was
educated in the univerfity of Rheims, and afterwards
entered into the abbey of the Benedi&ines of St Remy.
In the year 1663, he was appointed keeper of the
treafures and monuments of France at St Dennis: but
having unfortunately broke a looking-glafs there,
which was pretended to have belonged to Virgil, he
defired leave of his fuperiors to quit an employment
which frequently obliged him to tell things he did not
believe. Next year he went to Paris; and was very
ferviceable to father d’Acheri, who was defirous of
having fome young monk who could affift him in com¬
piling his Spicilegium. This made him known. Soon
after, the congregation of St Maur having formed a
defign of publifhing new editions of the fathers, re¬
viled from the MSS. in the libraries of the Benedic¬
tines, Mabillon was charged with the edition of St
Bernard, which he prepared with extraordinary dili¬
gence. After that, he publilhed many other works,
which are evidences of his vaft capacity and induftry.
In 1682, he was employed by Mr Colbert in examin¬
ing fome ancient titles relating to the royal family.
The year following he fent him into Germany, to
fearch the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what was moft curious and proper to illuftrate the
hiftory of the church in general, and that of France
in particular. He has publiftied an account of this
journey. In l68y, he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France; and re¬
turned the year following with a very noble colledlion.
He placed in the king’s library above 3-000 volumes
of rare books, printed and in MSS. and compofed two
volumes of the pieces which he had difeovered in that
country. He was highly efteemed for his virtues as
well as his learning.
MACACO, or Macauco. See Lemur.
MACAO, a town of China, in the province of
Canton, feated in an illand at the mouth of the river
Tae. The Portuguefe have been in pofleffion of the
harbour for 150 years. Formerly they had a great
trade here; but now they have only a fort with a fmall
garrifon. The houfes aae built after the European
manner; and there is a Chinefe mandarin, as well as a
Portuguefe governor, to take care of the town and
the neighbouring country. E. Long. 112. 13. N. Lat.
22. 12.
MACAO, in ornithology. See Psittacus.
MACARONI. See Folengio, and the next
article.
MACARONIC, or Macaronian, akindofbur-
lefque poetry, confiding of a jumble of words of diffe¬
rent languages, with words of the vulgar tongue La¬
tinized, and Latin words modernized. Maccarone,
among the Italians, as has been obferved by Caslius
Rhodiginus, fignifies a coarfe donunifh man; and be-
caufe this kind of poetry is patched out of feveral
languages, and full of extravagant words, &c. the
Italians, among whom it had its rife, gave it the name
MAC [ 4334 J MAC
| Macaronic 0f maccaronian, or maccaronic poetry. Others choofe
II to derive it a macaronibus, from macaroons, a kind of
aca ar confection made of meal not boulted, fweet-almonds,
fugar, and the white of eggs, accounted a great
dainty among the country-people in Italy ; which,
from their being compofed of various ingredients, oc-
cafioned this kind of poetry, which confifts of Latin,
Italian, Spaniih, French, Englifti, &c. to be called by
their name.
Example.—A bold fellow, in the macaronic ftyle,
fays,
Enfilavi omnes fcadrones is regiutandos, &c.
Another example:
Archelos pijioliferos furiamque manantum,
Et grandem efmeutam qu<e mophtnm fafta ruella ejl:
To'xinumque alto troublantem cor da clochero, &c.
Theoph. Folengius, a Benedidtine monk of Mantua,
was the fird who invented, or at lead cultivated, this
kind of verfe. See Folengio.
The bed pieces of this kind are, the Baldus of Fo¬
lengio, and Macaronis Forza by Stefonio a Jefnit,
among the Italians; and the veritabilis fuper
tcrribili efmsuta paifanarum de Ruellis, among the
French. The famous Rabelais fird transferred the
macaronic dyle out of the Italian verfe into French
profe; and on the model thereof formed fome of the
bed things in his Pantagruel. We have little in
Englifh in the macaronian way; nothing fcarce, but
fome little loofe pieces colledted in Camden’s remains.
But the Germans and Netherlanders have had their
macaronic poets; witnefs the Certamen Catholicism cum
Calviniftis, of one Martinius Hamconius Frifius, which
contains about 1200 verfes, all the words whereof be¬
gin with the letter C.
MACARSKA, a town of Dalmatia, and capital
of Primogria, with a pretty good harbour, and a bi-
ihop’s fee,feated on the gulphof Venice. E.Lon. 17.57.
N. Lat. 43.42.
MACASSAR, a confiderable kingdom of the
ifland of Celebes, in the Ead-Indies. The climate is
very hot ; and would be intolerable, were it not for
the rains which fall when the fun is directly over their
heads. The foil is extremely fertile, and there are
ripe fruits at all times of the year. There are great
numbers of monkies, who are devoured by mondrous
ferpents ; fome of which are fo large, that they will
fwallow one of thefe animals entire. The Macaflars
are large, robud, courageous', and greatly addicted to
war. They profefs the Mahometan religion.
Macassar, a large, drong, and handfome town of
the ifland of Celebes, and capital of the kingdom of
the idand of Celebes, where the king refides. The
houfes are all built of wood, and fupported by thick
pods ; and they have ladders to go up into them,
which they draw up as foon as they have entered.
The roofs are covered with very large leaves, which
prevent the rain from entering. It is feated near the
mouth of a large river, which runs through the king¬
dom from north to fouth. E. Long. 117. 55. S. Lat.
. 5. o.
MACCABiEUS (Judas). See Judas.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of Scrip¬
ture; fo called from Judas the fon of Mattathias, fur-
named Maccabaus, either on account of his valour, or Macafon
becaufe he bore on his dandard the fird letters of a II
fentence in Exodus, which, joined together, form the
name Maccabee. The Hebrews call them The books of
the Affamonaans, becaufe (according to Jofephus and
Eufebius) Mattathias was the fon of Hafmoneus, or
AJfamoneus, which was the name of the family. The
fird book of the Maccabees is an excellent hii'lory;
and comes neared to the dyle and manner of the fa-
cred hidorians of any extant. It contains the hidory
of 40 years, from the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes,
to the death of Simon the high-pried ; that is, from
the year of the world 3829, to the year 3869, or
131 B. C. The fecond book of the Maccabees begins
with two epidles fent from the Jews of Jerufalem to
the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria, to exhort them
to obferve the fead of the dedication of the new altar
erefted by Judas on his purifying the temple. After
thefe epidles follows the preface of the author to his
hidory ; which is an abridgment of a larger work,
compofed by one Jafon, a Jew of Cyrene, who wrote
the hidory of Judas Maccabseus and his brethren,
and the wars againd Antiochus Epiphanes, and Eu-
pator his fon. This fecond book does not by any
means equal the accuracy and excellency of the fird.
It contains a hidory of about J 5 years, from the exe¬
cution of Heliodorus’s commiffion, who was fent by
Selencus to fetch away the treafures of the temple, to
the victory obtained by Judas Maccabseus over Nicanor;
that is, from the year of the world 3828, to the year
3843, or 147 B. C.
MACBETH, a Scots nobleman in the nth cen¬
tury, nearly allied to Duncan king of Scotland.—
Not contented with curbing the king’s authority, he
carried his pedilent ambition fo far as to put him to
death ; and, chafing Malcolm Kenmure his fon and
heir into England, ufurped the crown. Siward earl
of Northumberland, whofe daughter Duncan had mar¬
ried,'undertook, by the order of Edward the Confeflbr,
the protection of the fugitive prince.—He marched
with an army into Scotland; defeated and killed
Macbeth in Scotland; and reilored Malcolm to the
throne of his anceftors. Shakefpeare hath made this
tranfa&ion the fubjeCt of one of his belt tragedies.
MACCLESFIELD, a town .of Chefhire in Eng¬
land, feated on the edge of a foreit of the fame name,
upon a high bank, near the river Bollin. It is a
large handfome town, with a fine church, and a very
high fteeple. It has manufactures in mohair, twift,
hat-bands, buttons, and thread. Of late there have
been feveral fmall filk-mills ereCted there. W. Long.
2. 10. N. Lat. 53. 15.
MACE, the fecond coat or covering of the kernel
of the nutmeg, is a thin and membranaceous fub-
ftance, of an oleaginous nature, and a yellowifh co¬
lour ; being met with in flakes of an inch or more in
length, which are divided into a multitude of ramifica¬
tions. It is of an extremely fragrant, aromatic, and
agreeable flavour; and of a pleafant, but acrid, olea¬
ginous tafte.
Mace is carminative, ftomachic, and aftringent^
and poflefles all the virtues of nutmeg, but has lefe
atlringency.—The oils of mace and nutmeg, whether
prepared by diftillation or expreflion, are fo much of
the fame nature, that they may be indiferiminately
ufed
MAC [ 4335 ] MAC
Macedon. fed for one another on all occafions. They give cafe
in cholics, and often in nephritic cafes, taken internal¬
ly from one drop to five or fix of the diftilled oil, or an
equal quantity of the expreffed ; and externally, they
are of ufe to rub paralytic limbs : they alfo afiift di-
geftion ; and will often flop vomitings and hiccoughs,
only by being rubbed on the region of the ftomach.
The nurfes have a cuftom of applying oil of mace by
expreffion to childrens navels to eafe their gripes, and
that often with fuccefs; and we are affured, by au¬
thors of credit, that, when rubbed on the temples, it
promotes deep.
MACEDON, or Macedonia, a mod celebrated
kingdom of antiquity, was bounded on the eaft by the
iEgean fea ; on the foutb, by Theffaly and Epirus;
on the weft, by the Adriatic, or the Ionian fea; and
on the north, by the river Strymon and the Scardian
i mountains, but afterwards by the river Neffus or Ne-
Origin of ftus. Its moft ancient name was JEmathia, which it
the name. jlac| from ^mathius, a prince of great antiquity. The
name of Macedon was derived, according to fome,
from king Macedo, a defcendant of Deucalion ; but,
according to others, this name is only a corruption of
the word Mygdonia, one of its provinces.
In times of the remoteft antiquity, Macedonia, as
well as the reft of Europe, was parcelled out into a
vaft multitude of petty ttates, the names of which are
a now almoft forgotten, and their hiftory entirely un-
Caranus the known. About 795 B. C. one Caranus, an Argive,
firft king, and a defcendant of Hercules, left his country at the
head of a confiderable body of troops, in order to
found a new colony. According to the prevailing fu-
perftition, he confulted the oracle before he fet out,
and was commanded to eftablifh his empire according
to the diredlion of the goats. Caranus proceeded for
fome time without knowing what to make of the o-
raclt’s anfwer. However, having entered the little
kingdom of iEmathia, one of the ancient divifions of
Macedonia, he obferved a herd of goats running for
(belter from a fudden ftorm towards the capital, then
called Edejfa, and governed by king Midas. Upon
this, recollefting the anfwer, he immediately pofieifed
himfelf of the city by furprize ; and foon after, the
whole kingdom fubmitted to his government. Ingra¬
titude to his conduAors the goats, Caranus named his
city JEgtea, and called his people JEgiates ; and, in
order to perpetuate the memory of this extraordinary
event, he likewife made ufe of the figure of a goat in
his ftandard.
The founder of the Macedonian monarchy left his
kingdom to his fon-Ctenus, after a reign of three years,
during which he conliderably enlarged his dominions.
After him followed Thurymas and Perdiccas I. du¬
ring whofe reigns we find nothing memorable. In
the reign of Argasus, who afcended the throne about
Invaded by ^91 ^ the Illyrians, a fierce and barbarous nation
the Illy- in the neighbourhood, firft invaded Macedonia, and
rians, did confiderable mifchief; but the king having decoy¬
ed them by a ftratagem, put them to flight with great
(laughter, and thus delivered his kingdom from them
for the prefent. The reign of his fucceflbr Philip,
however, was much difturbed by the incurfions of thefe
people and the Thracians, as well as that of iEropas ;
who fucceeded Philip.
In the mean time, the ftates of Greece had begun to
Von. VI.
emerge from their barbarifm, and the eaftern part of MUecdon.
the world was almoft totally fubjefted to Cyrus the ’
firft monarch of Perfia. At this critical period Alce-
tas began to reign over Macedon ; but had the good
fortune to prefcrve his dominions from the encroach¬
ments of the' Greeks on the one hand, and the ufurpa- 4
tion of the Perfians on the other. In the reign of A- Becomes
myntas his fucceffor, Megabizus fent feven of thedePei!dent
principal commanders of his army, requiring him toon ”er la*
acknowledge king Darius for his fovereign. Thefe
ambaffadors, however, were all murdered by the con¬
trivance of Alexander the king of Macedon’s fon, on
account of their attempting to violate fome of the Ma¬
cedonian women. This ralh a&ion threatened the en¬
tire ruin of the kingdom ; but Alexander found means
to pacify the Perlian general fent againft him, by gi¬
ving him in marriage his lifter Gygaea, a very beauti¬
ful woman, with whom the Perfion fell in love as foon
as he faw her. Thenceforward the Macedonian kings
became dependent on the emperors of Perfia, and were
always regarded as faithful friends and allies.
The alliance of Amyntas with Bubaris, the Perfian
general, who had married his daughter, proved of
great fervice to the Macedonians. Through theinte-
reft of his fon-in-law, Amyntas obtained the country
lying near mount Haemus and Olympus; and at the
fame time the city of Alabanda in Phrygia was given
to one Amyntas, the nephew of Alexander. After
the battle of Salamis, Mardonius was left with an ar¬
my of 400,000 men to attempt the conqueft of Greece
by land; and at that time Macedon and the neigh¬
bouring countries are faid to have augmented the Per¬
fian army with 200,000 recruits. Some cities, how¬
ever, adhered to the Grecian intereft, particularly Po-
tidea, Olynthus, and Pallene. The two laft were ta¬
ken, and the inhabitants maflacred by the Perfians; but
Potidea efcaped, by the fea breaking into the Perfian
camp, and there making great devaftation. Alexan¬
der afterwards gained the favour of the Greeks by gi¬
ving them intelligence of tire time when Mardonius de-
figned to attack them ; and thus freed his country
from any danger that might have happened on ac¬
count. of the affiftance which had been given to the Per¬
fians. The other tranfadtions of his reign, however,
are totally unknown.
.Perdiccas II. the fon of Alexander, began his reign
in a very embarraffed fituation. The Thracians and
other barbarous nations looked with a jealous eye on
his increafing kingdom ; the Perfians treated him as
their vaflal ; and the Athenians were become fo power¬
ful by their colonies and allies on the fea-coaft, that
he was in no fmall danger from them. The king,
however, was a man of great abilities and prudence.
For fome time he amufed the Athenians with a (hew of
friendfhip ; but, finding, that they treated him with
haughtinefs, he refolved to check their rifling power in
that part of the world. An occafion for this foon of¬
fered, and a war enfued ; which, however, was not at¬
tended with any material advantage on either fide, and
Perdiccas died without being able to accomplifti his
fchemes. After his death, the kingdom of Macedon s
feemed to decline ; infomnch, that the dates of Greece Decline of
became arbiters with regard to its affairs; and we findfl16 king-
Perdiccas III. raifed to the throne by the decifion o^edoaf
Pelopidas the Theban. Philip, the new king’s bro-
24 & ther,
MAC [ 4336 ] M A C
Micedon. tfier, went along with Pelopidas to Thebes ; where he
was educated by the' celebrated Epaminondas, and
-where he became fuch a proficient in the arts of poli¬
cy as well as war, that ail the powers of Greece were
not able to refill him. Perdiccas in the mean time go-
<> verned tire Macedonians with tolerable good fortune ;
^ie enKa£ed ln a war with the Illyrians, by whom he
and kiied. was defeated and killed, and the kingdom left feem-
ingly on the verge o-f deftrudlion.
Perdiccas left an infant-fan, named Amyntas : but
the emergency of public affairs required that fome
able and experienced perfon fnould hold the reins of
government; and therefore Philip, whofe ambition
, .T at any rate was boundlefs, fet out immediately from
tak'es'upon Thebes, in order to take poffeffion of the kingdom,
him the Though only 22 years of age, he was far from finking
govern- under the load of public affairs, even in their moil
ivient. defperate ftate. In order to eltablifii himfeif firmly
on the throne, he firft applied to the army, whom he
careffed with the (trongeft expreffions of friendlhip ;
and then to the nobility, whom he gained over to his
intereft by the ftrongeft teftimonies of confidence, and
__ by vaft prornifes. He next gave a check to the
Athenian power, by declaring Amphipolis, over which
the Athenians claimed a jurifdidfion, to be a free
city. The chief men in Paeonia he gained by prefents ;
and in the fame way he perfuaded his rival Paufanias
to drop his claim to the crown of, Macedon ; after
which, having entirely fet afide Amyntas* whofe
guardian he had hitherto pretended to be, he caufed
himfeif to be declared king of Macedon.
The next care of Philip was to introduce a more
Ilrift difcipline among the troops ; which he had part¬
ly learned from the Thebans, and partly invented
himfeif. He particularly inftituted, or rather mo¬
delled, the phalanx ; taught the foldiers how to be¬
come more formidable from order, and a juft con¬
ception of the rules of war, than they could be from
mere force ; and by the help of frequent inftruflions,
kind language, and fometimes feverity, he at length
8 attained his end.—An opportunity fbon offered of
Defoits t!ietry[ng how much his foldiers had profited by his in-
At enuns. ^ruQ;;ons_ Argseus, an Athenian commander, had
advanced with an army of mercenaries as far as JEgx,
but was obliged by the inhabitants to retire. Philip
purfued him, and defeated his troops with great flaugh-
ter : and this firlt inftance of fticcefs greatly revived
the fpirits of the Macedonians ; while the king fecured
to himfeif the replication of clemency, by admitting to
a capitulation a confiderable body of the enemy that
had retired to an eminence.
This vidlory, together with Philip’s renouncing his
right to Amphipolis, procured a peace with the
Athenians; and foon after Agis, king of Poeonia,
9 another of his enemies, was taken off by death. This
Reduces news no fooner reached the ears of the Macedonian
anrfdefeats monarc^> l^lan invaded Pasonia, took moft of the
the Ulyri- cities, and obliged the inhabitants to own themfelves
sms. his fubje&s. After tin's fuceefs he marched without
delay againft the Illyrians, defeated them with great
(laughter, and obliged them to abandon all their con-
quefts. No fooner was this important vi&ory gained,
than Philip began to meditate greater things, and to
put them in execution almoft as foon as they came in¬
to his mind. He fuddenly fat down with his army-
before the city of Amphipolts, in order to lay fiege to Macedon,
it. The inhabitants fent deputies to Athens, to im- |
piore the protediion of that ftate; but, as Philip pre¬
tended that he would deliver up the city to the
Athenians as foon as he had taken it, thy requeft of tg |
the Amphipolitans was difregarded. The town was Takes Am- ■
foon taken by dorm, and Philip put to death orpliipolis, :
banifhed fuch as were not in his intereft; and then,anl ,
inllead of delivering it to the Athenians, he attacked
Pydna and Potidtea, in the laft of which was an
Athenian garrifon. This garrifon he difmiffcd with
honour, and then delivered the city to the Olyntlnans;
according to a maxim he very frequently made ufe of,
namely, that thofe are to be obliged whom we cannot
overcome.
After thefe vi&ories, Philip determined to makeRe(iuces <
himfeif mafter of the country between the river Stry-the country {
mon and the Neffus, on account of the gold with which between the 4
it abounded. At that time it was pofftrfled by thc^J1^1 j
Thracians, who had fortified Crcnides its capital city ; H
but Philip took the city by furprife, and quickly made
himfeif mafter of the whole diftridl. The name of the
city he changed to Philippi; and gave directions for
working the gold mines to greater advantage than be¬
fore, by which means he eftablifhed a revenue from
that country of 1000 talents per annum. JS ]
At this time all Greece was in confufion on account Origin of !
of the Phocian, or (as it was called) the facred, war ; de Pho- j
the occafion of which was as follows. The Phocians bad c’ai’ or j
ploughed fome of thelands belonging to the DelphicCre Wir'
Apollo ; for which they were fined by the Ampbic-
tyons, or ftates-general of Greece ; but, inftead of
fubmitting to the judgment of that court, the Pho¬
cians, at the inftance of Philomelus, a bold and daring
fpeaker, feized on the temple itfeif, and all the riches
belonging to Apollo. This immediately fet all Greece
in aflame. The Locrians and Boeotians made war on
the Phocians ; and to countenance their caufe, called
it /acred. The Phocians, on the other hand, pre¬
tended that they were far from being facrilegious per-
fons; for that they meddled not at all with the riches
ofthe temple, but only refumed the honour ofprotefting
it, which had belonged to their anceftors; and the
betterto fupporttheir arguments, they prevailed on the
Athenians and Lacedemonians to become their allies*
The war was carried on a long time with various
fuccefs; fometimeS the Phocians, and fometimes the
Thebans prevailing. However, it was generally thought
that the Athenians a£led unworthily in fending fuch
great fupjdies as they did to the Phocians, (at one
time 5000 foot and 300 horfe); and this the rather,
becaule it was known that they had few other mo¬
tives than the great pay which was given to their
troops; and as the money expended on this occafion
was raifed either by the coinage or fale of the dedicated
things in the temple of Delphos, it was conlidered as
facrilege to receive any part of this theft, efpecially
for defending the robbers.—Of this war Philip took
the advantage in order to extend his territories with¬
out interruption. It alfo produced various applications
from the contending parties in order to procure his
afiillance, which foon produced a very confiderable
alteration in favour of the Macedoffian affairs. I3
Philip’s firft enterprize was the reduftion of the Philip in-
city of Methane; after which he entered Theffaly, vades Thef-
bdngfalP {
MAC r 4337 ] . M A
MiicedoH, btn’ng Inv’tcd thitber by the petty princes of the cularly CtcEphon. and Phrynon
country', who were opprefled by the tyranny of Ly-
cophron the brother of Alexander of Phersea. The
tyrant demanded afilftan'ce from Onomarchus the Pho-
cian general; but notwithftanding their afiiftance, both
he and his allies were driven out of Theffaly. Upon
this, Onomarchus marched againft Philip with all his
e de-forces, defeated him in two engagement, and drove
feated, but ouj ofTheflaly in his turn in great diftrefs. Af-
at a gains^^ tVttc rltTaftpi- T^iitlir^ ar’tnli/'H l^irnTplf* \xuth all nofflfllf*
a victory.
ter this difaller, Philip applied himfelf with all pofii!
diligence to the recruiting, of his army; and having
prevailed on the Thefialians to exert themfelves in his
favour, at laft defeated and killed Onomarchus with
the lofs of great part of his army. Philip caufed the
body of the (lain general to be hung up with igno¬
miny ; and denied alfo funeral rites to all that were
flain, looking upon them as facrilegious perfons on
account of the violence offered to the pofleflions of
Apollo. Lycophron, and his brother Pitholaus, feeing
iio hopes of retaining their principality, were content
to refign it; and being difmiffed on giving their oaths
to be quiet, they delivered up the city of Pheraea in¬
to the hands of Philip : who, as he had promifed to
the Thcffalians, reftored all the cities to liberty ; and
having thereby fecured the friendlhip of fo powerful a
nation, he attempted to pafs through, the Pyiae, in
order to make war on the Phocians.
Js hindered , This a very bold attempt, and failed not to
by the alarm ali Greece ; for unce the defeat of the reruans
Athenians at Plataea, no Macedonian prince had ever fet his foot
from en- in Greece. The Athenians, therefore, being inform-
Creece ec^ *lls ^e%n» marched with the utmofl: expedition,
feized the paffes, and obliged him for that time to
abandon his purpofe, and return into Macedon.—
This produced an implacable hatred between Philip
and thy Athenians; for the ruin of whofe power he
inftantly began to form fchemes, as he favv they were
the only people in Greece who were capable of op-
pofing his defigns. He began with reducing fome
neutral cities; and at laft laid fiege to Oiynthus, a
place of very great importance, and which he himfelf
had hitherto owned to be free and independent. This
city held the balance of power between Athens and
MaCedon ; and therefore Demofthenes, the celebrated
Athenian orator, ufed all his influence with his coun¬
trymen to fend fufftcient afiiftance to the Olynthians.
Through the negligence or volatility of that people,
however, thefe fuccours were delayed til! the city
was taken by treachery, the houfes plundered^ and
the inhabitants fold for Haves.
Philip’s chieT hope was in putting an end to
the Phocian war; for which purpofe he affedted a
neutrality, that he might thereby become the arbiter
of Greece. His hopes were well founded; for the
Thebans, who were at the head of the league againft;
the Phocians, folicited him on the one fide, and the
ftates confederate with the Phocians did the like on
the other. He anfwered neither, yet held both in de¬
pendence. In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or
rather placed his hopes of favouring his own caufe on
that ftale ; for he well knew, that the Athenians,
Spartans, and other ftates allied with Phocis, would
never allow him to pafs Thermopylae, and lead an ar¬
my into their territories. So much refped, however,
did he fhew to the ambafladora from thefe ftates, parti-
Takes O
lymhus.
vim came from A- Macofom
thens,” that they believed bim to be in tluir intereft,
and reported as much to their mailers. The A^'f'Over-7
nians, who were now difiblved in eafe and luxury, re-reaches the"
ctived this news with great fatisfa£Vion ; and named Athenians,
iinrtiedlately ten plenipotentiaries to go and treat of a ami at laft
full and lafting peace with Philip. Among thefe pie- p’^'^*
nipotentiaries were Demofthenes and ACfchir.es, the
mod celebrated orators in Athens. Philip gave di-
re&ions, that thefe ambafiadors fhould be treated with
the utmoft civility; naming, at the fame time, three of
his minifters to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Par-
menio, and Eurylochus. Demoflhtnes being obliged
to return to Athens, recommended it to his colleagues
not to carry on their negotiations with Philip’s depu¬
ties; but to proceed with all diligence to court, there
to confer with the king himfelf. The ambafta-
dors, however, were fo far from following bis in-
ftruftions, that they fufFered themfelves to be put off
for three months by the arts of Philip and his minifters.
In the mean time, the king took from the Athe¬
nians fuch places in Thrace as might beft cover bis
frontiers ; giving their plenipotentiaries, in their {lead,
abundance of fair promifes, and the ftrongeft afluran-
ces that his good-will {hould be as beneficial to them
as ever their colonies had been. At laft a peace was
concluded ; but then the ratification of it was deferred
till Philip had poflefled himfelf of Phersea in Thefialy,
and faw himfelf at the head of a numerous army
then he ratified the treaty ; and difmified the plenipo¬
tentiaries with afiurances, that he would be ready at all
times to give the Athenians proofs of his friendfhip.
On their return to Athens, when this matter came to
be debated before the people, Demofthenes plainly
told them, that, in his.opinion, the promifes of Phi¬
lip ought not to be relied on, becaufe they appeared
to be of little fignificance in themfelves, and came
from a prince of fo much art, and fo little fidelity, that
they could derive no authority from their maker, iEf-
chines, on the other hand, gave it as his fentiment,
that the king of Macedon’s affurances ought to give
them full fatisfadtion. He faid, that, for his part,
he was not politician enough to fee any thing of dif-
guife or difiimulation in the king’s condudf ; that there
was great danger in diftrufting princes; and that the
fureft method of putting men upon deceit, was to
{hew that we fufpedted them of it. The reft of the
plenipotentiaries concurred with iEfehines; and the
people, defirous of quiet, and addidted to pleafure,
eafiiy gave credit to all that was faid, and decreed
that the peace {hould be kept. All this was the eafier
brouglit about, becaufe Phocion, the worthieft man
in the republic, did not oppofe Philip ; which was
owing to his having a juft fenfe of the ftate his country
was in. He conceived, that the Athenians of thofe
times were nothing like their anceftors ; and therefore,,
as he expreffed himfelf on another occafion, he was
defirous, fince they would not be at the head of
Greece themfelves, that they would at leaft be up¬
on good terms with that power which would be fo. l8;
Philip,, who knew how to ufe as well as to procure PafTes
opportunity, while the Athenians were in this good Thermo¬
humour, pafled Thermppylce, without their ^now*nggJ{]®’tj1aen<i
whether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes; but hepi10c;ani
quickly undeceived them, by commanding his foldiersWaie
24 P 2- to-
MAC [ 4338 ] MAC
Maeedon. to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby
' the troops of Apollo, and himfelf the lieutenant-gene¬
ral of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air
of triumph ; which fo terrified the Phocians, whom
he had caufed to be proclaimed facrilegious perfons,
that they immediately difmified all thoughts of de¬
fence, and without more ado fubmitted to his mercy.
Thus the Phocian war, which had fo long employed
all Greece, was ended without a ftroke ; and the judg¬
ment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphi&yons,
or grand council of Greece. By their decree the
walls of three Phocian cities were demolished, the peo¬
ple were forbid to inhabit in any but villages, to pay
a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make ufe
either of houfes or arms, till they had repaid to the
temple of Apollo the money they had facriiegioufly
carried from thence. Their arms were taken from
them, broken to pieces, and burnt ; their double voice
in the council was taken from them, and given to the
Macedonians. Other orders were made for fettling the
affairs both of religion and ftate throughout Greece:
all of which were executed by Philip with great ex-
aftnefs and moderation ; he paying the mod profound
refpedt to the council; and, when he had performed
its commands, retiring peaceably with his army back
,p to Macedon, which gained him great reputation.
Is again At Athens alone, the juftice and piety of Philip was
oppofed by noj underflood. The people began to fee, though a
the Athe- ]jtt]e t00 ]atej t]iat they had been abufed and deceived
by thofe who had negotiated the late peace. They fa w,
that, through their acceptance of it, the Phocians
were deftroyed ; that Philip was become mafter of
Thermopylae, and might enter Greece when he plea-
fed ; that, in abandoning their allies, they had aban¬
doned themfelves ; and that, in all probability, they
might foon feel the weight of his power, whom they
had fo foolifhly trufled : they therefore began to take
new and hoftile meafures ; they ordered, that the wo¬
men fhould retire out of the villages into the city, their
walls to be repaired, and,their forts new flrengthen-
ed. They feemed inclined to queftion Philip’s elec¬
tion into the council of the Amphicfyons, becaufe it
had been done without their confent; and even to pro¬
ceed to an open war. In all likelihood they had car¬
ried things to extravagancy, if Demollhenes had not
interpofed. He told them, that though he was not
for making the peace, he was however for keeping it;
and that he faw no manner of occafion for their main¬
taining into fo unequal a contell as would needs enfue,
if they took up arms, not only againfl Philip, but
againlt all the dates concurring with him in the late
tranfaflions. This fecms to have cooled the rage of
the Athenians; and to have brought them to think of
ruining Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had rat-
fed him.
PnrfiicsIrs fame h's atchievements without the bounds
conqm-fb of Macedon having difpofed the fubje&s of Philip to
in Thrace, hope every thing from his conduft, and the feveral
dates of Greece to defire above all things his friend-
flbp ; that prudent monarch laid hold of this favourable
fituation to fix his dominion on fuch a dable founda¬
tion as that a reverfe of fortune fhould not immediate¬
ly dedroy it. To this end, while he carried on his
negotiations through Greece, he likewife kept his ar¬
my in exercife, by taking feveral places in Thrace,
which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopi- Macedon,
thes, who had the government of the Athenian colo- ^
nies in thofe parts, perceiving well what end Philip . 11 ,
had in view, did not day for inftru&ions from home ;
but having railed with much expedition a confider- Vaded by ,
able body of troops, taking advantage of the king’sDiopithcs.. i
being abfent with his army, entered the adjacent
territories of Philip, and waded them with fire and
fword.
The king, who on account of the operations of the
campaign in the Cherfonefe, was not at leifure to re.
pel Diopithes by force, nor indeed could divide his ar¬
my without imminent hazard, chofe, like an able ge¬
neral, rather to abandon his provinces to infults, which
might be afterwards revenged, than, by following the
dictates of an ill-timed paffion, to hazard the lofs of
his veteran army, whereon lay all his hopes. He con¬
tented himfelf, therefore, with complaining to the A-
thenians of Diopithes’s condu£i, who in a time of
peace had entered his dominions, and committed fuch
devaftations as could fcarce have beenjuftified in a
time of war. His partifans fupported this application
with all their eloquence. They told the Athenians,
that unlefs they recalled Diopithes, and brought him
to a trial for this infringement of the peace, they ought
not to hope either for the friendfhip of Philip, or of
any other prince or ftate ; neither could they jnftly
complain, if, prompted by fuch a precedent, others
fhould break faith with them, and fall without the
lead notice upon their dominions. Demofthenes de- aa
fended Diopithes; and undertook to fhew, that he de-Who is <3e- :
ferved the praife and not the cenfure of the Athenians. Demofthe*
Thofe of the other party began then to charge himIies> i
with crimes of a different nature ; they alleged, that
he oppreffed the fubje&s and maltreated the allies of
Athens. Demofthenes replied, that of thefe things
there were as yet no proofs ; that when fuch fhould * 1
appear, a fingle galley might he fent to bring over Dio¬
pithes to abide their judgment, but that Philip would
not come if they fent a fleet; whence he inferred,
that they ought to be cautious, and to weigh well the
merits of this caufe before they took any refolution.
He faid, that it was true, Philip had not as yet at¬
tacked Attica, or pretended to make a defeent on their
territories in Greece, or to force his way into their
ports; when it came to that, he was of opinion they
would be hardly able to defend themfelves; wherefore
he thought fuch men were to be efteemed as fought
to prote<9: their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as
long as might be at a diftance : whereupon he moved,
that, inftead of difowning what Diopithes had done, or
diredting him to difmifs his army, they fhould fend
him over recruits, and fhow the king of Macedon,
they knew how to proteft their territories, and to main¬
tain the dignity of their ftate, as well as their anceftors.
The fear^uments had fuch an effedl, that a decree was
made conformable to his motion.
While affairs flood thus, the Illyrians recovering
courage, and feeing Philip at fuch a diftarce, haraffed
the frontiers of Macedon, and threatened a formidable
invafion : but Philip, by quick marches, arrived on
the borders of Illyrium; and ftruck this barbarous peo¬
ple with fuch a panic, that they were glad to com.
pound for their former depredations at the price he was
pleafed to fet. Moft of the Greek cities in Thrace
now
MAC [ 4339 ] MAC
Macedon. now fought the friendfhip^of the king, and entered in-
‘ to a league with him for their mutual defence. As it
cannot be fuppofed, that each of thefe free cities had
a power equal to that of Philip, we may therefore look
upon him as their proteftor. About this time, Phi-
philip’s hp’s negotiations in Peloponnefus began to come to
fchemes de-light : the Argives and Meffenians, growing weary of
feated. that tyrannical authority which the Spartans exercifed
.over them, applied to Thebes for affiftance ; and the
Thebans, out of their natural averfion to Sparta, fought
to open a palfage for Philip into Peloponnefus, that, in
conjun&ion with them, he might humble the Lacedae¬
monians. Philip readily accepted the offer; and re-
folved to procure a decree from the Amphiftyons, di-
redling the Lacedaemonians to leave Argos and Meffene
free ; which if they complied not with, he, as the lieu¬
tenant of the Amphiflyons, might, with great appear^
ance of jullice, march with a body of troops to enforce
their order. When Sparta had intelligence of this,
fhe immediately applied to Athens, earneftly intreat-
ing affiftance, as in the common caufe of Greece. The
Argives and Meffenians, on the other hand, laboured
affiduoufly to gain the Athenians to their fide; alleging,
that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to af-
fift thofe whofe only aim was to be free. Demoft-
henes, at this junfture, outwreftled Philip, if we may
borrow that king’s expreffion : for, by a vehement ha¬
rangue, he not only determined his own citizens to be¬
come the avowed enemies of the king; but alfo made
4he Argives and Meffenians not over-fond of him for
an ally; which when Philip perceived, he laid afide
all thoughts of this enterprize for the prefent, and be¬
gan to praftife in Euboea,
This country, now called Negropont, is feparated
from Greece by the Euripus, a ftrait fo narrow, that
Euboea might eafily be united to the continent. This
iituation made Philip call it the fetters of Greece, which
be therefore fought to have in his own hands. There
bad been for fome years great difturbances in that
country; under colour of which, Philip fent forces
thither, and demolifhed Porthmos, the ftrongefl city
in thofe parts, leaving the country under the govern¬
ment of three lords, whom Demofthenes roundly calls
tyrants eftablillied by Philip. Shortly after, the Ma¬
cedonians took Oreus, which was left under the go¬
vernment of five magiftrates, ftyled alfo tyrants at A-
thens. Thither Plutarch of Eretria, one of the mod
eminent perfons in Euboea, went to reprefent the di-
ftrefies of his country, and to implore the Athenians
to fet it free. This fuit Demofthenes recommended
warmly to the people; who fent thither their famous
leader Phocion, fupported by formidable votes, but a
very flender army : yet fo well did he manage the af¬
fairs of the commonwealth and her allies, that Philip
quickly found he muft for a time abandon that projedt;
which, however, he did not till he had formed another
no lefs beneficial to himfelf, or lefs dangerous to A-
thens. It was, the profecution of his conquefts in
Thrace, which he thought of pulhing much farther
than he had hitherto done, or could be reafonably fu-
fpefted to have any intention of doing.
Extraordinary preparations were made by the Ma¬
cedonian monarch for this campaign. His fon Alex¬
ander was left regent of the kingdom ; and he himfelf
with 3CVOCO men laid fitge to Perinthus, one of the
ftrongefl; cities in the country. At prefent, however, Macedon.
all his arts of cajoling and pretending friendlbip were
infufficient to deceive the Athenians. They gave the
command of their army and fleet to Phocion ; a gene¬
ral of great abilities, and with whom Philip would
have found it very hard to contend. On the other
hand, the king/jf Perlia began to turn jealous of the
growing power of the Macedonian monarch. The
Perfian kings had been accuftomed to regard thofe of
Macedon as their faithful allies ; but the good fortune
of Philip, the continual clamour of the Athenians
againft him, and his dethroning at pleafure the petty
princes of Thrace, made him now regarded in another
light. When therefore he led his troops againft Pe¬
rinthus, the Great King, as he was ftyled by the Greeks,
fent his letters mandatory to the governors of the ma¬
ritime provinces, dire&ing them to fupply the place
with all things in their power; in confequence of which
they filled it with troops, granted fublidies in ready
money, and fent befides great convoys of provifionand
ammunition. The Byzantines alfo, fuppofing their
own turn would be next, exerted their utmoft endea¬
vours for the prefervation of Perinthus ; fending thi¬
ther the flower of their youth, with all other neceflaries
for an obftinate defence. The confequence of all this
was, that Philip found himfelf obliged to raife the fiege
with great lofs. a
That the reputation of the Macedonian arms might How he at
not fink by this difgrace, Philip made war on the Scy- laft gained
thians and Triballi, both of whom he defeated; andhisPoint*
then formed a defign of invading Attica, though he
had no fleet to tranfport his troops, and knew very
well that the Thefialians were not to be depended up¬
on if he attempted to march through the Pifae, and
that the Thebans would even then be ready to oppofe
his march. To obviate all thefe difficulties, he had re-
courfe to Athens itfelf; where, by means of his par-
tifans, he procured his old friend iEfchines to be fent
their deputy to the Amphidyons. This feemed a
fmall matter, and yet was the hinge on which his
whole projed turned. By that time iEfchines had ta¬
ken his feat, a queftion was ftirred in the council, whe¬
ther the Locrians of Amphifia had not been guilty of
facrilege in ploughing the fields of Cyrrha in the neigh¬
bourhood of the temple of Delphi. The afiembly be¬
ing divided in their opinions, jEfchines propofed to
take a view, which was accordingly decreed. But
when the Amphidyons came in order to fee how
things flood, the Locrians, either jealous of their pro¬
perty, or fpurred thereto by the fuggeftions of fome
who faw farther than themfelves, fell upon thofe vene¬
rable perfons fo rudely, that they compelled them to
fecure themfelves by flight. The Amphidyons de¬
creed, that an army flrould be raifed, under the command
of one of their own number, to chaftife the delinquents;
but as this army was to be compofed of troops fent
from all parts of Greece, the appearance at the ren¬
dezvous was fo inconfiderable, that the Amphidyons
fent to command them durft undertake nothing. The
whole matter being reported to the council,-iEfchines,
in a long and eloquent harangue, fhewed how much the
welfare and even the fafety of Greece depended on the
deference paid to their decrees; and after inveighing
againft; the want of public fpirit in fuch as had not
fent their quotas at the time appointed by the coun-
MAC
Is oppofed
by the
Athenians
and The-
Wacedcn, oil, tie moved that they fiiould ele& Philip for thei:
general, and pray him to execute their decree. The
deputies from the other dates, conceiving that by this
expedient their refpe&ive condiments would be free
from any farther trouble or expence, came into it at
once ; whereupon a decree was immediately drawn up,
purporting that ambaffadors (liould be fent to Philip
of Macedon in the name of Apollo and the Amphic-
tyons, once more to require his afiiflance, and to no-
tify to him, that the dates of Greece had unanimoufly
Is chofen chofen him their general, with full power to a£t as he
general by thought fit againft fuch as had oppofed the authority
phtffons l*’e Amphi&yons. Thus of a fudden Philip ac-
* " quired all that he fought ; and having an army ready
in expe&ation of this event, he immediately march¬
ed to execute the commands of the Amphi&yons
in appearance, but in reality to accomplifh his own
defigns. For having pafled into Greece with his ar¬
my, indead of attacking the Locrians, he feized im¬
mediately upon Elatea a great city of Phocis upon the
m river Cephifus.
The Athenians in the mean time were in theutmoft
confudon on the news of Philip’s march. However, by
the advice of Demodhenes, they invited the Thebans
to join them aguinft the common enemy of Greece.
Philip endeavoured as much as poffibie to prevent this
confederacy from taking place? but all his efforts pro¬
ved inefTe&ual. The Athenians raifed an army, which
marclued immediately to Eleufls, where they were join¬
ed by the Thebans. The confederates made the bed
appearance that had ever been feen in Greece, and the
troops were exceedingly good ; but unfortunately the
generals were men of no condudf, or fkill in the mili-
Whom he tai7 art’ An engagement enfued atCheronsea ; where-
defeats at ’n Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedonian
Cheror.xa. army, and his father Philip the other. The confede¬
rate army was divided according to the different na¬
tions of which it confifted ; the Athenians having the
right, and the Boeotians theGeft. In the beginning
of the battle the confederates had the better ; where¬
upon Stratoclcs an Athenian commander cried out,
“ Come on, brother foidiers, let us drive them back to
Macedon which being overheard by the king, he faid
very coolly to one of his officers, “ Thefe Athenians
do not know to conquer.’’ Upon this he dire&ed the
files of the phalanx to be ftraitened; and, drawing
his men up very clofe, retired to a neighbouring emi¬
nence f from whence, when the Athenians were eager
in their purfuit, he rufiied down with impetuofity,
broke, and routed them with prodigious flaughter. The
orator Demoflhenes behaved very unbecomingly in this
t 434° 1
MAC
lions for this new expedition. His pretence for ma- Maceioith
king war on the Perfians at this time was the affiflance
given by the Perfians to the city of Perinthus, as al¬
ready mentioned. In the mean time, however, the
king, by reafon of the difienfions which reigned in his
family, was made quite miferable. He quarrelled with
his wife Olympias to fuch a degree, that he divorced
her, and married another woman named Cleopatra.
This produced a quarrel between him and his fon A-
lexander; which alfo came to fuch an height, that A-
lexander retired into Epirus with his mother. Some
time afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re¬
conciliation took place in appearance ; but in the mean
time a confpiracy was formed agaim't the king’s life,
the circumftances and caufes of which are very much
unknown. Certain it is, however, that it took effect,
as the king was exhibiting certain (hows in honour of
his daughter’s marriage with the king of Epirus. Phi¬
lip, having given a public audience to the ambafiadors
of Greece, went next day in date to the theatre. All
the feats were early taken up; and the (hews began with
a fplendid proceffion, wherein the images of the 12 fupe-
rior deities of Greece were carried, as alfo the image
of Philip, habited in like manner, as if he now made
the 13th, at which the people (touted aloud. Then
came the king alone, in a white robe, crowned, with
his guards at a confiderabie diftance, that the Greeks
might fee he placed his fafety only in his confidence of
the loyalty of his fubje&s. Paufanias, the affaffin, how¬
ever, had fixed himfelf clofe by the door of the theatre;
and obferving that all things fell out as he had fore-
feen they would, took his opportunity when the king
drew near him, and, plunging his fword in his left fide, ^
laid him dead at his feet. He then fled, as fad as hetlececl<
was able, towards the place where his horfes were;
and would have efcaped, had not the twig of a vine
catched his (hoe, and thrown him down. This gave
time to thofe who purfued him to- come up with
him; but indead of (ecuring him, in order to extort
a difeovery of his accomplices, they put an end to
his life. 30,
No fooner did this news reach Athens, than, as ifExt.av*-
all danger had been pad, the inhabitants (hewed the j°y
mod extravagant (igns of joy. Demodhenes an(^
party put on chaplets of flowers,, and behaved as if
they had gained a great victory. Phocion reproved
them for this madnefs; bidding them remember, that
“ the army which had beaten them at Cherontca was
leflened but by one.” This reproof, however, had-
very little effe&. The people heard with pieafure all
the harfir things which the orators could fay of the
engagement ; for he deferted his pod, and was one of young Alexander king of Macedbn, whom they
the fivd that fled : nay, we are told, that a dake catch¬
ing hold of his robe, he, not doubting but it was an
enemy, cried out, Alas ! fpare my life.”
l8. f , This victory determined the fate of Greece, and
general”1 6 from t^ls time we rouA reckon Philip fupreme lord of
again ft the all the Grecian dates. The fird ufe he made of his
Perlians. power was to convoke a general aflembly, wherein he
was recognized generaliffimo, and with full power ap¬
pointed their leader againd the Perfians. Having, by
virtue of his authority, fettled a general peace among
them, and appointed the quota that each of the dates
fhould furnifh for the war, he difmified them ; and re¬
turning to Macedon, began to make great prepara-
prefented as a giddy wrong-headed boy, ready to grafp;
all things in his imagination,, and able to perform noi
thing. The affairs of Macedon indeed were in a very
didracled date on the acceffion of Alexander: for ail
the neighbouring nations had the fame notion of the
young king with the Athenians ; and being irritated1
by the ufurpations of Philip, immediately revolted;;
and the dates of Greece entered into a confederacy
againd him. The Perfians had been contriving to
transfer the war into Macedon ; but as foon as the
news of Philip’s death reached them, they behaved as
if all danger had been over. At the fame time Atta¬
ins, one of the Macedonian commanders, afpired to the
crown,
MAC [ 4341 } MAC
I WaceJon. crown, and fought to draw off the foldiers from their
" ‘ allegiance.
In the councils held on this oceafion, Alexander’s
beff friends advifed him rather to make ufe of diffimu-
lation than forcer and to cajole thofe whom they
thought he could not fubdue. Thefe advices, however,
were ill-fuited to the temper of their monarch. He
thought that vigorous meafures only were proper, and
I: therefore immediately led his army into Theffaiy.
lAlexamkr Here he hare gued the princes fo effedtually, that he
r eneraTof t^oroug^^y Sa>ned them over to his intereft, and was
llireece. ^7 them declared general of Greece ; upon which he
returned to Macedon, where he caufed Attains to be
feized and put to death.
In the fpring of the next year (335 B. C.) Alex¬
ander refolved to fubdue the Triballians and Illyrians,
who inhabited the countries now called Bulgaria and
Sclavor.ia, and had been very formidable enemies to
the Macedonian power. In this expedition he difeo-
vered, though then but 20 years of age, a furpriiing
l 31 degree of military knowledge. Having advanced to the
1 Defeats the paffes of Mount Hsemus, he found that the barbarians
B*rriballi. had polled themfeIves in the moft advantageous man¬
ner. On the tops of the cliffs, and at the head of every
paffage, they had placed,their carriages and waggons
in fuch a manner as to form a kind of parapet with
their lhafts inwards, that, when the Macedonians Ihould
have half afeended the rock, they might be able to
pulh thefe heavy carriages down upon them. They
reckoned the more upon this contrivance, becaufe of
the clofe order of the phalanx, which, they imagined,
would be terribly expofed by the foldiers wanting room
to ftir, and thereby avoid the falling waggons. But
Alexander, having dire&ed his heavy-armed troops to
march, gave orders, that, where the way would permit,
they Ihould open to the right and left, and fufftr the
carriages to go through; but that, in the narrow paffes,
they ihould throw themfelves on their faces with their
fhields behind them, that the carts might run over
them. This had the defired effed; and the Macedo¬
nians reached the enemies works without the lofs of a
man. The difpute was then quickly decided; the bar¬
barians were driven from their polls with great llaugh-
ter, and left behind them a conliderable booty for the
conquerors.
The next exploits of Alexander were againll the.
Getse, the Taulantii, and fome othernations inhabit¬
ing the country on the other fide of the Danube.
Them he alfo overcame; (flowing in all his adtions the
moll perfedl Ikill in military affairs, joined with the
greatell valour. In the mean time, however, all Greece
was in commotion by a report which had been confi¬
dently fpread abroad, that the king was dead in Iliy-
TheThe r'a‘ The Thebans, on this news, feized Amyntas and
bans revolt Timolaus, two eminent officers in the Macedonian gar-
on the rifon which held their citadel, and dragged them to the
news of his market-place, where they were put to death without
death. either form or procefs, or any crime alleged againll
them. Alexander, however,did not fufferthem to remain
long in their miilake. He marched with fuch expe¬
dition, that in feven days he reached Pallene in Thef¬
faiy; and in fix days more he entered Bueotia, before
the Thebans had any intelligence of his palling the
ftraits of Thermopylae. Even then they would not be¬
lieve that the king was alive; but infilled that the
Macedonian army was commanded by Antipater, or MacrcW.
by one Alexander the fon of iEropus, The red of the
Greeks, however, were not fo hard of belief; and
therefore fent no affiltartce to the Thebans, who were
thus obliged to bear the confequences of their own
folly and obllinacy. The city was taken by dorm, and Thebes
the inhabitants were for fome hours maffacred without t^ken and
diltindlion of age or fex ; after which the houfes were (iel*rol'e“"
demolilhed, all except that of Pindar'the famous poet,
which was fpared out of refpeft to the merit of its
owner, and becaufe he had celebrated Alexander I,
king of Macedon. The lands, excepting thofe delli-
ned to religious ufes, were (hared among the foldiers,
and all the prifoners fold for Haves; by which 440 ta¬
lents were brought into the king’s treafury.
By this feverity the rell of the Grecian dates were
fo thoroughly humbled, that they thought no more of
making any refidance, and Alexander had nothing fur¬
ther to hinder him from his favourite projedt of inva¬
ding Afia. Very little preparation was neceffary for
the Macedonian monarch, who went out as to an af-
fured con quell, aaid reckoned upon being fupplied only
by the fpoils of his enemies. Hidorians are not agreed
as to the number of his army. Arrian fays, that there Number 0f
were 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe. Diodorus Siculus the army
tells us, that there were 13,000 Macedonian foot, 7000 with which
of the confederate dates, and 5000 mercenaries. Thefe ^fiInva‘lcd
were under the command of Parmenio. Of the Odri-
fians, Triballians, and Illyrians, there were 5000; and
of the Agrians, who were armed only with darts*
1000. As for the horfe, he tells us there were 1 Boo-
commanded by Philotas ; and as many Theffalians, un¬
der the command of Callas; out of the confederate
dates of Greece, were 600 commanded by Eurygius;
and goo Thracians and Peonians, who led the van un¬
der Caffander. Plutarch tells us, that, according to a
low computation, he had 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe;
and, according to the larged reckoning, he had 34,000
foot and 4000 horfe. As to his fund for the payment
of the army, Aridobulus fays it was but 70 talents;
and Oneficritus, who was alio in this expedition, not
only takes away the 70 talents, but affirms that the
king was 200 in debt. As for provilions, there was
jud fufficient for a month and no more; and to pre¬
vent didurbances, Antipater was left in Macedon with
12,000 foot and 1500 horfe.
The army having affembled at Amphipolis, he Sets out on
marched from thence to the mouths of the river Stry-his expedt-
mon; then eroding mount Pangasus, he took the road11011’
to Abdera. Croffing the river EbruS, he proceeded
through the country of Pastis, and in 20 days reached
Sedos; thence he came to Eleus, where he facrificed
on the tomb of Protelilaus, becaufe was the fird among
the Greeks who, at the liege of Troy, fet foot on the
Afiatic (hore. He did this, that his landing might be
more propitious than that of the hero to whom he fa¬
crificed, who was (lain foon after. The greated part
of the army, under the command of Parmenio, embark¬
ed at Sedos, on board a fleet of 160 galleys of three
benches of oars, befides fmall craft. Alexander him-
felf failed from Eleus; and, when he was in the middle
of the Heliefpont, offered a.bull to Neptune and the
Nereids, pouring forth at the fame time a libation
from a golden cup. When he drew near the (hore, he
lanched a javelin, which duck in the earth: then, in
com-
MAC [ 4342 ] MAC
Maccdoc. complete armour, he leaped upon the ftrand; and, ha-
ving erefted altars to Jupiter, Minerva, and Hercules,
he proceeded to Ilium. Here again he facrificed to
Minerva; and taking down fome arms which had hung
in the temple of that goddefs fince the time of the
Trojan war, confecrated his own in their ftead. He
facrificed alfo to the ghoft of Priam, to avert his wrath
on account of the defcent which he himfelf claimed
from Achilles.
In the mean time the Perfians had aflembled a great
army in Phrygia; among whom was one Memnon a
Rhodian, the bed officer in the fervice of Darius. A-
lexander, as foon as he had performed all the ceremo¬
nies which he judged neceffary, marched"dire6tly to¬
wards the enemy. Memnon gave it as his opinion, that
they ffiould burn and deftroy all the country round,
that they might deprive the Greeks of the means of
fubfifting, and then tranfport a part of their army into
Macedon. But the Perfians, depending on their ca¬
valry, reje&ed this falutary advice ; and polled them-
felves along the river Granicus, in order to wait the
arrival of Alexander. In the engagement which hap¬
pened on the banks of that river, the Perfians were
* Sec Gra- defeated*, and Alexander became mailer of all the
nicus. neighbouring country; which he immediately began
to take care of, as if it had been part of his hereditary
37 dominions. The city of Sardis was immediately de-
^H-livered up; and here Alexander built a temple to Ju-
firftvictory ^ter 01ymP>a3- After this, he reftored the Ephefians
to their liberty ; ordered the tribute which they for¬
merly paid to the Perfians to be applied towards the
rebuilding of the magnificent temple of Diana ; and
having fettled the affairs of the city, marched againll
Miletus. This place was defended by Memnon with a
confiderable body of troops who had fled thither after
the battle of Granicus, and therefore made a vigorous
refiftance. The fortune of Alexander, however, pre¬
vailed ; and the city was foon reduced, though Mem*
non with part of the troops efcaped to Halicarnaffus.
After this, the king difmiffed his fleet, for which va¬
rious reafons have been affigned; though it is pro¬
bable, that the chief one was to Ihow his army that
their only refource now was in fubverting the Perfian
empire.
Almoll all the cities between Miletus and Halicar-
naffus fubmitted as foon as they heard that the former
was taken; but Halicarnaffus, where Memnon command¬
ed with a very numerous garrifon, made an obftinate de¬
fence. Nothing, however, was able to refill the Mace¬
donian army. Memnon was at lall obliged to abandon
the place: upon which Alexander took and razed the
city of Tralles in Phrygia ; received the fubmiffion
of feveral princes tributary to the Perfians; and having
deftroyed the Marmarians, a people of Lycia who had
fallen upon the rear of his army, put an end to the
campaign: after which he lent home all the new-
married men; in obedience, it would feem, to a precept
of the Mofaic law, and which endeared him more to
his foldiers than any other a6lion of his life.
As foon as the feafon would permit, Alexander
quitted the province of Phafelus; and having fent part
of his army through the mountainous country to Perga,
by a Ihort but difficult road, took his route by a
certain promontory, where the way is altogether im-
paffable, except when the north winds blow. At the
time of the king’s march the fouth wind had held for Macedbw. |t
long time; but of a fudden it changed, and blew from 1 {T
the north fo violently, that, as he and his followers
declared, they obtained a fafe and eafy paffage through
the divine affiftance. By many this march is held to
be miraculous, and compared to that of the children
of Ifrael through the Red Sea ; while, on the other
hand, it is the opinion of others, that there was nothing ;|
at all extraordinary in it. He continued his march
towards Gordium, a city of Phrygia; the enemy ha¬
ving abandoned the ftrong pafs of Telmiffus, through
which it was neceffary for him to march. When he
arrived at Gordium, and finding himfelf under a ne-
ceffity of flaying fome time there till the feveral
corps of his army could be united, he expreffed a
ftrong defire of feeing Gordius’s chariot, and the fa¬
mous knot in theharnefs, of which fuch ftrange ftories
had been publifhed to the world. The cord in which
this knot was tied, was made of the inner rind of
the cornel-tree ; and no eye could perceive where it
had begun or ended. Alexander, when he could find 39
no poffible way of untying it, and yet was unwilling Unties the ■
to leave it tied left it Ihould caufe fome fears in the®"rtdian I
breafts of his foldiers, is fat'd by fome authors to have*1 0,‘
cut the cords with his fword, faying, “ It matters not
how it is undone.” But Ariftobulus affures us, that
the king wrefted a wooden pin out of the beam of the
waggon, which, being driven in acrofs the beam, held it
up; and fo took the yoke from under it. Be this as it
will, however, Arrian informs its, that a great temped
of thunder, lightning, and rain, happening the fuc-
ceeding night, it was held declarative of the true folu-
tion of this knot, and that Alexander Ihould become
lord of Alla.
The king having left Gordium, marched towards
Cilicia; where he was attended with his ufual good
fortune, the Perfians abandoning all the ftrong paffes
as he advanced. As foon as he entered the province,
he received advice that Arfames, whom Darius had
made governor of Tarfus, was about to abandon it,
and that the inhabitants were very apprehenfive that
he intended to plunder them before he withdrew. To
prevent this, the king marched inceffantly, and arrived
juft in time to fave the city. But his faving it had
well nigh coft him his life: for, either through the His Gck-
exceffive fatigue of marching, as fome fay, or, accord- nefs and re-
ing to others, by his plunging when very hot into the00'^^
river Cydnus, which, as it runs through thick /hades,
has its waters exceffively cold, he fell into fuch a dif-
temper as threatened his immediate diAblution. His
army loft their fpirits immediately; the generals knew
not what to do; and his phyficians were fo much af¬
frighted, that the terror of his death hindered them'
from ufing the neceffary methods for preferring his life.
Philip the Acarnanian alone preferred temper enough
to examine the nature of the king’s difeafe; the worll
fymptom of which was a continual waking, and which
he took off by means of a potion, and in a /hort time
the king recovered his ufual health.
Soon after Alexander’s recovery, he received the
agreeable news that Ptolemy and Afander had defeated
the Perfian generals, and made great conquefts on the
Hellefpont; a little after that, he met the Perfian army
at Iffus, commanded by Darius himfelf. A bloody
engagement enfutd, in which the Perfians were de¬
feated
MAC [ 4343 ] MAC
Maeedon. feated with great daughter, as related under the article
" Issus. The eonfequences of this vi&ory were very
advantageous to the Macedonians. Many governors
of provinces and petty princes fubmitted themfelves to
the conqueror; and fuch as did fo were treated, not as
a newly-conquered people, but as his old hereditary
fubjedis; being neither burthened with foldiers, nor
oppreffed with tribute. Among the number of
thofe places which, within a (hort fpace after the battle
of Iffus, fent deputies to fubmit to the conqueror, was
the city of Tyre. The king, whofe name was Azel-
micus, was abfent in the Perfian fleet; but his fon was
among the deputies, and was very favourably received
by Alexander. The king probably intended to confer
particular honours on the city of Tyre; for he ac¬
quainted the inhabitants that he would come and fa-
crifice to the Tyrian Hercules, the patron of -their
city, to whom they had eredfed a moft magnificent
temple. But thele people, like moft other trading
nations, were too fufpicious to think of admitting
fuch an enterprifing prince with his troops within
their walls. They fent therefore their deputies again
to him, to inform him, that they were ready to do
whatever he fhould command them ; but, as to his
coming and facrificing in their city, they could not
confent to that, but were pofitively determined not to
admitafingle Macedonian within their gates. Alexan¬
der immediately difmified their deputies in great dif-
pleafure. He then aflembled a council of war, wherein
he infifted ftrongly on the difaffeded ftate of Greece,
(for moft of the Grecian ftates had fent ambafladors
to Darius, to enter into a league with him againft the
Macedonians,) the power of the Perfians by fea, and
the folly of carrying on the war in diftant provinces,
while Tyre was left unreduced behind them : he alfo
remarked, that if once this city was fubdued, thefove-
reignty of the fea would be transferred to them, be-
caufe it would fix their poffeflion of the coafts; and as
the Perfian fleet was compofed chiefly of tributary
fquadrons, thofe tributaries would fight the battles, not
40 of their late, but of their prefent mafters. For thefe
Tyre taken reafons the fiege of Tyre was refolved on. The
and de- town was not taken, however, without great diffi-
ftroyed. culty ; which provoked Alexander to fuch a degree,
that he treated the inhabitants with the greateft cruelty.
See Tyre.
After the rcduftion of Tyre, Alexander, though
the feafon was already far advanced, refolved to make
an expedition into Syria; and in his way thither pro-
pofed to chaftife the Jews, who had highly offended
him during the fiege of Tyre: for when he fent to
them to demand provifions for his foldiers, they an-
fwered. That they were the fubje&s of Darius, and
bound by oath not to fupply his enemies. The king,
however, was pacified by their fubmiflion; and not
only pardoned them, but conferred many privileges
upon them, as related under the article Jews.
£g)i>t fub- From Jerufalem Alexander marched direftly to
““s* Gaza, the only place in that part of the world which
flill held out for Darius. This W’as a very large and
ftrong city, fituated on an high hill, about five miles
from the fea fhore. One Bath, or Betts, an eunuch,
had the government of the place ; and had made
every preparation neceffary for fuftaining a long and
©bftinate fiege. The governor defended the place
Vol. VI. 2
with great valour, and feveral times repulfed his ene- Mace.lon.
tnies: but at laft it was taken by ftorm, and all the
garrifon flain to a man; and this fecured to Alexander
an entrance into Egypt, which having before been
very impatient of the Perfian yoke, admitted the Mace¬
donians peaceably. 4*
Here the king laid the foundations of the city of
Alexandria, which for many years after continued totginp|eof
be the capital of the country. While he remainedJupher
here, he alio formed the extraordinary defign of vifit-•Ammoa'
ing the temple of Jupiter Ammon. As to the mo¬
tives by which he was induced to take this extraordi¬
nary journey, authors are not agreed ; but certain it
is, that he hazarded himfelf and his troops in the
higheft degree; there being two dangers in this march,
which, with the example of Cambyfes, who loft the
greateft part of his army in it, might have terrified
any body but Alexander. The firft was the want of
water, which, in the fandy defarts furrounding the
the temple, is no where to be found: the other, the
uncertainty of the road from the fluAuation of the
fands; which, changing their fituation every moment,
leave the traveller neither a road to walk in, nor mark
to march by. Thefe difficulties, however, Alexander
got over; though not without a miraculous interpo-
fition, as is pretended by all his hiftorians.
Alexander having confulted the oracle, and received
a favourable anfwer, returned to purfue his conquefts.
Having fettled the government of Egypt, he appointed
the general rendezvous of his forces at Tyre. Here
he met with ambaffadors from Athens, requefting him
to pardon fuch of their countrymen as he found ferving
the enemy. The king, being defirous to oblige fuch
a famous ftate, granted their requeft; and fent alfo a
fleet to the coaft of Greece, to prevent the cffe&s of
fome commotions which had lately happened in Pelo-
ponnefus. He then direAed his march to Thapfacus;
and having paffed the Euphrates and Tigris, met with
Darius near Arbela, where the Perfians were again t
overthrown with prodigious flaughter *, and Alexander^ee
in effeA became mafter of the Perfian empire. ’4J
After this important viApry, Alexander marched Reduces
direAly to Babylon, which was immediately delivered Babylon,
up; the inhabitants being greatly difaffeAed to thepU^.’ an.'1
Perfian intereft. After 30 days ftay in this country, erepo' *'
the king marched to Sufa, which had already furren-
dered to Philoxenus; and here he received the trea-
fures of the Perfian monarch, amounting, according
to the moft generally received account, to 50,000 ta¬
lents. Having received alfo at this time a fupply
of 6000 foot and 500 horfc from Macedon, he fet
about reducing the nations of Media, among whom
Darius was retired. He firft reduced the Uxians:
and having forced a paffage to Perfepolis the capital
of the empire, he like a barbarian deftroyed the
ftately palace there, a pile of building not to be
equalled in any part of the world; after having given
up the city to be plundered by his foldiers. In the
palace he found 120,000 talents, which he appro¬
priated to his own ufe, and caufed immediately to
be carried away upon mules and camels ; for he had
fuch an extreme averfion to the inhabitants of Per¬
fepolis, that he determined to leave nothing valuable in
the city.
During the time that Alexander remained at Per-
24 fepolis
MAC [ 4344 ] MAC
MaceJon, fepolis, he received intelligence that Darius remained
at Ecbatana the capital of Media; upon which he
44 purfued him with the greateft expedition, marching
He piirfues at the rate of near 40 miles a-day. In 15 days he
Darius. reached Ecbatana, where he was informed that Da¬
rius had retired from thence five days before, with an
intent to pafs into the remoteft provinces of his em¬
pire. This put fome ftop to the rapid progrefs of
the Macedonian army ; and the king perceiving that
there was no neceflity for hurrying hfmfelf and his
foldiers in fuch a manner, began to give the orders
requifite in the prefent fituation of his affairs. The
Theffalian horfe, who had deferved exceedingly well
of him in all his battles, he difmiffed according to his
•agreement; gave them their whole pay, and ordered
2000 talents over and above to be diftributed among
them. He then declared that he would force no
man : but if any were willing to ferve him longer for
pay, he defired they would enter their names in a
book, which a great many of them did ; the reft fold
their horfes, and prepared for their departure. The
king appointed Epocillus to conduA them to the fea,
and afligned him a body of horfe as an efcort: he
likewife fent Menetes with them, to take care of
their embarkation, and that they were fafely landed
in Euboea without any expence to themfelves.
On receiving frefti information concerning the ftate
of Darius’s affairs, the king fet out again in purfuit
of him, advancing as far as Rhages, a city one day’s
journey from the Cafpian ftraits: there he underftood
that Darius had paffed thofe ftraits fome time before ;
which information leaving him again without hopes,
he halted for five days. Oxidates, a Perfian whom
Darius had left prifoner at Sufa, was made governor
of Media, while the king departed on an expedition
into Parthia. The Cafpian ftraits he paffed immedi¬
ately, without oppofition ; and then gave dire&ions
to his officers to colleA a quantity of provifions fuffi-
cient to ferve his army on a long march through a
Whois wafted country. But before his officers could ac-
mordered, complifh thofe commands, the king received intel¬
ligence that Darius had been murdered by Btffus,
one of his own fubje&s, and governor of Baftria, as
is related at length under the article Persia.
Alexander ^oon as Alexander had colle&ed his forces to-
reduces gether, and fettled the government of Parthia, he
Hyrcania. entered Hyrcania; and having, according to his ufual
cuftom, committed the greateft part of his army to
the care of Craterus, he, at the head of a choice
body of troops, paffed through certain craggy roads,
and before the arrival of Craterus, who took an open
and eafy path, ftruck the whole provinces with fuch
terror, that all the principal places \vere immediately
put into his hands, and foon after the province of Aria
alfo fubmitted, and the king continued Satibarzanes
the governor in his employment.—The reduAion of
this province finifhed the conqueft of Perfia ; but the
ambition of Alexander to become mafter of every
nation of which he had the leaft intelligence, induced
him to enter the country of the Mardi, merely be-
caufe its rocks and barrennefs had hitherto hindered
any body from conquering, or indeed from attempt¬
ing to conquer it. This conqueft, however, he eafily
accomplifhed, and obliged the whole nation to fub-
mit to his pleafure. But in the meantime difturbances
began to arife in Alexander’s new empire, and among Maeedtm.
his troops, which all his aAivity could not thorough- ■
ly fupprefs. He he fcarcely left the province of Aria,
when he received intelligence, that the traitor Beffus
had caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king of Alia by
the name of drtaxerxes; and that Satibarzanes had
joined him, after having maffacred all the Macedonians
who had been left in the province. Alexander ap¬
pointed one Arfames, governor in the room of Sati¬
barzanes ; and marched thence with his army againft
the 7;arangx, who under the command of Barzaentes,
one of thofe who had confpired againft Darius, had
taken up arms, and threatened to make an obftinate
defence. But, their numbers daily falling off, Bar¬
zaentes being afraid they would purchafe their own
fafcty at the expence of his, privately withdrew from
his camp, and, eroding the river Indus, fought fhelter
among the nations beyond it. But they, either dread¬
ing the power of Alexander, or detefting the treachery
of this Perfian towards his former mafter, feized and
delivered him up to Alexander, who caufed him im¬
mediately to be put to death. 47
The immenfe treafure which the Macedonians had The Mace-
acquired in the conqueft of Perfia began now to cor- d.oneiat"]*m '
rupt them. The king himfelf was of a moft generous
difpofition, and liberally beftowed his gifts on thofeiuxury.
around him; but they made a bad ufe of his bounty,
and foolifhly indulged thofe vices by which the former
poffeffors of that wealth had loft it. The king did
all in his power to difeourage the lazy and inaAive
pride which now began to (hew itfelf among his of¬
ficers; but neither his difeourfes nor his example had
any confiderable effeA. The manners of his courtiers
from bad became worfe, in fpite of all he could fay
or do to prevent it; and at laft they proceeded to
cenfure his conduA, and to exprefs themfelves with
fome bitternefs on the fubjeA of his long continuance
of the war, and his leading them conftantly from one
labour to another. This came to fuch an height, that
the king was at laft obliged ufe fome feverity in order
to keep his army within the limits of their duty. ^
From this time forward, however, Alexander himfelf Alexander
began to alter his conduA ; and by giving a little in-conforms to
to the cuftoms of the Orientals, endeavoured to fe-tlie Pcfian
cure that obedience from his new fubjeAs which hecu^oms-
found fo difficult to be preferved among his old ones.
He likewife endeavoured, by various methods, to blend
the cuftoms of the Afiatics and the Greeks. The
form of his civil government refembled that of the
ancient Perfian kings: in the military affairs, how¬
ever, he preferved the Macedonian difeipline; but
then he made choice of 30,000 boys out of the pro¬
vinces, whom he caufed to be inftruAed in the Greek
language, and direAed to be brought up in fuch a
manner as that from time to time he might with them
fill up the phalanx. The Macedonians faw with
great concern thefe extraordinary meafures which
fuited very ill with their grofs underftandings; for
they thought, after all the viAories they had gained,
to be abfolute lords of Afia, and to poffefs not only
the riches of its inhabitants, but to rule the inhabi¬
tants themfelves : whereas they now faw, that Alex¬
ander meant no fuch thing; but that, on the con¬
trary, he conferred governments, offices at court,
and. all other marks of confidence and favour, indif-
cri--
MAC [ 4345 ] MAC
Maccdon. criminately both on Greeks and Perfians.—From this
~~ time alfo the king feems to have given inftances of a
cruelty he had never fhown before. Philotas his mod
intimate friend was feized, tortured, and put to death
for a confpiracy of which it could never be proven
that he was guilty; and foon after Parmenio and
fome others were executed without any crime at all
real or alleged. Thefe things very much dillurbed
the army. Some of them wrote home to Macedonia
of the king’s fufpicions of his friends, and his difpo-
fition to hunt out enemies at the very extremities of
the world. Alexander having intercepted fome of
thefe letters, and procured the bed information he
could concerning their authors, picked out thefe dif-
fatislied people, and having difpofed them into one
corps, gave it tire title of the turbulent battalion;
hoping by this means to prevent the fpirit of difaffec-
tion from pervading the whole army.
As a farther precaution againd any future confpira¬
cy, Alexander thought fit to appoint Hephasdion and
Clytus generals of the auxiliary horfe; being appre-
henfive, that if this authority was lodged in the hands
of a fingle perfon, it might prompt him to dangerous
undertakings, and at the fame time furnifh him with
the means of carrying them into execution. To keep
his forces in aftion, he fuddenly marched into the
country of the Euergetse, i. e. Benefaflors; and found
them full of that kind and hofpitable difpofition, for
which that name had been bedowed on their ancedors:
he therefore treated them with great refpedf ; and, at his
departure added fome lands to their dominions, which
lay contiguous, and which for that reafon they had re-
quelted of him.
Turning then to the ead, he entered Arachofia, the
inhabitants of which fubmitted without giving him any
trouble. While he palfed the winter in thefe parts,
the king received advice, that the Arians, whom he
had fo lately fubdued, were again up in arms, Sati-
barzanes being returned into that country with two
thoufand horfe afligned him by Beflus. Alexander in-
ftantly difpatched Artibazus the Perfian, with Erigyus
and Caranus, two of his commanders, with a confi-
derable body of horfe and foot: he likewife ordered
49 Phrataphernes, to whom he had.given the govern-
Satibarza* ment of Parthia, to accompany them. A gene-
nes defeat- ral engagement enfued, wherein the Arians behaved
«d and kill- very wejij as Jong as their commander Satibarzanes
lived: but he engagingErigyus, the Macedonian Uruck
him firft into the throat, and then, drawing forth
his fpear again, through the mouth; fo that he im¬
mediately expired, and with him the courage of his
foldiers,who inftantly begun to fly; whereupon Alex¬
ander’s commanders made an eafy conqueft of the reft
of the country, and fettled it effedually under his obe¬
dience.
The king, notwithftanding the inclemency of the
feafon, advanced into the country of Paropamifus, fo
called from the mountain Paropamifus, which the fol-
• diers of Alexander called Caucafus. Having crofs-
ed the country in 16 days, he came at length to an
opening leading into Media; which finding of a fuffi-
cient breadth, he dire&ed a city to be built there,
which he called Alexandria, as alfo feveral other
towns about a day’s journey diftant from thence : and
in thefe places he left 7000 perfons, part of them fuch
as had hitherto followed his camp, and part of the mer- Macedon.
cenary foldiers, who, weary of continual fatigue, were
content to dwell there. Having thus fettled things in
this province, facrificed folemnly to the gods, and ap¬
pointed Proexes the Perfian prefident thereof, with a
fmall body of troops under the command of Niloxenus
to aflift him, he refumed his former defign of penetra¬
ting into Badtria.
Beflus, who had affumed the title of Artaxerxes, Beffus rc-
when he was allured that Alexander was marchingducetl an<1
towards him, immediately began to wafte all ihe^^0
country between Paropamifus and the river Oxus:
which river he palled with his forces, and then burnt
all the veflels he had madeufeof for tranfporting them,
retiring to Nautaca a city of Sogdia ; fully perfuaded,
that, by the precautions he had taken, Alexander
would be compelled to give over his purfuit. This
condudt of his, however, dilheartened bis troops, and
gave the lie to all his pretenfions; for he had affc&ed
to cenfure Darius’s condudt, and had charged him with
cowardice, in not defending the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks of the moll
defenfible river perhaps in the whole world. As to his
hopes, tho’ it cannot be faid they were ill founded, yet
they proved abfolutely vain ; for Alexander, continuing
his march, notwithftanding all the hardfliips his foldiers
fuftained, reduced all Badlria under his obedience,
particularly the capital Badlria and the ftrong caftle
Aornus : in the latter he placed a garrifon under the
command of Archelaus ; but the government of the
province he committed to Artabazus. He then con¬
tinued his march to the river Oxus : on the banks of
which, when he arrived, he found it three quarters of
a mile over, its depth more than proportionable to its
breadth, its bottom fandy, its ftream fo rapid asto ren¬
der it almoft unnavigable, and neither boat nor tree
in its neighbourhood ; fo that the ableft commanders
in the Macedonian army were of opinion that they
Ihould be obliged to march back. The king, how¬
ever, having firft fent away, under a proper efcort, all
his infirm and worn-out foldiers, that they might be
condudled fafe to the fea-ports, and from thence to
Greece, devifed a method of palling this river without
either boat or bridge, by caufingthe hides which co¬
vered the foldiers tents and carriages to be fluffed with
ftraw, and then tied together and thrown into the ri¬
ver. Having crolfed the Oxus, he marched diredlly
towards the camp of Beflus, where, when he arrived,
he found it abandoned ; but received at the fame time
letters from Spitamenes and Dataphernes, who were
the chief commanders under Beflus, fignifying, that,
if he would fend a fmall party to receive Belfus,
they would deliver him into his hands; which they
did accordingly, and the traitor was put to death
in the manner related in the hiltory of Persia.
A fupply of horfes being now arrived, the Mace¬
donian cavalry were remounted. Alexander continued
his march to Maracanda the capital of Sogdia, from
whence he advanced to the river laxartes. Here he
performed great exploits againft the Scythians; from
whom, however, tho’ he overcame them, hiqarmy fuf-
fered much; and the revolted Sogdians being headed
by Spitamenes, gave him a great deal of" trouble. AIexsa!n(jei,
Here he married Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes, a marries
prince of the country whom he had fubdued. But du- Roxana*
24 2 ring
MAC [ 4346 ] MAC
MaceJon. ring thefe expeditions, the king greatly difgufted his
' army by the murder of his friend Clytus in a drunken
qnarrel at a banquet, and by his extravagant vanity
15 in claiming divine honours.
Indus/ * he arrived at the river Indus, where Hephae-
flion and Perdiccas had already provided a bridge of
boats for the paffage of the army. The king refrelhed
his troops for3odays in the countries on the other fide of
the river, which were thofe of his friend and ally Taxiles,
who gave him 30 elephants, and joined his army now
with 700 Indian horfe, to which, when they were to en¬
ter upon action, he afterwards added 5000 foot. The
true reafon of this feems to have been his enmity to Po-
rus, a famous Indian prince, whofe territories lay on the
other fide of the river Hydafpes. During this recefs,
the king facrificed with great folemnity; receiving alfo
ambafladors from Ambifurus a very potent prince, and
from Doxareas, who waslikewife a king in thofe parts,
with tenders of their duty, and confiderable prefents.
Thefe ceremonies over, Alexander appointed Philip
governor of Taxila, and put a Macedonian garrifon
into the place, becaufe he intended to ereft an hofpital
there for the cure of his fick’ and wounded foldiers.
He then ordered the vefiels, of which his bridge had
been compofed when he pafied the Indus, to be taken
to pieces, that they might be brought to the Hydafpes,
where he was informed that Porus with a great army
lay encamped to hinder his paffage. When he ap¬
proached the banks of this river with his army and the
auxiliaries under the command of Taxiles, he found
that the people he had to do with were not fo eafily
to be fubdued as the Perfians and other Afiatics. The
Indians were not only a very tall and robuft, but alfo
a very hardy and wcll-difciplined people ; and their
king Porus, was a prince of high fpirit, invincible cou¬
rage, and great conduct.
It was about the fummer-folftice when Alexander
reached the Hydafpes, and confequently its waters
were broader, deeper, and more rapid, than at any
other tim ; for in India the rivers fwell as the fun’s
incrcafing heat melts the fnow, and fubfide again as
winter approaches. Alexander therefore had every dif¬
ficulty to druggie with. Porus had made his difpofi-
tions fo judicioufly, that Alexander found it impoflible
to pra&ife upon him as he had done upon others, and
to pafs the river in his view: wherefore he was con-
ftrained to divide his army into fmall parties, and to
pra&ife other arts, in order to get the better of fo vi¬
gilant a prince. To this end he caufed a great quan¬
tity of corn and other provifions to be brought into
his camp; giving out, that he intended to remain where
he was till the river fell, and by becoming fordable
fhould give him an opportunity of forcing a paflage:
this did not, however, hinder Porus from keeping up
very ftridl difeipline in his camp; which when Alex¬
ander perceived, he frequently made fuch motions as
feemed to indicate a change of his refolution, and that
he had dill thoughts of pafiing the river. The main
thing the Macedonians flood in fear of were the ele¬
phants; for the bank being pretty fteep on the other
fide, and it being the nature of horfes to ftart at the
firft appearance of thofe animals, it was forefeen that
the army would be difordered, and incapable of fuftain-
ing the charge of Purus’s troops.
At length Alexander pafled the river by the fol¬
lowing contrivance. There was, at the diflance of 150 Maeedon.
ftadia from his camp, a rocky promontory proje-fling
into the river, thick covered with wood; and over- c
againft this promontory there lay a pretty large unin-Hydafpes
habited ifland almoft overgrown with trees. The king with difti-
therefore conceived within himfelf a projed of convey- culty.
ing a body of troops from this promontory into that
ifland; and upon this feheme he built his hopes of fur-
prilifjg Porus, vigilant as he was. To this end he kept
him and his army conftantly alarmed for many nights
together, till he perceived that Porus apprehended it
was only done to harrafs his troops, and therefore no
longer drew out of his camp, but trufted to his ordi¬
nary guards : then Alexander refolved to put his defign
in execution. A confiderable body of horfe, the Ma¬
cedonian phalanx, with fome corps of light-armed
foot, he left in his camp under the command of Cra-
terus, as alfo the auxiliary Indians: giving thefe orders
to be obferved in his abfence, that if Porus marched
againft him with part of his army and left another part
with the elephants behind in his camp, Craterus and
his forces ftiould remain where they were; but if it fo
happened that Porus withdrew his elephants, then Cra¬
terus was to pafs the river, becaufe his cavalry might
then do it fafely. Alexander having marched half the
way, or about nine of our miles, ordered the merce¬
nary troops under the command of Attalus and other
generals, to remain there; and dire&ed them, that as
foon as they knew he was engaged with the Indians
on the other fide, they fhould pafs in veffels provided
for that purpofe, in order to affift him. Then march¬
ing a long way about, that the enemy might not per¬
ceive his defign of reaching the rock, he advanced as
diligently as he could towards that poll. It happened
very fortunately for him, that a great ftorm of thun¬
der, lightning, and hail, rofe in the night, whereby
his march was perfedly concealed, his vtffcls of 30
oars put together, and his tents fluffed and ftitched, fo
that they palled from the rock into the ifland, without
being perceived, a little before break of day ; the
ftorm ceafing juft as he and his foldiers were ready for
their paflage. When they had traverfed the ifland, they
boldly fet forward to gain the oppofite (bore in fight of
Porus’s out-guards, who inftantly pofted away to give
their mafter au account of the attempt. Alexander
landed firft himfelf; and was followed as expeditioufly
as poffible by his forces, whom he took care to draw
up as faft as they arrived. When they began their
march again, they found that their good fortune was
not fo great as at firft they efleemed it; for it appeared
now, that they had not reached the continent at all, but
were in truth in another ifland much larger than the
former. They crofled it as faft as they could, and
found that it was divided from the terra firma by a
narrow channel, which, however, was fo fwclled by the
late heavy rain, that the poor foldiers were obliged to
wade up to the bread. When they were on the other
fide, the king drew them up again carefully, ordering
the foot to march flowly, they being in number about
6000, while himfelf with 5000 horfe advanced before.
As foon as Porus received intelligence that Alexander
was adually palling the river, he lent his fon with 2000
hoffe, and 120 armed chariots, to oppofe him. But
they came too late : Alexander was already got on
Ihore, and even on his march.
When
MAC [ 4347 ] MAC
Macedon. When the Macedonian fcouts perceived them ad-
gf" vance, they informed the king, who fent a detachment
5* to attack them, remaining dill at the head of his ca-
The fon of ^alry in expectation of Porus. But when he found
Poms de- partJ7 was unfUpp0rtcd, he inftantly attack-
killed. ^ with all his horfe, and defeated them with the
{laughter of many, and the lofs of all their armed
chariots, the fon of Porus being flain in the fight.
The remainder of the horfe returning to the camp with
this difaftrous account, Porus was in fome confufion :
however, he took very quickly the bed and wifeft re-
folutions his circumftances would allow; which were,
to leave a part of his army, with fome of his tlc-
,phants, to oppofe Craterus, who was now about to
pafs the river aifo; and, with the reft, to march againft
Alexander and his forces, who were already paffed.
This refolution once taken, he marched immediately
out of his camp, at the head of 4000 horfe, 30,000
foot, 300 chariots, and 200 elephants. He advanced
as expeditioufly as he could, till he came into a plain
which was firm and fandy, where his chariots and ele¬
phants might aft to advantage : there he halted, that
he might put his army in order, knowing well that he
need not go in queft of his enemy. Alexander foon
came up with his horfe, but he did not charge Porus;
on the contrary, he halted, and put his troops in or¬
der, that they might be able'to defend themfelves in
cafe they were attacked. When he had waited fome
time, his foot arrived; whom he immediately furround-
ed with his horfe, that, after fo fatiguing a march,
they might have time to cool and breathe themfelves,
before they were led to engage. Porus permitted all
this, becaufe it was not his intereft to fight, and be-
caufe he depended chiefly upon his order of battle, the
elephants covering his foot, fo that the Macedonians
Si could not charge them.
ftSf defeat" Whtm Alexander had difpofed his foot in proper
order, he placed his horfe on the wings ; and, obser¬
ving that he was much fuperior in them to the enemy,
and that the cavalry of Porus were eafy to be charged,
lie refolved to let the foot have as little fhare as poffihlc
in the battle. To this end, having given the neceffa-
ry direftions to Ccenus who commanded them, he went
himfelf to the right, and with great fury fell upon
the left wing of Porus. The difpute, tho’ ftiort, was
very bloody : the cavalry of Porus, tho’ they fought
gallantly, were quickly broken ; and the foot being by
this means uncovered, the Macedonians charged them.
But the Indian horfe rallying, came up to their relief,
yet were again defeated. By this time the archers had
wounded many of the elephants, and killed molt of
their riders, fo that they did not prove lefs troublefome
and dangerous to their own fide than to the Macedo¬
nians ; whence a great confufion enfued, and Coenus,
taking this opportunity, fell in with the troops under
bis command, and entirely defeated the Indian army.
Porus himfelf behaved with the greateil intrepidity,
and with the moft excellent conduft : he gave his or¬
ders, and direfted every thing, as long as his troops
retained their form ; and, when they were broken, he
retired from party to party as they made (lands, and
continued fighting till every corps of Indians was put
to the rout. In the mean time Craterus had paffed
with the reft of the Macedonian army ; and thefe, fal-
ling upon the flying Indians, inercafed the {laughter
of the day excefiively, infomuch that 20,000 foot and Macedon.
3000 horfe were killed, ail the chariots were hacked to 1
pieces, and the elephants not killed were taken : two
of Porus’s fons fell here, as aifo molt of his officers of
all ranks.
As for Porus, Alexander gave drift direftions that
no injury might be done to his perfon : he even fent
Taxiles to perfuade him to furrender himfeif, and to
affure him that he (hould be treated with all the kind-
nefs and refpeQ imaginable ; but Porus, difdaining this
advice from the mouth of an old enemy, threw a jave¬
lin at him, and had killed him, but for the quick turn
of his horfe. Meroe the Indian, who was alfo in the
fervice of Alexander, fucceeded better: he had been
the old acquaintance of Porus; and therefore, when he
intreated that prince to fpare his perfon, and tofubmit
himfelf to fortune and a generous viftor, Porus fol- He mbmhs
lowed his advice; and we may truly fay, that the con- to Alexu.
dition of this Indian king fuffered nothing by the lofader-
of the battle. Alexander immediately gave him his li¬
berty, reftored him fhortly after to his kingdom, to
which he annexed provinces almoft equal to it in va¬
lue. Neither was Alexander a lofer by his munifi¬
cence ; for Porus remained his true friend and con-
ftant ally.
To perpetuate the memory of this viftory, Alex¬
ander ordered two cities to be erefted ; one on the
field of battle, which he named Nicxa ; the other on
this fide the river, which he called Bucephala, in
honour of his horfe Bucephalus, who died here, as
Arrian fays, of mere old age, being on the verge of
30. All the foldiers, who fell in battle, he buried
with great honours ; offered folemn facrifices to the
gods, and exhibited pompous (hows on the banks of
the Hydafpes, where he had forced his paffage. He
then entered the territories of the Glaufae, in which
were 37 good cities, and a multitude of populous
villages. All thefe were delivered up to him without
fighting ; and as foon as he received them, he pre-
fented them to Porus ; and having reconciled him to
Taxiles, he fent the latter home to his own dominions.
About this time ambaffadors arrived from fome Indian
princes with their fubmiffions ; and Alexander, having
conquered the dominions of another Porus, which lay
on the Hydraotes a branch of the Indus, added them
to thofe of Porus his ally.
In the middle of all this fuccefs, however, news
arrived, that the Cathci, the Oxydracas, and the Malli,
the moft warlike nations of India, were confederated
againft the Macedonians, and had drawn togther a
great army. The king immediately marched jo give
them battle; and in a few days reached a city called
Sangala, feated on the top of an hill, and having a
fine lake behind it. Before this city the confederate Sangria ta-
Indians lay encamped, having three circular lines ofke.i.
carriages locked together, and their tents pitched in
the centre. Notwithftanding the apparent difficulty
of forcing thefe intrenchments, Alexander refolved im¬
mediately to attack them. The Indians made a noble
defence; but at laft the firft line of their carriages was
broken, and the Macedonians entered. The fecond
was ftronger by far; yet Alexander attacked that
too, and, after a defperate refiftance, forced it. The
Indians, without trufting to the third, retired into the
city; which Alexander would have invefted: but the
foot
MAC [ 4348 ] MAC
Mace don. f00t he had with him not being fufficient for that
pnrpofe, he caufed his works to be carried on both
iides as far as the lake; and, on the other fide of that,
ordered feveral brigades of horfe to take poll; order¬
ing aifo battering engines to be brought up, and in
fome places employing miners. The fecond night, he
received intelligence that the befieged, knowing the
lake to be fordable, intended to make their efcape
through it. Upon this the king ordered all the car¬
riages which had been taken in forcing their camp to
be placed up and down the roads, in hopes of hinder¬
ing their flight ; giving directions to Ptolemy, who
commanded the horfe on the other fide of the lake, to
be extremely vigilant, and to caufe all his trumpets to
found, that the forces might repair to that poll where
the Indians made their greateft effort. Thefe pre¬
cautions had all the effeCt that could be defired: for
of the few Indians who got through the lake, and
paffed the Macedonian horfe, the greater part were
killed on the roads; but the greateft part of their
army was conftrained to retire again through the
water into the city. Two days after, the place was
taken by ftorm. Seventeen thoufand Indians were
killed ; 70,000 taken prifoners; with 300 chariots,
and 500 horfe. The Macedonians are faid to have
loft only 100 men in this fiege ; but they had 1200
wounded, and among thefe feveral perfons of great
dillinftion.
The city was no fooner taken, than Alexander dif-
patched Eumenes his fecretary, with a party of horfe,
to acquaint the inhabitants of the cities adjacent with
what had befallen the Sangalans; promifing alfo, that
they fhould be kindly treated if they would fubmit.
But they were fo much affrighted at what had hap¬
pened to their neighbours, that, abandoning all their
cities, they fled into the mountains; choofing rather
to expofe themfelves to wild beafts, than to thefe in¬
vaders, who had treated their countrymen fo cruelly.
When the king was informed of this, he fent detach¬
ments of horfe and foot to fcour the roads; and thefe,
finding aged, infirm, and wounded people, to the
S8 number of about 500, put them to the fword without
And razed, mercy. Perceiving that it was impoflible to ptrfuade
the inhabitants to return, he caufed the city of San-
gala to be razed, and gave the territories to the few
Indians who had fubmitted to him.
Alexander, ftill unfated with conqueft, now pre¬
pared to pafs the Hyphafis. The chief reafon which
induced him to think of this expedition was, the in¬
formation he had received of the ftate of the countries
beyond that river. He was told that they were in
themfelves rich and fruitful; that their inhabitants
were not only a very martial people, but very civilized;
that they were governed by the nobility, who were
themfelves fubjedl to the laws; and that, as they lived
in happinefs and freedom, it was likely they would
fight obftinately in defence of thofe bleffings. He
was farther told, that, among thefe nations there were
the large ft, ftrongeft, and moft ufeful elephants bred
and tamed ; and was therefore fired with an earneft
defire to reduce fuch a bold and brave people under
his rule, and of attaining to the poffeflion of the many
valuable things that were faid to be amongft them.
As exorbitant, however, as his perfonal ambition was,
he found it impoflible to infufe any part of it into the
minds of his foldiers; who were fo far from wifhing Macedon.
to triumph over new and remote countries, that they
were highly defirous of leaving thofe that they had S9
already conquered. When therefore they were in-Alexan- S
formed of the king’s intentions, they privately con-der’s ir<>°ps
fulted together in the camp about the fituation ofiefurc '° ,
their own affairs- At this confultation, the graveft further.
and beft of the foldiers lamented that they were made
ufe of by their king, not as lions^ who fall fiercely
upon thofe who have injured them ; but as maftiffs,
who fly upon and tear thofe who are pointed out to
them as enemies. The reft were not fo modert ;
but expreffed themfelves roundly againft the king’s
humour for leading them from battle to battle, from
fiege to fiege, and from river to river; protefting
that they would follow him no further, nor lavifh
away their lives any longer, to purchafe fame for
him.
Alexander was a man of too much penetration not
to be early in perceiving that his troops were very
uneafy. He therefore harangued them from his tri¬
bunal; but though his eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him was yet very ftrong, they
did not relent. For fome time the foldiers remained
fallen and filent; and at laft turned their eyes on Cce-
nus, an old and experienced general, whom Alexander
loved, and in whom the army put great confidence.—
He had the generofity to undertake their caufe; and
told Alexander frankly, “ that men endured toil in
hopes of repofe; that the Macedonians were already
much reduced in their numbers ; that of thofe who
remained, the greater part were invalids; and that
they expefted, in confideration of their former fer-
vices, that he would now lead them back to their na¬
tive country: an a£t, which, of all others, would moft
contribute to his own great defigns; fince it would
encourage the youth of Macedon, and even of all
Greece, to follow him in whatever new expedition he
pleafed to undertake.” The king was far from being
pleafed with .this fpeech of Ccenus, and much lefswith
the difpofition of his army, which continued in a deep
filence. He therefore difmiffed the affembly : but
next day he called another, wherein he told the fol¬
diers plainly, that he would not be driven from his
porpofe; that he would proceed in his conquefts with
fuch as (hould follow him voluntarily : as for the reft,
he would not detain them, but would leave them at
liberty to go home to Macedon, where they might
publifh, “ that they had left their king in the midft
of his enemies.” Even this expedient had no fuccefs;
his army was fo thoroughly tired with long marches and
defperate battles, that they were determined to go no
further, either for fair fpeeches or foul. Upon this
Alexander-retired to his tent, where he refufed to fee
his friends, and put on the fame gloomy temper that
reigned among his troops. For three days, things
remained in this fituation. At laft the king fuddenly
appeared; and, as if he had been fully determined to
purfue his firft defign, he gave orders for facrificing
for the good fuccefs of his new undertaking. Ari-
ftander the augur reported, that the omens were alto¬
gether inaufpicious; upon which the king faid, that
fince his proceeding farther was neither pleafing to (Jd
the gods, nor grateful to his army, he"would return. He confents
When this was rumoured among the army, they af- to return.
fembled
MAC [4;
I'Macedon. fembled in great numbers about the royal tent, falu-
[;•" “"ting the king with loud acclamations, wiihing him
fuccefs in all his future defigns; giving him, at the
fame time, hearty thanks, for that “ he who was in¬
vincible had fuffered himfelf to be overcome by their
prayers.”
A flop being thus put to the conquefts of Alexan¬
der, he determined to make the Hyphafis the boun¬
dary of his dominions; and having ere&ed twelve
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he facrificed
on them : after which he exhibited /hows in the
Grecian manner; and, having added all the conquered
country in thefe parts to the dominions of Porus, he
began to return. Having arrived at the Hydafpes,
r ,5, he made the necefiary preparations for failing down
Sails down the Indus into the ocean. For this purpofe, he or-
the Indus. dereJ vaft quantities of timber to be felled in the
neighbourhood of the Hydafpes, through which he
was to fail into the Indus; he caufed the veficls with
which he h-ad pafled other rivers to be brought thi¬
ther, and affembled a vaft number of artificers capable
of repairing and equipping his fleet; which, when
fini/hed, confifted of 80 veflels of three banks of oars,
and 2000 lefler /hips and tranfports. Thofe who were
to manage this fleet were collefted out from the Phoe¬
nicians, Cyprians, Carians, and Egyptians following
his array, and who were reckoned perfedly well /killed
in the naval art. When all things were ready, the
army embarked about break of day; the king, in the
mean time, facrificing to the gods according to the
ceremonies ufed in his own country, and likevvife ac¬
cording to thofe of the country where he now was.
Then he-himfclf went on board; and caufing the fignal
to be given by found of trumpet, the fleet fet fail.
Craterus and Hephaeftion had marched fome days be¬
fore with another divifion of the army; and in three
days the fleet reached that part of the river which was
oppofite to their camps. Here he had information,
that the Oxydracse and Malli were raifing forces to
oppofe him: upon which he immediately determined
to reduce them; for, during this voyage, he made it
a rule to compel the inhabitants on both fides of the
river to yield him obedience. But before he arrived
on the coafts of the people abovementioned, he him¬
felf fuftained no fmall danger ; for, coming to the
Confluence of the Accfines with the Hydafpes, from
whence both rivers roll together into the Indus, the
eddies, whirlpools, and rapid currents, ru/hing with
tremendous noife from the refpedtive channels of thofe
rivers into the great one formed by them both, at
once terrified thofe who navigated his ve/Tels, and ac¬
tually deftroyed many of the long veflels, with all who
were aboard of them ; the king himfelf being in fome
danger, and Nearchus the admiral not a little at a lofs.
As foon as this danger was over, Alexander went on
fhore ; and -having ordered his elephants with fome
troops of horfe and archers to be carried acrofs, and
put under the command of Craterus, he then divided
his army on the left-hand bank into three bodies; the
firft commanded by himfclf, the fecond by Hephas-
ftion, and the third by Ptolemy. Hephteftion had
orders to move filently through the heart of the coun¬
try, five d.:ys march before the king; that if, on
Alexander’s approach, any of the barbarians ftiould
attempt to /heller themfelves by retiring into the
49 ] MAC
country, they might fall into the hands of Heplix- Macedom
ftion. Ptolemy Lagus was ordered to march three
days journey behind the king, that if any efcaped his
army, they might fall into Ptolemy’s hands; .and the
fleet had orders to flop at the confluence of this river
with the Hydraotes, till fuch time as thefe fevera! corps
fhould arrive.
Alexander himfelf, at the head of a body of horfe His cxpedi-
and light-armed foot, marched through a defertb^n agamfl:
country againft the Malli; and, fcarce affording anyth* Malli.
reft to his foldiers, arrived in three days at a city into
which the barbarians had put their wives and children,
with a good garrifon for their defence. The country
people, having no notion that Alexander would march
through fuch a defert and barren region, were all un¬
armed, and in the utmoft confufion. Many of them
therefore were /lain in the field ; the reft fled into the
city, and /hut the gates. But this only protrafted
their fate for a /hort time ; for the king, having or¬
dered the city to be invefted by his cavalry, took it,
as well as the caftle, by ftorm, and put all he found
there to the fword. He fent at the fame time Per-
diccas with a confiderable detachment, to inveft ano¬
ther city of the Malli at a confiderable diftance; but
when he came there, he found it abandoned. How¬
ever, he purfued the inhabitants who had but lately
left it, and killed great numbers of them on the road.
After this the king took feveral other cities, but not
without confiderable refiftance ; for the Indians fome-
times chofe to burn themfelves in their houfes rather
than furrender. At laft he marched to their capital.
city; and finding that abandoned, he proceeded to
the river Hydraotes, where he found 50,000 men
encamped on the oppofite bank, in order to difpute
his paffage. He did not hefitate, however, to enter
the river with a confiderable party of horfe, and fo
much were the Indians terrified at his prefence, that
their whole army retired before him. In a /hort time
they returned and attacked him, being a/hamed to fly
before fuch an inconfiderable number; but in the
mean time the reft of the Macedonian forces came up,
and the Indians were obliged to retire to a city which
lay behind them, and which Alexander invefted that
very night. The next day he ftormed the city with
fuch violence,, that the inhabitants were compelled
to abandon it, and to retire to the caftle, where
they prepared for an obftinate defence. The king^
inftantly gave orders for fealing the walls, and the
foldiers prepared to execute thefe orders as faft as
they could; but the king being impatient, caught hold
of a ladder and mounted it firft himfelf, being followed
by Leonatus, Peuceftas, and Abreas, the latter a man
of great valour, and who on that account had double
pay allowed him. The king having gained the top His defpe-
of the battlements, cleared them quickly of the defen- rate valour
dants, killing fome of them with his fword, and pufli-and danger,.
ing others over the walls : but after this was done, he
was in more danger than ever ; for the Indians galled
him with their arrows from the adjacent towers,
though they durft not come near enough to engage
him. His own battalion of targeteers mounting in
hafte to fecond him, broke the ladders ; which, as
foon as Alexander perceived, he threw himfeif down
into the caftle, as did alfo Peuceftas, Leonatus, and
Abreas. As foon as the king was on the ground,
MAC [ 4350 ] MAC
M?ccdon. the Indian gereral rufhed forward to attack him ; but
Alexander inftantly difpatched him, as well as feveral
others who followed him. Upon this the reft retired,
and contented themfelves with throwing darts and
ftones at him at a diftance. Abreas was ftruck into
the head with an arrow, and died on the fpot; and,
fliortly after, another pierced through the king’s breaft-
plate into his body. As long as he had fpirits, he
defended himfelf valiantly ; but, through a vaft effu-
fion of blood, lofing his fenfes, he fell upon his (hield.
Peuceftas then covered him with the facred fhidd of
Pallas on one fide, as did Leonatus with his own
g4 fhield on the other, though they themfelves were
Is with dif-dreadfully wounded. In the mean time, however, the
ficultyfaved f0]j;ers on outfide, eager to fave their king, flip*
plied their want of ladders by driving large iron pins
into the walls. By the help of thefe many of them
afeended, and came to the afiiftance of Alexander and
his companions. The Indians were now flaughtered
without mercy; but Alexander continued for fome
time in a very dangerous way : however, he at laft re¬
covered kis ftrength, and (hewed himfelf again to his
army, which filled them with the greateft joy.
The Malli, being now convinced that nothing but
fubmiffion could fave the remainder of them, fent
deputies to Alexander, offering him the dominion of
their country; as did alfo the Oxydraca:: and the
c. king having fettled every thing in thefe countries
He pro- agreeable to his mind, proceeded on his voyage down
feeds in his the river Indus. In this voyage he received the fub-
voyage million of fome other Indian princes; and percei-
Indus l^e Vl"n£’ l^3t’ at P°’nt i^and Pattala, the river
divided itfelf into two vaft branches, he ordered an
haven and convenient docks to be made there for his
(hips; and w'hen he had careened his fleet, he failed
down the right-hand branch towards the ocean. In
his paffage he fuftained great difficulties by reafon of
his want of pilots, and at the mouth of the river very
narrowly miffed being call away : yet all this did not
hinder him from purfuing his firft defign, though it
does not appear that he had any other motive thereto
than the vain defire of boafting that he had entered
the ocean beyond the Indus : for, having confecrated
certain bulls to Neptune, and thrown them into the
lea, performed certain libations of golden cups, and
thrown the cups alfo into the fea, he came back
again ; having only furyeyed two little illands, one
at the mouth of the Indus, and one a little farther in
the ocean.
On the king’s return to Pattala, he refolved to fail
down the other branch of the Indus, that he might
fee whether it was more fafe and commodious for his
fleet than that which he had already tried; and for
this he had very good reafons. He had refolved to
fend Nearchus with his fleet by fea, through the
Perfian gulf up the river Tygris, to meet him and
his army in Mefopotamia ; but as the poffibility of
this voyage depended on the ceafing of the Etefian
winds, there was a neceffity of laying up the fleet till
the feafon fhould prove favourable. Alexander, there¬
fore, failing through this branch of the Indus, fought
on the fea-coaft for bays and creeks, where his fleet
might anchor in fafety ; he caufed alfo pits to be
funk, which might be filled with frelh water for the
life of his people ; and took all imaginable precautions
for preferving them in eafe and fafety till the feafon Macedon.
would allow them to continue their voyage. In this  1
he fucceeded to his wifh ; for he found this branch of
the river Indus, at its mouth, fpread over the plain
country and forming a kind of lake, wherein a fleet
might ride with fafety. He therefore appointed Leo¬
natus, and a part of his army, to carry on fuch works
as were neceffary; caufing them to be relieved by
frefh troops as often as there was occafion : then ea i
having given his laft inftru&ions to Nearchus, he de- Sets out for!
parted with the reft of the army, in order to march ^I1013,
back to Babylon.
Before the king’s departure, many of his friends
advifed him againft the route which he intended to
take. They told him, that nothing could be more ra(h
or dangerous than this refolution. They acquainted
him, that the country, thro’ which he was to travel,
was a wild uncultivated defart; that Semiramis, when
(he led her foldiers this way out of India, brought
home but 20 of them ; and that Cyrus, attempting
to do the fame, returned with only feven. But all this
was fo far from deterring Alexander, that it more
than ever determined him to purfue no other road. As
foon, therefore, as he had put things in order, he
marched at the head of a fufficient body of troops to
reduce the Oritse, who had never vouchfafed either to
make their fubmiffion or to court his friendfliip. Their
territories lay on the other fide of a river called stfra-
bis, which Alexander croffed fo fpeedily, that they
had no intelligence of his march ; whereupon moft of
them quitted their country, and fled into the defarts.
Their capital he fonnd fo well fituated, that he refol¬
ved to take it out of their hands, and to caufe a new
and noble city to be founded there, the care of which
he committed to Hephzftion. Then he received the
deputies of the Oritse and Gedrofi; and having affured
them, that if the people returned to their villages, they
(hould be kindly treated, and having appointed Apol-
lophanes prefident of the Oritae, and left a confiderable
body of troops under Leonatus to fecure their obe-
dience, he began his march thro’ Gedrofia. In this His danger- ■
march his troops fuffered incredible hardfhips. The'His march 1
road was very uncertain and troublefome, on account
of its lying thro’ deep and loofe fands, rifing in many e ro ia'
places into hillocks, which forced the fpldiers to climb,
at the fame time that it funk under their feet; there
were no towns, villages, nor places of refrefhment, to
be met with; fo that, after exceffive marches, they were
forced to encamp among thefe dry fands. As topro-
vifions, they hardly met with any during their whole
march. The foldiers were therefore obliged to kill their
beads of carriage : and fuch as were fent to bring fome
corn from the fea-fide, were fo grievoufly diitreffed,
that, tho’ it was fealed with the king’s (ignet, they
cut open the bags; choofing ratherto die a violent death
for difobcdience, than perifh by hunger. When the
king, however, was informed of this, he freely par¬
doned the offenders; he was alfo forced to accept
the excufes that were daily made for the iofs of
mules, horfes, &c. which were in truth £aten by the
foldiers, and their carriages broken in pieces to avoid
further trouble. As for water, their want of it waa
a great misfortune; and yet their finding it in plenty
was fometimes a greater : for, as by the fifft they
periled with third, fo by the latter they were burft,
thrown
MAC [ 4351 ] MAC
thrown into dropfies, and rendered incapable of travel.
  Frequently they met with no water for the whole day
together : fometimes they were difapppinted of it at
night ; in which cafe, if they were able, they march¬
ed on ; fo that it was common with them to travel 30,
40, 50, or even 60 miles without encamping. Num¬
bers thro’ thefe hardihips were obliged to lag in the
rear ; and of thefe many were left behind, and perilh-
ed ; for indeed fcarce any ever joined the army again.
Their miferies, however, they fuftained with incre¬
dible patience, being encouraged by the example of
their king ; who, on this occafion, fuffered greater
| hardfhips than the meaneft foldier in his army. At latl
I jTe arrives they arrived at the capital of Gedrofia, where they re-
| in Carama-frelhed themfelves, and {laid fome time : after which,
; ma. tpey marched into Caramania; which being a very plen¬
tiful country, they there made themfelves ample amends
for the hardfliips and fatigues they had fuftained. Here
they were joined firft by Craterus with the troops un¬
der his command, and a number of elephants ; then
came Stafanor prefident of the Arlans, and Pharif-
manes the fon of Phrataphernes governor of Parthia.
They brought with them camels, horfes, and other
beafts of burden, in vail numbers; having forefeen,
that the king’s march thro’ Gedrofia would be attend¬
ed with the lofs of the greateft part, if not of all the
cavalry and beafts belonging to his army.
During Alexander’s (lay in Caramania, he redrefled
e9 the injuries of his people, who had been grievoufly op-
Rediciles prefled by their governors during his abfence. Here
thegrieva'.-alfo he was joined by his admiral Nearchus, who
;Nces of his brought him an account that all under his command
people. were Jn perfect fafety, and in excellent condition ;
with which the king was mightily pleafed, and, after
havmg beftowed on him Angular marks of his favour,
fent him back to the navy. Alexander next fet out for
Perfia, where great difordershad been committed during
his abfence. Thefe alfo he redrefTtd, and caufed the
governor to be crucified; appointing in his room Peu-
cellas, who faved his life when he fought fingly againft
a whole garrifon as above related. The new governor
was no fooner invefted with his dignity, than he laid
slide the Macedonian garb, and put on that of the
. MedeS:; being the only one of Alexander’s captains,
who, by complying with the manners of the people he
governed, gained their affection.
While Alexander vifited the different parts of Per¬
fia, he took a view, among the reft, of the ruins of Per-
fepolis, where he is faid to have expreffed great bor¬
row for the deftrudtion he had formerly occafioned.
From Perfepolis he marched; to Sufa, where he gave
an extraordinary loofe to pleafure ; refolving to make
himfelf and his followers fome amends-for the difficul¬
ties they had hitherto undergone ; purpofing at the
fame time fo effectually to unite his new-conquered
with his hereditary fubjecls, that the jealoufies and
fears, which had hitherto tormented both, (hould no
longer fubfitl. Witii this view he married two wives
' Marries t^e blood-royal of Perfia ; viz. Barfine, or Statira,
i other two the daughter of Darius, and Paryfatis the daughter
' wives. of Ochus. Drypetis, another daughter of Darius, he
gave to Hephaeftion ; Amaftrine, the daughter of Oxy-
artes the brother of Darius, married Craterus; and
to the reft of his friends, to the number of 80, he gave
other women of the greateft quality. All thefe mar*
Vol. VI. 2
riages were celebrated at once, Alexander himfelf be- Macedon*
{lowing fortunes upon them ; he diredled likewife to    
take account of the number of his officers and foldiers
who had married Aliatic wives ; and tho’ they appear- -1
ed to be 10,000, yet he gratified each of them accord- Pays the
ing to his rank. He next refolved to pay the debts of‘lebts of
his army, and thereupon iffued an edict diredling
every man to regifter his name and the fum he owed ;
with which the foldiers Complying flowly, from an ap-
prehenfion that there was fome delign againft them,
Alexander ordered tables heaped with money to be fet
in all quarters of the camp, and caufed every man’s
debts to be paid on his bare word, without even
making any entry of his name ; tho* the whole fum
came to 20,000 talents. On fuch as had diftinguilhed
themfelves in an extraordinary manner, he beftowed
crowns of gold. Peuceftas had the firft ; Leonatus
the fecond; Nearchus the third ; Oneficritus the
fourth ; Hephaeftion the fifth ; and the reft of his
guards had each of them one. After this he made
other difpofitions for conciliating, as he fnppofed, the
differences among all his fubjeCls. He reviewed the
30,000 youths, whom at his departure for India he had
ordered to be taught Greek, and the Macedonian dif-
cipline ; expreffing high fatisfa&ion at the fine appear¬
ance they made, which rendered them worthy of the
appellation he beftowed on them, viz. that of Epigonit
i. e. fucceffors. He promoted alfo, without any di-
ftindlionof nation, all thofe who had ferved him faith¬
fully and valiantly in the Indian war. When all thefe
regulations were made, he gave the command of his
heavy-armecftroops to Hephaeftion, and ordered him
to march diredlly to the banks of the Tigris, while in
the mean time a fleet was equipped for carrying the
king and the troops he retained with him down to
the ocean.
Thus ended the exploits of Alexander; the greateft
conqueror th^t ever the world taw, at lead with re-
fpedl to the rapidity of his conquefts. In 12 years
time he had brought under his fubje&iorv Egypt,
Libya, Alia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Paleftine, Ba¬
bylonia, Perfia, with part of India and Tartary.
Still, however, he meditated greater things. He had"
now got a great tafte in maritime affairs; and is faid
to have meditated a voyage to the coafts of Arabia
and Ethiopia, and thence round the whole continent
of Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar. But of this
there is no great certainty; though that he intended
to fubdue the Carthaginians and Italians, is more
than probable. All thefe defigns, however, were fru-
ftrated by his death, which happened at Babylon in
323 B. C. He is faid to have received feveral warn¬
ings of his approaching fate, and to have been advifed
to avoid that city; which advice he either defpifed or He dies at
could, not follow. He died of a fever after eight days Babylon,
illnefs, without naming any fucceffor ; havmg only
given his ring to Perdiccas, and left the kingdom, as
he faid, to the moji ‘worthy. 7?
With the death of Alexander fell alfo the glory ofCaufes of
the Macedonians; who very foon rdapfed into a fitu- 'he difTolu-
ation as bad, or worfe than that in which they hadri ’ '.l,f h's
been before the reign of Philip. This was occafionedempire*
principally by his not having diftindlly named a fuc¬
ceffor; and having no child of his own come to the
years of .diferetion, to whom the kingdom might feem
24 11 naturally
Aridsus
appointed
king.
IS
A party
formed
by Melea¬
ger, and
another by
Perdiccas.
MAC [ 4352 ] MAC
naturally to belong. The ambition and jealoufy of was obliged to comply with whatever he tliought pro- Macedon.
his mother Olympias, his queen Roxana, and efpe-
cially of the great commanders of his army, not only
prevented a fucceffor from being ever named, but oc-
cafioned the death of every perfon, whether male or
female, who was in the leaft related to Alexander.
To have a juft notion of the origin of thefe difturb-
ances, it is neceffary in the firft place to underftand
the fituation of the Macedonian affairs at the time of
Alexander’s death.
When Alexander fet out for Afia, he left Antipater,
as we formerly obferved, in Macedon, to prevent any
difturbances that might arife either there or in Greece.
The Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander,
bore the fuperiority which he exercifed over them with
great impatience; and, though nothing could be more
gentle than the government of Antipater, yet he was
exceedingly hated, becaufe he obliged them to be
quiet. One of the laft a&ions of Alexander’s life fet
all Greece in a flame. He had, by an edidf, dire&ed
all the cities of Greece to recall their exiles; which
ediiff, when it was publifhed at the Olympic games,
created much confuflon. Many of the cities were
afraid, that, when the exiles returned, they would
change the government ; moft of them doubted
their own fafety if the edift took place ; and all of
them held this peremptory decree to be a total
abolition of their liberty. No fooner therefore did
the news of Alexander’s death arrive, than they pre¬
pared for war.
In Afia the ftate of things was not much better ;
not indeed through any inclination of the conquered
countries to revolt, but through the difenfions among
the commanders.—In the general council which was
called foon after the death of Alexander, after much
confufion and altercation, it was at laft agreed, or
rather commanded by the foldiers, that Aridseus the
brother of Alexander, who had always accompanied
the king, and had been wont to facrifice with him,
fhould affume the fovereignty. -This Aridaeus was a
man of very flender parts and judgment, not naturally,
but by the wicked practices of Olympias, who had
given him poifonous draughts in his infancy, left he
Ihould ftand in the way of her fon Alexander, or any
of his family ; and for this, or fome other reafon, Per¬
diccas, Ptolemy, and moft of the horfe-officers, refent-
ed his promotion to fuch a degree, that they quitted
the aflembly, and even the city. However, Meleager,
at the head of the phalanx, vigoroufly fupported their
firft refolution, and threatened loudly to fhed the blood
of thofe who affedted to rule over their equals, and to
aflume a kingdom which no way belonged to them.
Aridaeus was accordingly arrayed in royal robes, had
the arms of Alexander put upon him, and was fainted
by the name of Philip, to render him more popular.
Thus were two parties formed, at the head of whom
were Meleager and Perdiccas ; both of them pre¬
tending vaft concern for the public good, yet, at bot¬
tom, defiring nothing more than their own advantage.
Perdiccas was a man of high birth, had had a fupreme
command in the army, was much in favour with Alex¬
ander, and one in whom the nobility had put great
confidence. Meleager was become formidable by ha¬
ving the phalanx on his fide, and having the nominal
king entirely in his power ; for Aridseus, or Philip,
per, and publicly declared, that whatever he did was ~
by the advice of Meleager ; fo that he made his mini-
fter accountable for his own fchemes, and no way
endangered himfelf. The Macedonians alfo, befides
their regard for the deceafed king, foon began to en¬
tertain a perfonal love for Philip, on account of his
moderation.
It is remarkable, however, that notwithftanding all
the favours which Alexander had conferred upon his
officers, and the fidelity with which they had ferved
him during his life, only two of them were attached to
the interefts of his family after his death. Thefe were
Antipater, and Eumenes the Cardian, whom he had
appointed his fecretary. Antipater, as we have al¬
ready feen, was embroiled with the Greeks, and could
not affift the royal family who were in Afia; and Eu¬
menes had not as yet fufficient intereft to form a party
in their favour. In a (hort time, however, Perdiccas 75
prevailed againft Meleager, and got him murdered ; Meleager
by which means the fupreme power for a time fell
into his hands. His firft liep, in confequence of this^g^j.61”"
power, was to diftribute the provinces of the empire vided.
among the commanders in the following manner, in
order to prevent competitors, and to fatisfy the ambi¬
tion of the principal commanders of the army. Ari¬
dseus, and the fon of Roxana, born after the death of
his father, were to enjoy the regal authority. Anti¬
pater had the government of the European provinces.
Craterus had the title of proteftcr. Perdiccas was ge¬
neral of the houfehold troops in the room of Hephae-
ftion. Ptolemy the fon of Lagus had Egypt, Libya,
and that part of Arabia which borders upon Egypt.
Cleomenes, a man of infamous charafter, whom Alex¬
ander had made receiver-general in Egypt, was made
Ptolemy’s deputy. Leomedon had Syria ; Philotas,
Cilicia; Pithon, Media; Eumenes, Cappadocia, Pa-
phlagonia, and all the country bordering on the Euxine
Sea, as far as Trapezus; but thefe were not yet con¬
quered, fo that he was a governor without a province.
Antigonus had Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Ma¬
jor; Caflander, Caria; Menander, Lydia; Leonatus,
Phrygia on the Hellefpont. 77
In the mean time, not only Alexander’s will, butAlexan-
Alexander himfelf, was fo much negle&ed, that his^r’*^^T'
body was allowed to remain feven days before any”nd hisVitl
notice was taken of it, or any orders given for its be- fct afide.
ing embalmed. The only will he left was a fliort
memorandum of fix things he would have done.—
1. The building of a fleet of 1000 flout galleys, to be
made ufe of againft the Carthaginians and other na¬
tions, who Ihould oppofe the redu£lion of the fea-
coafts of Africa and Spain, with all the adjacent
iflands, as far as Sicily. 2. A large and regular high¬
way was to be made along the coaft of Africa, as far
as Ceuta and Tangier. 3. Six temples of extraordi¬
nary magnificence were to be ere&ed at the expence
of 1500 talents each. 4. Cattles, arfenals, havens,
and yards, for building fliips, to be fettled in proper
places throughout his empire. 5. Several new cities
were to be built in Europe and Afia ; thofe in Afia
to be inhabited by colonies from Europe, and thofe
in Europe to be filled with Afiatics; that, by blend¬
ing their people and their manners, that hereditary
antipathy might be eradicated which had hitherto
fubfifted
MAC l 4353 J MAC
Maccdon. fubfifled between the Inhabitants of the different con-
tinents. 6. Laftly, he had projefted the building of
a pyramid, equal in bulk and beauty to the biggeft
in Egypt, in honour of his father Philip. All thefe
defigns, under pretence of their being expenfive, were
referred to a council of Macedonians, to be held no¬
body knew when, or where.
The government, being now in the hands of Per-
diccas and Roxana, grew quickly very cruel and dif-
7g tafteful. Alexander was fcarce dead when the queen
Thedaugh-fent for Statira and Drypetis, the two daughters of
ten of Ua-jyariUSj one 0f whom had been married to Alexander,
deadW)1 t0anf^ t^ie other to Hephaeftion ; but as foon as they
Roxana, arrived at Babylon, caufed them both to be murdered,
that no fon of Alexander by any other woman, or of
Hephaeftion, might give any trouble to her or her
fon Alexander. Syfigambts, the mother of Darius,
no fooner heard that Alexander the Great was
dead, than flie laid violent hands on herfelf, being
apprehenfxve of the calamities which were about to
dp enfue.
The Greeks War was firft declared in Greece againft Antipater
revolt> butin the year 321 B, C. Through the treachery of
dued! " the Theffalians, that general was defeated, with the
army he had under his own command. Leonatus
was therefore fent from Afia, with a very confiderable
army, to his affiftance; but both were overthrown
with great lofs by the confederates, and Leonatus him-
felf was killed. In a fhort time, however, Craterus
arrived in Greece with a great army, the command of
which he refigned to Antipater. The army of the
confederates amounted to 25,000 foot, and 3000
horfe; but Antipater commanded no fewer than
40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and 5000 horfe. In fuch
an unequal conteft, therefore, the Greeks were de¬
feated, and forced to fue for peace; which they did
not obtain but on condition of their receiving Macedo¬
nian garrifons into feveral of their cities. At Athens
alfo the democratic government was abrogated; and
fuch a dreadful punifhment did this feem to the Athe¬
nians, that 22,000 of them left their country, and re-
So tired into Macedon.
ces^in^vfia thefe things were doing in Greece, difturb-
andThrace.ances began alfo to arife in Alia and in Thrace. The
Greek mercenaries, who were difperfed through the
inland provinces of Afia, defpairing of ever being al¬
lowed to return home by fair means, determined to
attempt it by force. For this purpofe, they affembled
to the number of 20,000 foot, and 3000 horfe; but
were all cut off to a man by the Macedonians. In
Thrace, Lyfimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a
prince of that country who claimed the dominions of
his .anceftors, and had raifed an army of 20,000 foot
and 8000 horfe. But though the Macedonian com¬
mander was forced to engage this army with no more
than 4000 foot and 2000 horfe, yet he kept the field
of battle, and could not be driven out of the country.
Perdiccas, in the mean time, by pretending friendfhip
8l to the royal family, had gained overEumenes entirely
Ambition to bis intereft; and at laft put him in poffefiion of the
ind cruel* province of Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathes
ty of Pci- k;r,g 0f that country, v/’nom he afterwards cruelly
“■C1S' caufed to be crucified. His ambition, however, now
began to lead him into difficulties. At the firft dm-
fson of the provinces, Perdiccas, to ftrengthen his own
authority, had propofed to marry Nicaea the daughter Macedon.
of Antipater; and fo well was this propofal relilhed,
that her brethren Jollas and Archias conducled her
to him, in order to be prefent at the celebration
of the nuptials. But Perdiccas now had other things
in view. He had been folicited by Olympias to marry
her daughter Cleopatra, the widow of Alexander king
of Epirus, and who then relided at Sardis in Lydia.
Eumenes promoted this match to the utmoft of his
power, becaufe he thought it would be for the in¬
tereft of the royal family ; and his perfnafions had
fuch an effeft on Perdiccas, that he was fent to Sardis
to compliment Cleopatra, and to carry prefents to her
in name of her new lover. In the abfence of Eu¬
menes, however, Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas,
perfuaded him to marry Nicaea ; but, in order to
gratify his ambition, he refolved to divorce her imme¬
diately after marriage, and marry Cleopatra. By this
laft marriage, he hoped to have a pretence for altering
the government of Macedon; and, as a neceffary mea-
fure preparative to thefe, he entered into contrivances
for deftroying Antigonus. Unfortunately for him-
felf, however, he ruined all his fchemes by his own
jealoufy and precipitate cruelty. Cynane, the daughter
of Philip by his fecond wife, had brought her daughter
named Adda> and who was afterwards named Eurydice,
to court, in hopes that king Aridaeus might marry
her. Againft Cynane, Perdiccas, on fume political
motives, conceived fuch a grudge, that he caufed her
to be murdered. This raifed a commotion in the
army : which frightened Perdiccas to fuch a degree,
that he now promoted the match between Aridseus
and Eurydice; to prevent which, he had murdered
the mother of the young princefs. But, in the mean
time, Antigonus, knowing the defigns of Perdiccas
againft himfelf, fled with his fon Demetrius to Greece,
there to take (belter under the proteftion of Antipater
and Craterus, whom he informed of the ambition and
cruelty of the regent. gz
A civil war was now kindled. Antipater, Craterus, A combi-
Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were combined againft na.ti<Jfi ar
Perdiccas; and it was the misfortune of the empire in®aui nm‘
general, that Eumenes, the moft able general, as
well as the moft virtuous of all the commanders, was
on the fide of Perdiccas, becaufe he believed him to
be in the intereft of Alexander’s family. Ptolemy, in
the mean time, remained in quiet poffeflion of Egypt;
but without the leaft intention of owning any perfon
for bis fuperior: however, he alfo acceded to the
league formed againft Perdiccas; and thus the only
perfon in the whole empire who confulted the intereft
of the royal family was Eumenes.
It was now thought proper to bury the body of Alexander
Alexander, which had been kept for two years, during buried in
all which time preparations had been making for it. EgYP1*
Aridaeus, to whofe care it was committed, fet out
from Babylon for Damafcus, in order to^carry the
king’s body to Egypt. This was fore againft the
will of Perdiccas ; for it feems there was a foperfti-
tious report, that wherever the body of Alexander
was laid, that country (hould flourifh moft. Perdiccas,
therefore, out of regard to his native foil, would have
it conveyed to the royal fepulchres in Macedon; but
Aridseus, pleading the late king’s exprefs diredlion,
was determined to carry it into Egypt, from thenee
24 R 2 to
MAC [ 4354 ] MAC
Mace.lon. to be conveyed to the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
' ' —The funeral was accordingly condu&ed with all
imaginable magnificence. Ptolemy came to meet
the body as far as Syria : but, inftead of burying
it in the temple of Jupiter Ammon, ere&ed a (lately
tfmple for it in the city of Alexandria ; and, by
the refpedd he (hewed for his dead mailer, induced
many of the Macedonian veterans to join him, and
who were afterwards of the greateft fervice to him.
Perdiccas No fooner was the funeral over, than both the
killed by parties above mentioted fell to blows. Perdiccas
his own marched againft Ptolemy; but was flain by his own
”len' men, who, after the death of their general, fubmitted
to his antagonill ; and thus Eumenes was left alone to
contend againft all the other generals who had ferved
under Alexander. In this contell, however, he would
by no means have been overmatched, had his foldiers
been attached to him ; but as they had been ac-
cuftomed to ferve under thofe very generals againft
whom they were now to fight, they were on all occa-
fions ready to betray and defert Eumenes. However,
he defeated and killed Neoptolemus and Craterus,
but then found himfelf obliged to contend with Anti¬
pater and Antigonus. Antipater was now appointed
protedlor of the kings, with fovereign power; and
8j Eumenes was declared a public enemy. A new divifion
A new di-of Alexander’s empire took place. Egypt, Libya,
vifion of and the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy becaufe
the empire, jjmy coukj n0t betaken from him. Syria was con¬
firmed to Leomedon. Philoxenus had Cilicia. Me-
fopotamia and Arbelitis were given to Amphimachus.
Babylon was beftowed on Seleucus. Sufiana fell to
Antigenes, who commanded the Macedonian Argyra-
ftidic or Silver Shields, becaufe he was the firft who
oppofed Perdiccas. Peuceftas held Perfia. Tlepole-
mus had Caramania. Pithon had Media as far as the
Cafpian ftraits. Stafander had Aria and Drangia.
Philip, Parthia. Stafonor, Ba&ria and Sogdia. Sy-
birtius, Aracopa. Oxyartes, the father of Roxana,
Parapomifis. Another Pithon had the country be¬
tween this province and India. Porus and Taxiles
held what Alexander had given them, becaufe they
would not part with any of their dominions. Cappa¬
docia was affigned to Nicanor. Phrygia Major, Ly-
caonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to Antigo¬
nus. Caria to Caffander, Lydia to Clytns, Phrygia the
Lefs to Aridasus, Caflander was appointed general of
the horfe ; while the command of the houfehold troops
was given to Antigonus, with orders to profecute the
war againft Eumenes.—Antipater having thus fettled
every thing as well as he could, returned to Macedon
with the two kings, to the great joy of his country¬
men, having left his fon Caffander to be a check upon
Antigonus in Afia.
Matters now feemed to wear a better afpefl. than
they had yet done; and, had Eumenes believed that
his enemies really confulted the intereft of Alexander’s
family, there is not the leaft doubt that the war
would have been immediately terminated. He faw,
however, that the defign of Antigonus was only to
fet up for himfelf, and therefore he refufed to fubmit.
From this time, therefore, the Macedonian empire
ceafed in Afia ; and an account of the tranfa&ions of
this part of the world fall to be recorded under the
article Syria. The Macedonian affairs are now en¬
tirely confined to the kingdom of Macedon itfelf, and ivtacedoii.
to Greece.
Antipater had not long been returned to Macedon,    
when he died: and the la it adtion of his life completed Tota| ^
the ruin of Alexander’s family. Out of a view to theftruft;on 0f
public good, he had appointed Polyfperchon, theeldeft Alexan-
of Alexander’s captains at hand, to be protettor andder’sfa-
governor of Macedon. This failed not to difgult hism’^"
fon Caffander; who thought he had a natural right to
thefe offices, and of courfe kindled a new civil war in
Macedon. This was indeed highly promoted by his
firft adtions as a governor. He began with attempt¬
ing to remove all the governors appointed in Greece
by Antipater, and to reftore democracy wherever it
had been aboliftied. Tiie immediate confequence of
this was, that the people refufed to obey their magi-
ftrates ; the governors refufed to refign their places,
and applied for affiftance to Caffander. Polyfperchon
alfo had the imprudence to recall Olympias from Epi¬
rus, and allow her a (hare in the adminiftration; which
Antipater, and even Alexander himfelf, had always
refufed her. The cpnfequence of all this was, that
Caffander invaded Greece, where he prevailed againft
Polyfperchon ; Olympias returned to Macedon, where
(he cruelly murdered Aridteus and his wife Eurydice;
(he herfelf was put to death by Caffander, who after¬
wards caufed Roxana and her fon to be murdered ; and
Polyfpherchon being driven into Etolia, firft raifed to
the crown Hercules the fon of Alexander by the
daughter of Darius, and then by the inftigation of Caf¬
fander murdered him, by which means the line of Alex¬
ander the Great become totally extindL 37
Caffander having thus deftroyed all the royal family, Various re-
affumed the regal title, as he had for 16 years before .volljt'°ns
had all the power. He enjoyed the title of
Macedon only three years; after which he died, about
298 B. C. By Theffalonica, the daughter of Philip
king of Macedon, he left three fons, Philip, Antipa¬
ter, and Alexander. Philip fucceeded him, but (oon
after died of a confumption. A conteft immediately
began between the two brothers, Antipater and Alex¬
ander. Antipater feized the kingdom ; and to fe-
cure himfelf in it, murdered his mother Theffalo¬
nica, if not with his own hand, at lead the execrable
fa£t was committed in his prefence. Alexander in¬
vited Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and Demetrius the fon
of Antigonus, to afiift him and revenge the death of
his mother. But Pyrrhus being bought off, and a
peace concluded between the brothers, Alexander, be¬
ing afraid of having too many protedfors, formed a
fcheme of getting Demetrius affaffinated. Inftead of
this, however, both he and Antipater were put to death;
and Demetrius became king of Macedon four years
after the death of Caffander.
In 287 B.C.-Demetrius was driven out by Pyrrhus,
who was again driven out by Lyfimachus two years
after, who was foon after killed by Seleucus Nicitor;
and Seleucns, in his turn, was murdered by Ptolemy Ce-
raunus, who became king of Macedon about 280 B. C.
The new king was in a (hort time cut off, with his
whole army, by the Gauls; and Antigonus Gonatus,
the fon of Demetrius Poliorcetes, became king of Ma¬
cedon in 278 B. C. He proved fuccefsful againft the
Gauls, but was driven out by Pyrrhus king of Epirus;
who, however, fooa difobliged his fubjeas to fuch a
degree,.
MAC [ 4355 ] MAC
MicsJon. degree, that Antigonus recovered a great part of his
■ " kingdom. Bat in a little time, Pyrrhus being killed
at the fiege of Argos in Greece, Antigonus was refto-
red to the whole of Macedon ; but fcarcely was he
feated on the throne, when he was driven from it by
Alexander the fon of Pyrrhus. This new invader was,
in his turn, expelled by Demetrius the fon of Antigo¬
nus; who, thoug-h at that time but a boy, had almoft
made himfelf matter of Epirus. In this enterprife,
however, he was difappointed; but by his means An-
tigopus was reftored to his kingdom, which he govern¬
ed for many years in peace. By a ftratagem he made
^ himfelf mailer of the city of Corinth, and from that
time began to form fchemes for the thorough conqueft
of Greece. The method he took to accomplilh this
was, to fupport the - petty tyrants of Greece againfl
the free Rates : which indeed weakened the power of
the latter; but involved the whole country in fo many
calamities, that thefe tranfaftions could not redound
much to the reputation either of his arms or his ho¬
nour. About 243 B. C. he died, leaving the king-
88 dom to his fon, Demetrius II.
W r with Neither Demetrius, nor his fuccefibr Antigonus Do-
n)aiu°' ^on» Perf°rrne^ any thing remarkable. In 221 B. C.,
11 ’ the kingdom fell to Philip, the laft but one of the Ma¬
cedonian monarchs. To him Hannibal applied for
affiftance after the battle of Cannae, which he refuted;
and the fame imprudence which made him refufe this
affiftance prompted him to embroil himfelf with the
Romans; and at laft to conclude a treaty with them, by
which he in effect became their fubjeft, being tied up
from making peace or war but according to their plea-
fure. In 179 B. C. he was fucceeded by his eldeft fon
Perfes, under whom the war with the Romans was re¬
newed. Even yet the Macedonians were terrible in
war; and their phalanx, when properly condu&ed, feems
to have been abfolutely invincible by any method of
making war known at that time. It conlllted of
16,000 men, of whom 1000 marched abreaft, and thus
was 16 men deep, each of whom carried a kind of
pike 23 feet long. The foldiers ftood fo clofe, that
the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points beyond
the front of the battle. The hindermoft ranks leaned
their pikes on the Ihoulders of thofe who went before
them, and, locking them fait, preffed brilkly againft
them when they made the charge; fo that the firft five
ranks had the impetus of the whole phalanx, which
was the reafon why the Ihock was generally irrefiftible.
The Romans had never encountered fuch a terrible
enemy; and in the lirft battle, which happened 171
B. C. they were defeated with the lofs of 2200 men,’
while the Macedonians loft no more than 60. The ge¬
nerals of Perfes now preffed him to ftorm the enemy’s
camp ; but he being naturally of a cowardly difpofi-
tion refufed to comply, and thus the belt opportunity
he ever had was loft. Still, however, the Romans gain¬
ed little or no advantage, till the year 168 B. C. when
Paulus iEmilius, a moft experienced commander, was
fent into Macedon. Perfes now put all upon the iffue of
a general engagement; andJEmilius, with all his cou¬
rage and military experience, would have been defeat¬
ed, had the Macedonians been commanded by a gene¬
ral of the fmalleft courage or conduct. The light¬
armed Macedonians charged with fuch vigour, that,
after the battle, fome of their bodies were found with*
in two furlongs of the Roman camp. When the pha- Macedon
lanx came to charge, the points of their fpears linking ||
into the Roman fhields, kept the heavy-armed troops Macerata*
from making any motion ; while, on the other hand,
Perfes’s light-armed men did terrible execution. On
this occafion, it is faid, that iEmilius tore his clothes,
and gave up all hopes. However, perceiving that as
the phalanx gained gronnd it loft its order in feveral
places, he caufed his own light-armed troops to charge
in thofe places, whereby the Macedonians were foon
put into confufion.. If Perfes with his horfe had on
the firft appearance of this charged the Romans brifk-
ly, his infantry would have been able to recover them-
felves; but, inftead of this, he betook himfelf to flight,
and the infantry at laft did the fame, but not till
20,000 of them had loft their lives. 8j?
This battle decided the fate of Macedonia, which Macedonia
immediately fubmitted to the conqueror. The coward- becomes a
ly king took refuge in the iftand of Samothrace ; but Roman
was at laft obliged to furrender to the Roman conful, province’
by whom he was carried to Rome, led in triumph, and
afterwards moft barbaroufly ufed. Some pretenders
to the throne appeared afterwards; but being unable
to defend themfelves againft the Romans, the country
was reduced to a Roman province in 148 B. C. To
them it continued fubjeft till the year 1357, when it
was reduced by the Turkilh fultan Bajazet, and hath
remained in the hands of the Turks ever fince.
MACEDONIANS, Chriftian heretics, in the 4th
century; followers of Macedonius, biftiop of Conftan-
tinople.
Macedonius was an Arian, and governed the church
in a very tyrannical manner. He tranflated the body
of the emperor Conftantine from the church of the
Apoftles to that of Acacius the martyr; which rai-
fed great tumults, and many were killed in the fray.
He was depofed by the council of Conftantinople in
359-
Refentment, it was thought, at being depofed, oc-
cafioned his forming a new herefy, which confifted in
denying the divinity of the Holy Ghoft ; for which
reafon his followers were likewife called Pneuviato-
machi, that is, enemies of the Holy Ghojl. They taught
that the Holy Ghoft was a mere creature, but fupe-
rior in excellence to the angels.
The Macedonians make extraordinary profeftions of
aufterity; which induced great numbers to embrace
their do&rine. Moft of the malecontent bifhops fub-
fcribed to it, and the Arians in general greedily fwal-
lowed it. Maratonus, biftiop of Nicomedia, a very rich
man, contributed greatly by his wealth and authority
to fpread it far and wide ; whence the Macedonians
were fometimes called Maratonians.
Athanafius, who at that time lay concealed in the
defart, was the firft who wrote againft: this herefy, and
confuted it; after which, the councils by their decrees,
and the emperors by their edicts, profecuted it with
great vigour.
MACEDONIUS. See Macedonians.
MACERATION, is an infufion of, or foaking in¬
gredients in water or any other fluid, in order either
to foften them, or draw out their virtues.
MACERATA, a handfome and populous town
of Italy, in the territory of the church, and in the
Marche of Ancona, with a bilhop’s fee, and an uni-
verfity.
MAC [ 4356 ] MAC
Machian verfity. It is feated near the mountain Chiento, in combinations, «nd ferve for different purpofes. Set Machinery
II E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 43. 15. Mechanics and Hydrostatics; alfo the articles ^
Machine. 'm'aCHIAN. one* of the Molucca iflands, in the Centrifugal, Fire, Steam, Furnace, Bur "nzi'
Eaft Indian Ocean, about 20 miles in circumference,
and the moft fertile of them all. It likewife produces
the be ft cloves; and is in poffeflion of the Dutch, who.
have three ftrong forts built on it.
MACHIAVEL (Nicholas), a famous political
writer of the x 6th century, was born of a diftinguifh-
ed family at Florence. He wrote in his native lan¬
guage with great elegance and politenefs, though he
underftood very little of the Latin tongue; but he was
in the fervice of Marcellus Virgilius, a learned man,
who pointed out to him many of the beautiful paffages
in the ancients, which Machiavel had the art of pla¬
cing properly in his works. He compofed a comedy
upon the ancienU,Greek model; in which he turned
into ridicule many of the Florentine ladies, and which
was fo well received, that pope Leo X. caufed it to be
aded at Rome. Machiavel was fecretary, and after¬
wards hiftoriographer, to the republic of Florence.
The houfe of Medicis procured him this laft office,
together with a handfome falary, in order to pacify his
refentment for his having fuffered the torture upon fuf-
picion of his being an accomplice in the confpiracy of
the Soderini againft that houfe, when Machiavel bore
his fufferings without making any confeffion. The
great encomiums he beftowed upon Brutus and Caf-
fius, both in his converfations and writings, made him
ftrongiy fufpeded of being concerned in another con¬
fpiracy againft cardinal Julian de Medicis, who was
afterwards pope under the name of Cletnent VII. How¬
ever, they carried on no proceedings againft him; but
from that time he turned every thing into ridicule, and
gave himfelf up to irreligion. He died in 1530, of a
remedy which he had taken by way of prevention.—Of
all his writings, that which has made the moft noife,
and has drawn upon him the moft enemies, is a poli¬
tical treatife entitled the Princt; which has been tranf-
lated into feveral languages, and wrote againft by many
authors. The world is not agreed as to the motives
of this work; fome thinking, he meant to recommend
tyrannical maxims; others, that he only delineated
them to excite abhorrence. Machiavel alfo wrote Re¬
flexions on Titus Livy, which are extremely curious;
The Hiftory of Florence, from the year 1205 to 1494;
and a quarto volume of poems and other pieces. Mr
Harrington confiders him as a fuperior genius, and as
the moft excellent writer on politics and government
that ever appeared.
MACHINE, Machina, in the general, fignifies
any thing that ferves to augment, or to regulate mo¬
ving powers : or it is any body deftined to produce
motion, fo as to fave either time or force. The word
comes from the Greek /'-"X0""’ “ machine, invention,
art;” And hence, in ftriXnefs,a machine is fomething
that confifts more in art and invention, than in the
Jlrength and folidity of the materials ; and for this rea-
fon it is that the inventors of machines are called/»£<■-
nieurs or engineers.
Machines are either Ample or compound. The Ample
ones are the feven mechanical powers, viz. lever, bal-
lance, pully, axis and wheel, wedge, ferew, and in¬
clined plane.
From thefe the compound ones are formed by various
ROUGHS, RamSDEN, &C.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is
when the poet introduces the ufe of machines; or brings
fome fupernatural being upon the ftage, in order to
folve fome difficulty, or to perform fome exploit out
of the reach of human power.
The ancient dramatic poets never made ufe of
machines, unlefs where there was an abfolute neceffity
for fo doing ; whence the precept of Horace ;
Ncc. Dcus interjit, nifi dignus vindice nodus
Incident.
It is quite otherwife with epic poets, who introduce
machines in every part of their poems ; fo that nothing
is done without the intervention of the gods. In Mil-
ton’s paradifeloft, by far the greater part of the aftors
are fupernatural perfonages : Homer and Virgil do no¬
thing without them ; and, in Voltaire’s Henriade, the
poet has made excellent ufe of St Louis.
As to the manner in which thefe machines fliould
aft, it is fometimes invifibly, by Ample infpirations and
fuggeftions ; fometimes by aftually appearing under
fome human form ; and, laftly, by means of dreams
and oracles, which partake of the other two. How¬
ever, all thefe fhould be managed in fuch a manner as
to keep within the bounds of probability.
MACHINLETH, a town ot Montgomery (hire in
North Wales, feated on the river Doway ; over which
is a large ftone bridge that leads into Merioneth-(hire.
W. Long. 3. 55. N. Lat. 52.34.
MACKENZIE, (Sir George), an able lawyer,
a polite fcholar, and a celebrated wit, was born at
Dundee in the county of Angus in Scotland in 1636,
and ftudied at the univerfities of Aberdeen and St An¬
drews ; after which he applied himfedf to the civil law,
travelled into France, and profecuted his ftudy in that
faculty for about three years. At his return to his
native country, he became an advocate in the city of E-
dinburgh ; and foon gained the charafter of an emi¬
nent pleader. He did not, however, fuffer his abili¬
ties to be conAned entirely to that province. He had
a good tafte for polite literature; and he gave the pub¬
lic, from time to time, inconteftable proofs of an un¬
common proAciency therein. He had praftifed but a
few years, when he was promoted to the office of a
judge in the criminal court; and, in 1674, was made
king’s advocate, and one of the lords of the privy coun¬
cil m Scotland. He was alfo knighted by his majefty.
In thefe Rations he met with a great deal of trouble,
on account of the rebellions which happened in his
time ; and his office of avocate requiring him to aft
with feverity, he did not efcape being cenfured, as if
in the deaths of fome particular perfons who were
executed he had ftretched the laws too far. But there
does not feem to have been any juft foundation for this
clamour againft him ; and it is generally agreed, that
be acquitted himfelf like an able and upright magi-
ftrate. Upon the abrogation of the penal laws by
king James II. our advocate, tho’ he had always been
remarkable for his loyalty, and even cenfured for his
zeal againft traitors and fanatics, thought himfelf obli¬
ged to refign his poft ; being convinced, that he could
not difeharge the duties of it in that point with a good
con-
MAC [ 4357 ] MAD
foon after rcflored, and held and after his death appeared his Algebra, and Ac* Mac;in
count of Sir Ifaac Newton’s philofophical difcoverics. !l
His peculiar merit as a philofopher was, that all his aga (1‘
; Mackard confcience. But he
ii . his offices till the revolution; an event which, it feems,
*c 3Unn he could not bring himfelf to approve. He had hoped
that the prince of Orange would have returned to his
own country when matters were adjufted between the
king and his fubjeft&; and upon its proving otherwife,
he quitted all his employments in Scotland, and retired
into England, refolving to fpend the remainder of his
days in the univerfity of Oxford. He arrived there
in September 1689, and profecuted his (Indies in the
Bodleian library, being admitted a (Indent there, by a
grace paffed in the congregation, June 2. 1690. In
the’fpring following, he went to London; where he fell
into a diferder, of which he died in May 1691. His
corpfe was conveyed by land to Scotland, and interred
there with great pomp and folemnity.
“ The politenefs of his learning, and the fprightli-
nefs of his wit, were (fays the reverend Mr Gran¬
ger) confpicuous in all his pleadings, and (hone in his
ordinary converfation. Mr Dryden acknowledges,
that he was unacquainted with what he calls the
ful turn of ’words and thoughts in poetry^ till they were
explained and exemplified to him in a converfation with
that noble wit of Scotland Sir George Mackenzie.—He
wrote feveral pieces of hiftory and antiquities ; Infti-
tutions of the laws of Scotland ; Effays upon various
fubje&s, &c. His works were printed together at E-
dinburgh in 1716, in vols folio.
MACKEREL, in ichthyology. See Scomber.
MACKEY (John), an Englifhman, employed by
the government as a fpy upon James II. after the re¬
volution, was author of Memoirs of James’s court at St
Germaine, and of the court of England in the reigns
of William III. and queen Anne ; in which are many
curious anecdotes not to be met with in any other work.
He died in 1726.
MACLAURIN (Colin),a mod eminent mathema¬
tician and philofopher, the fon of a clergyman, and
born at Kilmoddan in Scotland in 1698. Hewasfent
to the univerfity of Glafgow in 1709, and took the
degree of mailer of arts in his 15th year; on which
occafion he compofed and defended a thefis on the
power of gravity with great applaufe. In 1717, he
obtained the profefibrfliip of mathematics in the Ma-
rifhal college of Aberdeen againft a very able compe¬
titor; and, going afterwards to London, contrafted
an acquaintance with Sir Ifaac Newton, Dr Hoadley,
Dr Clarke, Martin Folkes, efq. with other eminent
men ; and was admitted a member of the Royal Socie¬
ty. In 1722 he travelled as tutor to the elded fon of
lord Polwarth ; and at Lorrain wrote his piece On the
percuffion of bodies, which gained the prize of the
Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724 ; but, on the death
of his pupil at Montpelier, he returned immediately to
Aberdeen. He was hardly fettled there, when he was
chofen to fupply the place of Mr James Gregory, as
profeffor at Edinburgh, where his mathematical fqho-
lars foon became very numerous. In 1745, having
been very aftive in fortifying the city of Edinburgh
againd the rebel army, he was obliged to fly into the
north of England ; in which expedition he laid the
foundation of an illnefs that put an end to his life in
1746. He publiffied A complete fyllem of fluxions,
2 vols 4'-o ; feveral curious papers in the Philofophical
Trarjfadtions, and in the Edinburgh Medical Efiays
dudies were dire&ed to general utility, and promoting
mechanical arts.
MACRIN (Salmon), one of the bed Latin poets
of the 16th century, was born at Loudun. Pit's true
name was John Salmon; but he took that of Macrin,
from his being frequently fo called in ridicule by Fran¬
cis I. on account of his extraordinary leannefs. He
was preceptor to Claudius of Savoy, count of Tende ;
and to Honorius the count’s brother ; and wrote feve¬
ral pieces of poetry in lyric verfe, which were fo ad¬
mired, that he was called the Horace of his time. He
died of old age, at Loudun, in 1555.—Charles Macrin,
his fon, was not inferior to him as a poet, and furpafs-
ed him in his knowledge of the Greek tongue. He was
preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, the fider of Henry
the Great; and perilhed in the maffacre on St Bartho¬
lomew’s day in 1572.
MACROBIUS (Aurelius), lived about the end of
the fourth century. He was one of Theodofius’s
chamberlains, or one of his wardrobe. His Saturna¬
lia is a pleafant mixure of criticifm and antiquity. He
alfo compofed fome commentaries upon that part of
Cicero called Scipio's dream.
MACROCERCI, a name given to that clafs of
animalcules which have tails longer than their bodies.
MACROCOSM, a word denoting the great world
or univerfe. It is compounded of the Greek words
y.ax.p<fr, “ great,” and “ world.”
MACROPYRENIUM, in natural hidory, a ge¬
nus of foffils confiding of crudated feptarke, with
a long nucleus danding out at each end of the mafs.
MACROTELOSTYLA, in natural hidory, the
name of a genus of crydals, which are compofed of
two pyramids joined to the end of a column ; both the
pyramids, as alfo the column, being hexangular,
and the whole body confequently compofed of 18
planes.
MACULjE, in adronomy, dark fpots appearing
on the luminous furfaces of the fun and moon, and
even fome of the planets. See Astronomy, SeA. II.
and III.
MAD-apple. See Solanum.
MADAGASCAR, or St Laurence, the larged
of the African iflands, fituated between 430 and 510 of
E. Long, and between 120 and 26° ofS. Lat. It ex¬
tends near 1000 miles from north-north-ead to fouth-
fouth-wed, and about 300 in breadth where broadeft.
The whole coad is divided by rivers ; and there are
many bays and gulphs, with good roads and har¬
bours. It abounds in corn, cattle, fowls, and all
manner of animals and vegetables found on the conti¬
nent of Africa ; and affords an agreeable variety of
hills, valleys, woods, and champaign. Great quan¬
tities of iron and deel are found throughout this
ifland, which their artificers forge and purify with lefs
difficulty and labour than Europeans. Their method
is this: They reduce the ore, as brought from the mines,,
into powder, place it upon burning coals between four
dones, which are clayed round for the purpofe; and, by
continual blowing underneath, with bellows made in
the (hape of gun-barrels or water-pumps, the ore runs
in lefs than an hour; whence the metal being after¬
wards;
M A D [ 4358 ] MAD
Madagafcar wards extrafled, by great heat, is formed into-bars of
Ma<ld:-r. or four p0Unc]s weight. It is confidently affirm-
ed, that the ifland has alfo mines of gold and lilver,
and of a white metal much like Britiih tin. The ri¬
vers and brooks are rich in various kinds of precious
ftones, in cryftals, topazes, amethyfts, eagle-ftones,
emeralds, fapphires, hyacinths, jafpers, blood-ftones,
&c.
The inhabitants are of different complexions and re¬
ligions ; fome white, fome negroes; fome Mohamme¬
dans, fome Pagans. The whites, and thofe of a
tawny complexion, who inhabit the coafts, are defend¬
ed from the Arabs, as is evident from their language
and their religious rites: but here are no mofques,
temples, nor any rtated worfhip, except that they of¬
fer facrifices of btafts on particular occafions ; as when
fick, when they plant yams or rice, when they hold
their affemblies, circumcife their children, declare war,
enter into new built houfes, and bury their dead. The
country is divided into a great many , petty princes,
who are continually at war with one onother, as upon
the continent; felling their prifoners or flaves to the
{hipping which touch there; and taking cloathing,
utenfils, and other neceffaries, in return. The French
had once fome fettlements upon the ifland ; but, at
prefent, neither they nor any other European nation
have any.
MADDER. See Rubia.
Madder is a plant, the ufes of which were well
known to the ancients, both in refpeft to manufa&ures
and phyfic. The Greek authors call this plant ery-
throdanuvi, from erythros, “ red the Latins, on the
fame principle rubia; and it is ftyled rubia tinflo-
rum, from the ufe made of it in dyeing. Diofco-
rides and Galen do not infift upon its tinging quality.
But the former defcribes, and both fo explain, its me¬
dicinal virtues, as to leave no doubt as to the plant.
Pliny, who commonly agrees with Diofcorides, men¬
tions both its ufes, but in different books of his hi-
jftory. In refpeft to its medical qualities, they are fol¬
lowed by later authors ; but the nature of the colour
extra&ed from its roots was left to fuch as wrote the
hiftory of the arts. With their roots they dyed wool
and leather; and from thefe and other parts of the
plant they formed a variety of medicines, to which
great virtues were attributed by their ableft pbyficiaus.
They had it likewife both wild and cultivated, the beft
fort of the latter growing, in the time of Pliny, in the
neighbourhood of Rome.
As madder is a very valuable commodity, fo the
railing and curing it in perfe&ion is a work of
much time, trouble, and expence, for all which
it pays abundantly at laft. The foil beft fuit-
ed to this plant is a foft fandy loam, which muft
be properly prepared by repeated and deep plough-
ings, fo as to render it perfe&ly even and fine. The
young {hoofs for the cultivated madder is not propa¬
gated by feed,, but muft be planted in the courfe of the
month of April upon ridges at three feet diftance, and
the plants themfelves at a foot and an half diftance
from each other. They remain three fummers in the
ground; and during that fpace are to be carefully ho¬
ed, kept clean from weeds, and properly earthed up.
They are drawn about the month of September, and
muft be then conveyed immediately to the drying-houfe,
built like thofe ivfed by the tanners for their Iking, ex- Madder.'
cept that hurdles are ufed in them inftead of floors,  \
that the air may have free accefs to the roots every
way. After remaining there four or five days, and the
earth perfe&ly cleared from them, they are carried to
the cold ftove, where they are farther, but very flow-
ly, dried by the help of flues placed in the Tides of the
building. This being done, the madder is carried
next to the floor, where it is threfhed from its bark or
outward rind; which, however, is fwept together,bar¬
relled up, and is what the Dutch call mull, which
fometimes fells for eight pounds a ton, and thereby
commonly defrays the expence of drying. The roots
thus cleared are then conveyed to the warm ftove,
where the drying is gradually completed. From thence
they are fent to the mill, and there ground, forted,
and packed up in cafks fit for fale. In thefe feveral
operations, which muft all be performed with much
care and exa&nefs, the commodity lofes fo much of its
weight, that 700 or 800 of the green will feldom make
more than too of the dry madder. The time, trouble,
and expence attending the cultivation of madder in
this method have induced fome, particularly the French,
to endeavour to find out fome expedients to fhorten
the procefs, and by ridding themfelves of rtoves and
mills to leffen the charge. It is certainly right to ex¬
amine and to cbnfider their attempts. But, on the
other hand, there is, with all its prolixity and labour,
fomething very worthy of attention in this mode of
the Dutch. The dyers ufe madder in different ways ,
and for different purpofes, which are all fuited by the
feveral divifions of the madder, by which all is fold,
each fetches its juft price, and the dyers find fome or
other of thefe forts adapted to every intention, which
is a great and apparent conveniency.
The Dutch are at prefent poffeffed of an almoft ab-
folute monopoly of this valuable commodity, the cul¬
tivation of which they were taught by the Flemings;
who, perfecuted for their religion, long fince took {bel¬
ter amongft them. In times paft we imported madder
by the way of Hamburgh from Silefia, and alfo from
Flanders; whereas we now have it only from Hol¬
land. This that people have brought about by their
unwearied induftry, their careful management, and in¬
defatigable attention. It is in a particular manner the
great ftaple of Zealand; where, in the fmall ifle of
Schowen, they raife annually 1000 tons; for the curing
of which there are about 20 ftoves, each provided
with a proper number of able workmen, by whom
every thing is accurately and excellently performed at
a fettled and very moderate price, and under the mod
prudent and equitable regulations. When the work is
finiftied, the madder, according to its finenefs, is divided
into feveral forts; and, after being infpefted by per-
fons deputed by the magiftrates, each fort is put up
in calks with marks declaring its nature, and the arms
of the town of Zirikzee painted on them, which au¬
thenticate their contents wherever they are exported.
The affayers are fworn duly to refpedl the ordinances
of Zealand, of which there are feveral, very explicit
and well confidered. The calks, befides the arms of
the town, have the name of the ftove, where made, and
the quality of the madder, painted on them ; and thus
the credit and the reputation of the different parties
are ftakej, which excites a conftant attention and emu¬
lation
Madder.
MAD [ 4359 ] MAD
ation amongft them. This plant is alfo cultivated
not only in the other iflands which compofe that pro¬
vince, but likewife in different parts of the dominions
of the United Provinces, from whence it is fent in im-
menfe quantities over all Europe.
In proportion as induftry, arts, and commerce, came
to prevail, and to be underftood here, it was very
clearly difeerned that our dependance upon another na¬
tion, for an article fo neceffary to the progrefs of fe-
veral manufa&ures, was pregnant with many inconve¬
niences, befides the conftant drain of money, not on¬
ly for the benefit, but even at the will of flrangers,
who fet what prices they pleafed on what could not
be wanted. In the reign of Charles I. a patent was
granted to Mr Shipman the king’s gardener for plant¬
ing and curing of madder ; which he did, and brought
it to very great perfection, till, ruined by the confu-
fion of the times, he was eonftrained to part with his
flock, and give over the trade. We have this faft
from Mr Blyth, who having been an officer in the par¬
liament army became afterwards a great promoter of
agriculture and all forts of improvements, and is con-
fequently a competent and unfufpected witnefs. He
fays, that Mr Shipman planted madder, and fet up his
works at Barn Elms, and that his commodity was
highly commended by its only proper judges the dy¬
ers. It is evident therefore, that at this time we were
poffeffed of this valuable article, which might have
been foon had in plenty as well as in perfedion. If
this opportunity had been taken, and the cultivation of
madder (as it might have been) univerfally introduced,
it would be no difficult matter to demonftrate, that
this nation might have been the richer for it by fome
millions.
It was again attempted by Sir Nicholas Crifpe, a
man of extraordinary abilities, and of great public
fpirit, as alfo by perfons well (killed therein at Wifi
bech, who, notwithftanding many obftacles that were
thrown in their way, would certainly have fucceeded,
had not the Dutch reduced, and for a time kept the
price fo low, that for want of fupport they were con-
flrained to give up the making of madder. This had
fo bad an effeft, that notwithftanding the growing of
this plant for phyfical ufes and for cunofity in many
private gardens, no thoughts were entertained of cultiva¬
ting it to a large extent, and for the purpofes of dyeing,
till within thefe few years. It then appeared fo reafon-
able in iffelf, and of fuch public utility, that an aft of
parliament was obtained to facilitate the defign, which
aft hath been fince continued, and many other marks
have been given of public approbation. Stat. 31 G. II.
in the preamble, the great advantages that would at¬
tend the cultivation of madder are fuccinftly Hated ;
and for promoting fo important a defign, the tythe of
every acre on which it is planted is fixed at five (hil¬
lings from Auguft 2. 1758 for 14 years. Stat. 5.
Geo. III. c. 18. after reciting, that the price of the
commodity hath been raifed, continues the tythe at
five {hillings an acre for 14 years farther from the ex¬
piration of the former aft. The focitty alfo for the
encouraging arts, manufaftures, and commerce, have
promifed very confiderable and well confidered pre¬
miums for the encouraging this very expenfive im¬
provement, as alfo (which may be of no fmall impor¬
tance) for the cultivatiomjf our own wild madder. It
Vol. VI. 1
may be confidered therefore at prefent as in a ftate of Madder
progreffion ; and there is very little room to doubt, Ma(!ciray
that, as experience in the management of it increafes,
this important enterprize will move fafter, till it reaches
the point of perfection.
It certainly imports us, both in honour and in in-
tereft, to profecute this improvement, now it is be¬
gun, with’vigour. We have all the advantages we
can reafonably with to prompt our endeavours, as we
have a great variety of foils as fit for the cultiva¬
tion of this plant as any in Zealand or Flapders,
and are in no danger of being confined in point of
room.
The root of madder impregnates water with a dull
red colour, and fpirit of wine with a deep bright red.
This root, when eat by animals along with their food,
tinges their urine, and their mod folid bones, of a deep
red. Wool previoufly boiled in a folution of alum and
tartar, receives from a hot decoftion of madder and
tartar a very durable but not a very beautiful red co¬
lour. Mr Margraaf (Berlin Mem. 1771), (hews how
a very durable lake of a fine red colour, fit for the
purpofes of painting, may be obtained from madder.
This procefs is as follows: Take two ounces of the
pureft Roman alum, and diflblvc it in three French
quarts of diftilled water that has boiled, and in a clean
glazed pot. Set the pot on the fire; and when the
water begins to boil, withdraw it, and add two oun¬
ces of the beft Dutch madder. Boil the mixture once
or twice; then remove it from the fire, and filter it
through a double fibre of paper not coloured. Let
the liquor thus filtrated Hand a night to fettle, and
pour off the clear liquor into the glazed pot previoufly
well cleaned. Make the liquor hot, and add to it
gradually a clear folution of fab of tartar in water,
till all the madder is precipitated. Filtrate the mix¬
ture ; and upon the red precipitate which remains up¬
on the fiber pour boiling diftilled water, till the water
no longer acquires a faline tafte. The red lake is
then to be gently dried. No other water, neither rain
nor river water, produces fo good a colour as that
which has been diftilled, and the quantity required of
this is confiderable. The colour of the above preci¬
pitate is deep; but if two parts of madder be ufed to
one part of alum, the colour will be dill deeper: one
part of madder and four parts of alum produces a beau¬
tiful rofe colour.
MADEIRAS, a clufter of iflands fituated in the
Atlantic ocean in W. Long. 16°, and between 320 and
330 N. Lat.—The largeft of them, called Madeira,
from which the reft take their name, is about 55
Englifh miles long, and 10 miles broad ; and was firft
difeovered on the 2d of July, in the year 1419, by
Joao Gonzales Zarco, there being no hiftorical foun¬
dation for the fabulous report of its difeovery by one
Machin an Engiiftiman. It is divided into two capi-
tanias, named Funchal and Maxico, from the towns
of thofe names. The former contains two judicatures,
viz. Funchal and Calhetta ; the latter being a town
with the title of a county, belonging to the family
of Caftello Melhor. The fecond capitania likewife
comprehends two judicatures, viz. Maxico (read Ma-
ftiico) and San Vicente.
Funchal is the only cidade or city in this ifland,
which has alfo feven villas or towns; of which there
24 S are
Madeira*.
M A D [ 4360 ] MAD
are four, Calhetta, Camara de Lobo?, Ribeira braba,
and Ponta de Sol in the capitania of Funchal, which
is divided into 26 parifhes. The other three are in
the capitania of Maxico, which confift of 17 parifhes ;
thefe towns are called Maxico, San Vicente, and Santa
Cruz.
The governor is at the head of all the civil and
military departments of this ifland, of Porto-Santo,
the Salvages, and the Ilhas Defartas ; which laft only
contain the temporary huts of fome fiihermen, who
refort thither in purfuit of their bufmefs.
The law-department is under the corregidor, who
is appointed by the king of Portugal, commonly fent
from Lifboh, and holds his place during the king’s
pleafure. All caufes come to him from inferior courts
by appeal. Each judicature has a fenate ; and a Juiz
or judge, whom they chbofe, prefides over them. At
Funcdial he is called Juiz da Fora i and in the ab-
fence, or after the death of the ebrregidor, a&s as
his deputy. The foreign merchants ele& their own
judges, called the Provider, who is at the fame time
eolleftor of the king’s cuftoms and revenues, which
amount in all to about 12,000 1. Sterling. Far the
greateft part of this fum is applied towards the
falaries of civil and military officers, the pay of troops,
and the maintenance of public buildings. This re¬
venue arifes, firft from the tenth of all the produce of
this ifland belonging to the king, by virtue of his
office as grand mafterof the order of Chrift ; fecondly,
' from ten per cent, duties laid on all imports, provi-
fions excepted; and laftly, from the eleven per cent,
charged on all exports.
The ifland has but one company of regular foldiers
of 100 men: the reft of the military force is a mi¬
litia confiding of 3000 men, divided into companies,
each commanded by a captain, who has one lieutenant
tinder him, and one enfign. There is no pay given to
either the private men, or the officers of this militia;
and yet their places are much fought after, on account
of the rank which they communicate. Thefe troops
are embodied once a year, and exercifed oncea-month.
All the military are commanded by the Serjeante Mor.
The governor has two Capitams de Sal about him,
who do duty as aides-de-camp.
The feeular priefts on the ifland are about 1200,
many of whom are employed as private tutors. Since
the expulfion of the Jefuits, no regular public fchool
is to be found here; unlefs we except a feminary,
where a prieft, appointed for that purpofe, inftrufts
and educates ten ftudents at the king’s expence. Thefe
wear a red cloak over the ufual black gowns worn
by ordinary ftudents. All thofe who intend to go
into orders, are obliged to qualify themfelves by
ftudying in the univerfity of Coimbra, lately re-efta-
blithed in Portugal. There is alfo a dean and chap¬
ter at Madeira, with a biftiop at their head, whofe
income is confiderably greater than the governor’s ;
it confifts of no pipes of wine, and of 40 muys of
wheat, each containing 24 bufhels; which amounts
in common years to 3000 1. Sterling. Here are like-
wife 60 or 70 Francifcan friars, in four monafteries,
one of which is at Funchal. About 300 nuns live on
the ifland, in four convents, of the order of Merci,
Sta. Clara, Incarnacao, and Bom Jefus. Thofe of
the laft mentioned inftitution may marry whenever they
choofe, and leave their monaftery.
In the year 1768, the inhabitants living in the 43 '
pariflres.of Madeira, amounted to 63,913, of whom
there were 31,341 males, and 32,572 females. But
in that year 5243 perfons died, and no more than
2198 children were born; fo that the number of the
dead exceeded that of the born by 3045. It is highly
probable that fome epidemical diftemper carried off
fo difproportionate a number in that year, as the
ifland would fliortly be entirely depopulated if the
mortality were always equal to this, Another cir-
cumftance concurs to ftrengthen this fuppofition, name*
ly, the excellence of the climate. The weather is in
general mild and temperate : in fummer, the heat
is very moderate on the higher parts of the ifland,
whither the better fort of people retire for that feafon ;
and in the winter the fnow remains there for feverai
days, whilft it is never known to continue above a
day or two in the lower parts.
The common people of this ifland are of a tawny'
colour, and well (haped; though they have large feet,,
owing perhaps to the efforts they are obliged to make
in climbing the craggy paths of this mountainous
country. Their faces are oblong, their eyes dark ’r
their black hair naturally falls in ringlets, and begins to-
crifp in fome individuals, which may perhaps be owing
to intermarriages with negroes; in general, they are
hard-featured, but not difagreeable. Their women*
are too frequently ill-favoured, and want the florid
complexion, which, when united to a pleafing affem-
blage of regular features, gives our northern fair ones
the fuperiority over all their fex. They are fmall,
have prominent cheek-bones, large feet, an ungraceful
gait, and the colour of the darkeft brunette. The
juft proportion of the body, the firte form of their
hands, and their large, lively eyes, feem in fome
meafure to compenfate for thofe defefts. The labour¬
ing men, in fummer, wear linen trowferS, a coarfe
(hirt, a large hat, and boots; fome have a fliort jacket
made of cloth, and a long cloak, which they fome-
times carry over their arm. The women wear a pet¬
ticoat, and a fliort corfelet or jacket, clofely fitting
their fliapes, which is a fimple, and often not an in¬
elegant drefs. They have alfo a fliort, but wide
cloak ; and thofe that are unmarried, tie their hair on
the crown of their head, on which they wear no co¬
vering.
The country-people are exceeding fober and frugal 'r
their diet in general confiding of bread and onions,
or other roots, and little animal-food. However,
they avoid eating tripe, or any offals, becaufe it is
proverbially faid of a very poor man, “ he is reduced
to eat tripe.” Their common drink is water, or an
infufion on the remaining rind or fkin of the grape
(after it has paffed through the wine-prefs),.which when
fermented acquires fome tartnefs and aedity, but cannot
be kept very long. The wine for which the ifland is
fo famous, and which their own hands prepare, fddom
if ever regales them.
Their principal occupation is the planting and rai¬
ling of vines ; but as that branch of agriculture re¬
quires little attendance during the grealdl part of the
year, they natural!)- incline to idlenefs. The warmth
of the climate, which renders great provifion againft
the inclemencies of weather ucneceffary, and the cafe
with
M AD [ 4361 ] M A D
■ MaJciras. with which the cravings of appetite are fatisfied, muft
| __ tfn{j {0 ;n(}0]eljCC} wherever the regulations of the
Jegiflature do not counteraft it, by endeavouring, with
the profpedt of increafing happinefs, to infufe the
fpirit of induftry. It feems the Portuguefe govern¬
ment does not purfue the proper methods againft this
dangerous lethargy of the ftate. They have lately
ordered the plantation of olive-trees here, on fuch
fpots as are too dry and barren to bear vines; but
they .have not thought of giving temporary afliftance
to the labourers, and have offered no premium by
which thefe,might be induced to conquer their reluc¬
tance to innovations and averfion to labour.
The vineyards are held only on an annual tenure,
and the farmer reaps but four-tenths of the produce,
lince four other tenths are paid in kind to the owner
of the land, one-tenth to the king, and one to the
clergy. Such fmall profits, joined to the thought of
toiling merely for the advantage of others, if improve¬
ments were attempted, entirely preciude the hopes of
a future increafe. Oppreffed as they are, they have
however preferved a high degree of cheerfulnefs and
contentment ; their labours arc commonly alleviated
with fongs, and in the evening they affemble from
different cottages to dance to the drowfy mufic of a
guittar.
The inhabitants of the towns are more ill-favoured
than the country-people, and often pale and lean.
The men wear French clothes, commonly black, which
do nut feem to fit them, and have been in falhion in
the polite world about half a century ago. Their
ladies are delicate, and have agreeable features ; but
the chara&eriitic jealoufy of the men Hill locks them
up, and deprives them of a happinefs which the coun¬
try-women, amidlt all their diltreffes, enjoy. Many
-of the better people are a fort of petite noblejfe,
which we would ca\\ gentry, whofe genealogical pride
makes them unfociabie and ignorant, and caufes a
ridiculous affedlation of gravity. The landed proper¬
ty is in the hands of a few ancient families, who live
at Funchal, and in the various towns on the ifland.
Madeira coniifls of one large mountain, whofe
I branches rife every-where from the fea towards the
centre of the ifle, converging to the fummit, in the
midff of which is a depreffion or excavation, called the
Val by the inhabitants, always covered with a frdh
and delicate herbage. The Hones on the ifle feem to
have been in the fire, are full of holes, and of a black-
ifli colour; in fliort, the greater part of them are lava.
A few of them are of the kind which the Derbyfhire
miners call dunjione. The foil of the whole iflaud is
a tarras mixed with fome particles of clay, lime, and
land, and has much the fame appearance as fome
earths on the ifle of Afcenfion, From this circum-
ffance, and from the excavation of the fummit of the
mountain, it is probable, that in fome remote period,
a volcano has produced the lava and the ochreous
particles, and that the Val was formerly its crater.
Many brooks and fmall rivulets defeend from the
fiimmits in deep chafms or glens, which feparate the
various parts of the ifle. The beds of the brooks are
in fome places covered with Hones of all fixes, carried
down from the higher parts by the violence of winter-
a-ains or floods of melted fnow. The water is con¬
duced by wears and channels iq the vineyards, where
z
each proprietor has the ufe of it for a certain time ; Madeira!,
fome being allowed to keep a conflant fupply of it," *
fome to ufe it thrice, others twice, and others only
once a-week. As the heat of the climate renders this
fupply of water to the vineyards abfolutely neceffary,
it is not without great expence that a new vineyard
can be planted ; for the maintenance of which, the
owners muH purchafe water at a high price, from
thofe who are conflantly fupplied, and are thus en¬
abled to fpare fome of it.
Wherever a level piece of ground can be contrived
in the higher hills, the natives make plantations of
eddoes enclofed by a kind of dike to caufe a ftag-
n a lion, as that plant fncceeds btfl in fwampy ground.
Its leaves ferve as food for hogs, and the coun¬
try-people ufe the roots for their own nourilh-
ment.
The fweet potatoe is planted for the fame pur-
pofe, and makes a principal article of diet; toge¬
ther with chefnuts, which grow in extenfive woods,
on the higher parts of the ifland, where the vine
will not thrive. Wheat and barley are likewife
fown, efpecially in fpots where the vines are decaying
through age, or where they are newly planted. But
the crops do not produce above three months provi-
fions ; and the inhabitants are therefore obliged to have
recourfe to other food, befides importing confiderable
quantities of corn from North America in exchange
for wine. The want of manure, and the inadlivky
of the people, are in fome meafure the caufes of this
difadvamage ; but fuppofing hufbandry to be carried
to its perftdlion here, they could not raife corn fuffi-
cient for their confumption. They make their threfh-
ing-floors of a circular form, in a corner of a field,
which is cleared and beaten foil'd for the purpofe.
The (heaves are laid round about it ; and a fquarc
board, ftuck full of (harp flints below, is dragged over
them by a pair of oxen, the driver getting on it to
increafe its weight. This machine cuts the Hraw as
if it had been chopped, and frees the grain from the
hulk, from which it is afterwards feparated.
Tire great produce of Madeira is the wine, from
which it has acquired fame and fupport. Where the
foil, expofure, and 1'upply of water, will admit of it,
the vine is. cultivated. One or more walks, about a
yard or two wide, interfeft each vineyaid, and are
included by Hone-walls two feet high. Along thefe
walks, which are arched over with laths about feven
feet high, they erefl wooden pillars at regular dif-
tjances, to fupport a lattice-work of bamboos, which
Hopes down from both fides of the walk, till it is only
a foot and a half or two feet high, in which elevation
it extends over the whole vineyard. The vines are in
this manner fupported from the ground, and the peo¬
ple have room to root out the weeds which fpring up
between them. In the feafon of the vintage they
creep under this lattice-work, cut off the grapes,
and lay them into balkets: fome bunches of thefe
grapes weigh fix pounds and upwards. This method
of keeping the ground clean and moifl, and ripening
the grapes in the (hade, contributes to give the Ma¬
deira wines that excellent flavour and body for which
they are remarkable. The owners of vineyards are
however obliged to allot a certain fpot of ground for
the growth of bamboos ; for the lattice-work cannot
24 S 2 be
MAD [ 4362 ] MAD
Midciras be made without them; and it is faid fome vineyards
P lie quite negledled for want of this ufefnl reed.
The wines are not all of equal goodnefs, and con-
fequently of different prices. The beft, made of a
vine imported from Candia by order of the Infante
of Portugal, Don Henry, is called Madeira Malmfey,
a pipe of which cannot be bought on the fpot for lefs
than 40 or 42 1. Sterling. It is an exceeding rich
fweet wine, and is only made in a fmall quantity. The
next fort is a dry wine, fuch as is exported for the
London market, at 30 or 311. Sterling the pipe. In¬
ferior forts for the Eaft India, Weft India, and North
American markets, fell at 28, 25, and 201. Sterling.
About 30,000 pipes, upon a mean, are made every
year, each containing no gallons. About 13,000
pipes of the better forts are exported ; and all the reft
is made into brandy for the Brazils, converted into
vinegar, or confumed at home.
The inclofures of the vineyards confift of walls, and
hedges of prickly pear, pomegranates, myrtles, bram¬
bles, and wild roles. The gardens produce peaches,
apricots, quinces, apples, pears, walnuts, chefnuts,
and many other European fruits ; together with now
and then fome tropical plants, fuch as bananas, goavas,
and pine-apples.
All the common domeftic animals of Europe are
likewife found at Madeira; and their mutton and
beef, though fmall, is very well tafted. Their horfes
are fmall, but fure-footed; and with great agility
climb the difficult paths, which are the only means of
communication in the country. They have no wheel-
carriages of any kind ; but in the town they ufe a fort
of drays or fledges, formed of two pieces of plank
joined by crofs pieces, which make an acute angle be¬
fore ; thefe are drawn by oxen, and are ufed to tranf-
port caflcs of wine, and other heavy goods, to and
from the warehoufes.
The animals of the feathered tribe, which live wild
here, are more numerous that the wild quadrupeds ;
there being only the common grey rabbit here, as a
reprefentative of the laft-mentioned clafs. Tame birds,
fuch as turkies, geefe, ducks, and hens, are very rare,
which is perhaps owing to the fcarcity of corn.
There are no fnakes whatfoever in Madeira; but
all the houfes, vineyards, and gardens, fwarm with
lizards. The friars of one of the convents complained
to Mr Forfter, that thefe vermin deftroyed the fruit
in their garden; they had therefore placed a brafs-
kettle in the ground to catch them, as they are con-
ftantly running about in queft of food. In this man¬
ner they daily caught hundreds, which could not get out
on account of the fmooth fides of the kettle, but were
forced to perifti.
The (bores of Madeira, and of the neighbouring
Salvages and Defertas, are not without fifh ; but as
they are not in plenty enough for the rigid obfervance
of Lent, pickled herrings are brought from Gottenburg
in Englifli bottoms, and faked cod from New York
and other American ports, to fupply the deficiency.
MADNESS, a moft dreadful kind of delirium,
without a fever. See (the Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
MADOX (Dr Ifaac), an ingenious and worthy
prelate, born of obfcure parents about the year 1696,
who placed him apprentice to a paftry-cook; but not
relifhing this employment, and having an inclination
to learning, he was put to fchool by fome friends, and w
completed his ftudies at Aberdeen. He entered into  
orders; and having the good fortune to be made chap¬
lain to Dr Bradford bilhop of Chiclfefter, he married
his niece, a very fenfible and worthy lady. From
this time his preferment may be dated: he was made
king’s chaplain, clerk of the clofet to queen Caroline,
and about the year 1736 bifhop of St Afaph; from
whence, in 1743, he was tranflated toWorcefter. He
was an excellent preacher, and a great promoter of
public charities; particularly the Worcefter infirmary',
and the,hofpital for inoculating the fmail-pox at Lon¬
don : his fermon in favour of this latter inftitution,
preached in 1752, was much admired, and contributed
greatly to extend the praftice of inoculation. He
pubiiffied fome other fingle fermons, and A defence of
the doftrine and difcipline of the church of England, in
anfwer to Mr Neale’s Hiftory of the Puritans. Dr
Madox died in 1759.
MADRASS. See St George.
MADRE de Popa, a town and convent of South
America, in Terra Firma, feated on the river Grande.
It is almoft as much reforted to by pilgrims of Ame¬
rica, as Loretto is in Europe ; and the image of the
Virgin Mary is faid to have done many miracles in
favour of the fea-faring people. W. Lon. 76. o. N. Lat.
1 r. o.
MADRID, a town of New Caftile in Spain, and
capital of the whole kingdom,, though it never had
the title of a city, is fituated in W. Lon. 3. 5. N. Lat.
40. 26. It ftands in the centre of a large plain, fur-
rounded with mountains, and in the very heart of
Spain, on the banks of the little river Manzanares,
which is always very low and (hallow, except when it
is fwelled by the melting of the fnow on the moun¬
tains. The ftreets here are wide, ftraight, and hand-
fome, and adorned with feveral fine fountains ; the
houfes fair and lofty, but built of brick, with lattice-
windows, excepting thofe of the rich, who have glafs
in their windows; only, during the fummer-heats, they
ufe gauze, or fome fuch thin (luff, inftead of it, to let
in the frefh air. There are two (lately bridges here
over the Manzanares, feveral beautiful fquares, a great
many magnificent churches, convents, palaces, and
hofpitals: among the laft is one for all nations arid
diftempers, with a large revenue. Around the placa-
mayor, or grand fquare, are piazzas, with houfes all
uniform, and a continued line of balconies, for viewing
the bull-fights and other public (hews exhibited in it.
The royal palace, which ftands on the weft fide of the
town, on an eminence, is fpacious and magnificent,
confiding of three courts, and commanding a fine
profpeft. At the eaft end of the town is the prado,
or pardo; which is a delightful plain, planted with
regular rows of poplar trees, and watered with a great
many fountains; where the nobility and gentry take
the air on horfeback, or in their coaches, and the
common people on foot; or divert themfelves with a
variety of fports and exercifes. The compafs of the
whole town is computed at about nine miles, and the
number of its inhabitants at about 150,000. It is
well fupplied with provifions of all kinds, at reafonable
rates ; and the court, with the refort and refidence of
the quality, and the high colleges and offices that are
M E C [ 4363 ] M iE C
®‘Madrigal kept here, occafion a bri/li trade and circulation of
fi; money. There are three royal academies; one for
; Maecenas. ^ jmprovemcnt Gf the Spanifli language, another for
hiftory, and another Tor medicine. Nothing, in fhort,
is wanting to make this place extremely commodious
and agreeable, but cleanlinefs; which, it feems, is not
fuch a favourite with the inhabitants as it deferves.
fThe environs are very pleafant, and contain feveral
royal feats ; among which are El Buen Retiro, Cafa
del Campo, Florida, Le Pardo, Sarfuela, and St llde-
fonfo; but the moft magnificent, not only in this
country, but perhaps in the whole world,' is the
Efcurial, which takes its name from a fmall village,
near which it Hands, about 22 miles.north-weft from
Madrid ; and of which a defeription is given under
the article Escurial. Another rdyal palace, great¬
ly admired, particularly for its delicious gardens
and furprifing water-works, is Aranjuez, which is
fituated on the Tagus, about 30 miles fouth of
Madrid.
MADRIGAL, a (hort amorous poem, compofed
of a number of free and unequal verfes, neither con¬
fined to the regularity of a fonnet, nor to the point
of an epigram; but only confifting of fome tender
and delicate thought, expreffed with a beautiful, noble,
and elegant fimplicity.
Menagh derives the word from mandra, which, in
Latin and Greek, fignifies “a ftieep-fold;” imagining
it to have been originally a kind of paftoral, or fhep-
herd’s fong; whence the Italians formed their viadri-
gale, and we madrigal. Others rather choofe to de¬
rive it from the word madrugar, which, in the Spanifh
language, fignifies “ to rile in the morning the
madrigales being formerly fung early in the morning
by thofe who had a mind to ferenade their mif-
trefles.
MADURA, a province of Afia, in the peninfula
on this fide the Ganges; bounded on the eaft by
Tanjour and Marava, on the fouth-eaft by the fea,
on the weft by the Balagate mountains, which fepa-
rate it from Malabar, and on the north by Vifa-
pour and Carnate. The inhabitants, are Gentoos,
and of a thievifh difpofition. The commodities are
rice, elephants teeth, and cotton-cloth; of which laft
a great deal is made here, and very fine. Tire Dutch
have a pearl-fiftrery, which brings them in a large fum
annually.
MjEANDER, (anc. geog.), a river rifing in Phry¬
gia from a common fource with the Marfyas near Celse-
noe, according to Maximus Tyrius an eye-witnefs : re¬
markable for its windings, (Ovid) ; whence the pro¬
per name Maunder is become an appellative. It runs
from eaft to weft, till it difeharges itfelf into the JE-
gean fea, about a mile from Miletus. A narrow ri¬
ver, but very deep, (Calaber) ; running calm, and
fertilizing the country, as it pafles along, with its mud,
(Piiny).
MiECENAS (Caius Cilnius), the great friend
and counfellor of Auguftus Caefar, was himfelf a very
polite fcholar, but is chiefly memorable for having
been the patron and protedlor of men of letters. He
was defeended from a moft ancient and illuftrious ori¬
gin, even from the kings of Hetruria, as Horace often
tells us ; but his immediate forefathers were only of
the equeftrian order. He is fuppofed to have been
born at Rome, becaufe his family lived there; but in Maxcnru
what year, antiquity does not tell us. It fays as little
about his education; but we know it muft have been
of the moft liberal kind, and perfe&Iy agreeable to
the dignity and fplcndor of his birth, fince he excelled
in every thing that related to arms, politics, and let¬
ters. How Maecenas fpent his younger years is alfo
unknowm to us, any farther than by effedts; there
being no mention made of him, by any writer, before
the death of Julius Caefar, which happened in the year
of Rome 709. Then Odtavius Caefar, who was after¬
wards called Augujlus, w'ent to Rome, to take poflef-
fion of his uncle’s inheritance; and then Mascenas be¬
came firft publicly known, though he appears to have
been Auguftus’s intimate friend, and, as it fhould
feem, guardian, from his childhood. From that time
he accompanied him through all his fortunes, and was
his counfellor and advifer upon all occafions; fo that
Pedo Albinovanus juftly called him Ca/aris dextram,
“ Casfar’s right-hand.”
In A. R. 710, the year that Cicero was killed
and Ovid born, Maecenas diftinguiflied himfelf by his
courage and military fkill at the battle of Modena,
where the confuls Hirtius and Pan fa were flain in
fighting againft Antony; as he did afterwards at
Philippi. After this laft battle began the memorable
friendfhip between Maecenas and Horace. Horace, as
Suetonius relates, was a tribune in the army of Brutus
and Caflius, and, upon the defeat of thofe generals,
made a prifoner of war. Maecenas, finding him an
accomplifhed man, became immediately his friend and
protedlor; and afterwards recommended him to Au¬
guftus, who reftored to him his eftate, with no fmall
additions. In the mean time, though Maecenas be¬
haved himfelf well as a foldier in thefe and other
battles, yet his principal province was that of a mini-
fter and counfellor. He was the advifer, the manager,
the negociator, in every thing that related to civil
affairs. When the league was made at Brundufium
between Antony and Auguftus, Maecenas was fent to
adl on the part of Auguftus. This we learn from
Horace, in his journey to Brundufium:
Hoc venturus erat Macenas optimus, atque
Cocceius, mijji magnis de rebus uterque
Legatiy averfos foliti coniponere arnicas. Sat. v. 1. r.
And afterwards, when this league was near breaking,
through the fufpicions of each party, Maecenas was
fent to Antony, to ratify it anew.
In the year 717, when Auguftus and Agrippa went
to Sicily to fight Sextus Pompeius by fea, Maecenas
went with them; but foon after returned, to appeafe
fome commotions which were rifing at Rome: for
though he ufually attended Auguftus in all his mili¬
tary expeditions, yet, whenever there was any thing
to be done at Rome, either with the fenate or
people, he was always difpatcbed thither for that
purpofe.
Upon the total defeat of Antony at Aflium, Mas-
cenas returned to Rome, to take the government into
his hands, till Auguftus could fettle fome nectffary
affairs in Greece and Afia. Agrippa foon followed
Maecenas; and, when Auguftus arrived, he placed thefe
two great men and faithful adherents, the one over his
civil, the other over his military concerns. While Au¬
guftus,
M iE C [ 4364 ] MAE
Maecenas, guftus was extinguifhing the remains or the civil war
in Afia and Egypt, young Lepidus, the fon of the
triumvir, was forming a fcheme to airaflinate him at
his return to Rome. This confpiracy was difcovered
at once, by the extraordinary vigilance of Maecenas;
who, as Velleius Paterculus fays, “ obferving the ralh
“ councils of the headftrong youth with the fame
“ tranquillity and calmnefs as if nothing at all had
“ been doing, inftantly put him to death, without
“ the lead noife and tumult ; and by that means
“ extinguilhed another civil war in its very begin-
“ ning.”
The civil w'ars being now at an end, Auguftus
returned to Rome ; and from this time Maecenas in¬
dulged himfelf, at vacant hours, in literary amufe-
ments, and the converfation of men of letters. In
the year 734 Virgil died, and left Auguftus and Mae¬
cenas heirs to wdiat he had. Maecenas was exceffively
fond of this poet, who, of all the wits of the Au-
gullan age, ftood higheft in his efteem; and, if the
Georgies and the iEneid be owing to the good talle
and encouragement of this patron, as there is fome
reafon to think, pofterity cannot commemorate him
with too much gratitude. Horace may be ranked
next to Virgil in Maecenas’s good graces: w-e have
already mentioned, how and at what time their
friendfhip commenced. Propertius alfo acknow¬
ledges Maecenas for his favourer and proteftor, lib. ii.
cleg. 7. Nor muft Varius be forgot, though we have
nothing of his remaining ; fince we find him highly
praifed by both Virgil and Horace. He was a writer
of tragedies; and Quintilian thinks he may be com¬
pared with any of the ancients. In a word, Maece¬
nas's houfe was a place of refuge and welcome t£ all
the learned of his time; not only to Virgil, Horace,
Propertius, and Varius, but to Fundarius, whom Ho¬
race extols as an admirable writer of comedies ; to
Fufcus Ariftius, a noble grammarian, and Horace’s
intimate friend; to Plotius Tucea, who aflifted Varius
in corredling the iEneid after the death of Virgil ; to
Valgius, a poet and very learned man, who, as Pliny
tells us, dedicated a book to Auguftus De ufu her-
barurn; to Afinius Pollio, an excellent tragic writer;
and to feveral others, whom it would be tedious to
mention. All thefe dedicated their works, or fome
part of them at lead, to Maecenas, and celebrated his
praifes in them over and over; and we may obferve
farther, what Plutarch tells us, that even Auguftus
himfelf inferibed his Commentaries to him and to
Agrippa.
Maecenas continued in Auguftus’s favour to the
end of his life, but not uninterruptedly. Augnftus
had an intrigue with Maecenas’s wife; and, though
the minifler bore this liberty of his mailer’s very
patiently, yet there was a coldnefs on the part
of Auguftus, which, however, foon went off. Mae¬
cenas died in the year 745, but at what age we can¬
not pretifely determine'; though we know he muft
have been old. He muft have been older than Au¬
guftus, bccaufe he was a kind of tutor to him in his
youth: and then find him often called an old man by
Psedo Albinovanus, a cotemporary poet, whofe elegy
upon his dead patron is flill e’xtant. He made Au¬
guftus his heir; and recommended his friend Horace
to him, in thofe memorable laft words, “ Horatii
Flacci, ut mei, mentor ejlo. See.” Horace, however, Maecenas,j;
did not probably furvive him long, as there is no elegy Mae!ftroml
of his upon Maecenas extant, nor any account of one
having ever been written, which there certainly would
have been, had Horace furvived him any time. Nay,
father Sanadon, the French editor of Horace, will have |
it, that the poet died before his patron; and that thefe
laft words were found only in Maecenas’s will, which
had not been altered.
Maecenas is faid never to have enjoyed a good date
of health in any part of his life; and many iingulari-
ties are related of his bodily conflitution. Thus Pliny
tells us, that he was always in a fever; and that, for
three years before his death, he had not a moment’s
fleep. Though he was certainly an extraordinary-
man, and pofTeffcd many admirable virtues and quali¬
ties, yet it is agreed on all hands, that he was very
luxurious and effeminate. “ Maecenas (fays Velleius
“ Paterculus,) was of the equeftrian order, but fprung j
“ from a moft illuftrious origin. He was a man,
“ who, when bufinefs required, was able to undergo
“ any fatigue aud watching; who confulted properly
“ upon all occafions, and knew as well how to exe-
“ cute what he had confulted ; yet a man, who, in
“ feafons of leifure, was luxurious, foft, and effemi-
“ nate, almoft beyond a woman. He was no lefs
“ dear to Caefar than Agrippa, but diftinguifhed by
“ him with fewer honours; for he always continued
“ of the equeftrian rank, in which he was born: not
“ that he could not have been advanced upon the lead
“ intimation, but he never folicited it.”
But let moralifts and politicians determine of
Maecenas as they pleafe, the men of letters are under
high obligations to celebrate his praifes, and revere
his memory: for he countenanced, protefted, and
fupported, as far as they wanted his fupport, all the
wits and learned men of his time ; and that too, out
of a pure and difinterefted love of letters, when he
had no little views of policy to ferve by their means:
whence it is no wonder, that all the prote&ors and pa¬
trons of learning, ever fince, have ufually been called
ALnrnas’f.
MAELSTROM, a very dangerous whirlpool on
the coaft ofNorway, in the 68th degree of latitude, in
the province of Nordland, and the diftrift of Lofoden,
and near the ifland of Mofkoe, from whence it alfo
takes the name of MoJkoe-Jlrom. Its violence and
roarings exceed that of a cataradl, being heard to a
great diftance, and without any intermiftion, except a
quarter every fixth hour, that is, at the turn of high
and low water, when its impetuofity feems at a ftand,
which fliort interval is the only time the fifttermen can
venture in : but this motion foon returns, and, however
calm the fea may be, gradually increafes with fuch a
draught and vortex as abforb whatever comes within
their fphere of adtion, and keep it under water for
fome hours, when the fragments, fhivered by the
rocks, appear again. This circumftance, among o-
thers, makes ftrongly againft Kircher and others, who
imagine that there is here an abyfs penetrating the
globe, and iffuing in fome very remote parts, which
Kircher is fo particular as to afiign, for he names the
gulph of Bothnia. But after the moft exadf refearches
which the cireumftances will admit, this is but a con-
jedture without foundation ; for this and three other
vortices
MAE [ 4365 J MAE
iMaclftrom. vortices among the Ferroe iflands, but fmaller, have
fe" no other caufe, than the collifion of waves rifing and
falling, at the flux and reflux, againft a ridge of rocks
and fhelves, which confine the water fo that it precipi¬
tates it felf like a cataraft ; and thus the higher the
flood rifes, the deeper muft the fall be; and the na¬
tural refult of this is a whirlpool or vortex, the pro¬
digious fuftion whereof is fufficiently known by lefler
experiments. But what has been thus abforbed, re¬
mains no longer at the bottom than the ebb lads ; for
the fuftion then ceafes, and the flood removes all at-
tra&ion, and permits whatever had been funk to. make
its appearance again. Of thefituation of this amazing
Mofkoeftrom we have the following account from Mr
Jonas Ramus, “ The mountain of Helfeggen, in Lo-
foden, lies a league from the ifland Ver, and betwixt
tfiefe two runs that large and dreadful flream called
Mojkoejlrom, from the ifland Mofkoe, which is in the
middle of it, together with feveral circumjacent ifles,
ss Ambaaren, half a quarter of a league northward,
Iflefen, Hoeholm, Kieldholm, Suarven, and Buck-
holm. Mofkbe lies about half a quarter of a mile
fouth of the ifland of Ver, and betwixt them thefe
fmall iflands, Otterholm, Flimen, Sandfltfen, Skar-
holm. Betwixt Lofoden and Mofkoe, the depth of
the water is between 36 and 40 fathoms; but on the
other fide, towards Ver, the depth increafes fo as not
to afford a convenient paflage for a vefiel, without the
rifle of fplitting on the rocks, which happens even in
the calmeft weather : when it is flood, the dream runs
up the country betwixt Lofoden and Mofkoe, with a
boifterous rapidity; but the roar of its impetuous ebb
to the fea, is fcarce equalled by the loudeft and moft
dreadful catara&s; the noife being heard feveral leagues
off, and the vortices or pits are of fuch an extent and
depth, that if a {hip comes within its attra&ion, it is
inevitably abforbed and carried down to the bottom,
and there beat to pieces againd the rocks; and when
the water relaxes, the fragments thereof are thrown up
again. But thefe intervals of tranquillity are only at
the turn of the ebb and flood, in calm weather ; and
lad but a quarter of an hour, its violence gradually re¬
turning. When the flream is moft boifterous, and its
fury heightened by a dorm, it is dangerous to come
within a Norway mile of it; boats, fhips, and yachts
having been carried away, by not guarding againft it
before they were within its reach. It likewife happens
frequently, that whales come too near the dream, and
are overpowered by its violence ; and then it is impof-
fible to deferibe their bowlings and bellowings in their
fruitlefs druggies to difengage themfelves. A bear
once attempting to fwim from Lofoden to Mofkoe,
with a defign of preying upon the fheep at pafture in
the ifland, afforded the like fpe&acle to the people;
the dream caught him, and bore him down, whilft he
roared terribly, fo as to be heard on fhore. Large
flocks of firs and pine trees, after being abforbed by
the current, rife again, broken and torn to fuch a de¬
gree, as if bridles grew on them. This plainly fbows
the bottom to con fid of craggy rocks, among which
they are whirled to and fro. This dream is regulated
by the flux and reflux of the fea ; it being conftantly
high and low water every fix hours. In the year
*645, early in the morning of Sexagefima Sunday, it
i'aged with fuch noife and impetuofity, that on the
ifland of Mofkoe, the very ftones of the houfes fell to Msemafte-
the ground.” r‘°n
MiEMACTERION, the fourth month of the A- Mafp,;
thenian year, confiding of only 29 days, and anfwer-  —
ing to the latter part of September and the beginning
of O&ober.
MjENA, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
MiEONIA, (anc. geog.), a town of Lydia, fituate
at the foot of mount Tmolus. Mxonii, the people.
Mxonis, (Homer, Ovid), the feminine gentibtious
name: hence Maonides, the mufes, (Ovid). Mceon'tdes
denotes alfo Homer, (Ovid).
M.EOTIS palus or lacus, Mxotica Palm, cr
Maoticus Lacus, (anc. geog.), a lake of Sarmatia Eu¬
ropea, extending from the Ifthmus to the mouth of
the Tanais to theeaft, in compafs 9000 ftadia, (Stra¬
bo). Still called Palus Mxotis, reaching from Crim
Tartary to the mouth of the Don.
MtESTLIN (Michael), in Latin MseJUinus, a ce¬
lebrated aftronomer of Germany, was born in the
duchy of Wittemberg ; but fpent his youth in Italy,
where he made a fpeech in favour of Copernicus’s fy-
ftem, which brought Galilaeo over from Ariftotle and
Ptolemy, to whom he had been hitherto entirely de¬
voted. He afterwards returned to Germany, and be¬
came profeffor of mathematics at Tubingen; where,
among his other fcholars, he taught the great Kepler,
who has praifed feveral of his ingenious inventions, in
his AJiromruia Optica. Though Tycho Brahe did not
affent to Maeftlin’s opinion, yet he allowed him to be an
extraordinary perfon deeply fkilled in the fcience of
aftronomy. Masftlin publilhed many mathematical and
aftronomical works; and died in 1590.
M^ESTRICHT, an ancient, large, and ftrong
town of the Netherlands, ceded to the Dutch by the
treaty of Munfttr. The town-houfe and the other
public buildings are handfome, and the place is about
four miles in circumference, and ftrongly fortified. It
is governed jointly by the Dutch and the bidiop of
Liege; however, it has a Dutch garrifon. The in¬
habitants are noted for making excellent fire-arms, and »
fome fay that in the arfetial there are arms fufficient
for a whole army. Both Papids and Proteftants are
allowed the free exercife of their religion, and the ma-
giftrates are compofed of both. It is feated on the
river Maefe, which feparates it from Wyck, and with
which it communicates by a handfome bridge. Mas-
ftricht revolted from the Spaniards in 1570, but was
reduced in 1579. Lewis XIV. became mafter of it
in 1673 : but it was reftored to the dates by the trea¬
ty of Nimeguen in 167S. E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat.
J1- S'-
MAFFaEUS (Vegio), a Latin poet, born in
Lombardy in 1407, was greatly admired in his time.
He wrote epigrams, and a humorous fupplement to
Virgil, which he called The thirteenth look of the JE-
neid: this was as humoroufly tranflated into Englifh
a few years fmee by Mr Ellis. Maffseus wrote alfo
fome profe-works. He was chancellor of Rome to¬
wards the end of the pontificate of Martin V.; and
died in 145S.
MAFFEI (Scipio), a celebrated Italian poet, born
of an illudrious and ancient family at Verona, in 1675.
After having finifiied his ftudies, he took arms, and
diftinguifhed himfelfby his valour at the battle ofDo-
nawert J
MAG [ 4366 ] MAG
Madagoxo nawert; but he more particularly diflinguifhed himfelf
fi . by his love of learning, which made him undertake fe-
Magazme. vera] VOyagf3 Jnt0 France, England, and Germany.
He converfed with the learned in all thofe countries,
and obtained their friendfhip and efteem. He was a
member of the Academy of the Arcadia at Rome, an ho¬
norary foreign member of that of Infcriptions at Paris;
and died in 1755* He wrote many works in verfe and
profe, which are efteemed ; the moft known of which
are, 1. The tragedy of Merope, of which there are
two French tranflations in profe. 2. Ceremony, a co¬
medy. 3. A tranflation, into Italian verfe, of the firit
book of Homer’s Iliad. 4. Many other pieces of poe¬
try, in a colle&ion intitled Rhyme and .Profe, quarto.
His principal works in profe, are, 1, Verona illujira-
ta. 2. IJioria diplomatica. 3. Scienza cavallerefca;
an excellent work, in which he attacks duelling. 4. An
edition of Iheatro Italiano. 5. An edition of Caf-
fiodorus on the Epiftles, A6ts of the Apoftles, and
Apocalypfe. 6. Gallic antiquitates qtuedam file fine,
atque in plnres epiftolas dijlributx, and feveral other
works.
MAGADOXO, the capital town of a kingdom of
the fame name, in Africa, and on the coafl: of Ajan ;
feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name, de¬
fended by a citadel, and has a good harbour. The
inhabitants are Mohammedans. E. Long. 45. 15. N.
Lat. 3. o.
MAGAZINE, a place in which ftores are kept,
of arms, ammunition, provifions, &c. Every forti¬
fied town ought to be furnifhed with a large maga¬
zine, which fhould contain ftores of all kinds, fuffi-
cient to enable the garrifon and inhabitants to hold
out a long fiege ; and in which fmiths, carpenters,
wheelwrights, &c. maybe employed in making every
thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, wag¬
gons, &c.
PoW<v--Magazine, is that place where the powder
is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ great¬
ly both with regard to the fituation and conftruftion ;
* but all agree, that they ought to be arched and bomb¬
proof. In fortifications, they are frequently placed in
the rampart ; but of late they have been built in diffe¬
rent parts of the town. The firft powder- magazines
were made with Gothic arches : but M. Vauban find¬
ing them too weak, conftrudled them in a femicircu-
lar form ; whofe dimenfions are 60 feet long within,
25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick,
and eight feet high from the foundation to the fpring
of the arch; the floor is two feet from the ground,
which keeps it from dampnefs.
One of our engineers of great experience fome time
fince had obferved, that after the centres of femicircu-
lar arches are ftruck, they fettle at the crown and rife
up at the hances, even with a ftraight horizontal ex-
trados, and ftill much more fo in powder-magazines,
whofe out fide at top is formed like the roof of a houfe,
by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top
of the arch, to give a proper defeent to the rain ; which
effefts are exaftly what might be expedted agreeable
to the true theory of arches. Now, as this (hrinking
of the arches muft be attended with very ill confequen-
ces, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has
been in fome degree dried, and alfo by opening the
joints of the vouffoirs at one end, fo a remedy is pro¬
vided for this inconvenience with regard to bridges, by Magazine!
the arch of equilibration in Mr Hutton’s book on '
bridges ; but as the ill effed is much greater in pow- Magdcbur3
der-magazines, the fame ingenious gentleman propo-
fed to find an arch of equilibration for them alfo, and
to conftrud it when the fpan is 20 feet, the pitch or
height 10, (which are the fame dimenfions as the fc-
micircle), the inclined exterior walls at top forming
an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their an¬
gular point above the top of the arch equal to feven
feet. This very curious queftion was anfvveredin 1775,
by the reverend Mr Wildbore, to be found in Mr Hut¬
ton’s Mifcellanea Mathematica.
y^r/rV/err-Magazine. In a fiege, the magazine is
made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, to¬
wards the parallels, and at lead three feet underground,
to hold the power, loaded Ihells, port fires, &c. Its
fides and roof muft be well fecured with boards to pre¬
vent the earth from falling in : a door is made to it,
and a double trench or paffage is funk from the ma¬
gazine to the battery, one to go in and the other to
come out at, to prevent confufion. Sometimes tra-
verfes are made in the paffages to prevent ricochet fhot
from plunging into them.
Magazine, on fliip-board, a clofe room of ftore-
houfe, built in the fore or after part of the hold, to
contain the gun-powder ufed in battle. This apart¬
ment is ftrongly fecured againft fire, and no perfon is
allow’ed to enter it with a lamp or candle: it is there¬
fore lighted, as occafion requires, by means of the
candles or lamps in thecontiguous to it.
MAGDALEN, or o/r 5/Magdalen, an or¬
der of religious in the Romifli church, dedicated to St
Mary Magdalen, and fometimes called Magdalenettes.
Thefe confift chiefly of courtezans, who, quitting their
profeffion, devote the reft of their lives to repentance
and mortification.
MAGDALENA, one of the Marquefas iflands,
about five leagues in circuit, and fuppofed to be in
S. Lat. 10. 25. W. Long. 138. 50. It was on¬
ly feen at nine leagues diftance by thofe who difeo-
vered it.
MAGDALENE’s Cave, a cave of Germany, and
in Carinthia, 10 miles eaft of Gortz. It appears like
a chafm in a rock, and at the entrance torches are
lighted to conduit travellers. It is divided into feve¬
ral apartments, or halls, with a vaft number of pil¬
lars formed by nature, which give it a beautiful ap¬
pearance, they being as white as fnow, and almoft
tranfparent. The bottom is of the fame fubftance, in-
fomuch that a perfon may fancy himfelf to be walking
among the ruins of an enchanted .caftle, furrounded
with magnificent pillars, fome entire and others bro¬
ken.
MAGDEBURG, a duchy of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony ; bounded on the north by
the duchy of Mecklenburg, on the fouth and fouth-
weft by the principality of Anhalt and Halberftadt,
on the eaft by Upper Saxony with part of Branden¬
burg, and on the weft by the duchy of Wolfeubuftle.
The Saale circle, and that of Luxkenwalde, are fepa-
rated from the reft, and furrounded on all fides by a
part of Upper Saxony. This country is, for the moft
part, level ; but fandy, marlhy, or overgrown with
woods. There are fait fprings in it fo rich, that
they
MAG .[ 4367 ] MAG
Magdeburg they are fufficient to fupply all Germany with that
commodity. The Holz circle is the moft fruitful
part of it. In the Saale circle, where wood is fcarce,
there is pit-coal: and at Rothenhurg is a copper-mine
worked. The duchy is well watered, for the Elbe
pafl’es through it; and the Saale, Havel, Ailer, Ohre,
and Elfter, either rife in, or wafh fome part of it in
their courfe. The whole duchy, exclufive of that part
of the county of Mansfeldt which is connedled with it,
is faid to contain 29 cities, fix towns, about 430 vil¬
lages, and 330,000 inhabitants. The ftates of the
country conliit of the clergy, the nobility, and de¬
puties of the cities. Before it became fubjeft to
the ele&oral houfe of Brandenburg, frequent diets
were held in it; but at prefent no diets are held, nor
have the ftates the dire&ion of the finances as for¬
merly. Before the Reformation, it was an arch-
bifhopric, fubjeft in fpirituals to the Pope alone, and
its prelate was primate of all Germany ; but embracing
the Reformation, it chofe itfelf adminiftrators, till the
treaty of Munfter in 1648, when it was given, toge¬
ther with the bithopric of Halberftadt, to the eledtor
of Brandenburg, as an equivalent for the Hither
Pomerania, granted by that treaty to the king of
Sweden. Lutheranifm is the predominant religion
here; but Calvinifts, Jews, and Roman-catholics are
-tolerated. Of the laft there are five convents, who
never embraced the Reformation. All the Lutheran
parilhes, amounting to 314, are fubjedl to 16 infpec-
tors, under one general fuperintendant; only the
clergy of the old town of Magdeburg are under the
diredlion of their fenior. The Jews have a fynagogue
at Halle. The manufadtures of the duchy are cloth,
fluffs, ftockings, linen, oil-lkins, leather, and parch¬
ment; of which, and grain of all forts, large quanti¬
ties are exported. The arms of it are, Party per pale,
ruby, and pearl. The king of Prufiia, as duke of
Magdeburg, fits and votes between the eledlor of
Bavaria, as duke of Bavaria, and the eledlor palatine,
as palfgrave of Lautern. Of the ftates of the circle
of Lower Saxony he is the firft. His matricular af-
feffment for the duchy is 43 horfe and 196 foot, or
1300 florins monthly; and to the chamber of Witzlar
343 florins and 40 kruitzers. For the civil govern¬
ment of the duchy there is a council of regency, with
a war and demefne chamber; and for the ecclefiaftical,
a confiftory, and general fuperintendant. The reve¬
nues of the duchy, arifing from the falt-works, de-
mefnes, and taxes, forae of which are very heavy and
oppreflive, are faid to amount to 800,000 rixdollars
annually. With refpedl to fait, every houfe-keeper in
the Pruffian dominions is obliged to buy a certain
-quantity for himfelfand wife; and alfo for every child
and fervant, horfe, cow, calf, and fheep, that he pof-
feffes. The principal places are Magdeburg, Halle,
and Glauche.
Magdeburg, a city of Germany, in a duchy of
the fame name, of which it is not only the capital,
but that of all Lower Saxony, and formerly even
of all Germany. It Hands on the Elbe, in E. Long.
12. 9. N. Lat. 52. 16. It is a city of great trade,
ftrongly fortified, and very ancient. Its name figni-
fies the maiden city; which, fome imagine, took its
rife from the temple of Venus, which is faid to have
flood here anciently, and to have been deftroyed by
Vol. VI. 2
Charlemagne. The founder of the city is fuppofed Masrk*’’
to have been Otho I. or his emprefs Editha, daughter
to Edmund the Saxon king of England. The fame
emperor founded a Benedictine convent here, which
he afterwards converted into an archbifhopric, of
which the archbifhop was a count-palatine, and had
very great privileges, particularly that of wearing the
archiepifcopal pallium, and having the crofs borne
before him, befides many others. The firft tourna¬
ment in Germany is faid to have been appointed near
this city, by the emperor Henry the Fowler ; but
thefe paftimes were afterwards abolifhed, becaufe they
occafioned fnch envy and animofity among the nobi¬
lity, that feveral of them killed one another upon the
fpot. The fituation of the city is very convenient and
pleafant, upon the banks of the Elbe, amidft fpacious
fruitful plains, and on the road betwixt High and
Low Germany. It has been a great fufferer by fires
and fieges ; but by none fo much as that in 1631,
when the emperor’s general, count Tilly, took it by
ftorm, plundered and fet it on fire, by which it was
entirely reduced to allies, except the cathedral, the
convent of our Lady, and a few cottages belonging
to fiftiermen ; of 40,000 burghers not above 400
efcaping. The foldiers fpared neither age nor fex;
but ripped up women with child, murdered fucking
infants in fight of their parents, and ravilhed young
women in the ftreets ; to prevent which violation,
many of them flung themfelves into the Elbe, and
others into the fire. The city is now populous, large,
and well built, particularly the broad ilreet and ca-
thedral-fquare. The principal buildings are the king’s
palace, the governor’s houfe, the armoury, guild-hall,
and cathedral. The laft is a fuperb ftru&ure in the
antique tafte, dedicated to St Maurice, which has a
fine organ, the mailer-pipe of which is fo big, that a
man can fcarce clafp it with both arms ; it alfo con¬
tains the tombs of the emperor Otho, and the emprefs
Editha; a fine marble ftatue of St Maurice, a por¬
phyry font, an altar in the choir of one ftone of di¬
vers colours, curioully wrought, and many other cu-
riofities. They (hew here a bedftead and table which
belonged to Martin Luther, when he was an Augu-
ftine friar in a cloifter of this city before the Refor¬
mation. Among the reliques, they pretend to have
the bafon in which Pilate walked his hands after his
condemnation of. our Saviour ; the lantern which
Judas made ufe of when he apprehended him ; and
the ladder on which the cock crowed after St Peter
denied him. The chapter confifts of a provoft, 16
major, and feven minor canons; befides which, there
are four other Lutheran collegiate foundations, and a
Lutheran convent dedicated to our Lady, in which is
a fchool or feminary. Here is alfo a gymnafium,
with an academy, in which young gentlemen are in-
ftrudled in the art of war. The canons of the chap¬
ter, which, except the change of religion, is upon the
fame footing as before the Reformation, muft make
proof of their nobility. The prebends and dignities
are all in the gift of the eledlor; and the revenue of
the provoft is computed at 12,000 crowns a-year.
Here is a great trade, and a variety of manufadlures.
The chief are thofe of woollen cloths and fluffs, filks,
cottons, linen, ftockings, hats, gloves, tobacco and
fnuff. The city was formerly one of the Hanfe and
24 T imperial
MAG [ 4368 ] MAG
Magellan, imperial towns. Editfia, confort to Otho I. on whom
it was conferred as a dowry, among many other pri¬
vileges and advantages, procured it the grant of a
yearly fair. The bargravate of this city was an¬
ciently an office of great power; having the civil and
criminal jurifdi&ion, the office of hereditary cup-bearer
being annexed to it; and was long held as a fief of the
archbilhopric, but afterwards became an imperial fief,
which was again conferred on the archbifhopric by the
cledfor of Saxony, upon certain conditions.
MAGELLAN (Ferdinand), a celebrated Portu-
guefe mariner in the 16th century. He being diffa-
tisfied with the king of Portugal, went into the fervice
of the emperor Charles V. and failed from Seville with
five veffels in 1519, when he difeovered and paffed the
ftrait to which he gave his own name, and failed
through the South Sea to the Ladrone Iflands, when,
according to feme authors, he was poifoned in 1520;
though others fay that he was killed in a mutiny of
his people, in the ifland of Mutan, on account of his
feverity. His voyage round the world was written
by one on board, and has been frequently printed in
Englifh. His fuddenly converting to the Chrillian
religion people whofe language was unknown to him,
as his was to them, is an abfurdity that diferedits this
work.
Straits of Magellan, a narrow paffage between
the ifland of Terra del Fuego, and the fouthern ex¬
tremity of the continent of America. This paiTage
was firft difeovered by Ferdinand Magellan, who failed
through it into the South Sea, and from thence to
the Eaft-Indies. Other navigators have pafled the
fame way; but as thefe ftraits are exceedingly diffi¬
cult, and fubjeft to ftorms, it has been common to
fail by Cape Horn, rather than through the Straits
of Magellan. See Straits Le Maire, and Terra
del Fuego.
MAGGI (Jerome), in Latin Magius, one of the
moft learned men of the 16th century, was born at
Anghiari in Tufcany. He applied himfelf to all the
fciences, and even to the art of war; and diftinguifhed
himfelf fo much in this laft ftudy, that the Venetians
fent him into the ifland of Cyprus in quality of judge
of the admiralty. When the Turks befieged Fama-
gufta, he performed all the fervices that could be ex-
pedted from the moft excellent engineer: he invented
mines and machines for throwing fire, by means of
which he deftroyed all the works of the befiegers, and
in an inftant overthrew what had coft the Turks infi¬
nite labour. But they had their revenge; for, taking
the city in 1571, they plundered his library, carried
him loaded with chains to Conftantinople, and treated
him in the moft inhuman and barbarous manner. He
neverthelefs comforted himfclf from the example of
iEfop, Menippus, Epi&etus, and other learned men;
and, after *paffing the whole day in the meaneft
drudgery, he fpent the night in writing. He com-
pofed, by the help of his memory alone, treatifes filled
with quotations, which he dedicated to the Imperial
and French ambafiadors. Thefe minifters, moved by
companion for this learned man, refolved to purchafe
him: but while they were treating for his ranfom,
-Maggi found means to make his efcape, and to get to
the Imperial ambafi'ador’s houfe; when the Grand
Vbiir being enraged at his flight, and remembering
the great mifehief he had done the Turks during the Maggot.
fiege of Famagufta, fent to have him feized, and 
caufed him to be ftrangled in prifon in 1572. His
principal works are, 1. A treatife on the bells of the
ancients. 2. On the deftru&ion of the world by fire.
3. Commentaries on ^Emilius Probus’s lives of illu-
ftrions men. 4. Commentaries on the inftitutes.
Thefe works are written in elegant Latin. He alfo
wrote a treatife on fortification in Italian; and a book
on the fituation of ancient Tufcany.
He ought not to be confounded with his brother
Bartholomew Maggi, a phyfician at Bologna, who
wrote a treatife of gun-fhot wounds; nor with Vincent
Maggi, a native of Brefle, and a celebrated profeflbr
of humanity at Ferrara in Padua, who was the au¬
thor of feveral works.
MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm
bred in flelh, from the egg of the great blue flefh-fly.
Notwithftanding the diftalle for this animal, its figure
and ftrudlure of parts are greatly worth attending to;
and may ferve as a general hiftory of the clafs of
worms produced from the eggs of flies.
This animal is white and flefliy: its body is com-
pofed of a number of rings, like the bodies of cater¬
pillars and other fimilar infedts; and is capable, at the
pleafure of the animal, of afluming different figures;
being at times more or lefs extended in length, and
confequently more or lefs thick.
Notwithftanding that this animal has no legs, it is
able to move itfelf very fwiftly; and in its firft attempt
to move its body, is extended to its greateft length,
and affumes fomething of the figure of a pointed cone.
The pointed part of this cone is the head of the ani¬
mal, and is not feparated from the next ring by any
deeper furrow than the reft of the rings are from one
another. In fome ftates of the animal, one may fee
two ftiort horns thruft out from the head ; but more
generally two fcaly hooks are obferyable: thefe are,
however, fometimes hid, and have each of them a cafe
or flieath, into which the animal can retraft them at
pleafure. Thefe hooks are bent into an arch, the con¬
cavity of which is towards the plane on which the crea¬
ture is placed ; and they are the thickeft at their in-
fertion in the head, and thence diminifti gradually, till
they terminate in a fine (harp point.
Thefe two hooks are placed in a parallel dire&ion,
and can never come together, and therefore cannot
ferve in the place of teeth for grinding the food; but
merely to pull and fever it in pieces, that it may be of
a proper fize for the mouth of the creature. Befides
thefe hooks the maggot has a kind of dart, which is
about a third part of their length, and is placed at an
equal diftance between them. This alfo is brown and
fcaly like them; it is quite ftraight, and terminates in
a fine point. The hooks have as it were two fcaly
thorns at their points; and this dart feems intended,
by reiterated ftrokes, to divide and break the pieces
of flefh thefe have feparated from the reft into fmaller
parts. Immediately below the apertures for the egrefs
of the hooks, is placed the mouth of the animal; the
creature does not (hew this little opening unlefs pref-
fed: but if the preffure is properly managed, it will
fufficiently open it, and there may be difeovered with¬
in it a frnall protuberance, which may very naturally
be fuppofed either the tongue or the fucker of the ani •
■MAG [ 4369 ] MAG
Maggot, tnal. The hooks in thefe creatures no-t only fuppTy
1 the-place of teeth, but alfo of legs; fince it is by fa-
itenmg thefe hooks into the fnbftaoce it is placed on,
and then drawing up its body to it, that it pulls kielf
along,
The back of this creature lowers itfelf by degrees as
it approaches the extremity of the belly; and near the
place, where the back begins to lower itfelf, are placed
the creature’s two principal organs of refpiration. One
may perceive there two fmall roundifh brown fpots :
they are very eallly diftmguiihable by the naked eye,
becaufe the relt of the body of the creature is white;
but if we take in the afliftance of glaffes, each of thefe
fpots appears to be a brown circular eminence raifed
a little above the reft of the body. On each of thefe
fpots one may alfo difcover three oblong oval cavities,
fomething of the ftiape of button-holes ; thefe are fi-
tuated in a parallel dire&ion to one another, and their
length nearly in a perpendicular dire&ion to that of
the body of the animal. Thefe apertures are fb many
ftigmata or air-holes ; openings deftined to admit the
air neceffary to the life of the animal. It has fix of
thefe ftigmata, three in each fide of its body.
The great tranfparency of the body of this animal
gives us an opportunity alfo to diftinguifh that it has
on each fide a large white veffel running the whole
length of the body. It is eafy to follow the courfe of
thefe veflels through their whole length, but they are
moft diftinft of all towards its hinder part; and they
are always feen to terminate each in the brown- fpot
abovementioned: this leaves us no room to doubt that
they are the two principal tracheae.
The ramifications of the two great tracheae are very
beautifully feen in this creature; efpecially on its belly:
and it is remarkable, that no veflel analogous to the
great artery in the caterpillar clafs can be difeover-
ed in thefe; though, if there were any fuch, their great
tranfparence muft needs make them very eafily diftiu-
guiihable ; nor could its dilatations and contradtions,
if fo confiderable as in that clafs of animals, be lefs fo.
See Eruca.
Malpighi imagined that this artery in the caterpil¬
lar clafs was a feries of hearts; in its place, however,
there may be feen in thefe animals a true heart. It is
eafy to obferve in thefe creatures, about the fourth
ring of their body, a fraall flethy part, which has al¬
ternate contraftions and dilatations ; and is not only
difcoverable in the body by means of its tranfparence,
but on making a proper fedtion of them in the fecond,
third, and fourth, will be thrown out of the body of
the creature, and continue its beats for fome time af¬
terwards.
MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious fed! in
Perfia, and other Eaftern countries, who maintained
that there were two principles, one the caufe of all
good, the other the caufe of all evil: and, abominating
thd adoration of images, they worlhippcd God only by
fire; which they looked upon as the brighteft and moft
glorious fymbol of Oromafdes, or the good God ; as
darknefs is the trueft fymbol of Arimanius, or the evil
god. This religion was reformed by Zoroafter, who
maintained that there was one fupreme independent
Being; and under him two principles or angels, one
the angel of goodnefs and light, and the other of evil
and darknefs: that there is a perpetual ftruggle be¬
tween them, which (hall laft to the end of the world ; Magic,
that then the angel of darknefs and his difciples fliall^ ““
go into a world of their own, where they fliall be pu*
niftred in everlafting darknefs ; and the angel of light
and his difciples (hall alfo go into a world of their own,
where they (hall be rewarded in everlafting light.
The priefts of the magi were the moft (kiiful ma¬
thematicians and philofophers of the ages in which
they lived, infomuch that a learned man and a tr.agian
became equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowledge as fupernatural; and hence thofe who prac-
tifed wicked and mifehievous arts, taking upon them-
felves the name of magians, drew on it that ill fignifi-
cation which the word magician now bears among us.
This fc6l (till fubfifts in Perfia under the denomina¬
tion of gaurs, where they watch the facred fire with
the greateft care, and never fuffer it to be extinguifli-
ed.
MAGIC, Magia, mafeia, ;n its ancient fenfe, the
fcicnce, or difeipline and dodlrine of the magi, or wife-
inen of Perfia. See Magi.
The origin of magic and the magi is aferibed to
Zoroafter: Salmafius derives the very name from Zo¬
roafter, who, he fays, was furnamed Mog, whence
Magus. Others, inftead of making him the author o-f
the Perfian philofophy, make him only the reftorer
and improver thereof; alleging, that many of the Per¬
fian rites in ufe among the magi, were borrowed from
the Zabii among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many
things with the magi of the Perfians; whence fome
make the name magus common both to the Chaldeans
and Perfians. Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroafter
inftituted magi among the Chaldeans, in imitation
whereof the Perfians had theirs too.
Magic, in a more modern fenfe, is a fcience which
teaches to perform wonderful and furprifing effe&s.
The word magic originally carried with it a very
innocent, nay laudable, meaning; being ufed purely
to fignify the ftudy of wifdom, and the more fublime
parts of knowledge: but in regard the ancient magi
engaged themfelves in aftrology, divination, forcery,
&c. the term magic in time became odious, and was
only ufed to fignify an unlawful and diabolical kind of
fcience, depending on the affiftance of the devil and
departed fouls.
If any wonder how fo vain and deceitful a fcience
(hould gain fo much credit and authority over mens
minds, Pliny gives the reafon of it. It is, fays he,
becauie it has poffeffed itfelf of three fciences of the
moft efteem among men ; taking from each, all that
is great and marvellous in it. Nobody doubts but it
had its firft origin in medicine ; and that it infinuated
itfelf into the minds of the people, under pretence of
affording extraordinary remedies. To thefe fine pro-
mifes it added every thing in religion that is pompous
and fplendid, and that appears calculated to blind and
captivate mankind. Laftly, it mingled judiciary aftro¬
logy with the reft; perfuading people, curious of fu¬
turity, that it faw every thing to come in the heavens.
Agrippa divides magic into three kinds; natural, ce-
leitial, and ceremonial or fuperftitious.
Natural Magic is no more than the application of
natural attive caufts to paffive fubjefts ; by means
whereof many furprifing, but yet natural, tffeefs are
produced.
Baptifta
24 T 2
MAG [ 4370 ] MAG
Baptifta Porta has a treatife of natural magic, or
of fecrets for performing very extraordinary things by
natural caufes. The natural magic of the Chaldeans
was nothing but the knowledge of the powers of
fimples and minerals. The magic which they called
theurgia, confided wholly in the knowledge of the ce¬
remonies to be obferved in the wordiip of gods, in or¬
der to be acceptable. By virtue of thefe ceremonies
they believed they could converfe with fpiritual beings,
and cure difeafes.
Celeflial borders nearly on judiciary adro-
logy: it attributes to fpirits a kind of rule or domi¬
nion over the planets, and to planets a dominion over
men; and on thofe principles builds a ridiculous kind
of fydem. See Astrology.
Snperjiiticus or Goetic Magic, confids in the invo¬
cation of devils. Its effecls are ufually evil and wick¬
ed, though very drange and feemingly furpaffing the
powers of nature; fuppofed to be produced by virtue
of fome compaft, either tacit or exprefs, with evil fpi¬
rits: but the truth is, thefe have not all the power that
is ufually imagined, nor do they produce thofe effefts
ordinarily afcribed to them.
Naude has publilhed an apology for all the great
men fufpefted of magic.—Agrippa fays, that the
words uied by thofe in compadt with the devil^ to in¬
voke him, and to fucceed in what they undertake, are
Dies, rates, jefquet, benedoefet, douvima, enitemaus.
There are an hundred other fuperditious formulas of
words compofed at pleafure, or gathered from feveral
different languages, or patched from the Hebrew, or
formed in imitation of it.
The mod ignorant and barbarous people have been
mod generally fufpedled of magic. Among ourfelves,
the mod miferably ignorant perfons have been accufed
of it. Among foreigners, the Laplanders and Ice¬
landers have been fuppofed mod converfant of all
others in it. Thefe people themfelves place an abfolute
confidence in the effedls of certain idle words and ac¬
tions; and the red of the world is deceived in the fame
manner. The famous magical drum of the Lapland¬
ers is dill in condant ufe in that nation; and Scheffer,
in his hidory of Lapland, has given an account of its
dru&ure.
This indrument is made of beech, pine, or fir, fplit
in the middle, and hallowed on the flat fide where the
drum is to be made. The hollow is of an oval figure;
and is covered with a fkin clean dreffed, and painted
with figures of various kinds, fuch as dars, funs and
moons, animals and plants, and even countries, lakes
and rivers; and of latter days, fince the preaching of
Chriflianity among them, the a&s and fufferings of
our Saviour and his apodles are often added among
the red. All thefe figures are feparated by lines into
three regions or cinders.
There is, befides thefe parts of the drum, an index
and a hammer. The index is a bundle of brafs or iron
rings, the bigged of which has a hole in its middle,
and the fmalier ones are hung to it. The hammer or
drumdick is made of the horn of a rein-deer; and with
this they beat the drum fo as to make thefe rings
move, they being laid on the top for that purpofe. In
the motion of thefe rings about the pictures figured
on the drum, they fancy to themfelves fome prediction
in regard to the things they inquire about.
What they principally inquire into by this inflru-
ment, are three things. 1. What facrifices will prove"
mod acceptable to their gods. 2. What fuccefs they
fhall have in their feveral occupations, as hunting, fifn-
ing, curing of difeafes, and the like; and, 3. What is
doing in places remote from them. On thefe feveral
occaiions they ufe feveral peculiar ceremonies, and
place themfelves in various odd podures as they beat
the drum ; which influences the rings to the one or
the other fide, and to come nearer to the one or the
other fet of figures. And when they have done this, they
have a method of calculating a difcovery, which they
keep as a great fecret, but which feems merely the bu-
finefs of the imagination in the diviner or magician.
Square, a fquare figure formed of a feries
of numbers in arithmetical proportion, fo difpofed in
parallel and equal ranks, as that the fums of each row,
taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diago¬
nally, are equal.
The feveral numbers which compofe any fquare num¬
ber, (for inrtance, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to-25 inclnfive,
which compofe the fquare number 25), being difpofed
after each other in a fquare figure of 25 cells, each in
its cell: if then you change the order of thefe num¬
bers, and difpofe them in the cells, in fuch manner, as
that the five numbers which fill an horizontal rank of
cells, being added together, fhall make the fame fum
with the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whe¬
ther horizontal or vertical; and even the fame number
with the five in each of the two diagonal ranks ; this
difpofition of numbers is called a magic-fquarc, in op-
polition to the former difpofition, which is called a »«-
lural fquare.
Natural Square. Magic-Square.
One would imagine that magic fquares had that
name given them in regard this property of all their
ranks, which, taken any way, make always the fame
fum, appeared.extremely furprifing, efpecially in cer¬
tain ignorant ages, when mathematics paffed for ma¬
gic. But there is a great deal of reafon to fufpeft,
that thefe fquares merited their name ftill further by
the fuperflitious operations they were employed in, as
the conftru&ion of talifmans, &c. For according to
the childifh philofophy of thofe days, which attributed
virtues to numbers, what virtues might not be expec¬
ted from numbers fo wonderful ?
However, what was at firft the vain praAice of ma¬
kers of talifmans and conjurors, has fince become the
fubje& of a ferious refearch among mathematicians :
not that they imagine it will lead them to any thing
of folid ufe or advantage ; magic fquares favour too
much of their original, to be of much ufe: but only
as it is a kind of play, where the difficulty makes the
merit j and as it may chance to produce fome new views
MAG [ 4371 ] MAG
Magician, of numbers which mathematicians will not lofe the oc-
cafion of.
Magic Lantern. See Dioptrics, art. ix. p.2478.
MAGICIAN, one who praftifes magic, or hath the
the power of doing wonderful feats by the agency of
fpirits.
Among the Eaftern nations it feems to have been
formerly common for the princes to have magicians
about their court to confer with upon extraordinary
occafions. And concerning thefe there hath been much
deputation: fome fuppoling that their power was only
feigned, and that they were no other than impoftors
who impofed on the credulity of their fovereigns; while
others have thought that they really had fome un¬
known connexion or correfpondence with evil fpirits,
and could by their means accompli/h what otherwife
would have been impoffible for men. The greateft dif¬
ficulty is with regard to the magicians of Egypt, by
St Paul called Jannes and Jambres, who oppofcd
Mofes and Aaron. From the account given of them
in Scripture, it would feem that they had the art ei¬
ther of performing or counterfeiting certain miracu¬
lous a&ions, while others, feemingly as eafy, they could
neither perform nor counterfeit.
WHi [bop Pa- A very learned author tells us, that the original of
H trick on thefe magicians feems to have been this, That as God
^■Exod. admitted the holy patriarchs to a familiar intercourfe
with him, fo the devil kept men in obedience to him
by pretending to difcover fecret things to them: and
when God was pleafed to work miracles to confirm
the truth, the devil directed the latter how to invoke
him for the performance of ftrange things, which con¬
firmed them in their error.
With regard to the enchantments which they are
faid to make ufe of, if the Hebrew word came from
labat, a “ flame,” (Gen. iii. 24.), it (hews that they
dazzled mens eyes, and impofed upon them by falfe
appearances. But it may be derived ixomlaat, “ hid¬
den, or fecret;” and fo intimate to us, that they ufed
fecret whiff ers or murmurs, as enchanters did who were
familiar with demons; and thus it is explained in Ge-
mara fanhedrim.
| Sbuckford's A *ate 'earnec^ and ingenious writer has obliged the
I conned. public with feveral very curious remarks upon this
Uol. II. fubjedf, of the Egyptian magicians fucceeding in fe-
j book ix. veral of their attempts to work miracles. He is not
P-4u. 0f the opinion that thefe wonders could poffibly be
done by any or all the powefs of nature; nor does he
agree with fome authors, who imagine there was not
any real tranfmutation, but that they played their
parts as jugglers, pretending to do what they did not,
or that fome demons affiited them to deceive the fight
of the beholders. For with regard to their impoling
upon Pharaoh by artifice and pretence, this mud ine¬
vitably have given Mofes and Aaron an opportunity
of detefting their impoiture. And as to their being
able to exhibit the appearances of ferpents, frogs, and
blood, when no fuch things were really in being, ei¬
ther by themfelves or by the affiltance of demons; this
fuppofes them to have performed wonders, of which
we can give as little account as of a miracle. But the
queftion will recur, If they had no myftical arts to per¬
form thefe things, how came they to fucceed in the
attempts which they made in oppofition to Mofes? To
this our author replies, 1. That we have no reafon to
think that the king knew that the works which he em- Magiflery
ployed them to perform wTere within the reach of their II
art; but rather, on the contrary, he ordered them to
try to perform them, that he might know whether art — -I—
could effeft them or not, or whether they were true
miracles. 2. That it does not appear from the ma¬
gicians here trying the experiments, and fucceeding in
them, that they thought at firft their arts would be ef-
fedfual: but, they would try all experiments in order
to judge further of the matter ; and, upon their at¬
tempting, God was pleafed in fome cafes to give an
unexpefted fuccefs to their endeavours, in order to ferve
his purpofes by it. For, 3. Their fuccefs was cer¬
tainly unexpected, as evidently appears by their not
being able to follow Mofes in all his miracles. When
they attempted to produce the lice, they could not do
it. It is here evident the magicians did not know the
extent of their powers, if they can be conceived to have
had any: for they attempted to equal Mofes in all his
performances ; but upon trial they found they could
do fome, whereas iu others, though not a whit more
difficult, they could not obtain any fuccefs at all. Had
they had any eflfeftual rules of art or fcience to work
by, they would at firll, without trial, have known what
to attempt, and what not; but, in truth, they had no
arts to perform any thing of this fort. In fome in-
ftances, God was pleafed to give a fuccefs, which they
little expe&ed, to their endeavours, and which they
were fo far from refting fatisfied with, that they took
the firft opportunity which was given them, when their
attempts failed, to acknowledge that Mdfes was cer¬
tainly affifted by the divine power.
MAGISTERY, in chemiftry, a name given to al-
moft all precipitates. Thus, magijicry and precipitate
are fynonimons; but lately, chemilts have ufed chiefly
the term precipitate, and applied that of magiflery to
fome particular precipitates only, which are ufed in
medicine and in the arts. Such are, the magifteries of
bifmuth, coal, crabs-eyes, fulphur, &c.
Magistery of Bifmuth. See Chemistry, n°209.
MAGISTRATE, any public officer, to whom
thei executive power of the law is committed either
wholly or in part.
MAGLIABECHI (Antony), a perfon of great
learning, and remarkable for an amazing memory, waa
born at Florence in 1633. His father died when he
was only feven years old. His mother had him taught
grammar and drawing, and then put him apprentice
to one of the beft goldfmiths in Florence. When he
was about 16 years old, his paffion for learning began
to (hew itfelf; and he laid out all his money in buy¬
ing books. Becoming acquainted with Michael Er-
mini, librarian to the cardinal de Medicis, he foon per-
fefted himfelf by his affiftance in the Latin tongue,
and in a little time became matter of the Hebrew,
His name fbon became famous among the learned. A
prodigious memory was his diftinguiftiing talent; and
he retained not only the fenfe of what he had read,,
but frequently all the words, and the very manner of
fpelling. It is faid that a gentleman, to make trial
of the force of his memory, lent him a manufcript he
was going to print. Some time after it was returned,
the gentleman, coming to him with a melancholy coun¬
tenance, pretended it was loft, and requefted Maglia-
bechi to recollect what he remembered of it; upon:
which.
MAG [ 4372 1 MAG
Magna, which he wrote the whole, without miffing a word.
 He generally tout himfelf up the whole day, and open¬
ed his doors in the evening to the men of letters who
came to converfe with him. His attention was fo ab-
forbed by his itudies, that he often forgot the mod ur¬
gent wants of nature. Cofmo III. grand duke of Flo¬
rence, made him his librarian ; but he dill continued
negligent in his drefs, and limple in his manners. An
old cloak ferved him for a morning-gown in the day,
and for bed-clothes at night. The duke, however,
provided for him a commodious apartment in his palace,
which he was with difficulty perfuaded to take pof-
feffion of; but which he quitted four months after,
and returned to his houfe. He was remarkable for his
extraordinary modefty, his fincerity, and his benefi¬
cence, which his friends often experienced in their
wants. He was a patron of men of learning; and had
the higheft pleafure in affifting them with his advice
and information, and in furnifhing them with books
^ and manufcripts. He had the utmoft averfion at any
thing that looked like conftraint; and therefore the
grand duke always difpenfed with his perfonal atten¬
dance, and fent him his orders in writing. Though he
lived a moft fedentary life, he reached the 8xft year of
his age; and died in the midft of the public applaufe,
after enjoying, during the latter part of his life, fuch
affluence as few have ever procured by their learning.
By his will, he left a very fine library to the public,
wit,h a fund for its fupport.
MAGNA assisa eligitnda, is a writ anciently di¬
rected to the fheriff for fummoning four lawful knights
before the juftices of affize, in order to choofe 12
knights of the neighbourhood, Sec. to pafs upon the
great affize between fuch a perfon plaintiff and fuch a
one defendant.
Magna Charta, the great charter of the liber¬
ties of Britain, and the bafis of our laws and privi-
Icges.
This charter may be faid to derive its origin from
king Edward the Confeflbr, w'ho granted feveral pri¬
vileges to the church and ffate by charter : thefe liber¬
ties and privileges were alfo granted and confirmed by
king Henry I. by a celebrated great charter now loll;
but which was confirmed or re-ena&ed by king Hen¬
ry II. and king John. Henry III. the fucceffor of this
laft prince, after having caufed 12 men make inquiry
into the liberties of England in the reign of Henry I.
granted a new charter; which was the fame as thepre-
fent magna charta. This he feveral times confirmed,
and as often broke ; till, in the 37th year of his reign,he
v'ent to Weftminfier-hall, and there, in prefence of the
nobility and bifhops, who held lighted candles in their
hands, magna charta was read, the king all the time
holding his hand to his breaft, and at laft folemnly
fwearing faithfully and inviolably to obferve all the
things therein contained, &c. Then the biffiops ex-
tinguiftiing the candles, and throwing them on the
ground, they all cried out, “ Thus let him be extin-
guifhed, and ftink in hell, who violates this charter.”
It is obferved, that, notwithftanding the folemnity of
this confirmation, king Henry, the very next year,
again invaded the rights of his people, till the barons
entered into a War againft him; when, after various
fuccefs, he confirmed this charter, and the charter of
the foreft, in the jzd year of his reign.
This charter confirmed many liberties of the church, Magnefiaijr
and redreffed many grievances incident to feodal te- If
nures, ofno fmall momentat the time ; tho’ now, un-
lefs confidered attentively and with this retrofpe&,they
feem but of trifling concern. But, befides thefe feo¬
dal provifions, care was alfo taken therein to proteft
the fubjeft againft other oppreffions, then frequently
arifing from unreafonable amercements, from illegal
diftrelfes or other procefs for debts or fervices due to
the crown, and from the tyrannical abufe of the pre¬
rogative of purveyance and pre-emption. It fixed the
forfeiture of lands for felony in the fame manner as it
ftill remains ; prohibited for the future the grants of
exclufive fifheries; and the ere&ion of new bridges fo
as to opprtfs the neighbourhood. With refpedl to
private rights, it eftablilhed the teftamentary power
of the fubjedt over part of his perfonal eftate, the reft
being diftributed among his wife and children ; it laid
down the law of dower, as it hath continued ever
fince ; and prohibited the appeals of women, unlefsfor
the death of their hufbands. In matters of public po¬
lice and national concern, it enjoined an uniformity of
weights and meafures; gave new encouragements to
commerce, by the protedion of merchant-ftrangers;
and forbad the alienation of lands in mortmain. With
regard to the adminiftration of juftice : befides prohi¬
biting all denials or delays of it, it fixed the court of
common-pleas at Weftminfter, that the fuitors might
no longer be harraffed with following the king’s per¬
fon in all his progreffes ; and at the fame time brought
the trial of iffues home to the very doors of the free¬
holders, by dire&ing affifes to be taken in the proper
counties, and eftablifhing annual circuits: it alfo cor-
re&ed fome abufesthen incident to the trials by wager
of law and of battle; direded the regular award¬
ing of inquefts for life or member; prohibited the
king’s inferior minifters from holding pleas of the
crown, or trying any criminal charge, whereby many
forfeitures might otlierwife have unjuftly accrued to the
exchequer ; and regulated the time and place of hold¬
ing the inferior tribunals of juftice, the county-court,
ffieriff’s torn, and court-leet. It confirmed and efta-
bliflied the liberties of the city of London, and all
other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports of the king¬
dom. And laftly, (which alone would have merited
the title that it bears, of the great charter) it protec¬
ted every individual of the, nation in the free enjoyment
of his life, his liberty, ind his property, unlefs de¬
clared to be forfeited by the judgment of his peers or
the law of the land.
This excellent charter, fo equitable, and beneficial
to the fubje6f, is the moft ancient written law in the
kingdom. By the 25th Edward I. it is ordained, that
it (hall be taken as the common law; and by the 43d
Edward III. all ftatutes made againft it are declared
to be void.
MAGNESA, or Magnesia, (anc. geog.) a town
or a diftrift of Theffaly, at the foot of mount Pe-
lius, called by Philip, the fon of Demetrius, one of
the three keys of Greece, (Paufanias).
MAGNESIA alba, a white earth procured from
the mother-liquors of nitre, or fea-falt, by precipitation
with a fixed alkali, and afterwards walking of the fait
with water. See Chemistry, n°37.
Magnefia alba is a good abforbent; and undoubted-
MAG [ 4373 ] MAG
f IVkgnef'a- ly to be preferred to crab’s-eyes, on account of its pur- mentioned without its diftinguiihing furname, as being Magnet
“ gative quality when united with an acid, which the more confiderable than the other Magnefia, which is
other has not. It has been efteemed hurtful in bi- fcarce ever without its furname ad Sipyhm. Magueies,
lious habits where there is a difpofition in the (lornach
contrary to acidity. This, however, according to Mr
Henry, is doubtful: and where putrid bile is to be cor-
re&ed, he thinks good purpofes may be anfwered by
taking magnefia with an acid in a ftate of effervefcence;
as the fixed air, thus extricated, will correct the putri¬
dity of the contents of the inteftines, while they are at
the fame time evacuated downwards. He is alfo of
opinion, that in cutaneous difeafes it may enter the
circulation in form of a neutral fait, and, by adting
as a diaphoretic and diuretic, prove an excellent alte¬
rative.
For fome medical purpofes, magnefia is ufed in a
calcined ftate; in which cafe it is deprived of its fixed
air, and then it proves nearly as aperient as a double
quantity of magnefia in its uncalcined ftate. Mr Hen¬
ry is of opinion, that it may be ufeful in diftenfions of
the bowels arifing from flatus ; that it may befuccefs-
fully employed as a cathartic with patients labouring
under the ftone, who are ufing the lixivium fapona-
ceum ; and that, joined with warm aromatics, it may
be of fervice in correfting the great flatulency which
fo much affli&s people of a gouty difpofition. From
feveral experiments made by the fame author, it alfo
appears that magnefia has a confiderable antifeptic
power. The like virtue he aferibes to all kinds of tefta-
ceous powders : from whence he concludes, that me¬
dicines of this kind are by no means improper in fe¬
vers of a putrefeent type ; that where bile is fufpefted
to be the caufe of any putrid difeafe, thofe antifep-
tics fhould be preferibed which particularly impede its
corruption ; that, as calcined magnefia is a more pow¬
erful antifeptic than moft other abforbents, it merits a
preference to thefe ; and that where an acid cacochy-
my prevails, magnefia or other abforbents, taken im¬
mediately before or after meal-time, may, by increa-
fing the putrefactive fermentation of animal-food, be
of very great fervice. He hath alfo found, that mag¬
nefia hath a power of promoting the folution of refi-
nous gums in water ; and thus we have an elegant and
eafy method of preparing aqueous tindtifres from
thefe fubftances. Such tinCtdres, however, are calcu¬
lated only for extemporaneous prefeription, as moft;
of them depofit a fediment when they have been kept
a week or two.
Magnesia, (anc. geog.), a maritime diftrict of
Thdfaly, lying between the fouth part of the Sinus
Thermaicus and the Pagafeus to the fouth, and to the
eaft of the Pelafgiotis. Magnetes, the people. Mag-
vefius and Magneffus, the epithet, (Horace).
Magnesia ad Mteandrmn, (anc. geog.), a town of
Ionia, on the Meander, to diftinguilh it from another
Magnefia at the foot of mount Sipylus. The former
was one of the three towns given to Themiftocles by
Artaxerxes, with thefe wofds, to fu.rnijh his table
with bread. A colony from the Magnefia of Thefla-
ly, (Piiny) ; from Delphi, (Athenasus); from Lace¬
daemon, (Velleius); diftant 15 miles from Ephefus to
the eaft, (Pliny). It did not ftand immediately on
the Meander, being nearer the river Lethaeus, which
runs into the Meander, (Strabo). It is fometimes
the people.
Magnesia (anc. geog.), anciently Tan-
talis, the refidence of Tantalus, and capital of Maeo-
nia, where now (lands the lake Sale. A town of Ly¬
dia, at the foot of mount Sipylus, to the eaft of the
Hermus; adjudged free under the Romans; deftroyed
by earthquakes. (Strabo).
MAGNET, Magnes, the Loadjlone; a fort of
ferruginous ftone, in weight and colour refembling
iron ore, though fomewhat harder and more heavy ;
endued with divers extraordinary properties, attrac¬
tive, dire&ive, inclinatory, &c. See Magnetism.
The magnet is alfo called Lapis Heraclitus, from
Heraclea, a city of Magnefia, a port of the ancient
Lydia, where it is faid to have been firft found, and
from which it is ufually fuppofed to have taken its
name. Though others derive the word from a (hep-
herd named Magnts, who firft difeovered it with the
iron of his crook on mount Ida. It is alfo called la¬
pis nauticus, by reafon of its ufe in navigation; and
fiderites, from its attra&ing iron, which the Greeks
call
The magnet is ufually found in iron mines, and
fometimes in very large pieces, half magnet, half iron.
Its colour is different, according to the different coun¬
tries it is brought from. Norman obferves, that the
bed are thofe brought from China and Bengal, which
are of an irony or fanguine colour ; thofe of Arabia
are reddilh; thofe of Macedonia blackifh ; and thofe of
Hungary, Germany, England, &c. the colour of un¬
wrought iron. Neither its figure nor bulk are deter¬
mined, but it is found of all forms and fixes.
The ancients reckoned five kinds of magnets diffe¬
rent in colour and virtue : the 4Ethiopic, Magnefian,
Boeotic, Alexandrian, and Natolian. They alfo took
it to be male and female : but the chief ufe they made
of it was in medicine ; efpecially for the cure of burns,
and defluxions on the eyes.—The moderns, more hap¬
py, take it to conduft them in their voyages. See
Navigation.
The moft diftinguilhing properties of the magnet
are, That it attradls iron, and that it points to the poles-
of the world ; and in other circumftances alfo dips or
inclines to a point beneath the horizon, dire£lly under
the pole;- and that it communicates thefe properties,
by touch, to iron. On which foundation are built the
mariner’s needles, both horizontal, and inclinatory or
dipping needles.
Attrattive Power of the Magnet was known to the
ancients, and is mentioned even by Plato and Euri¬
pides, who call it \.\\e Herculean Jlone, becaufe it com¬
mands iron, which fubdues every thing elfe: but the
knowledge of its dire&ive power, whereby it difpofes
its poles along the meridian of every place, and occa-
fions needles, pieces of iron, &c. touched with it, to
point nearly north and fouth, is of a much later date ;
though the exa& time of its difeovery, and the difeo-
verer himfelf, are yet in the dark. The firft tidings we
hear of it is in 1260, when Marco Polo the Venetian
is faid by fome to have introduced the mariners com-
pafs ; tho’ not as an invention of his own, but as deri-
Magnet*
MAG [ 4374 ] MAG
ved from the Chinefe, who are faid to have had the
~ ufe of it long before ; tho’ fome imagine that the Chi¬
nefe rather borrowed it from the Europeans.
Flavio de Gioa, a Neapolitan, who lived in the 13th
century, is the perfon ufually fuppofed to have the beft
title to the difcovery : and yet Sir G. Wheeler men¬
tions, that he had feen a book of aftronomy much ol¬
der, which fuppofed the ufe of the needle ; though
not as applied to the ufes of navigation, but of aftro¬
nomy. And in Guyot de Provins, an old French
poet, who wrote about the year 1180, there is an ex-
prefs mention made of the loadftone and the compafs;
and their ufe in navigation obliquely hinted at.
The Variation of the Magnet, or its declination
from the pole, was firft difcovered by Seb. Cabot, a
Venetian, in 1500 ; and the variation of that variation,
by Mr Gellibrand, an Engliihman, about the year
1625. See Variation.
Laftly, the dip or inclination of the needle, when
at liberty to play vertically, to a point beneath the ho¬
rizon, was firft difcovered by another of our country¬
men, Mr R. Norman, about the year 1576. Seethe
article Dipping-Needle.
Phenomena of the Magnej. 10. In every magnet
there are two poles, one whereof points northwards,
the other fouthwards ; and if the magnet be divided
into ever fo many pieces, the two poles will be found
in each piece. The poles of a magnet are found by
holding a very fine (hort needle over it; for where the
poles are, the needle will ftand upright, but nowhere
elfe. 20. Thefe poles in different parts of the globe,
are differently inclined towards a point under the ho¬
rizon. 30. Thefe poles, though contrary to one ano¬
ther, do help mutually towards the magnet’s attrac¬
tion and fufpenfion of iron. 40. If two magnets be
fpherical, one will turn or conform itfelf to the other,
fo as either of them would do to the earth ; and after
they have fo conformed or turned themfelves, they
endeavour to approach or join each other; but if
placed in a contrary pofition, they avoid each other.
50. If a magnet be cut through the axis, the parts or
fegments of the (tone, which before were joined, will
now avoid and fly each other. 6° If the magnet be
cut by a fedtion perpendicular to its axis, the two
points, which before were conjoined, will become con¬
trary poles ; one in one, the other in the other feg-
ment. 70. Iron receives virtue from the magnet by
application to it, or barely from an approach near it,
though it do not touch it; and the iron receives this
virtue varioufly, according to the parts of the ftone it
is made to touch, or even approach to. 8°. If an
oblong piece of iron be any how applied to the ftone,
it receives virtue from it only as to its length. 90.
The magnet lofes none of its own virtue by communi¬
cating any to the iron ; and this virtue it can commu¬
nicate to the iron very fpeedily : though the longer the
iron touches or joins the ftone, the longer will its
communicated virtue hold ; and a better magnet will
communicate more of it, and fooner, than one not fo
ood. io°. Steel receives virtue from the magnet
etter than iron. ii°. A needle touched by a mag¬
net will turn its ends the fame way towards the poles
of the world, as the magnet itfelf does. 120. Nei¬
ther loadftone nor needles touched by it do conform
their poles exa&ly to thofe of the world, but have
ufually fome variation from them: and this variation
is different in divers places, and at divers times in the"
fame place. 130. A loadftone will take up much
more iron when armed or capped than it can alone.
And though an iron ring or key be fufpended by the
loadftone, yet the magnetical particles do not hinder
that ring or key from turning round any way, ei¬
ther to the right or left. A loadftone is faid to be
armed, when its poles are furrounded with plates of
fteel. To determine the quality of fteel to be applied,
try the magnet with feveral fteel bars ; and the greateft
weight it takes up, with a bar on, is to be the
weight of its armour. 140. The force of a loadftone
may be varioufly increafed or leffened by the various
application of iron, or another loadftone, to it. 15°.
A ftrong magnet at the leaft diftance from a leffer or
a weaker, cannot draw to it a piece of iron adhering
adtnally to fuch leffer or weaker ftone ; but if it come
to touch it, it can draw it from the other: but a
weaker magnet, or even a little piece of iron, can
draw away or feparate a piece of iron contiguous to a
greater or ftronger loadftone. 160. In thefe northern
parts of the world, the fouth pole of a loadftone will
raife up more iron than the north pole. 170. A plate
of iron only, but no other body interpofed, can im¬
pede the operation of the loadftone, either as to its
attraftive or diredlive quality. Mr Boyle found it
true in glaffes fealed hermetically ; and glafs is a
body as impervious as moft are to any effluvia. 180.
The power or virtue of a loadftone may be impaired
by lying long in a wrong pofition, as alfo by ruft,
wet, &c. and may be quite deltroyed by fire. 190.
A piece of iron wire well touched, will, upon being
bent round in a ring, or coiled round on a flick, &c.
generally, quite lofe its diredtive virtue, but always
have it much diminiflied : and yet if the whole length
of the wire were not entirely bent, fo that the ends of
it, though but For the length of one tenth of an inch,
were left ftrait, the virtue will not be deftroyed in
thofe parts ; though it will in all the reft. This was
firft obferved by Grimaldi and de la Hire; and is
confirmed by the experiments of Mr Derham ; who
adds further, that though coiling or bending the wire
as above, would always deftroy its virtue by day,
yet it would not do it in the evening. 20°. This
fphere of the adfivity of magnets is greater and lefs at
different times : in particular, that referved in the re-
pofitory of the royal fociety will keep a key or other
body fufpended to another, fometimes, at the height
of eight or ten feet; and at others, not above four
feet. To which we may add, that the variation of the
magnetical needle from the meridian, varies at various
times of the day ; as appears from fome experiments
of Mr Graham, and likewife from obfervations made
during one of Capt Cook’s voyages. See Varia¬
tion. 210. By twilling a piece of wire touched
with a magnet, its virtue is exceedingly diminilhed;
and fometimes fo difordered and confufed, that itt
fome parts it will attradf, and in others repel ; and
even, in fome places, one fide of the wire feems to be
attra&ed, and the other fide repelled, by one and the
fame pole of the ftone. 2 2°. A piece of wire that has
been touched, being fplit, or cleft in two, the poles are
fometimes changed, as in a cleft magfiet; the north
becoming the fouth, and the fouth the north s and yet
* * fome-
Magnet.
Magnetism.
Plate CTiXUL.
iSoiU/i
JtTort/v
ITcr/A
K'//S',.//,/,
MAG L 4375 ] MAG
Magnet, fometimes one half of the wire will retain its former
‘ ‘ “poles, and the other half will have them changed. To
which it may be added, that laying one or other fide
of the half uppermoft, caufes a great alteration in its
tendency or averfion to the poles of the magnet. 230.
A wire being touched from end to end with the fame
pole of the magnet, the end whereat you begin will
always turn contrary to the pole which touched it : if
it be again touched the fame way with the other pole
of the magnet, it will then be turned the contrary
way. 240. If a piece of wire be touched in the middle
with only one pole of the magnet, without moving it
backwards or forwards; in that place will be the pole
of the wire, and the two ends will be the other pole.
250. If a magnet be heated red hot, and again cool¬
ed either with its fouth pole towards the north in a ho¬
rizontal pofition, or with its fouth pole downwards in
a perpendicular pofition, its poles will be changed.
26°. Mr Boyle (to whom we are indebted for the fol¬
lowing magnetical phenomena) found he could prefent-
ly change the poles of a fmall fragment of a loadltone,
by applying them to the oppofite vigorous ones of a
large magnet. 270. Hard iron tools well tempered,
when heated by a brilk attrition, as filing, turning,
&c. will attraft thin filings or chips of iron, fteel,&c.
and hence we obferve files, punches, augres, &c. to
have a fmall degree of magnetic virtue. 28°. The
iron-bars of windows, &c. which have a long time
flood in an ereft pofition, grow permanently magne¬
tical ; the lower ends of fuch bars being the north-
pole, and the upper the fouthern. 290. A bar ofiron
that has not flood long in an ereft polture, if it be on¬
ly held perpendicularly, will become magnetical, and
its lower end the north pole, as appears from its attrac¬
ting the fouth pole of a needle : but then this virtue is
tranfient, and by inverting the bar the poles will fiiift
their places. In order therefore to render the quality
permanent in an iron bar, it muft continue a longtime
in a proper pofition. But the fire will produce the ef¬
fect in a fhort time : for as it will immediately deprive
a loadftone of its attra&ive virtue ; fo it foon gives a
vertfeity to a bar of iron, if, being heated red hot, it
be cooled in an ere& pofture, or diredlly north and
fouth. Nay, tongs and fire-forks, by being often
heated and let to cool again in a pofture nearly eredt,
have gained this magnetical property. Sometimes iron
bars, by long Handing in a perpendicular pofition,
have acquired the magnetic virtue in a furprifing de¬
gree. A bar about 10 feet long, and three inches
thick, fupporting the fummer-beam of a room, was able
to turn the needle at eight or ten feet diftance, and ex¬
ceeded a loadftone of three and an half pounds weight.
From the middle point upwards it was a north pole,
and downwards a fouth pole ; and Mr Martin mentions
a bar, which had been the beam of a large fteel-yard,
that had feveral poles in it. 30°. Mr Boyle found,
that by heating a piece of Englifh oker red-hot, and
placing it to cool in a proper pofture, it manifeftly ac¬
quired a magnetic virtue. And an excellent magnet
of the fame ingenious gentleman’s having lain near a
year in an inconvenient pofture, had its virtue furpri-
fingly impaired, as if it had been by fire. 310. A
needle well touched, it is known, will point north and
fouth : if it have one contrary touch of the fame ftone,
it will be deprived of its faculty ; and by another fuch
Vol. VI. I
touch will have its poles quite changed. 32®. If a bar Mag
ofiron have gained a verticity by being heated red-hot
and cooled again, north and foutb, and then ham¬
mered at the two ends ; its virtue will be deftroyed by
two or three fmart blows on the middle. 330. By-
drawing the back of a knife, or long piece of fteel-
wire, &c. leifurely over the pole of a loadftone ; car¬
rying the motion from the middle of the ftone to the
pole, the knife or wire will accordingly attraA one
end of a needle; but if the knife or wire be pafled
from the faid pole to the middle of the ftone, it will
repel that end of the needle which in the other cafe it
attra&s. 340. Either a magnet or a piece ofiron be¬
ing laid on a piece of cork, fo as to fwim freely in
water ; it will be found, that, whichfoever of the two
is held in the hand, the other will be drawn to it: fo
that iron attrafts the magnet as much as it is attraAed
by it; a&ion and re-a&ion being always equal. In
this experiment, if the magnet be fet afloat, it will
diredt its two poles to the poles of the world. 350. A
knife, See. touched with a magnet, acquires a greater
or lefs degree of virtue, according to the part it is
touched on. It receives the ftrongeft touch, when it
is drawn leifurely from the handle towards the point
over one of the poles : And if the fame knife thus
touched, and thus in pofleffion of a ftrong attradlive
power, be retouched in a contrary diredlion, viz. by-
drawing it from the point towards the handle over the
fame pole, it immediately lofes all its virtue. 36°. A
magnet adls with equal force in vacuo and in the open
air. 370. The fmalleft magnets have generally the
greateft power in proportion to their bulk. A large
magnet will feldom take up above three or four times its
own weight, whereas a fmall one will frequently take
up more than ten times its weight. A magnet worn
by Sir Ifaac New'ton in a ring, and which weighed only
three grains, would take up 746 grains, or almoft 250
times its own weight. A magnetic bar made by Mr
Canton, according to the method deferibed in the next
article, and which weighed to ounces 12 penny¬
weights, took up fomething more than 79 ounces; and
a flat femicircular fteel magnet that weighed an ounce
and 13 penny-weights took up an iron w’edge of 90
ounces.
Artificial Magnet, is a term ufually applied to fteel
bars impregnated with the virtues of the natural mag¬
net or loadftone; and are much more common, as well
as more convenient for ufe, than the others.
The late Dr Godwin Knight poiTefied a furpri¬
fing Ikill in magnetifm, being able to communicate
an extraordinary degree of attra&ive or repulfive
virtue, and to alter or reyerfe the poles at plea-
fure ; but as he refufed to difeover his methods upon
any terms whatever, (even, as he faid, though he
fhould receive in return as many guineas as he could
carry) thefe curious and valuable fecrets have died with
him. In the 69th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
adtions, however, Mr Benjamin Wilfon hath given a
procefs which at leaft difeovers one of the leading
principles of Dr Knight’s art, and may perhaps be a
means of difeovering the whole to thofe who ftiall be
lefs referved. The do&or’s procefs, according to Mr
Wilfon, was as follows. Having provided himfelfwith
a great quantity of clean iron-filings, he put them in¬
to a large tub that was more than one third filled with
24 U clean
MAG [ 4376 ] MAG
Magnet, clean water ; lie then, with great labour, worked the
‘ “tub to and fro for many hours together, that the fric¬
tion between the grains of iron by this treatment
might break off fuch fmaller parts a$.would remain fuf-
pended in the water for a time. The obtaining of
thefe very fmall particles in fufficient quantity feemed
to him to be one of the principal defiderata in the ex¬
periment. The water being by this treatment render¬
ed very muddy, he poured the fame into a clean iron
veffel, leaving the filings behind ; and when the water
had Hood long enough to become clear, he poured it
out carefully, without difturbing fuch of the fedi-
ment as Hill remained, which now appeared reduced
almort to impalpable powder. This powder was af¬
terwards removed into another veflel in order to dry it;
but as he had not obtained a proper quantity thereof
by this one ftep, he was obliged to repeat the procefs
manytimes. Having at lad procured enough of this very
fine powder, the next thing was to make a pafte of it,
and that with fome vehicle which would contain a
confiderable quantity of the phlogiftic principle: for
thispurpofe, he had recourfe to linfeed oil in preference
to all other fluids. With thefe two ingredients only
he made a ftiff palle, and took particular care to knead
it well before he moulded it into convenient fhapes.
Sometimes, while the pafte continued in its foft date,
be would put the impreffion of a feal upon the feveral
pieces; one of which is in the Britifh mufaeum. This
pafte was then put upon wood, and fometimes on tiles,
in order to bake or dry it before a moderate fire, at
about the diftance of a foot or thereabouts. He found
that a moderate fire was mod proper, becaufe a greater
degree of heat made the compofition frequently crack
in many places. The time required for the baking or
drying of this pafte was generally about five or fix
hours before it attained a-fufficient degree of hardnefs.
When that was done, and the feveral baked pieces
were become cold, he gave them their magnetic virtue
in any direction he pleafed, by placing them between
the extreme ends of his large magazine of artificial
magnets for a few feconds or more, as he faw occafion.
By this method the virtue they acquired was fuch,
that, when any of thofe pieces were held between two
of his bed ten-guinea bars, with its poles purpofely
inverted, it immediately of itfelf turned about to reco¬
ver its natural diredlion, which the force of thofe very
powerful bars was not fufficient to counterafh
As to the method of making artificial magnets of
Heel, none hath fucceeded in it better than Mr Canton,
whofe procefs is as follows.
Procure a dozen of bars; fix of foft fteel, each three
inches long, one quarter of an inch broad, and one
twentieth of an inch thick; with two pieces of iron,
each half the length of one of the bars, but of the
fame breadth and thicknefs : alfo fix pieces of hard
fteel, each five inches and a half long, half an inch
broad, and three--twentieths of an inch thick ; with
two pieces of iron of half the length, but the whole
breadth and thicknefs of one of the hard bars ; and let
Plate all the bars be marked with a line quite round them at
CLXUI. one encj. Then take an iron poker and tongs, (fig 1.)
cr two bars of iron, the larger they are and the longer
they have been ufed, the better; and fixing the po¬
ker upright between the knees, hold to it, near the
top, one of the foft bars, having its marked end down¬
wards, by a piece of fewing filk, which mull be pull- Magnet.’,
ed tight by the left hand, that the bar may not Aide : '
then grafping the tongs with the right hand, a little
below the middle, and holding them nearly in a ver¬
tical pofition, let the bar be ftroked by the lower end
from the bottom to the top, about ten times on each
fide, which will give it a magnetic power fufficient to
lift a fmall key at the marked end : which end, if the
bar was fufpended on a point, would turn towards the
north, and is therefore called the north pole; and the
unmarked end is, for the fame reafon, called the foutk
pole. Four of the foft bars being impregnated after*
this manner, lay the two (fig. 2.) parallel to each o-
ther, at the diftance of one fourth of an inch, be¬
tween the two pieces of iron belonging to them, a
north and a fouth pole againft each piece of iron : then
take two of the four bars already made magnetical, and
place them together fo as to make a double bar in
thicknefs, the north pole of one even with the fouth
pole of the other ; and the remaining two being put to
thefe, one on each fide, fo as to have two north and
two fouth poles together; feparate the north from the
fouth poles at one end by a large pin, and place them
perpendicularly with that end downward on the middle
of one of the parallel bars, the two north poles to¬
wards its fouth, and the two fouth poles towards it
north end: Aide them backward and forward three or
four times the whole length of the bar, and removing
them from the middle of this, place them on the
middle of the other bar as before direfled, and go o-
ver that in the fame manner ; then turn both the bars
the other fide upwards, and repeat the former opera¬
tion this being done, take the two from between the
pieces of iron; and, placing the two outermoft of the
touching bars in their room, let the other two be the
outermoft of the four to touch thefe with ; and this
procefs being repeated till each pair of bars have been
touched three or four times over, which will give them
a confiderable magnetic power, put the half-dozen to¬
gether after the manner of the four, (fig. 3.) and
touch them with two pair of the hard bars placed be¬
tween their irons, at the diftance of about half an
inch from each other ; then lay the foft bars afide, and!
with the four-hard ones let the other two be impreg¬
nated (fig. 4.), holding the touching bars apartat the
lower end near two tenths of an inch ; to which diftance
let them be feparated after they are fet on the parallel
bar, and brought together again before they are taken
off: this being obferved, proceed according to the
method deferibed above, till each pair have been
touched two or three times over. But ns this vertical
way of touching a bar will not give it quite fo much
of the magnetic virtue as it will receive, let each pair
be now touched once or twice over in their parallel po¬
fition between the irons (fig. 5.), with two of the bars
held horizontally, or nearly fo, by drawing at the fame
time the north of one from the middle over the fouth'
end, and the fouth of the other from the middle over the
north end of a parallel bar ; then bringing them to the
middle again, without touching the parallel bar, give
three or four of thefe horizontal ftrokes to each fide.
The horizontal touch, after the vertical, will make the
bars as ftrong as they pofiibly can be made, as appears
by their not receiving any additional ftrength, when the
vertical touch is given by a great number of bars, and
mag [ 4377 ] MAG
Magnetite, the horizontal by thofe of a fuperior magnetic power.
' ■ This whole procefs may be gone through in about
half an hour; and each of the large bars, if well har¬
dened, may be made to lift .28 Troy ounces, and
fometimes more. And when thefe bars are thus im¬
pregnated, they will give to an hard bar of the fame fize
its full virtue in lefs than two minutes; and therefore
will anfwer all the purpofes of magnetifm in naviga¬
tion and experimental philofophy much better than
the loadftone, which is known not to have a fuflicient
power to impregnate hard bars. The half dozen be¬
ing put into a cafe (fig. 6.), in fuch a manner as that Magnetic
two poles of the fame denomination may not be to- '
gether, and their irons with them as one bar, they
will retain the virtues they have received; but if their
power fhould, by making experiments, be ever fo far
impaired, it may be reltored without any foreign ai-
fiftance in a few minutes. And if, out of curiofity, a
much larger fet of bars fhould be required, thefe will
Communicate to them a fufficient power to proceed
with; and they may, in a fhort time, by the fame me¬
thod, be brought to their full ftrength.
MAGNETISM.
THE quality or conftitution of a body, and its
pores, whereby it is rendered magnetical, or a
magnet. See Magnet.
Magnetifm is found to be a tranfient power, capable
of being produced and deftroyed again.
Sect. I. The Laws of Magnetifm.
The laws of magnetifm are laid down by Mr Whi*
fton in the following propofitions.—x°. The loadftone
has both an attraftive and a direflive power united to¬
gether, whereby iron touched by it has only the for¬
mer ; i. e. the magnet not only attra&s needles or fi¬
lings of fteel, but diredfs them to certain different
angles with refpedf to its own furface and axis: where¬
as iron touched with it, does little or nothing more
than attrafl them ; ftill fuffering them to lie along or
ftand perpendicular to its furface and edges in all
places, without any fuch fpecial diredtion.
2°. Neither the ttrongeft nor the large magnets give
a better diredtive touch to needles than thofe of a lefs
iize or virtue : to which it may be added, that where¬
as there are are two qualities in all magnets, an at-
tradlive and a diredtive one; neither of them de¬
pend on, or are any argument of, the ftrength of the
other.
30. The attradtive power of magnets, and of iron,
will greatly increafe or diminifh the weight of needles
on the balance; nay, will overcome that weight, and
fuftain other additional weights too: while the diredtive
power has much fmaller effedt. Gaffendus indeed, as
well as Merfennus and Dr Gilbert, maintain it has none
at all: but miftakenly ; for Mr Whifton found, from
repeated trials on large needles, that after the touch
they weighed lefs than before. One of 4584^ grains
loft 2^grains by the touch; and another of 65726
grains weight, no lefs than 14 grains.
40. It is probable that iron conlifts almoft wholly of
the attradlive particles ; and the magnet, of the attrac¬
tive and diredtive together: mixed, probably, toge¬
ther with other heterogeneous matter ; as having ne¬
ver been purged by the fire, which iron has: and
hence may arifethe reafon why iron, after it has been
touched, will lift up much greater weights than the
loadftone that touched it.
50. The quantity and diredtion of magnetic powers,
communicated to needles, is not properly, after fuch
communication, owing to the magnet which gave the
touch ; but to the goodnefs of the fteel which receives
it, and to the ftrength and pofition of the terreftrial
loadftone, vvhofe influence alone thofe needles are af¬
terwards fubjedl to, and diredled by : fo that all fuch
needles, if good, move with the fame ftrength and
point to the fame angle; what loadftone foever (pro¬
vided it be good) they were excited by. Nor does the
touch feern to do much more in magnetical, than at¬
trition in eledfrical cafes; i. e. it ferves to rub off
fome obftrudling particles, that adhere to the furface
of the fteel, and open the pores of the bodies touched,
and fo make way for the entrance and exit of fuch ef¬
fluvia as oecafion or afiift the powers we are fpeaking
of. Hence Mr Whifton takes occafion to obferve,
that the diredlive power of the loadftone feems to be
mechanical; and to be derived from magnetic effluvia,
circulating continually round it.
6°. The abfolute attradlive power of different arm¬
ed loadftones, is, exteris paribus, according to the
quantity, not of their diameters or folidities, but of the
furfaces of the loadftones, or in a duplicate proportion
of their diameters.
70. The power of good magnets unarmed, not fen-
fibly different in ftrength, fimilar in figure and pofi¬
tion, but unequal in magnitude, is fometimes a little
greater, fometimes a little lefs, than in the proportion
of their fimilar diameters.
8°. The loadftone attradls needles that have been
touched, and others that have not been touched, with
equal force, at diftances unequal, viz. where the di-
ftances are to one another as 5 to 2.
90. Both poles of a loadftone equally attradl needles,
till they be thoroughly touched: then it is, and then
only, that one pole begins to attract one end, and re¬
pel the other; though the repelling pole will ftill at¬
tract upon contact, nay at very fmall diftances, not-
wilhftanding.
io°. The attraftive power of loadftones, in their fimi¬
lar pofition to, but different diltances from magnetic
needles, is in the fefquiduplicate proportion of the di¬
ftances of their furfaces from their needles reciprocally,
or as the mean proportionals between the fquares andihe
cubes of thofe diftances .reciprocally, or as the fquare
roots of the fifth powers of thofe diftances reciprocally.
Thus the magnetic power of attradh’ou, at twice the
diftance from the furface of the loadftone, is between
a ftfth and fixth part of that power at the ftrft diftance.
At thrice the diitance, the power is between the 15th
and 16th part; at four times the diftance, the power
32 times as fmall; and at fix times the diftance, 88 times
as fmall. Where it is to be noted, that the diftances
are not taken, as in the law of gravity, from the centre,
but from the furface; all experience affuring us, that
24 U 2 the
4378 . M A G N
• Laws of the magnetic power refides chiefly, if not wholly, in the
Magnetifm. furfaee 0f the loadftones and iron, without any parti¬
cular relation to centre at all. The proportion here
'laid down was determined by Mr Whifton, from a great
numberof experiments of MrHaukfbee, Dr Brook Tay¬
lor, and himfelf; meafuring the force by the chords of
thofe arcs by which the magnet at feveral diftances draws
the needle out of its natural direction, to which chords
(as he has demonftrated) it is ever proportional. The
numbers in fome of their moll accurate trials he gives
us in the following table, fetting down half the chords,
or the fines of half thofe arches of declination, as the
true meafures of the power of magnetifm.
Dijlances
in inches.
20
-
13t -
Degrees of
inclination.
■ 2 —
4 —
6 —
8 _
n-l — to —
IO|   12 —
9i — H “
Sines of
Rat. fcfqui-
dupl.
- 466
216
170
■ 138
■ 105
. 87
70
dipping-needle, of fix
*75
349
523
697
,871
1045
1219
li°. An inclinatory, _
inches radius, and of a prifmatic or cylindric figure)
when it ofcillates along the magnetic meridian, per¬
forms here every mean vibration in about 6" or 360"';
and every fmall ofcillation in about f'i, or 330"';
and the fame kind of needle, four feet long, makes
every mean ofcillation in about 24", and every fmall
one in about 22".
120. The entire power of magnetifm in this coun¬
try, as it affedts needles a foot long, is to that of gra¬
vity nearly as 1 to 300; and as it affedls needles four
feet long, as 1 to 600.
130. The quantity of magnetic power accelerating
the fame dipping-needle, as it ofcillates in different
vertical planes, is ever as the cofines of the angles made
by thofe planes, and the magnetic meridian, taken on
the horizon.
Thus if we would eftimate the quantity of forces in
the horizontal and vertical fituations of needles at
London ; we (hall find that the latter, in needles a
foot long, is to the entire force along the magnetic
meridian as 96 to 100; and in needles four feet long,
as 9667 to 10,000: whereas, in the former, the en¬
tire force in needles afoot long, is as 28 to 100;
and in thofe four feet long, as 2560 to 10,000.
Whence it follows, that the power by which hori¬
zontal needles are governed in thefe parts of the world
is but one quarter of the power by which the dipping-
needle is moved.
Hence alfo, fince the horizontal needle is moved
only by a part of the power which moves the dipping-
needle ; and that it only points to a certain place in
the horizon, becaufe that place is the neareft its ori¬
ginal tendency of any its fituation will allow it to
tend to: whenever the dipping-needle ftands exaftly
perpendicular to the horizon, the horizontal needle
will not refpedl one point of the compafs more than
another, but will wheel about every way uncer¬
tainly.
140. The time of ofcillation and vibration, both
in dipping and horizontal needles equally good, is as
their length diredlly; and the a&ual velocity of their
E T r S M. Sea. II.
points along their arcs always equal. Hence magne- Caufesof
tical needles are, cateris paribus, ftill better the longer MagnetUVn.
they are; and that in the fame proportion with their
lengths.
The law of magnetic attraftion is not yet afcer-
tained. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes it to decreafe
nearly in the triplicate ratio of the diftance: but Dr
Hel/ham, trying the experiment by his loadftone,
found it to be as thefquaresof the diltances inverfely;
and Mr Martin allures us, that the power of his load-
llone decreafes in a different manner from either, it
being in the fefquiplicate ratio of the diftances in¬
verfely. For exa&nefs, he made a fquare bar of iron
juft a quarter of an inch thick, and then provided
three pieces of wood of the fame form and thicknefs
exadlly; then poifing the loadftone very nicely at the
end of a balance, which would turn with lefs than a
grain, he placed under it the iron with firft one piece
of wood, then two pieces, and laftly all three pieces
upon it: by which means the fteel points of the
pole were kept at £;> of an inch from the iron;
and in thofe diftances the weights put into the oppo-
fite fcale, to raife the loadftone from the wood, which
is touched while the beam was horizontal, were as
follows:
Grains. Rat. of fq. Rat. of cub. S. rat.
Ct—J36 — x5<> — 56 — 156
Diftances. — 50 — 39 19 — 56
Ci— 28 — 17 ~ 6 — 30
Whence it appears, that the number of grains to
counteradl the power of the-loadftone in thefe diftan¬
ces, approach very near, and are almoft the fame with
thofe which are in the fefquiplicate ratio, but are
widely different from thofe which are in the duplicate
ratio ; and this experiment Mr Martin tried feveral
times for each diftance, with fcarce any variation in the
fuccefs.
The ingenious Mufchenbroek has, with indefati¬
gable pains and application, made experiments of the
attractions and repulfions of loadftones in refpe£l to
iron and to each other; but could never find any re¬
gular proportion in the increafe of attra&ion in their
approach to, or decreafe of attra&ion in their recefs
from, one another : only that the force of the magnetic
virtue did increafe in the approach to, and diminilh in
the recefs from the ftone, but not exaftly as the di¬
ftance, nor as the fquare or cube of the diftance, nor
as the fquare or cube of the diftance reciprocally, nor
in any proportion reducible to numbers ; and therefore
he conjeftures, that the repulfions and attra&ions di-
fturb one another, fo as to confound the proportion.
Sect. II. Of the Caufes of Magnetifm.
With refpe& to the caufes of magnetifm, nothing
hath hitherto appeared that can be called a fatisfac-
tory folution of its phaenomena. It is certain indeed,
that both natural and artificial ele&ricity will give
polarity to needles, and even reverfe their poles; but
though from this it may appear probable that the
eledric fluid is alfo the caufe of magnetifm, yet in
what manner the fluid ads while producing the mag-
netical phaenomena feems to be totally unknown.
All that hath been difcovered with regard to this
matter is, that a fliock from a jar moderately charged,
fent from end to end through a fine needle, will give
Sea. III. MAGNETISM. 4379
Entertain- it a polarity. If the needle Is reverfed, and a ftmilar cafe its influence extends but to a fhort diftance. This En^in-
intr Ihock fent through it the contrary way, the polarity tube maybe differently conftruaed, by placing the
•I,, , n i • j  ui needle in a perpendicular direction, on a imall axis of ments
iron, on which it muft turn quite freely, between two *  
fmall plates of brafs placed on each fide the tube : the
two ends of the needle fhould be in exadt equilibrium.
The north and fouth ends of this needle will, in like
manner, be attracted by the fouth and north ends of
the magnetic bar. The former conftru&ion, however.
will be deftroyed; a third fhock will reverfe the poles;
-and the fame thing is done by a fecqnd fhock, if much
ftronger than the firft. If the fhock is fent through
the fides of the needle, its ends will point eaft and
weft; the reafon of which is, that one fide of it is be¬
come a north, and the other a fouth pole. Moft au¬
thors agree, that the end at which the eledtric blaft
enters becomes the north-pole; but, from fome ex¬
periments, this feems very doubtful. The degree of
magnetic virtue which eledlricity can communicate, is
very far from being afcertained.
The diredf ion of the magnetic effluvia is thought to
be fhown by the following experiment. Let AB, CD,
(fig. 7.) be the poles of a magnet. Round every fide
lightly ftrew fteel filings, on a fheet of white paper; the
particles of the filings will be fo affedted by the effluvia
the ftone, as to (how the courfe they take every way.
In the middle of each pole, between A B and C D,
they appear to proceed in lines nearly ftraight; to¬
wards the ends, they are more and more curved; till at
laft the lines from both fides, coinciding with each
other, form numberlefs curves round the ftone, which
are nearly of a circular figure, as in the plate. Hence
it is inferred that the magnetic effluvia, iffuing from one
pole, circulates to the other.
Sect. III. Entertaining Experiments-
Conftrudtion of the Magnetic Perspective-
glass.] Provide an ivory tube, about two inches
and a half long, and of the form exprefled in fig. 8.
The fides of this tube muft be thin enough to admit
’ a confiderable quantity of light. It is to open at one
end with a fcrew : at that end-there muft be placed
an eye-glafs A of about two inches focus, and at
the other end any glafs you pleafe. Have a fmall
magnetic needle, like that placed on a compafs.
It muft be ftrongly touched, and fo placed at the
bottom of the tube that it may turn freely round.
It is to be fixed on the centre of a fmall ivory circle C,
of the thicknefs of a counter, which is placed .on the
1 the fide next it.
appears preferable, as it is more eafily excited, and
the fituation of the needle much more eafily diftin-
guiftied.
Exper. i. The communicative crown.
Take a crown-piece, and bore a hole in the fide of
it; in which place a piece of wire, or a large needle,
well poliftted, and ftrongly touched with a magnet.
Then clofe the hole with a fmall piece of pewter, that
it may not be perceived. Now the needle in the mag¬
netic perfpedbive before defcribed, when it is brought
near to this piece of money, will fix itfelf in a direc¬
tion correfpondent to the wire or needle in that piece.
Defire any perfon to lend you a crown-piece, which
you dextroufly change for one that you have prepared
as above. Then give the latter piece to another per¬
fon, and leave him at liberty either to put it privately
in a fnuff-box, or not; he is then to place the box on
a table, and you are to tell him, by means of your
glafs, if the crown is or is not in the box. Then
bringing your perfpeflive clofe to the box, you will
know, by the motion of the needle, whether it be
there or not; for as the needle in the perfpe&ive will
always keep to the north of itfelf, if you do not per¬
ceive it has any motion, you conclude the crown is
not in the box. It may happen, however, that the
wire in the crown may be placed to the north, in
which cafe you will be deceived. Therefore, to be
fure of fuccefs, when you find the needle in the per-
fpe&ive remain ftationary, you may make fome pre¬
tence to defire the perfon to move the box into ano¬
ther pofition, by which you will certainly know if the
crown-piece be there nor not.—You muft remem¬
ber, that the needle in the perfpeftive muft here be
very fenfible, as the wire in the crown cannot poffibly
objedl-glafs D, and painted black  ^
This circle muft be kept fall by a circular rim of have any great attra&ive force,
pafteboard, that the needle may not rife off its pivot,
after the fame manner as in the compafs. This tube 2- The magnetic table.
will thus become a compafs, fufficiently tranfparent to Under the top of a common table place a magnet
fhow the motions of the needle. The eye-glafs ferves that turns on a pivot; and fix a board under it, that
more clearly to diftinguifti the direftion of the needle; nothing may appear. There may alfo be a drawer un-
and the glafs at the other end, merely to give the der the table, which you pull out to Ihow that there
tube the appearance of a common perfpe&ive. It is nothing concealed. At one end of the table there
will appear from the laws of magnetifm already laid muft be a pin that communicates with the magnei
down, that the needle in this tube, when placed over,
and at a fmall diftance from, a magnet, or any ma¬
chine in which it is contained, will nectffarily place
itfelf in a pofition direfted by that magnet, and con-
fequently fhow where the north and fouth pole of it is
placed ; the north end of the needle conftantly point¬
ing to the fouth end of the magnet. This effeft will
take place, though the magnet be inclofed in a cafe
of wood, or even metal, as the magnetic effluvia pe¬
netrates all bodies. You muft obferve, however, that
and by which it may be placed in different pofitions:
this pin muft be fo placed as not to be vifible to the
fpeclators. Strew fome fteel-filings or very fmall
nails over that part of the table where the magnet is.
Then afk any one to lend you a knife, or a key,
which will then attraft part of the nails or filings.
Then placing your hand in a carelefs manner on the
pin at the end of the table, you alter the pofition of
the magnet; and giving the key to any perfon, you
defire him to make the experiment, which he will then
the attradling magnet muft not be very far diftant not be able to perform. You then give the key to
from the needle, efpecially if it be fmall, as in that another perfon; at the fame time placing the magnet,
by
4380
Enr-rtain- by means of the pin, in the firfl pofition, when that
Expert Per^on W'M immediately perform the experiment.
nicnts- 3. The myjlerious watch.
You defire any perfon to lend you his watch, and
alk him if he thinks it will or will mjt go when it is
laid on the table. If he fay it win, you place it over
the end of the magnet, and it will prefently (top (a).
You then mark with chalk, or a pencil, the precife
point where you placed the wTatch; and moving the
pofition of the magnet, as in the lait experiment, you
give the watch to another perfon, and defire him to
make the experiment; in which he not fucceeding, you
give it to a third perfon, at the fame time replacing
the magnet, and he will immediately perform the ex¬
periment.
4. The magnetic dial.
Plate Provide a circle of wood or ivory, of about five or
CEXIII.' fix inches diameter, as fig. 9. which mult turn quitefree
onthe(landB( fig. 10.) in the circular border A: on the
circle mult be placed the dial of paileboard C (fig. 9.),
whofe circumference is to be divided into 12 equal parts,
in which mull be infcribed the numbers from 1 to 12,
as on a common dial. There mult be a fmall groove
in the circular frame D, to receive the palteboard
circle: and obferve, that the dial mult be made to turn
fo free, that it may go round without moving the cir¬
cular border in which it is placed. Between the palte¬
board circle and the bottom of the frame, place a
fmall artificial magnet E, (fig. 11.) that has a hole in
its middle, or a fmaii protuberance. On the outfide of
the frame place a fmall pin P, which ferves to fiiow
where the magnetic needle I, that is placed on a pivot
at the centre of the dial, is to Hop. This needle mult
turn quite free on its pivot, and its two tides Ihoukl be
in exadt equilibrium. Then provide a fmall bag, that
has five or fix divilions, like a lady’s work-bag, but
fmaller. In one of thefe divilions put fmall fquare ph-ces
of paiitboard, on which are wrote the numbers from
1 to 12, and if you pieafe you may put feveral of
each number. In each of the other divilions you mult
put 12 or more like pieces; obferving, that all the pieces
in each divilion mult be marked with the fame num¬
ber. Now the needle being placed upon its pivot, and
turned quickly about, it will nectflarily Hop at that
point were the north end of the magnetic bar is placed,
and which you previoufly know by the lituation of the
imail pin in the circular border. You therefore pre-
fent to any perfon that divilion of the bag which con¬
tains the ieveral pieces on which is wrote the number
oppolite to the north end of the bar, and tell him to
draw any one of them he pleafes. Then placing the
needle on the pivot, you turn it quickly about, and it
will neceffarily Hop, as we have already faid, at that
particular number.
Another experiment may be made with the fame
dial, by defiring two ptrfons to draw each of them
one number out of two different divilions of the bag;
and if their numbers, when added together, exceed 12,
the needle or index will Hop at the number they ex¬
ceed it ; but if they do not amount to 12, the index
will Hop at the fum of thofe two numbers. In order
Sea. nr.
to perform this experiment, you mull place the pin Entcrtaim
againH the number 5, if the two numbers to be drawn inS .
from the bag be to and 7 ; or againH 9, if they be 7
and 2.— If this experiment be made immediately after ——*
the former, as it ealily may, by dexteroufly moving the
pin, it will appear the more extraordinary.
5. The dexterous painter.
Provide two fmall boxes, as M and N (fig. 12.),
four inches wide, and four inches and a half long.
Let the box M be half an inch deep, and N two-thirds
of an inch. They muft both open with hinges, and
flint with a clafp. Have four fmall pieces of light
wood, (fig. 13, 14, 15, 16.) of the fame lize with
the infide of the box M (fig. 12.), and about one
third of an inch thick. In each of thefe let there be
a groove, as AB, EF, CD, GH: thefe grooves mull
be in the middle, and parallel to two of the fidts. In
each of thefe grooves place a Hrong artificial magnet,
as fig. 17. The polesof thefe magnets mult be properly
difpofed with regard to the figures that are to be paint¬
ed on the boards; as is exprefi’ed in the plate. Cover
the bars with paper, to prevent their being feen; but
take care, in palling it on, not to wet the bars, as they
will thereby rull, which will confiderably impair their
virtue. When you have painted fuch fubjedts as you
choofe, you may cover them with a very thin cleat glafs-
At the centre of the box N, place a pivot (fig. 18.),
on which a fmall circle of pafleboard OPQR (fig. 19.)
is to turn quite free; under which is to be a touched
needle S. Divide this circle into four parts, which are
to be difpofed with regard to the poles of the needle, as
is exprefled in the figure. In thefe four divifions you
are to paint the like fubjedts as are on the four boards,
but reduced to a fmallercompafs. Cover the infide of tha
top of this box with a paper M, (lee fig. 12.), in which
mufl be an opening D, at about half an inch from the
centre of the box, that you may perceive, fucceffively,
the four fmall pidlures on the pafieboard circle jull
mentioned. This opening is to ferve as the cloth on
which the little painter is fuppofed to draw one of the
pibfures. You may cover the top of the box, if you
pieafe, with a thin glafs. Then give the firfl box to
any perfon, and tell him to place any one of the four
pictures in it privately, and, when he has clofed it, to
give it you. You then place the other box over it;
when the moveable circle, with the needle, will turn
till it comes in the fame pofition with the bar in the
firft box. It will then appear that the little dexterous
painter has already copied the pitlure that is incloitd
in the firfl box.
6. The cylindric oracle.
Provide a hollow cylinder of about fix inches high pjate
and three wide, as AB. Its cover CD mufl be madecLxiV,
to fix on any way. On one iide of this box or cylin- fig. 1.
der let there be a groove, nearly of the fame length
with that fide; in which place a fmall Heel bar (fig. 2.)
that is Arongiy impregnated, with the north pole next
the bottom of the cylinder. On the upper fide of the
cover defcribe a circle; and divide it into ten equal
parts, in which are to be wrote the numbers from 1
to iq, as is exprefled in fig. 3. Place, a pivot at
the
(a) To perform this experiment, you muft ufe a ftreng magnetic bar; and the balance.of the watch muft not be of
brats, but fteel.
MAGNETISM.
Macvni^tibm .
Plate CIjXW.
Sea 11F. M A G N E T I S M.
^Entertain- the centre of this circle, and have ready a magnetic
■ ing, needlei You are then to provide a bag, in which there
Expert- are feverai divifions, like that defcribed in exper. 4. In
  L_each of thefe divifions put a number of papers, on
which the fame or fimilar queftions are wrote. In
the cylinder put feverai different anfwers to each que-
flion, and feal them up in the manner of fmall let¬
ters. On each of thefe letters or anfwers is to be
wrote one of the numbers of the dial or circle at the
top of the box. You are fuppofed to know the num¬
ber of the anfwers to each qneflion. You then offer
one of the divifions of the bag, obferving which divi-
fion it) is', to any perfon, and defire him to draw one of
the papers. Next put the top on the cylinder, with
that number which is wrote on the anfwer direftly over
the bar. Then placing the needle on the pivot, you
turn it brifkly about, and it will naturally flop at the
number over the bar. You then defire the perfon who
drew the queftion to obferve the number at which the
needle ftands, and to fearch in the box for a paper
with the fame number, which he will find to contain
the anfwer.—You may repeat the experiment by of¬
fering another divifion of the bag to the fame or ano¬
ther perfon; and placing the number that correfponds
to the anfwer over the magnetic bar, proceed as be¬
fore.
It is eafy to conceive of feverai anfwers to the fame
queftion. For example, fuppofe the queflion to be,
Is it proper to marry ?
Anfwer I. While you are young not yet, when you
are old not at all.
2. Marry in hafle, and repent at leifure.
3. Yes, if you can get a good fortune ; for fome-
thing has feme favour, but nothing has no flavour.
4. No, if you are apt to be out of humour with
yourfelf; for then you will have two perfons to quar¬
rel with.
5. Yes, if you are fire to get a good hufband (wife);
for that is the greatefl bleffing of life. But take care
you are fure.
6. No, if the perfon you would marry is an angel;
unlefs you will be content to live with a devil.
7. The enchanted ewer.
Plate ^ Fix acommon ewer, as A, (fig. 4.) of about 12 inches
CLXI\. high, upon a fqtiare llandBG; in one fide of which there
• mutt be a drawer D, of about four inches fquare and
half an inch deep. In the ewer place a hollow tin
cone, inverted, as AB, fig. 5. of about four inches ar.d
a half diameter at top, and two inches at bottom; and
at the bottom of the ewer there mull likewife be a
hole of two inches diameter.
Upon the Hand, at about an inch diftance from the
bottom of the ewer, and direflly under the hole, place
a fmall convex mirror H, of fuch convexity that a per-
fon’s vifage, when viewed in it, at about 15 inches di¬
ftance, may not appear above two inches and a half
long.
Upon) the Hand likewife, at the point I, fig. 2. place
a pivot of half an inch high, on which mutt be fixed
a touched needle RQ^incloled in a circle of very thin
pafteboard OS, fig. 6. of five inches diameter. Divide
this pafteboard into four parts, in each of which draw
a fmall circle: and in three of thefe circles paint a
bead as x, y, z, the drefsof each of which is to be dif¬
ferent, one, for example, having a turban, another a
hat, and the other a woman’s cap. Let that part
which contains the face in each pifture be cut out, and
let the fourth circle be entirely cut out; as it is ex.-
prefled in the figure. You mu ft obferve, that the poles
of the needle are to be difpofed in the fame manner as
in the plate.
You are next to provide four fmall frames of wood
or pafteboard, n° 1. 2. 3. 4. each of the fame fize
with the infide of the drawer. On thefe frames mull
be painted the fame figures as on the circular pafte¬
board; with this difference; that there mull be no part
of them cut out. Behind each of thefe piflures place
a magnetic bar, in the fame diredlion as is expreffed
in the plate ; and cover them over with paper, that
they may not be vifible. Matters being thus prepa¬
red, you firft place in the drawer the frame n° 4. on
which there is nothing painted. You then pour a fmall
quantity of water into the ewer, and defire the com¬
pany to look into it, afleing them if they fee their own
figures as they are. Then you take out the frame n°4.
and give the three others to any one, defiring him to
choofe in which of thofe dreffes he would appear.
Then put the frame with the drefs he has ehofe in the
drawer ; and a moment after, the perfon looking in¬
to the ewer will fee his own face furrounded with the
drefs of that pifture. For, the pafteboard circle (di¬
vided, as above defcribed, into four parts, in three of
which are painted the fame figures as on three of the
boards, and the fourth left blank) containing a mag¬
netic needle, and the four boards having each a con¬
cealed magnet ; therefore, when one of them is put in
the drawer under the ewer, the circle will correfpond
to the pofition of that magnet, and confequently the
perfon looking into the top of the ewer will fee his
own face furrounded with the head-drefs of the figure
in the drawer.—This experiment, well performed,
is highly agreeable. As the pafteboard circle can
contain only three heads, you may have feverai fuch
circles, but yon mull then have feverai other frames:
and the ewer mull be made to take off from the (land.
8. The hox of metals.
Provide a wooden box, about thirteen inches long
and feven wide, as ABCD (fig. 7.). The cover of this
box Ihould'be as thin as pofiible. Have fix fmall boxes
or tablets, about an inch deep, all of the fame fize
and form, as EFGHIK, that they may indiferimi-
nately go into fimilar holes made in the bottom of the
large box. In each of thefe tablets is to be placed a
fmall magnetic ball, and their poles are to be difpofed
as expreffed in the figure- Cover each of thefe tablets
with a thin plate of one of the fix following metals,
viz. gold, filve'r, copper, iron, pewter, and lead. You
muft alfo have a magnetic perfpe&ive, at the end of
which is to be two circles, one divided into fix equal
parts, and the other into four, as in fig. 8. from the
centre of which there muft be drawn an index N,
whofe point is to be placed to the north. Therefore,
when you are on the fide CD of the box, and hold
yonr perfpe&ive over any one of the tablets that are
placed on the holes E, F, G, fo that the index drawn
on the circle is perpendicular to the fide AB, the
needle in the perfpective will have its fouth pole di¬
rected to the letter that denotes the metal contained in
that
4381
Entertain-
E iDg'
4382 M A G N
Entertain- that tablet. When you hold the perfpedlive over one
in2 . of the boxes placed in the holes H, I, K, fo that the
merits! ,n(lex drawn on the circle is perpendicular to the fide
  CD, the fouth pole of the needle will in like manner
Plate exprefs the name of the metal inclofed. If the un-
CLXIV. der*fide of any one of the tablets be turned upward,
the needle will be flower in its motion, on account of
the greater diftance of the bar. The gold and filver
will ftill have the fame dire&ion 5 but the four other
metals will be exprefled by the letters on the interior
circle. If any one of the metals be taken away, the
needle will not then take any of the above diredlions,
but naturally point to the north ; and its motion will
be much flower. You therefore give the box to any
one, and leave him at liberty to difpofe all the tablets
in what manner and with what fide upward he pleafe,
and even to take any one of them away. Then, by
the aid of your perlpeSive, you tell him immediately
the name of the metal on each tablet, and of that he
has taken away.
This box of metals will, on comparifon, be found
far to exceed that which has been publicly exhibited :
for that, being compofed of fix tablets, of which two
only differ in form, admits but of fix different difpofi-
tions, whereas in this the tablets may be placed 720
different ways. In the other, you muft alfo know the
particular fide of the box, which in this is not at all
neceffary. Nay, you may here diftinguifh each me¬
tal, though the box be completely covered with pa¬
per ; for the effeft of the needle will be always the
fame. The experiments with this box are therefore
much more extarordinary, and its conftru&ion at the
fame time more Ample.
9. The magnetic planetarium.
CoNsTRtrcr a round box, ILMN, (fig. 9.), of eight
' or nine inches diameter, and half an inch deep. On
its bottom fix a circle of pafteboard, on which draw
the central circle A, and the feven circumjacent circles
B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Divide the central circle into
feven equal parts by the lines AB, AC, AD, AE,
AF, AG, and AH, which mull pafs through the
centres of the other circles, and divide each of them
into two equal parts. Then divide the circumference
of each of thofe circles into 14 equal parts, as in the
figure. You are likewife to have another pafteboard
of the fame figure, and divided in the fame manner,
which muft turn freely in the box, by means of an axis
placed on a pivot; one end of which is to be fixed in
the centre of the circle A. See fig. 10. On each of
the feven fmaller circles at the bottom of the box,
place a magnetic bar, two inches long, in the fame di-
reftion with the diameters of thofe circles, and their
poles in the fituations exprefled in the figure. There
muft be an index O, like that of the hour-hand of a
dial, which is to be fixed on the axis of the central
circle, and by which the pafteboard circle in the box
may be turned about. There muft be alfo a needle P,
which muft turn freely on the axis, without moving
the circular pafteboard.—In each of the feven divi-
fions of the central circle write a different queftion ;
and in another circle, divided into 12 parts, you may
write the names of the 12 months. In each of the. fe¬
ven circles write two anfwers to each queftion, obfer-
ying that there muft be but feven words in each an-
E T I S M. Sea. III.
fwer; in the following manner. In the firft divifion Emertam-
of the circle G, which is oppofite to the firft queftion, inS . *>
write the firft word of the firft anfwer. In the fecond
divifion of the next circle, write the fecond word; and 
fo on to the latl word, which will be in the feventh di¬
vifion of the feventh circle. In the eighth divifion of
the firft circle, write the firft; word of the fecond an¬
fwer; in the ninth divifion of the fecond circle, write the
fecond word of the fame anfwer; and fo on to the I4tli
divifion of the feventh circle, which muft contain the
laft word of that anfwer. The fame muft be done for
all the feven queftions; and to each of them muft be
afiigned two anfwers, the words of which are to be dif-
perfed through the feven circles. At the center of each
of thefe circles place a pivot; and have two magnetic
needles, the pointed end of pne of which muft be north,
and the other fouth, (QR). Now, the index of the cen¬
tral circle being dire&ed to any one of the queftions, if
you place one of the two magnetic needles on each of
the feven lefler circles, they will fix themfelves accord¬
ing to the dire&ion of the bars on the correfpondent
circles at the bottom of the box, and confequently
point to the feven words that compofe the anfwer. If
you place one of the other needles on each circle, it
will point to the words that are diametrically oppofite
to thofe of the firft anfwer, the north pole being in the
place of the fouth pole of the other.—You therefore
prefent this planetarium to any perfon, and defire him
to choofe one of the queftions there wrote; and you
then fet the index of the central circle to that queftion,
and putting one of the needles on each of the feven
circles, you turn it about; and when they all fettle, they
will point to the feven words that compofe the anfwer.
The two anfwers may be one favourable and the other
unfavourable; and the different needles will ferve to
diverfify the anfwers when you repeat the experi¬
ment.
There may be alfo a moveable needle to place againft
the names of the months; and when the party has fix¬
ed upon a queftion, you place that needle againft the
month in which be was born, which will give the bu-
finefs an air of more myftery. On the centre of the
large circle may be the figure of the fun ; and on each
of the feven fmaller circles one of the chara&ers of the
five planets, together with the earth and moon. This
experiment, well executed, is one of the moft enter¬
taining that magnetifm has produced.
to. The fugacious fuan.
Provide a box XY, 18 inches long, nine wide, andp|a(e
two deep, the top of which is to Aide on and off at CLXV.
the end Y. Toward the end X, defcribe a circle of fig. 1.
fix inches diameter, round which are to be fixed fix
fmall vafes of wood or ivory, of one inch and a half
high ; and to each of them there muft be a cover. At
the end Y place an egg B, of ivory or other matter,
of about three incites and a half high, with a cover
that fliuts by a hinge, and faflens with a fpring. It
muft be fixed on the (land C; through which, as well
as the bottom of the egg, and the part of the box di-
reflly underneath, there muft pafs a hole of one-third
of an inch in diameter. In this cavity place an ivory
cylinder F, that can move freely, and rifes or falls by
means of the fpring R. You muft have a thin copper
bafon A, of fix inches diameter, which is to be placed
on
Sea. III. M A G N ]
"Entertain- on the centre of the circle at X, and confequently in the
'nS. middle of the fix vafes. Let a proper workman con-
n-enrs ^ru<^ the movement expreffed by fig. 2. which is com-
 pofed of a quadrant G, that has 16 teeth, and is
moveable about an axis in the (tand H, that has an el¬
bow, by which it is fcrewed to the bottom of the box
at L. To the quadrant there mull be joined the
flraight piece K. The horizont:! wheel M has 24
teeth ; and is fupported by the piece S, which is fcrew¬
ed to the end of the box next Y. On the axis of this
wheel place a brafs rod OP, five inches long ; and at
?be part O place a large bar or horfe-fiioej of a femi-
-circular fidltn, and about two inches and a half dia¬
meter, ftrongly impregnated. The ileel rodV, takes
at one end the teeth of the quadrant G, by the pinion
F, and at the other end the wheel M, by the perpen¬
dicular wheel N, of 30 teeth ; the two ends of this
rod are fupported by the two Hands that hold the
oth^r pieces. Under the piece K, that joins to the
quadrant, mud be placed the fpring R, by which it is
railed, and pufhes up the cylinder that goes thro’ the
Hand C into the egg. You mull alfo have fix fmall
etwees or cafes, as Y, fig. 3. They mull be of the
fame circumference with the cylinder in the (land, and
round at their extremities ; their length mull be diffe¬
rent, that, when they are placed in the egg, and the
lower end enters the hole in which is the cylinder,
they may thruft it down more or lefs, when the top of
the egg, againll which they prefs, is faftened down;
and thereby lower the bar that is fixed to the end of
the quadrant, and confequently, by means of the pi¬
nion (fig. 4.) and wheels N M (fig. 2.), turn the
horfe-ffioe that is placed upon the axis of the laft
wheel. The exa6t length of thefe etwees can be de¬
termined by trials only ; which trials, however, may
be made with round pieces of wood. In each of thefe
etwees place a different quettion, wrote on a flip of
paper and rolled up, and in each of the vafes put the
anfwer to one of the quellions ; as you will know, by
trials, where the magnetic bar or horfe-fhoe will Hop.
Lallly. provide a fmall figure of a fwan, or what other
you pleafe, made of cork or enameLin which you mull
fix a touched needle, of the largelt fize of thofe com¬
monly ufed in fewing.
Being thus prepared, you offer a perfon the fix et¬
wees, and defire him to choofe any one of them him-
felf, and conceal the others, or give them to different
perfons. He is then to open his etwee, read the que-
ilion it contains to himfelf, and return the etwee to
you, after replacing the quellion. You then put the
etwee in the egg, and, placing the fwan upon the wa¬
ter m the bafon, you tell the company flic will pre-
fently difcover in which of the vafes the anfwer is con-
E T I s M. 4383
tained. The fame experiment may be repeated with Entertain*
all the etwees. Exjfri-
11. The multifarious verfe. n't:nt5‘
The eight words that compofe this Latin verfe,
Tot funt tili dotes, quot cxli Jidera, virgo (a),
being privately placed in any one of the different com¬
binations of which they are fufceptible, and which
are 40320 in number, to tell the order in which they
are placed. _ _ Plats
Provide a box that Units with hinges, and is eight GLXV.
inches long, three wide, and half an inch deep. Havefi&- i‘ .
eight pieces of wood about one-third of an inch thick,
two inches long, and one and a half wide, which will
therefore, when placed clofe together, exaftly fill the
box. In each of thefe pieces or tablets place a mag¬
netic bar, with their poles as is expreffed in the figure.
The bars being covered over, write on each of the ta¬
blets, in the order they then Hand, one of the words
of the foregoing Latin verfe. On a very thin board of
the fame dimenfions with the box, draw the eight
circles, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, (fig. 12.) whofe
centres Ihould be exaftly over thofe of the eight ta¬
blets in the box when the board is placed upon it. Di¬
vide each of thofe circles into eight parts, as in the fi¬
gure; and in each of thofe divifions write one of the
words of the Latia verfe, and in the precife order ex¬
preffed in the plate ; fo that, when the board is placed
over the box, the eight touched needles placed at the
centre of the circles may be regulated by the poles of
the bars in the box, and confequently the word that
the needle points to in the circle be the fame with that
inferibed on the tablet. Cover the board with a glafs,
to prevent the needles from rifing off their pivots, as is
done in the fea-compafs. Over the board place four
plates of glafs, I, L, M, N, fig. 13. which will give
the machine the figure of a truncated pyramid, of
eight inches high. Cover it with a glafs, or rather a
board in which are placed two lenfes, O O, of eight
inches focus, and diflant from each other about half
an inch. Line the four plates of glafs that compofe
the fides with very thin paper, that will admit the
light, and at the fame time prevent the company from
feeing the circles on the board.
Thefe preparations being made, you give the box to
any one; and tell him to place the tablets on which the
words are wrote, privately, in what pofition bethinks
proper, then to clofe the box, and, if he pleafe, to wrap
it up in paper, feal it, and give it you. Then placing
the board with the pyramid upon it, you immediate¬
ly tell him the order in which the tablets are placed,
by reading the words to which the needles on the
circles point.
MAG
MAGNITUDE, whatever is made up of parts lo¬
cally extended, er that hath feveral dimenfions ; as a
line, furface, folid, &c.
MAGNIFYING, the making of objtfts appear
Jarger than they would otherwife do; whence convex
lenfes, which have the power of doing this, are called
magnifyingglajfes. See Optics.
MAGNOLIA, the laurec-leated tulip-tree;
a genus of the polygynia order, belonging to the po-
Vol. VI. 2
(a) i.e. Thy virtues, virgin, are
MAG
yandi ia clafs of plants.
1 Species. 1. The glauea or fmall magnolia ie
a native of Virginia, Carolina, and other parts of
North Aftrerica. In moift places it rifes from feven or
eight to 15 or 16 feet high, with a flender ftem. The
wood is white and fpongy, the bark fmooth and of a
greenilh white colour; the branches garnilhed with
thick fmooth leaves, like thofe of the bay : but of an
oval fliape, fmooth on their edges, and white under-
24 X nealh.
ts numerous as the ftars of heaven.
MAH [ 4384 ] MAH
Magnolia neath. The flowers are produced at the extremities of
Mahowan l'le branches; are white, compofed of fix concave pe-
- J10galiy- tals, and have an agreeable fcent. After the flowers
are pad, the fruit increafes in fize till it becomes as
large as a walnut with its cover ; but of a conical
fhape, having many cells round the outfide, in each of
which is a flat feed about the fize of a fmall. kidney-
bean. When ripe, the fruit is of a brown colour, the
feeds are difcharged from their cells, and hang by a
fender thread. 2. The grandiflora, or great magnolia,
is a native of Florida and South Carolina. It rifes to
the height of 80 feet or more, with a ftraight trunk
upwards of two feet diameter, having a regular head.
The leaves refemble thofe of the laurel, but are larger,
and continue green throughout the year. The flowers
are produced at the ends of the branches, and are of a
purplifh white colour. 3. The tripetala, or umbrella-
tree, is a native of Carolina. It rifes, with a flender
trunk to the heignt of 16 or 20 feet ; the wood is foft
and fpongy ; the leaves remarkably large, and pro¬
duced in horizontal circles, fomewhat refembling an
umbrella, from whence the inhabitants of thofe coun¬
tries have giveu it this name. The flowers are com¬
pofed of ten or eleven white petals, that hang down
without any order. The leaves drop off at the begin¬
ning of winter. 4. The acuminata, with oval, fpear-
Ihaped, pointed leaves, is a native of the inland parts
of North America. The leaves are near eight inches
long, and five broad ; ending in a point. The flowers
come out early in the fpring, and are compofed of 12
white petals ; the wood is of a fine grain, and an orange
colour.
Culture. All thefe fpecies are propagated by feeds,
which mull be procured from the places where they
grow naturally. They Ibonld be put up in fand, and
fent over as foon as pofiible; for if they are kept long
out of the ground, they rarely grow.
MAGNUS (John), archbifhop of Upfal, was born
at Lincopping in 1488. Being made apoftolical nun¬
cio, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to prevent Gufta-
vus Vafa from becoming king of Sweden, and the in-
troduftion of Lutheranifm into his dominions; and
fpared no means to attain thefe ends. He died at
Rome in 1545. He wrote a hiftory of Sweden, and
a hillory of the archbilhops and bilhops of Upfal. He
was fucceeded by his brother Olaus Magnus.
MAGNUS campus, (anc. geog.), a trail lying
towards Scythopolis, or Bethfan in Galilee, beyond
which it extends into Samaria; Jofephus placing the
common boundary between thefe two diftriils, in the
Campus Magnus. Called alfo Efdrclon, (Judith) ; 30
miles long, and 18 broad ; having Samaria with mount
Ephraim to the fouth, the lake Genefareth to the call,
mount Carmel to the weft, and Lebanon to the north.
Magnus Portus, (anc. geog.), a port of the Bel-
gae, in Britain, on the Channel. Now thought to be
Portfmouth, in Hamplhire, (Camden). —Another
Portus Magnus of Baetica in Spain, (Ptolemy); a port
to the call of Abdera.
MAGO, the name of feveral Carthaginian gene¬
rals. See Carthage.
MAGPY, in ornithology. See Corvus.
MAHIE. See Bread-Tree.
MAHO. See Hibiscus.
MAHOGANY. SeeCEimus.
MAHOMET, or Mohammed, ftyled the Impqftor, Mahomet,
was born in the reign of Anufhirwan the Juft, empe- '
ror of Perfia, about the end of the 6th century of the
Chriftian sera. He came into the world under fome
difadvantages. His father Abd’allah was a younger
fon of Abd’almotalleb; and dying very young, and in
his father's lifetime, left his widow and infant-fon in
very mean circumftances, his whole fubftance confift-
ing but of five camels and one Ethiopian Ihe-flave.
Abd’almotaleb was therefore obliged to take care of
his grandchild Mahomet; which he not only did during
his life, but at his death enjoined his eldeft fon Abu
Taleb, who was brother to Abd’allah by the fame mo¬
ther, to provide for him for the future : which he very
affectionately did, and inftrtidled him in the bufinefsof
a merchant, which, he followed; and to that end he
took him into Syria when he was but 13. He after¬
wards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and
rich widow, for her faftor; in whofe fervice he be¬
haved himfelf fo well, that by making him herhufband
flic foon raifed him to an equality with the richeft in
Mecca.
After he began by this advantageous match to live at
hiseafe, it was, that he formed the fcheme ofeftablifh-
ing a new religion, or, as he exprefled it, of replant¬
ing the only true and ancient one profefled by Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Mofes, Jefus, and all the prophets,
by deftroying the grofs idolatry into which the gene¬
rality of his countrymen had fallen, and weeding out
the corruptions and fuperftitiona which the latter
Jews and Chriftians had, as he thought, introduced
into their religion, and reducing it to its original pu¬
rity, which confided chiefly in the worlhip of one
only God.
Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly
judged that it was neceflary for him to begin with the
converfion of his own houfehold. Having therefore
retired with his family, as he had done feveral times
before, to a cave in mount Hara, he there opened the
fecret of his miflion to his wife Khadijah ; and ac¬
quainted her, that the angel Gabriel had juft before ap¬
peared to him, and told him that he was appointed
the apoftle of God : he alfo repeated to her a paflage
which he pretended had been revealed to him by the
miniftry of the angel, with thofe other circumftances
of this firft appearance, which are related by the Ma¬
hometan writers. Khadijah received the news with
great joy ; fwearing by him in whofe hands her foul
was, that fhe trufted he would be the prophet of his
nation ; and immediately communicated what Ihe had
heard to her coufin Warakah Ebn Nawfal, who, be¬
ing a Chriftian, could write in the Hebrew charafter,
and was tolerably well verfed in the feriptures ; and he
as readily came into her opinion, alluring her that the
fame angel who had formerly appeared unto Mofes was
now fent to Mahomet. The firft overture the prophet
made was in the month of Ramadan, in the 40th year
of his age, which is therefore ufually called the year
of his miffion.
Encouraged by fo good a beginning, he refolved to
proceed, and try for fome time what he could do by
private perfuafion, not daring to hazard the whole af¬
fair by expofing it too fuddenly to the public. He foon
made profelytes of thofe under his own roof, viz. his
wife Khadijah, his fervant Zeid Ebn Haretha (to whom
MA.GNB TXS^T.
/.
Plate CLXV
2.
Mas oxrnx.
-K°. ±.
3.
MAH [ 4385 ] MAH
Mahomet, he gave his freedom on that occafion, (which after-
' wards became a rule to his followers) and his coufin
and pupil AH, the fon of Abu Taleb, though then
very young: but this laft, making no account of the
other two, ufed to (lyle himfelf the firft of btlievers.
The next perfon Mahomet applied to was Abd’allah
Ebn Abi Kohafa, furnamed Abu Beer, a man_of great
authority among the Koreidi, and one whofe iutereft
he well knew would be of great fervice to him | as it
foon appeared : for Abu Beer, being gained over, pre¬
vailed alfo on Othman Ebn Affan, Abd’alraham Ebn
Awf, Saad Ebn Abi Wakkas, al Zobeir Ebn al A-
wam, and Telha Ebn Obeid’allah, all principal men of
Mecca, to follow his example. Thefe men were the
fix chief companions, who, with a few more, were
converted in the fpace of three years: at the end of
. which, Mahomet having, as he hoped, a fufficient in-
tereft to fupport him, made his million no longer a fe-
cret, but gave out that God had commanded him to
admonifh his near relations ; and in order to do it with
more convenience and profpedt of fuccefs, he dire&ed
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite the fons
and defeendants of Abd’almotaleb, intending then to
open his mind to them. This was done, and about 40
of them came ; but Abu Laheb, one of his uncles,
making the company break up before Mahomet had
an opportunity of fpeaking, obliged him to give them
a fecond invitation the next day ; and when they were
come, he made them the following fpeech : “ 1 know
no man in all Arabia who can offer his kindred a more
excellent thing than I now do you: loffer you happinefs
both in this life, and in that which is to come ; God
Almighty hath commanded me to call you unto him :
Who, therefore, among you will be afliftant to me here¬
in, and become my brother and my vicegerent ?” All of
them hefitating, and declining the matter, Ali at length
rofe up, and declared that he would be his affiftant;
- and vehemently threatened thofe who Ihould oppofe
him. Mahomet upon this embraced Ali with great
demonftrations of affe&ion, and defired all who were
prefent to hearken to and obey him as his deputy ; at
which the company broke out into a great laughter,
telling Abu Taleb that he muff now pay obedience to
his fon.
This repulfe, however, was fo far from difeouraging
Mahomet, that he began to preach in public to the
people; who heard him with fome patience, till he came
to upbraid them with the idolatry, obitinacy, and per-
verfenefs,of themfelvesand theirfathers: which fo highly
provoked them, that they declared themfelves his ene¬
mies; and would foon have procured his ruin, had he
not been prote&ed by Abu Taleb. The chief of the
Koreiih warmly folicited this perfon to defert his ne¬
phew, making frequent remonffrances againft the in¬
novations he was attempting ; which proving ineffec¬
tual, they at length threatened him with an open rup¬
ture, if he did not prevail on Mahomet to defift. At
this Abu Taleb was fo far moved, that he earneflly
diffuaded his nephew from purfuing the affair any far¬
ther, reprefenting the great danger he and his friends
muff otherwife run. But Mahomet was not to be in¬
timidated ; telling his uncle plainly, that if they fet the
fun againft him on his right hand, and the moon on his
left, he ojjould not leave his enterprize : and Abu Ta¬
le b, feeing him fo firmly refolved to proceed, ufed no
further arguments, but promifed to (land by him a- Mahomet,
gainft all his enemies. —
The Koreiih, finding they could prevail neither by
fair words or menaces, tried what they could do by
force and ill treatment; ufing Mahomet’s followers fo
very injurioufly, that it was not fafe for them to con¬
tinue at Mecca any longer : whereupon Mahomet gave
leave to fuch of them as had not friends to proteft
them to feek for refuge elfewhere. And accordingly,
in the fifth year of the prophet’s miffion, 16 of them,
four of whom were women, fled into Ethiopia ; and
among them Othman Ebn Affan and his wife Rakiah,
Mahomet’s daughter. This was the firft flight ; but
afterwards feveral others followed them, retiring one
after another, to the number of 83 men and 18 wo¬
men, befides children. Thefe refugees were kind¬
ly received by the Najaflii, or king of Ethiopia ;
who refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom the
Koreilh fent to demand them, and, as the Arab wri¬
ters unanimoufly atteft, even profeffed the Mahome¬
tan religion. '
In the fixth year of his miflion, Mahomet had the
pleafure of feeing his party ftrengthened by the con-
verfion of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valour and
merit; and of Omar Ebn al Kattab, a perfon highly
etteemed, and once a violent oppofer of the prophet.
As perfeeution generally advances rather than obftrudts
the fpreading of a religion, Iflamifm made fo great a
progrefs nmong the Arab tribes, that the Koreiff, to
fupprefs it cffeilually, if poffible, in the feventh year of
Mahomet’s milfion, made a folemn league or covenant
againft the Haffemites and the family of Abd’almo¬
taleb, engaging themfelves to contraA no marriages
with any of them, and to have no communication with
them ; and, to give it the greater fantlion, reduced it
into writing, and laid it up in the Caaba. Upon this
the tribe became divided into two factions; and the
family of Halhem all repaired to Abu Taleb, as their
head ; except only Abd’al Uzza, furnamed Abu La¬
heb, who, out of inveterate hatred to his nephew and
his do&rine, went over to the oppofite party, whofe
chief was Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, of the family of
Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for three
years; but, in the tenth year of his million, Mahomet
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly
Ihewed his difapprobation of the league which the Ko-
reiih had made againft them, by fending a worm to
eat out every word of the inftrument, except the name
of God* Of this accident Mahomet had probably fome
private notice: for Abu Taleb went immediately to
the Koreifh, and acquainted them with it; offering, if
it proved falfe, to deliver his nephew up to them; but,
in cafe it were true, he infifted that they ought to lay
afide their animofity, and annul the league they had
made againft the Haftieraites. To this they acquiefcedf
and, going to iiifpeft the writing, to their great afto-
tiifhment found it to be as Abu Taleb had faid; and
the league was thereupon declared void.
In the fame year Abu Taleb died, at the age of
.above fourfeore; and it is the general opinion that he
died an infidel: though others fay, that when he was
at the point of death he embraced Mahometanifm; and
produce fome paffages out of his poetical compofitions
to confirm their affertion. About a month, or, as fome
24. X 2 'write.
MAH
MAH [ 4386 ]
Mahomet, write, three days after the death of this great benefac-
" tor and patron, Mahomet had the additional mortifi¬
cation to lofe his wife Khadijah, who had fo generouf-
ly made his fortune. For which reafon this year is
Called the year of mourning.
On the death of thefe two perfons, theKoreifh began
to be more troublefome than ever to their prophet, and
efpecially fome who had formerly been his intimate
friends; infomuch that he found himfelf obliged to
f.-tk for Ihelter elfewhere, and firft pitched upon Tayef,
about 60 miles eaft from Mecca, for the place of his
retreat. Thither therefore he went, accompanied by
his fervant Zied, and applied himfelf to two of the
chief of the tribe of Thakif who were the inhabitants
of that 'place; but they received him very coldly.
However, he (laid there a month ; and fome of the
more confiderate and better fort of men treated him
with a little refpeft: but the flaves and inferior people
at length rofe againft him; and, bringing him to the
v'all of the city, obliged him to depart and return to
Mecca, where he put himfelf under the protection of
al Motaam Ebn Adi.
This repulfegreatly difeouraged his followers. How¬
ever, Mahomet was not wanting to himfelf; but boldly
continued to preach to the public afferoblies at the pil¬
grimage, and gained feveral profelytes; and among
them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb of the Jewilh
tribe of Khazraj, who, on their return home, failed
not to fpeak much in commendation of their new reli¬
gion, and exhorted their fellow-citizens to embrace the
fame.
In the 12th year of his miffion it was that Mahomet
gave out that he had made his night-journey from
Mecca to Jerufalem, and thence to heaven, fo much
fpoken of by all that write of him. Dr Prideaux
thinks he invented it, either to anfwerthe expectations
©f thofe who demanded fome miracle as a proof of his
tniffion; or elfe, by pretending to have converfed with
God, to eftablilh the authority of whatever he fhould
think fit to leave behind by way of oral tradition, and
make bis fayings to fetve the fame purpofe as the oral
law of the Jews. But it does not appear that Maho¬
met himfelf ever expeCted fo great a regard Ihould be
paid to his fayings, as his followers have fince done ;
and feeing he all along declaimed any power of per¬
forming miracles, it feems rather to have been a fetch
of policy to raife his reputation, by pretending to have
actually convevfed with God in heaven, as Mofes had
heretofore done in the mount, and to have received fe¬
veral inilitutions immediately from him, whereas be¬
fore he contented himfelf with perfuading them that
he had all by the miniftry of Gabriel.
However, this ftory feemed fo abfurd aqd incredible,
that feveral of his followers left him upon it; and had
probably ruined the whole defign, had not Abu Beer
vouched for his veracity, and declared, that, if Maho¬
met affirmed it to be true, he verily believed the whole.
Which happy incident not only retrieved the prophet’s
credit, but increafed it to fuch a degree, that he was
fecure of being able to make his difciples fwallow
whatever he pleafed to impofe on them for the future.
And this fiClion, notwithftanding its extravagance,
was one of the moft artful contrivances Mahomet ever
put in pradice, and what chiefly contributed to the
raffing of his reputation to that g*eat height to which
it afterwards arrived. Maliometi.
In this year, called by the Mahometans the accepted '
year, 12 men of Yathreb ct Medina, of whom ten were
of the tribe of Khazraj, and the other two of that of
Aws, came to Mecca, and took an oath of fidelity to
Mahomet at al Akaba, a hill on the north of that city.
This oath was called the 'womens oath; not that any
women were prefent at this time, but becaufe a man
was not thereby obliged to take up arms in defence of
Mahomet or his religion ; it being the fame oath that
was afterwards exaCted of the women, the form of which
we have in the Koran, and is to this effeCi: viz. That
they fliould renounce all idolatry; and they fhould not
fteal, nor commit fornication, nor kill their children (as
the Pagan Arabs ufed to do when they apprehended
they ftiould not be able to maintain them,) nor forge
calumnies; and that they fliould obey the prophet in
all things that were reafonable. When they had fo-
lemnly engaged to all this, Mahomet fent one of his
difciples, named Mafab Ebn Otnair, home with them,
to inftruft them more fully in the grounds and cere¬
monies of his new religion.
Mofab being arrived at Medina, by the affiftance of
thofe who had been formerly converted, gained feveral
profelytes, particularly Ofaid Ebn Hodeira, a chief
man of the city, and Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Aws; Mahometanifm fpreading fo fail, that
there was fcarce a houfe wherein there were not fome
who had embraced it.
The next year, being the 13th of Mahomet’s mif¬
fion, Mafab returned to Mecca, accompanied by 73
men and two women of Medina who had profefled Ifla-
mifrn, befides fome others who were as yet unbelievers.
On their arrival, they immediately fent to Mahomet,
and offered him their afiutance, of which he was now
in great need ; for his adverfaries were by this time
grown fo powerful in Mecca, that he could not flay
there much longer without imminent danger. Where¬
fore he accepted their propofal, and met them one
night, by appointment, at al Akaba above-mentioned,
attended by his uncle al Abbas; who, though he was
not then a believer, wifhed his nephew well, and made
a fpeech to thofe of Medina, wherein he told them,
that as Mahomet was obliged to quit his native city,
and feek an afylum elfewhere, and they had offered
him their protedfion, they would do well not to de¬
ceive him ; that if they were not .firmly refolved to de¬
fend, and not betray him, they had better declare their
minds, and let him provide for his fafety in fome other
manner. Upon their protefting their fincerity, Ma¬
homet fwore to be faithful to them, on condition that
they fhould protedt him againft all infults, as heartily
as they would their own wives and families. They
then afked him what recompence they were to expedl
if they fhould happen to be killed in bis quarrel; he
anfwered, Paradife. Whereupon they pledged their
faith to him, and fo returned home; after Mahomet
had chofen J2 out of their number, who were to have
the fame authority among them as the 12 apoftles of
Chrift had among his difciples.
Hitherto Mahomet had propagated his religion by
fair means, fo that the whole fuccefs of his enterprize,
before his flight to Medina, muft be attributed to per-
fuafion only, and not to compulfion. For before this
fecond oath of fealty or inauguration at al Akaba, he
had
Mahomet.
MAH [ 4387 ] MAH
had no permifiion to ufe any force at all 5 and in feve-
ral places of the Koran, which he pretended were re¬
vealed during his ftay at Mecca, he declares his btifi-
nefs was only to preach and admonilh; that he had no
authority to compel any perfon to embrace his reli¬
gion ; and that, whether people believe or not, was
none of his concern, but belonged folely unto God.
And he was fo far from allowing his followers to ufe
force, that he exhorted them to bear patiently thofe
injuries which were offered them on account of their
faith; and, when perfecuted himfelf, chofe rather to
quit the place of his birth and retire to Medina, than
to make any refilfance. But this great pafiivenefs and
moderation feem entirely owing to his want of power,
and the great fuperiority of his oppofers for the firfl
12 years of his miffion ; for no fooner was he enabled,
by the affillance of thofe of Medina, to make head
againft his enemies, than he gave out, that God had
allowed him and his followers to defend tbemfelves
againft the infidels; and at length, as his forces increa-
fed, he pretended to have the divine leave even to at¬
tack them; and to deftroy idolatry, and fet up the true
faith by the fword ; finding, by experience, that his
dtfigns would othervvife proceed very flowly, if they
were not utterly overthrown ; and knowing, on the
other hand, that innovators, when they depend folely
on their own ftrength, andean compel, feldom run any
rifque; from whence, fays Machiavel, it follows, that
all the armed prophets have fucceeded, and the unarm¬
ed ones have failed, Mofes, Cyrus,Thefeus, and Ro¬
mulus, would not have been able to ellablifii the obfer-
vance of their inftitutions for any length of time, had
they not been armed. The firft paflage of the Koran
which gave Mahomet the permiflion of defending him¬
felf by arms, is faid to have been that in the 22d chap¬
ter; after which a great number to the fame purpofe
were revealed.
That Mahomet had a right to take up arms for his
owm defence againft his unjnft perfecutors, may, per¬
haps, be allowed ; - but whether he ought afterwards to
have made ufe of that means for the eftablilhing of his
religion, it is not fo eafy to determine. How far the fe-
cular power may or ought to interpofe in affairs of this
nature, mankind are not agreed. The method of con¬
verting by the fword gives no very favourable idea of
the faith which is fo propagated, and is difallowed by
every body in thofe of another religion, though the
fame perfons are willing to admit of it for the advance¬
ment of their own; fuppofing that, though a falfe re¬
ligion ought not to be ellabldhed by authority, yet a
true one may; and accordingly force is almoft as con-
ftantly employed in thefe cafes by thofe who have the
power in their hands, as it is conftantly complained of
by thofe who fuffer the violence. It is certainly one of
the moft convincing proofs that Mahometifm was no
other than a human invention, that it owed its pro-
grefs and eftablifhment almoft entirely to the fword ;
and it is one of the ftrongeft demonftrations of the di¬
vine original of Chriftianity, that it prevailed againft
all the force and powers of the world by the mere dint
of its own truth, after having flood the affaults of all
manner of perfecutions, as well as other oppolitions,
for 300 years together, and at length made the Roman
emperors themfelves fubmit thereto; after which time,
indeed, this proof feems to fail, Chriftianity being then
eftablifhed, and Paganifm abolifhed, by public autho¬
rity, which has had great influence in the propagation
of the one and deftrudiort of the other ever fince. But
to return.
Mahomet, having provided for the fecurity of his
companions as well as his own, by the league offenfive
and defenfive which he had now concluded with thofe
of Medina, dire&ed them to repair thither, which they
accordingly did; but himfelf with Abu Beer and Ali
ftaid behind, having not yet received the divine per-
miffion, as he pretended, to leave Mecca. The Koreiftt,
fearing the confequence of this new alliance, began to
think it abfolutely neceffary to prevent Mahomet’s
efcape to Medina; and having held a council thereon,
after feveral milder expedients had been rejeded, they
came to a refolution that he fhould be killed; and
agreed that a man fliould be chofen out of every tribe
for the execution of this defign ; and that each man
ftiould have a blow at him with his fword, that the
guilt of his blood might fall equally on all the tribes,
to whofe united power the Halhemites were much in¬
ferior, and therefore durft not attempt to revenge their
kinfman’s death.
This confpiracy was fcarce formed, when, by fome
means or other, it came to Mahomet’s knowledge; and
he gave out that it was revealed to him by the an¬
gel Gabriel, who had now ordered him to retire to
Medina. Whereupon, to amufe his enemies, he direc¬
ted Ali to lie down in his place, and wrap himfelf up
in his green cloak, which he did; and Mahomet efca-
ped miraculoufly, as they pretend, to Abu Beer’s houfe,
nnperceived by the confpirators, who had already af-
fembled at the prophet’s door. They, in the mean
time, looking through the crevice, and feeing Ali,
whom they took to be Mahomet himfelf, afleep, con¬
tinued watching there till morning, when Ali arofe,
and they found themfelves deceived.
From Abu Beer’s houfe Mahomet and he went to
a cave in mount Thur, to the fouth-eaft of Mecca,
accompanied only by Amer Ebn Foheirah, Abu Beer’s
fervant, and Abd’ailah Ebn Oreitah, an idolater whom
they had hired for a guide. In this cave they lay
hid three days, to avoid the fearch of their enemies;
which they very narrowly efcaped, and not without
the afiiftance of more miracles than one : for fome fay
that the Koreifti were ftruck with blidnefs, fo that
they could not find the cave ; others, that after Ma¬
homet and his companions were got in, two pigeons
laid their eggs at the entrance, and a fpider covered
the mouth of the cave with her web, which made
them look no farther. Abu Beer, feeing the prophet
in fuch imminent danger, became very forrovvful ;
whereupon Mahomet comforted him with thefe words,
recorded in the Koran, Be not grieved, fir Go'dis ’with
us. Their enemies being retired, they left the cave,
and fet out for Medina, by a by-road ; and having
fortunately, or, as the Mahometans tell us> miracu¬
loufly efcaped fome who were fent to purfue them,
arrived fafely at that city ; whither Ali followed them
in three days, after he had fettled fo-mc affairs at
Mecca.
The firft thing Mahomet did after his arrival at
Medina, was to built a temple for his religious wor-
fhip, and a houfe for himfelf, which he did on a par¬
cel of ground which had before ferved to gut camels
Mahomet.
M A H [ 4388 ] MAH
Mahomet, in, or, as others tell us, for a burying-ground, and
^ belonged to Sahal and Soheil the fons of Amru, who
were orphans. This aftion Dr Prideaux exclaims
againft, reprefenting it as a flagrant inftance of in-
juftice ; for that, fays he, he violently difpofiefled
thefe poor orphans, the fons of an inferior artificer
(whom the author he quotes calls a carpenter), of this
ground, ahd fo founded the firft fabric of his worfhip
with the like wickednefs as he did his religion. But,
to fay nothing of the improbability that Mahomet
fhould aft in fo impolitic a manner at his firft coming,
the Mahometan writers fet this affair in a quite diffe¬
rent light: one tells us that he treated with the lads
about the price of the ground, but they defired he
would accept it as a prefent t however, as hiftorians
of good credit affure us, he aftually bought it ; and
the money was paid by Abu Beer. Befides, had
Mahomet accepted it as a prefent, the orphans were
in circumftances fufficient to have afforded it: for
they were of a very good family, of the tribe of Naj-
jer, one of the moft illuftrious among the Arabs ; and
not the fons of a carpenter, as Dr Prideaux’s author
writes, who took the word Najjer, v/Wich fignifies a
carpenter, for an appellative, whereas it is a proper
name.
Mahomet, being fecurely fettled at Medina, and
able not only to defend himfelf againft the infults of
his enemies, but to attack them, began to fend out
fmall parties to make reprifals on the Koreifli; the
firft party confiding of no more than nine men, who
intercepted and plundered a caravan belonging to that
tribe, and in the aftion took two prifoners. But what
eftabliftied his affairs very much, and was the foun¬
dation on which he built all his fucceeding greatnefs,
was the gaining of the battle of Bedr, which was
fought in the fecond year of the Hejra, and is fo famous
in the Mahometan hiftory. Some reckon no lefs than
27 expeditions wherein Mahomet was perfonally pre¬
fent, in nine of which he gave battle, befides/- fcvsral
other expeditions in which he was not prefent. His
forces he maintained partly by the contributions of
his followers for this purpofe, which he called by the
name of zacat or alms, and the paying of which he very
artfully made one main article of his religion ; and
partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to be
brought into the public treafury for that purpofe, in
which matter he likewife pretended to aft by the di¬
vine direftion.
In a few years, by the fuccefs of his arms (not-
withftanding he fometimes came off by the worft) he
confiderably raifed his credit and power. In the fixth
year of the Hejra he fet out with 1400 men to vifit
the temple of Mecca, not with any intent of commit¬
ting hoftilities, but in a peaceable manner. However,
when he came to al Hodeibiya, which is fituate partly
within and partly without the facred territory, the
Koreifti fent to let him know that they would not
permit him to enter Mecca, unlefs he forced his way;
whereupon he called his troops about him, and they
all took a folemn oath of fealty or homage to him,
and he refolved to attack the city ; but thofe. of
Mecca fending Arwa Ebn Mafud, prince of the tribe
of Thakif, as their ambaffador, to defire peace, a truce
was concluded between them for ten years, by which
any perfon was allowed to enter into league either with
Mahomet, or with the Koreifh, as he thought fit. Mahomet.
It may not be improper, to (how the inconceivable r
veneration and refpeft the Mahometans by this time
had for their prophet, to mention the account which
the above-mentioned ambaffador gave the Koreifti, at
his return, of their behaviour. He faid he had been
at the courts both of the Roman emperor and of the
king of Perfia, and never faw any prince fo highly
refpefted by his fubjefts as Mahomet was by his com¬
panions : for, whenever he made the ablution, in or¬
der to fay bis prayers, they ran and catched the water
that he had ufed ; and, whenever he fpit, they im¬
mediately licked it up, and gathered up every hair
that fell from him with great fuperftition.
In the feventh year of the Hejra, Mahomet began
to think of propagating his religion beyond the
bounds of Arabia; and fent meffengers to the neigh¬
bouring princes, with letters to invite them to Maho-
metifm. Nor was this projeft without fome fuccefs.
Khofru Parviz, then king of Perfia, received his let¬
ter with great difdain, and tore it in a paffion, fend¬
ing away the meffenger very abruptly ; which when
Mahomet heard, he faid God Jhall tear his kingdom.
And foon after a meffenger came to Mahomet from
Badhan king of Yaman, who was a dependent on the
Perfians, to acquaint him that he had received orders
to fend him to Khofru. Mahomet put off his anfwer
till the next morning, and then told the meffenger it
had been revealed to him that night that Khofru was
flain by his fon Shiruyeh ; adding, that he was well
affured his new religion and empire (hould rife to as
great a height as that of Khofru ; and therefore bid
him advife his matter to embrace Mahometifm. The
meffenger being returned, Badhan in a few days re¬
ceived a letter from Shiruyeh, informing him of his
father’s death, and ordering him to give the prophet
no further diftnrbance. Whereupon Badhan and the
Perfians with him turned Mahometans.
The emperor Heraclius, as the Arabian hiftorians
affure us, received Mahomet’s letter with great re¬
fpeft, laying it on his pillow, and difmiffed the bearer
honourably. And fome pretend that he would have
profeffed this new faith, had he not been afraid of
lofing his crown.
Mahomet wrote to the fame effeft to the king of
Ethiopia, though he had been converted before, ac¬
cording to the Arab writers ; and to Mokawkas, go¬
vernor of Egypt, who gave the meffenger a very fa¬
vourable reception, and fent feveral valuable prefents
to Mahomer, and among the reft two girls, one of
which, named Mary, became a great favourite with
him. He alfo fent letters of the like purport to fe¬
veral Arab princes : particularly one to al Hareth Ebn
Abi Shamer king of Ghaffean, who returning for an¬
fwer that he would go to Mahomet himfelf, the pro¬
phet faid, May his kingdom perijh: another to Hawd-
ha Ebn Ali, king of Yamama, who was a Chriftian,
and, having fome time before profeffed Iflamifm, had
lately returned to his former faith; this prince fent
back a very rough anfwer, upon which Mahomet
curfing him, he died foon after: and a third to al
Mondar Ebn Sawa, king of Bahrein, who embraced
Mahometifm, and all the Arabs of that country fol¬
lowed his example.
The eighth year of the Hejra was a very fortu¬
nate
MAH [ 4389 ] MAH
Mahomet, nate year to Mahomet. In the beginning of it, Kha-
— led Ebn al Walid and Amru Ebn al As, both excel¬
lent foldiers, the firft of whom afterwards conquered
Syria and other countries, and the latter Egypt, be¬
came profelytes of Mahometifm. And foon after the
prophet fent 3000 men againft the Grecian forces, to
revenge the death of one of his ambaffadors, who, be¬
ing fent to the governor of Bofra on the fame errand
as thofe who went to the abovementioned princes,
were flain by an Arab, of the tribe of Ghaffan, at
Muta, a town in the territory of Balka in Syria,
about three days journey eaitward from Jerufalem,
near which town they encountered. The Grecians
being vaftly fuperior in number, (for, including the
auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of 100,000 men,)
the Mahometans were repulfed in the firft attack,
and loft fuccefiively three of their generals, viz. Zeid
Ebn Haretha Mahomet’s freedman, Jaafar the fon of
Abu Taleb, and Abdallah Ebn Rawaha: but Khaled
Ebn al Walid fucceeding to the command, overthrew
the Greeks with a great flaughter, and brought away
abundance of rich fpoil; on occafion of which aftion
Mahomet gave him the title of Seif min foyuf Allah,
“ one of the fwords of God.”
In this year alfo Mahomet took the city of Mecca,
the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce con¬
cluded on tw’o years before. For the tribe of Btcr,
who were confederates with the Koreifti, attacking
thofe of Khozaah, who were allies of Mahomet, killed
feveral of them, being fupported in the adlion by a
party of the Koreifh themfelves. The confequence
of this violation was foon apprehended; and Abu So-
fian himfelf made a journey to Medina on purpofe to
heal the breach and renew the truce: but in vain;
for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refufed to fee
him: whereupon he applied to Abu Beer and Ali; but
they giving him no anfwer, he was obliged to return
to Mecca as he came.
Mahomet immediately gave orders for preparations
to be made^ that he might furprife the Meccans while
they were unprovided to receive him: in a little time
he began his march thither; and by that time he came
near the city, his forces were encreafed to 10,000 men.
Thofe of Mecca, being not in a condition to defend
themfelves againft fo formidable an army, furrendered
at diferetion ; and Abu Sofian faved his life by turning
Mahometan. About 28 of the idolaters were killed
by a party under the command of Khaled ; but this
happened contrary to Mahomet’s orders, who, when
he entered the town, pardoned all the Koreifti on
their fubmiffion, except only fix men and four wo¬
men, who were more obnoxious than ordinary, (fomc
of them having apollatifed), and were folemnly pro-
feribed by the prophet himfelf; but of thefe no
more than three men and one woman were put to
death, the reft obtaining pardon on their embracing
Mahometifm, and one of the women making her
efcape.
The remaider of this year Mahomet employed in
deftroying the idols in and round Mecca, fending feveral
of his generals on expeditions for that purpofe, and to
invite the Arabs to Iflamifm; wherein it is no wonder
if they now met with fuccefs.
The next year, being the ninth of the Hejra, the
Mahometans call the year of embaflies; for the Arabs
had been hitherto expe&ing the iflue of the war be- Mahomet,
tween Mahomet and the Koreifti: but, fo foon as that
tribe, the principal of the whole nation, and the ge-
nuine defeendants of Iftimael, whofe prerogatives none
offered to difpute, had fubmitted, they were fatisfied
that it was not in their power to oppofe Mahomet j
and therefore began to come in to him in great num¬
bers, and to fend embafiies to make their fubmiffions
to him, both to Mecca, while he ftaid there, and alfcx
to Medina, whither he returned this year. Among
the reft, five kings of the tribe of Hamyar pro-
fefied Mahometifm, and fent ambafladors to notify the
fame.
In the 10th year, Ali was fent into Yaman to
propagate the Mahometan faith there; and, as it is
faid, converted the whole tribe of Hamdan in one
day. Their example was quickly followed by all the
inhabitants of that province, except only thofe of
Najran, who, being Chriftians, chofe rather to pay
tribute.
Thus was Mahometifm eftablifhed, and idolatry
rooted out, even in Mahomet’s lifetime (for he died
the next year,) throughout all Arabia, except only
Yamama, where Mofeilama, who fet up alfo for a pro¬
phet as Mahomet’s competitor, had a great party, and
was not reduced till the khalifat of Abu Beer: and the
Arabs being then united in one faith, and under one
prince, found themfelves in a condition of making thofe
conquefts, which extended the Mahometan faith over
fo great a part of the world.
MAHOMETANISM, or Mahometism, the fy-
ftem of religion broached by Mahomet, and ftill ad¬
hered to by his followers. See Mahomet, and Al¬
coran.
Mahometanifm is profefled by the Turks, Perfians,
and feveral nations among the Africans, and many
among the Eaft-Indians.
The Mahometans divide their religion into two ge¬
neral parts, faith and pra&ice : of which the firft is
divided into fix diftinft branches; Belief in God, in
his angels, in his feriptures, in his prophets, in the
refurreftion and final judgment, and in God’s abfolute
decrees. The points relating to pra&ice are, Prayer,
with waftiings, &c. alms, failing, pilgrimage to Mecca,
and circumcifion.
1. Of the Mahometan Faith.~\ 1. That both Maho¬
met and thofe among his followers who are reckoned
orthodox, had and continue to have juft and true no¬
tions of God and his attributes, appears fo plain from
the Koran itfelf, and all the Mahometan divines, that
it would be lofs of time to refute thofe who fuppofe
the God of Mahomet to be different from the true
God, and only a fi&itious deity or idol of his own
creation.
2. The exiftence of angels, and their purity, arc
abfolutely required to be believed in the Koran; and
he is reckoned an infidel who denies there are fuch
beings, or hates any of them, or afferts any diftin&ion
of fexes among them. They believe them to have
pure and fubtile bodies, created of fire ; that they
neither eat nor drink, nor propagate their fpecies;
that they have various forms and offices, fome ado¬
ring God in different poftures, others finging praifes
to him, or interceding for mankind. They hold, that
fome of them are employed in writing down the ac¬
tions.
MAH [ 4390 ] MAH
Mahome- tions of men; others in carrying the throne of God,
tanlfm' and other fervices.
The four angels, whom they look on as more emi¬
nently in God’s favour, and often mention on account
of the offices affigned them, are, Gabriel, to whom
they give feveral titles, particularly thofe of the holy
fpirit, and the angel of revelations, fuppofing him to
be honoured by God with a greater confidence than
any other, and to be employed in writing down the
divine decrees ; Michael, the friend and protestor of
the Jews; Azrael, the angel of death, who feparates
mens fouls from their bodies; and Irafil, whofe office
it will be to found the trumpet at the refurreclion.
The Mahometans alfo believe, that two guardian an¬
gels attend on every man, to obferve and write down
his aflions, being changed every day, and therefore
called al Moakkibat, or “ the angels who continually
fucceed one another.”
The devil, whom Mahomet names Eblis, from his
defpair, was once one of thofe angels who are neareft
to God’s prefence, called Azazil; and fell, according
to the dodrine of the Koran, for refufing to pay ho¬
mage to Adam at the command of God.
Befides angels and devils, the Mahometans are
taught by the Koran to believe an intermediate order
of creatures, which they call jin or genii, created alfo
of fire, but of a groffer fabric than angels, fince they
eat and drink, and propagate their fpecies, and are
fubjedt to death. Some of thefe are fuppofed to be
good, and others bad, and capable of future falvation
or damnation, as men are; whence Mahomet pre¬
tended to be fent for the converfion of genii as well
as men.
3. As to the feriptures, the Mahometans are taught
by the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world,
gave revelations of his will in writing to feveral pro¬
phets, the whole and every one of which it is abfo-
lutely neceffary for a good Mofiem to believe. The
number of thefe facred books were, according to them,
104. Of which 10 were given to Adam, 50 to Seth,
30 to Edris or Enoch, 10 to Abraham; and the other
four, being the Pentateuch, the Pfaims, the Gofpel,
and the Koran, were fucceffively delivered to Mofes,
David, Jefus, and Mahomet; which laft being the
feal of the prophets, thofe revelations are now clofed,
and no more are to be expe&ed. All thefe divine
books, except the four laft, they agree to be now en¬
tirely loft, and their contents unknown 5 though the
Sabians have feveral books which they attribute to
fome of the antediluvian prophets. And of thofe four,
the Pentateuch, Pfaims, and Gofpel, they fay, have
undergone fo many alterations and corruptions, that,
though there may pofiibly be fome part of the true
word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given to
the prefent copies in the hands of the Jews and Chri-
ftians. The Mahometans have alfo a gofpel in Arabic,
attributed to St Barnabas; wherein the hiftory of
Jefus Chrift is related in a manner very different from
what we find in the true gofpels, and correfpondent
to thofe traditions which Mahomet has followed in his
Koran. Of this gofpel the Morifcoes in Africa have
a tranflation in Spanifh ; and there is, in the library
of prince Eugene of Savoy, a manufeript of fome an¬
tiquity, containing an Italian tranfiation of the fame
gofpel; made, it is to be fuppofed, for the ufe of re¬
negades. This book appears to be no original forgery MabomW
of the Mahometans; though they have, no doubt, in- tanifm- I
terpolated and altered it fince, the better to ferve their" !
purpofe ; and in particular, inftead of the Paraclete,
or Comforter, they have in this apocryphal gofpel in-
ferted the word Periclyte, that is, the “famous,” or
“ illuftrious;” by which they pretend their prophet
was foretold by name, that being the fignification of
Mohammed in Arabic: and this they fay to juftify
that paffage of the Koran, where Jefus Chrift is for¬
mally afferted to have foretold his coming, under his
other name of Ahmed, which is derived from the fame
root as Mohammed, and of the fame import, From
thefe, or fome other forgeries of the fame ftamp, it
is that the Mahometans quote feveral paffages, of
which there are not the leaft footfteps in the New
Teftament.
4. The number of the prophets, which have been
from time to time fent by God into the world,
amounts to no lefs than 224,000, according to one
Mahometan tradition ; or to 124,000, according to
another: among whom 313 were apoftles, fent with
fpecial comnqifiions to reclaim mankind from infidelity
and fuperftition; and fix of them brought new laws
or difpenfations, which fucceffively abrogated the pre¬
ceding: thefe were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Mofes,
Jefus, and Mahomet. All the prophets in general,
the Mahometans believe to have been free from great
fins and errors of confequence, and profeffors of one
and the fame religion, that is, Iflam, notwithftanding
the different laws and inftitutions which they ob-
ferved. They allow of degrees among them, and hold
fome of them to be more excellent and honourable
than others. The firft place they give to the revealers
and eftabliftiers of new difpenfations, and the next to
the apoftles.
In this great number of prophets, they not only
reckon divers patriarchs and perfons named in ferip-
ture, but not recorded to have been prophets, (where¬
in the Jewifti and Chriftian writers have fometimes led
the way,) as Adam, Seth, Lot, Ifhmael, Nun, Jo-
fhua, &c. and introduce fome of them under diffe¬
rent names, as Enoch, Heber, and “Jethro, who are
called, in the Koran, Edris, Hud, and Shoaib; but
feveral others whofe very names do not appear in
feripture (though they endeavour to find fome per¬
fons there to fix them on), as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu’lkefl,
&c.
5. The belief of a general refurredlion and a future
judgment.
When a corpfe is laid in the grave, they fay he is
received by an,angel, who gives him notice of the co¬
ming of the two examiners ; who are two black livid
angels, of a terrible appiearance, named Monker and
Nakir. Thefe orderthe dead perfon to fit upright; and
examine him concerning his faith, as to the unity of
God, and the miffion of Mahomet : if he anfwer right¬
ly, they fuller the body to reft in peace, and it is re-
frelhed by the air of paradife ; but, if not, they beat
him on the temples with iron maces, till he roars out
for anguilh fo loud, that he is heard by all from call to
weft, except men and genii. They then prefs the
earth on the corpfe, which is gnawed and ftung till
the refurredfiort by 99 dragons, with feven heads
each; or, as others fay, their fins will become veno¬
mous
\
MAH [ 4391 1 M A II
Hahome- mmis beads, tbe jTrievous ones flinging like dragons,
, •anifni. t}ie fma|]er Uke fcorpions, and the other like fer-
" pents: circumflances which fome underfland in a figu¬
rative fenfe.
As to the foul, they hold, that, when it is feparated
■from the body by the angel of death, who performs his
office with eafe and gentlenefs towards the good, and
with violence towards the wicked, it enters into that
which they call al berzakh, or the interval between
death and the refurreftion. If the departed perfon
was a believer, they fay two angels meet it, who con¬
vey it to heaven, that its place there may be affigned-,
accordingto its merit and degree. For they diftin-
gnifh the fouls of the faithful into three claffes : the
•firfl of prophets, whofe fouls are admitted into para-
dife immediately; the fecond of martyrs, whofe fpi-
lf • rhs, according to a tradition of Mahomet, reft in the
crops of green birds, which eat of the fruits and
drink of the rivers of paradife; and the third of other
"believers, concerning the ftate of whofe fouls before
the refurreftion there are various opinions.
Though fome among the Mahometans have thought
that the refurredlion will be merely fpiritual, and no
more than the returning of the foul to the place
whence it firfl came (an opinion defended by Ebn Sina,
-and called by fome the opinien of the philofophers ;) and
■others, who allow man to confifl of body only, that
it will be merely corporeal ; the received opinion is,
that both body and foul will be raifed : and their doc¬
tors argue flrenuoufly for the poffibility of the refur-
redlion of the body, and difpute with great fubtilty
concerning the manner of it. But Mahomet has ta¬
ken care to preferve one part of the body, whatever
becomes of the rell, to lervt for a bafis of the future
edifice, or rather a leaven for the mafs which is to be
joined to it. For he taught, that a man’s body was
entirely confumed by the earth, except only the bone
called al ajb, which we name the os coccygis, or rump-
bone ; and that, as it was the firft formed in the hu¬
man body, it will alfo remain uncorrupted till the lafl
day, as a feed from whence the whole is to be renew¬
ed ; and this, he faid, would be effected by a forty-days
rain, which God fhould fend, and which would cover
the earth to the height of 12 cubits, and caufe the bo¬
dies to fprout forth like plants. Herein, alfo, is Maho¬
met beholden to the Jews; who fay the fame things of
the bone Luz, excepting that what he attributes to a
great rain, will be effedled, according to them, by a
dew, impregnating the dufl of the earth.
The time of the refurredion the Mahometans allow
to be a perfedTecret to all but God alone; the angel
Gabriel himfelf acknowledging his ignorance in this
point, when M diomet aiked him about it. How¬
ever, they fay, the approach of that , day may be
known from certain figns which are to precede it.
Thefe figns they diilinguiih into two forts, the lefier,
and the greater.
The leffer figns are, 1. The decay of faith among
men. 2. The advancing of the meaneft perfons to
eminent dignity. 3. That a maid-fervant fhall become
the mother of her miftrefs (or mailer;) by which is
meant, either that towards the end of the world men
•{ball be much given to fenfuality,'or that the Maho¬
metans (hall then take many captives. 4. Tumults
■and feditions. 5. A war with the Turks. 6. Great
Vol. VI. J5
diftrefs in the world, fo that a man, when he pafTes by
another’s grave, (hall fay, Would to God I were in tanl^~*n•
his place. 7. That the provinces of Irak and Syria
(hall refufe to pay their tribute. And, 8. That the
buildings of Median (hall reach to Ahab, orYahab.
The greater figns are, 1. The fun’s rifing in the
well ; which fome have imagined it originally did. 2.
The appearance of the bead, which (hall rife out of the
earth, in the temple of Mecca, or on mount Safa, or
in the territory of Tayef, or fome other place. This
bead, they fay, is to be (iscty cubits high ; though
others, not fatisfied with fo (mail a fize, will have her
reach to the clouds and to heaven, when her head only
is out ; and that (he will appear for three days, but
(hew only a third part of her body. They defcribe
this montler, as to her form, to be a compound of
various fpecies ; having the head of a bull, the eyes of
a hog, the ears of an elephant, the horns of a (lag,
the neck of an oftrich, the bread of a lion, the colour
of a tiger, the back of a cat, the tail of a ram, the
legs of a camel, and the voice of an afs. Some fay
this bead is to appear three times in feveral places,
and that die will bring with her the rod of Mofes and
the feal of Solomon ; and, being fo fwift that none
can overtake or efcape her, will with the fird drike all
the believers on the face, and mark them with the
word mumetif i. e. believer; and with the latter will
mark the unbelievers on the face likewife, with the
word Cafer, i. e. infidel, that every perfon may be
known for what he really is. They add, that the fame
bead is to demondrate the vanity of all religions
except Mam, and to fpeak Arabic. All this duff
feems to be the refult of a confufed indea of the bead
in the Revelations. 3. War with the Greeks, and
the taking Condantinople by 70,000 of the poderity
of Ifaac, who (hall not win that city by force of arms,
but the walls (hall fall down while they cry out, There
is no God but God, God is mojl great! As they arc
dividing the fpoil, news will come to them of theappear-
ance of A ntichrid ; whereupon they (hall leave all, and
return back. 4. The coming of Anticbrid, whom the
Mahometans call Mafib aiDajjal, i. e. the falfe or lying
Chrid, and fimply al Dajjal. He is to be one-eyed,
and marked on the forehead with the letters C. F. R.
fignifying Cafer, or infidel. They fay that the Jews
give him the name of Meffiah Ben David ; and pretend
he is to come in the la(l days, and to be lord both of
land and fea, and that he will reftore the kingdom to
them. 5. The defcent of Jefus on earth. They pre¬
tend that he is to defcend near the white tower to the
ead of Damafcus, when the people are returned from
the taking of Condantinople: that he is to embrace
the Mahometan religion, marry a wife, get children,
kill Antichrift ; and at length die after 40 years, or,
according to others, 24 years continuance on earth.
Under him, they fay, there will be great fecurity
and plenty in the world, ,all hatred and malice being
laid afide ; when lions and camels, bears and (heep,
{hall live in peace, and a child (hall play with ferpent*
unhurt. 6. War with the Jews ; of whom the Ma¬
hometans are to make a prodigious (laughter, the
very trees and dones difcovering fuch of them as hide
themfelves, except only the tree calledgharkad, which
is the tree of the Jews. 7. The eruption of Gog and
Magog, or, as they are called in the eail, Tajuj and
^4 Y Majuj ;
MAH [ 4392 ] M A H
ITahome-; of whom many things are related in the
>anifn1' Koran and the traditions of Mahomet. Thefe bar¬
barians, they tell us, having pafled the lake of Tibe¬
rias, which the vanguard of their vaft army will drink
dry, will come to Jerufalm, and there greatly diftrefs
Jefus and his companions; till, at his requeft, God
will deftroy them, and fill the earth with their car-
cafes, which, after fome time, God will fend birds to
carry away, at the prayers of Jefus and his followers.
Their bows, arrows, and quivers, the Moflems will
burn for feven years together ; and at laft, God will
fend a rain to cltanfe the earth and to make it fertile.
8. A fmoke, which fitall fill the whole earth. 9. An
eclipfe of the moon. Mahomet is reported to have
faid, that there would be three eclipfes before the laft
hour ; one to be feen in the eaft, another in the weft,
and the third in Arabia. 10. The returning of the
Arabs to the worftiip of Allat and al Uzza, and the
reft of their ancient idols, after the deceafe of every
one in whofe heart there was faith equal to a grain of
muftard-feed, none but the very worft of men being
left alive. For God, they fay, will fend a cold odo¬
riferous wind, blowing from Syria Damafcena, which
(hall fweep away the fouls of all the faithful, and the
Koran itfelf, fo that men will remain in the grofteft
ignorance for too years. 11. The difcovery of a
vaft heap of gold and filver by the retreating of the
Euphrates, which will be the deftru&ion of many.
12. The demolition of the Caaba, or temple of Mec¬
ca, by the Ethiopians. 13. The fpeaking of beafts
and inanimate things. 14. The breaking out of fire
in the province of Hejaz ; or, according to others, in
Yaman. 15. The appearance of a man of the defcen-
dants of Kahtan, who fhall drive men before him with
his ftaff. 16. The coming of the Mohdi, or direftor ;
concerning whom Mahomet prophefied, that the world
fhould not have an end till one of his own family
fhould govern the Arabians, whofe name Ihould be
the fame with his own name, and whofe father’s name
ftiould alfo be the fame with his father’s name; and
who (hould fill the earth with righteoufnefs. This
perfon the Shiites believe to be now alive, and con¬
cealed in fome fecret place till the time of his mani-
feftation ; for they fnppofe him no other than the laft
of the twelve Imams, named Mahomet Abu’lkafem, as
their prophet was ; and the fon of Haftan al Afkeri,
the eleventh of that fuccefiion. He was born at Ser-
manrai, in the 255th year of the Htjra. From this
tradition, it is to be prefumed, an opinion pretty
current among the Chriftians took its rife, that the
Mahometans are in expe&ation of their prophet’s re¬
turn. 17. A wind which fhafl fweep away the fouls
of all who have but a grain of faith in their hearts, as
has been mentioned under the tenth fign.
Thefe are the greater figns, which, according to
their do&rine, are to precede the refurreflion, but (till
leave the hour of it uncertain ; for the immediate fign
of its being come will be the firft blaft of the trumpet,
which they believe will be founded three times. The
firft they call the hlaji of confernation; at the hearing
of which all creatures in heaven and earth fhall be
ftruck with terror, except thofe whom God fhall pleafe
to exempt from it. The effe&s attributed to this firft
found of the trumpet are very wonderful: for they fay,
the earth will be fhaken, and not only all buildings,
but the very mountains levelled; that the heavens fhall Mahomet
melt, the fun be darkened, the ftars fall, on the death tanifm-
of the angels, who, as fome imagine, hold them fuf-
pended between heaven and earth; and the fea {hall be
troubled and dried up, or, according to others, turned
into flames, the fun, moon, and ftars being thrown in¬
to it: the Koran, to exprefs-the greatnefs of the ter¬
ror of that day, adds, that women who give fuck (hall
abandon the care of their infants, and even the fhe ca¬
mels which have gone ten months with young (a moft
valuable part of the fubftance of that nation) fhall be
utterly neglefted. A farther effe£> of this blaft will
be that concourfe of beafts mentioned in the Koran,
though fome doubt whether it be to precede therefur-
reflion or not. They who fuppofe it will precede,
think that all kinds of animals, forgetting their refpec-
tive natural fiercenefs and timidity, will run together
into one place, being terrified by the found of the trum¬
pet and .the fudden (hock of nature.
The Mahometans believe that this firft blaft will be
followed by a fecond, which they call the blafl of exani-
mat ton; by which all creatures both in heaven and earth
fhall die or be annihilated, except thofe which God
fhall pleafe to exempt from the common fate; and this,
they fay, fhall happen in the twinkling of an eye, nay
in an inftant ; nothing furviving except God alone,
with paradife and hell, and the inhabitants of thofe two
places, and the throne of glory. The laft who fhall
die will be the angel of death.
Forty years after this will be heard the blaft of re-
furrefiion, when the trumpet fhall be founded the third
time by Ifrafil, who, together with Gabriel and Mi¬
chael will be previoufly reftored to life, and, {landing
on the rock-of the temple of Jerufalem, fhall, at God’s
command, call together all the dry and rotten bones,
and other dtfperfed parts of the bodies, and the very
hairs, to judgment. This angel, having, by the divine
order, fet the trumpet to his mouth, and called toge- -
ther all the fouls from all parts, will throw them into
his trumpet, from whence, on his giving the iaft found,
at the command of God, they will fly forth like bees,
and fill the whole fpace between heaven and earth, and
then repair to their refpe£tive bodies, which the open¬
ing earth will fuffer to arife ; and the firft who fhall
fo arife, according to a tradition of Mahomet, will be
himfelf. For this birth the earth will be prepared by
the rain above-mentioned, which is to fall continually
for 40 years, and will referable the feed of a man, and
be fupplitd from the water under the throne of God,
which is called living ’water; by the efficacy and vir¬
tue of which the dead bodies fhall fpring forth from
their graves, as they did in their mother’s womb, or
as corn fprouts forth by common rain, till they become
perfeft; after which breath will be breathed into them,
and they will deep in their fepulehres till they are rai-
fed to life at the laft trump.
When thofe who have rifen fhall have waited the li¬
mited time, the Mahometans believe God will at length
appear to judge them; Mahomet undertaking the of¬
fice of interceflbr, after it fhall have been declined by
Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jefus, who (hall beg de¬
liverance only for their own fouls. They fay, that on
this folemn occafion God will come in the clouds fur-
rounded by angels, and will produce the books where¬
in the adions of every perfon are recorded by their
guardian
Mahofne-
tanifm.
MAH [ 4393 ] MAH
guardian angels, and will command the prophets to
bear witnefs againlt thofe to whom they have been re-
fpe&tvely fent. Then every one will be examined con¬
cerning all his words and actions uttered and done by
him in this life; not as if God needed any information
in thefe refpefts, but to oblige the perfon to make pub¬
lic confeffion and acknowledgment of God’s juftice.
The particulars of which they (hall give an account,
as Mahomet himfelf enumerated them, are, of their
time, how they fpent it; of their wealth, by what
means they acquired it, and how they employed it; of
their bodies, wherein they exercifed them ; of their
knowledge and learning, what ufe they made of them.
To the queiiions we have mentioned each perfon (hall
anfwer, and make his defence in the bed manner he
can, endeavouring to excufe himfelf by catling the
blame of his evil deeds on others; fo tlsat a difpute
ihal! arife even between the foul and the body, to which
of them their guilt ought to be imputed: the foul fay¬
ing, 0 Lord, my iody I received from thee ; for thou
createdjl me ‘without a hand to lay hold ‘with, a foot to
‘walk ‘with, an eye to fee ‘with, or an underjianding to
apprehend with, till 1 came and entered into this body;
therefore punijb it eternally, but deliver me. The body,
on the other fide, will make this apology: 0 Lord,
thou createdjl me like a Jlock of wood, having neither
hand that I could lay hold with, nor foot that I could
walk with, till this foul, like a ray of light, entered into
me, and my tongue began to /peak, my eye to fee, and my
foot to walk; therefore punijh it eternally, but deliver
me. But God will propound to them the following
parable of the blind man and the lame man, which, as
well as the preceding difpute, was borrowed by the
Mahometans from the Jews. A certain king, having
a pleafant garden, in which were ripe fruits, fet two
perfons to keep it, one of whom was blind, and the
other lame; the former not being able to fee the fruit,
nor the latter to gather it: the lame man, however,
ffceing the fruit, perfuaded the blind man to take him
upon his {boulders, and by that means he eafily gather¬
ed the fruit; which they divided between them. The
lord of the garden coming fome time after, and inqui¬
ring after his fruit, each began to excufe himfelf: the
blind man faid he had no eyes to fee with; and the
lame marr, that he had no feet to approach the trees.
But the king, ordering the lame man to be fet on the
blind, paired fentence on and pnnifhed them both.
And in the fame manner will God deal with the body
and the foul. Ae thefe apologies will not avail on that
day, fo it will be in vain for any one to deny his evil
addions; fince men and angels, and his own members,
nay, the very earth itfelf, will be ready to bear witnefs
againfl him.
At this examination, they alfo believe, that each per-
fo i will have the book wherein all the actions of his
life are written delivered to him: which books the righ¬
teous will receive into their right hand, and read with
great pleafure and fatisfadtion ; but the ungodly will
be obliged to take them, againfl their wills, in their
left, which will be bound behind their backs, their
right hand being tied up to their necks.
To fhow the txadl juftice which will be obferved on
this great day of tria!, the next thing they deferibe is
the balance, wherein all things (hall be weighed. They
fay it will be held by Gabriel; and that it is of fo vail
2
a fize, that its two feales, one of which hangs over pa-
radife, and the other over hell, are capacious enough
to contain both heaven and hell. Though fome are
willing to underhand what is faid in the Koran con¬
cerning this balance allegorically, and only as a figu¬
rative reprefentation of God’s equity; yet the more an¬
cient and orthodox opinion is, that they are to be ta¬
ken literally; and fince words and adl ions, being mere
accidents, are not capable of being themfelves weigh¬
ed, they fay that the books wherein they are written wilt
be thrown into the feales, and according as thofe where¬
in the good or evil adlions are recorded (hall prepon¬
derate, ftntence will be given; thofe whofe balances
laden with good works (hall be heavy, will be faved;
but thofe whofe balances are light, will be condemned.
Nor will any one have caufe to complain that God fuf-
fers any good aftion to pafs unrewarded, becaufe the
wicked for the good they do have their reward in this
life, and therefore can expect no favour in the next.
This examination being pad, and everyone’s works
weighed in a juft balance, that mutual retaliation will
follow, according to which every creature will take ven¬
geance one of another, or have fatisfadtion made them
for the injuries which they have fuffered. And, fince
there will then be no other way of returning like for
like, the manner of giving this fatisfadtion will be by
taking away a proportional part of the good works of
him who offered the injury, and adding it to thofe of
him who fuffered it. Which being done, if the angels
(by whofe miniftry this is to be performed) fay, Lord,
we have given to every one his due, and there remaineth
of this perfon’s good works fo much as equalleth the weight
of an ant, God will, of his mercy, caufe it to "be dou¬
bled unto him, that he may be admitted into paradife;
but if, on the contrary, his good works be exhaufted,
and there remain evil works only, and there be any
who have not yet received fatisfadtion from him, God
will order that an equal weight of their fins be added
unto his, that he may be punifhed for them in their
ftead, and he will be fent to hell laden with both.
This will be the method of God’s dealing with man¬
kind. 'As to brutes, after they-(hall have likewife ta¬
ken vengeance of one another, he will command them
to be changed into dull ; wicked men being referved
to more grievous punifhment, fa that they (hall cry out,
on hearing this fentence palfed on the brutes, Would
to God that we were duft alfo. As to the genii, many
Mahometans are of opinion, that fuch of them as arc
true believers, will undergo the fame fate as the irra¬
tional animals, and have no other reward than the fa¬
vour of being converted into duft ; and for this they
quote the authority of their prophet.
The trials being over, and the affembly difiblved, the
Mahometans hold, that thofe who are to be admitted
into paradife will take the right-hand way, and thofe
who are deftined to hell fire will take the left; but
both of them muft firft pafs the bridge called in Arabic
al Sirat, which they fay is laid over the midft of hell,
and deferibe to be finer than a hair, and (harper thaa
the edge of a fword; fo that k feems very difficult to
conceive how any one (hall be able to (land upon it:
for which resfon, mod of the fed of the Motazalites
rejedt it as a fable; though the orthodox think it a fuf-
ficient proof of the truth of this article, that it was fe-
rioufly affirmed by him who never affened a falfehood,
24 Y 2 mean-
M a home-'
tanifm*
MAH [ 4394 ] MAH
MafioRve- meaning tlieir prophet: who, to add to the difficulty
Calufav- of the paffage, has likewife declared, that this bridge
is befet on each fide with briars and hooked thorns:
which will however be no impediment to the good; for
they (hall pafs with wonderful cafe and fwiftnefs, like
lightning, or the wind, Mahomet and his Modems lead¬
ing the way;, whereas the wicked, what with the flip-
perinefs and extreme narrownefs of the path, the in-
tangling of the thorns, and the extindfion of the light
which diredted the former to paradife, will foon mifs
their footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which
is gaping beneath thenr.
As to the punilhment of the wicked, the Maho¬
metans are taught, that hell is divided into feven (lo¬
ries or apartments, one below another, dtfigned for
the reception of as many diftindt claffes of the damned.
The firft, which they call ‘Jehennam, they fay, will be
the receptacle of thofe who acknowledged one God,
that is, the wicked Mahometans; who, after having
there been punhhed according to their demerits, will
at length be releafed. The fecond, named Ladba,
they affign to the Jews; the third, named al Hot am a,
to the Chriftians; the fourth, named al Sair, to the
Sabians ; the fifth, named Salar, to the Magians;
the fixth, named al Jahim, to the idolaters; and the
feventh, which is the lowed and word of all, and is
called al Hanuyat, to the hypocrites, or thofe who
outwardly profefied fome religion, but in their hearts
were of none. Over each of thefe apartments they
believe there will be fet a guard of angels, 19 in num¬
ber; to whom the damned will confefs the jud judg¬
ment of God, and beg them to intercede with him for
fome alleviation of their pain, or that they may be de¬
livered by being annihilated.
Mahomet has, in his Koran and traditions, been
very exadf in defcribing the various torments of hell,
which, according to him, the wicked will fuffer both
from intenfe heat and exceffive cold. We dial!, how¬
ever, enter into no detail of them here; but only ob-
ferve, that the degrees of thefe pains will alfo vary
in proportion to the crimes of the fufferer, and the
apartment he is condemned to ; and that he who is
punidied the mod lightly of all will be (hod with fiioes
of fire, the fervour of which will caufe his fkull to boil
like a cauldron. The condition of thefe unhappy
wretches, as the fame prophet teaches, cannot be pro¬
perly called either life or death} and their mifery will
be greatly increafed by their defpair of being ever de¬
livered from that place, fince, according to that fre¬
quent expreffion in the Koran, they mufi remain therein
for ever. It mud be remarked, however, that the in¬
fidels alone will be liable to eternity of damnation ;
for the Modems, or thofe who have embraced the true
religion, and have been guilty of heinous fins, will be
delivered thence after they (hall have expiated their
crimes by their fufferings. .The time which thefe be¬
lievers (hall be detained there, according to a tradition
handed down from their prophet, will nut be lefs than
900 years, nor more than ycoo. And, as to the
manner of their delivery, they fay that they (hall be
didinguidted by the marks of jlrodration on thofe
parts of their bodies with which they ufed to touch
the ground in prayer, and over which the fire will
therefore have no power; and that, being known by
this charafteridic, they will be releafed by the mercy
of God, at the intcrceffion of Mahomet and the blefled: Md.ome*
whereupon thofe who (hall have been dead, will be re- ;
dored to life, as has been faid; and thofe whofe bodies
diall have contra&ed any footinefs or filth from the
dames and fmoke of hell, will be immerfed in one of
the rivers of paradife, called the river of life, which will
wadi them whiter than pearls.
The righteous, as the Mahometans are taught to
believe, having furmounted the difficulties, and paded
the (harp bridge abovementioned, before they enter
paradife, will be refredied by drinking at the pond of
their prophet, who defcribes it to be an exadt fquare
of a month’s journey in compafs; its water, which is
fupplied by two pipes from al Cawthar, one of the
rivers of paradife, being whiter than milk or filver,
and more odoriferous than mu(k, with as many cups
fet around it as there are dars in, the firmament ; of
which water whoever drinks will third no more for
ever. This is the fird tade which the bleffed will
have of their future and now near-approaching fe¬
licity.
Though paradife be fo very frequently mentioned
in the Koran, yet it is a difpute among the Maho¬
metans whether it be already created, or to be
created hereafter; the Motazalites and fome other
fedlaries afierting, that there is not at prefent any fuch
place in nature, and that the paradife which the
righteous will inhabit in the next life will be different
from that from which Adam was expelled. How¬
ever, the orthodox profefs the contrary, maintaining
that it was created even before the world, and defcribe
it, from their prophet’s traditions, in the following
manner.
They fay it is fituated above the feven heavens (or
in the feventh heaven), and next under the throne of
God ; and, to exprefs the amenity of the place, tell
us, that the earth of it is of the fined wheat-flour, or
of the pured mulk, or, as others will have it, of (af-
fron: that its dones are pearls and jacinth's, the wails-
of its. buildings enriched with gold and filver, and
that the trunks of all its tites are of gold : among
which the mod remarkable is the tree called Tuba, or
the tree of happinefs. Concerning this tree, they fable,,
that it dands in the palace of Mahomet, though a
branch of it will reach to the houfe of every true be¬
liever ; that it will be laden with pomegranates, grapes,
dates, and other fruit, of furprifing bignefs, and of
tades unknowm to mortals. So that, if a man defirc
to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will imme¬
diately be prefentedhim ; or, if hechoofe fledi, birds
ready dreffed will be fet before him, according to his
widi. They add, that the boughs of this tree will
fpontaneoufly bend down to the hand of the perfon
who would gather of its fruits, and that it will fupply
the bleffed not only with food, but alfo with filken gar¬
ments, and beads to ride on ready faddled and bridled,,
and adorned with rich trappings, which will burd forth
from its fruits ; and that this tree is fo large, that a
perfon, mounted on the fleeted horfe, would not be
able to gallop from one end_of its (hade to the other in
100 years.
As plenty of water is one of the greated additions
to the pleafantnefs of any place, the Koran often fpeaks
of the rivers of paradife as a principal ornament there¬
of: fome of thefe rivers, they fay, flow with water,
fome
MAH [ 4395 ] M A II
Mahome- fome with milk, forne with wine, and others with called ^o/?, being a total immerfion or bathing of the
honey; all taking their rife from the root of the tree body in water; and the other called ivodu, (by the
Tuba. Perfians, abdejl,) which is the waffling of their faces,
But all thefe glories will be eclipfed by the refplen-
dent and ravilhing girls of paradife, called, from their
large black eyes, Hur al oynn, the enjoyment of whofe
company w-ill be a principal felicity of the faithful.
Thefe, they fay, are created, not of clay, as mortal
women are, but of pure mufk ; being, as their pro¬
phet often affirms in his Koran, free from all natural
impurities, defects, and inconveniences incident to the
fex, of the ftri&tft modefty, and fecluded from public
view in pavilion* of hollow pearls, fa large, that as
fome traditions have it, one of them will be no lefs
than four parafangs (or, as others fay, 60 miles) long,
and as many broad.
The name which the Mahometans ufually give to
this happy manfion, is al Jannat, or the garden; and
hands, and feet, after a certain manner. The firft is
required in fome extraordinary cafes only, as after ha¬
ving lain with a woman, or been polluted by emiffion
of feed, or by approaching a dead body ; women alfo
being obliged to it after their courfes or childbirth.
The latter is the ordinary ablution in common cafes,,
and before prayer, and mull neceffarily be ufed by
every perfon before he can enter upon that duty. It
is performed with certain formal ceremonies, which
have been defcribed by fome writers, but much eafier
apprehended by feeing them done, than by the beft de-
fcription.
That his followers might be more pun&ual in this
duty, Mahomet is faid to have declared, that the prac¬
tice of religion it founded on cleanlinefs, which is the one
es they call it, with an addition, Jaunat al „ half of the faith, the key of prayer, without which
, “ the garden of paradife;” 'Jannat Aden, it will not be beard by God. That thefe expreffions
may be the better underftood, al Ghazali reckons four
degrees of purification ; of which the firft istheclean-
fing of the body from all pollution, filth, and excre¬
ments ; the fecond, the cleanfing of the members of
the body from all wickednefs and unjuft a&ions ; the
third, the cleanfing the heart from all blameable in¬
clinations and odious vices; and the fourth, the pur¬
ging a man’s fecret thoughts from all affe&ions which
may divert their attendance on God ; adding, that the
body is but as the outward fttell, in refpett to the heart,
which is as the kernel.
Circumcifion, though it be not fo much as once men¬
tioned in the Koran, is yet held, by the Mahometans,
to be an ancient divine inftitution, confirmed by the
religion of Iflam, and, though not foabfolutely necef-
fary but that it may be difpenfed with in fome cafes,
yet highly proper and expedient. The Arabs ufed.
this rite for many ages before Mahomet, having pro¬
bably learned it from Ilhmael, tho’ not only his de-
fcendants, but the Hamyarites and other tribes prac-
tifed the fame. The Ifhmaelites, we are told, ufed to
eircumcife their children, not on the eighth day, as is-
the cuftom of the Jews, but when about 12 or 13.
years old, at which age their father underwent that
operation ; and the Mahometans imitate them fo far
as not to circumeife children before they may be
able at leaft diftin&ly to pronounce that profeffion of
their faith, There is no- God but God; Mahomet is-
the "apoftle of God ; but pitch on what age .they
pleafe for the purpofe, between 6 and 16, or there¬
abouts.
Prayer was by Mahomet thought fo neeefiary a
duty, that he ufed to call it the pillar of religion, and
the key of paradife; and when the Thakjfites, who
dwelt at Tayef, fending, in the ninth year of the He¬
gira, to make their fubmiffion to the prophet, after
the keeping of their favourite idol had been denied
them, begged at leaft, that they might be difpenfed
with as to their faying of their appointed prayers, he
anfwered, That there could be no good in that religion _
nuherein nuas no prayer.
That fo important a duty, therefore, might not be
negledled, Mahomet obliged his followers to pray five
times every 24 hours, at certain ftated times; viz.
I. In the morning before fun-rife: 2, When noon is
fometimes
Ferda{
“ the garden of Eden,” (tho’ they generally interpret
the word Eden, not according to its acceptation in He¬
brew, but according to its meaning in their own
tongue, wherein it fignifies a fettled or perpetual ha¬
bitation:) Jaswat alMaona, “ the garden of abode;”
Jannat al Naim, “ the garden of pleafure;” and the
like: by which feveral appellations, fome underftand fo
many different gardens, or at leaft places of different
degrees of felicity, (for they reckon no lefs than 160
Inch in all,) the very meaneft w’hereof will afford its
inhabitants fo many pleafures and delights, that one
would conclude they muft evemfink under them, had
not Mahomet declared, that, in order to qualify the
bleffed for a full enjoyment of them, God will give to
everyone the abilities of too men.
6. God’s abfolute decree and predeftination both of
good and evil. The orthodox dodlrine is, that what¬
ever hath or fhall come to pafs in this world, whether
it be good, or whether it be bad, proceedeth entirely
from the divine will, and is irrevocably fixed and re¬
corded from all eternity in the preferred table. God
having fecretly predetermined not only the adverfe and
profperous fortune of every perfon in this world, in the
moft minute particulars, but alfo his faith or infidelity,
his obedience or difobedience, and confequently his
everlafting happinefs or mifery after death ; which fate
or predeftination it is not poffible by any forefight or
wifdom, to avoid.
Of this doftrine Mahomet makes great ufe in his
Koran for the advancement of his dcfigns ; encoura¬
ging his followers to fight without fear, and even de-
fperately, for the propagation of their faith, by re-
prefenting to them, that all their caution could not
avert their inevitable deftiny, or prolong their lives
for a moment; and deterring them from difobeying or
rtjefling him as an impoftor, by felting before them
the danger they might thereby incur of being, by the
juft judgment of God, abandoned to feduction, hard-
nefs of heart, and a reprobate mind, as a punifhment
for their obftinacy.
II. Religious prattice. J, The firft point is prayer,
under which are alfo comprehended thofe legal waffi-
ings or purifications which are neceffary preparations
thereto.
Of thefe purifications there' are two degrees, one
M A H [ 4396 ] MAH
Mahome- paft, and the fun begins to decline from the meridian :
tan'fm. ^ jn afternoon> before fun-fet: 4. In the even¬
ing, after fun fet, and before day be fhut in; and,
5. After the day is (hut in, and before the firll watch
of the night. For this inhitution he pretended to have
received the divine command from the throne of God
himfelf, when he took his night-journey to heaven ;
and the obferving of the dated times of prayer is fre¬
quently infilled on in the Koran, though they be not
particularly preferibed therein. Accordingly, at the
aforefaid times, of which public notice is given by the
Muedhdhins, or Criers, from the fteeples of their
mofques, (for they ufe no bells,) every confcientious
Moflem prepares himfelf for prayer, which he per¬
forms either in the mofque or any other place, pro¬
vided it be clean, after a preferibed form, and with a
certain number of praifes or ejaculations, (which the
more fcrupulous count by a firing of beads) and ufing
certain poilures of worfhip; all which have been par¬
ticularly fet down and deferibed, tho’ with fome few
miftakes, by other writers, and ought not to be a-
bridged, unlefs in fome fpeeial cafes, as on a journey,
On preparing for battle, &c.
For the regular performance of the duty of prayer
among the Mahometans, befides the particulars above-
mentioned, it is alfo requifite that they turn their fa¬
ces, while they pray, towards the temple of Mec¬
ca; the quarter where the fame is fituated, being, for
that reafon, pointed out within their mofques by a
nich, which they call al Mehrab; without, by
the fituation of the doors opening into the galleries of
the fteeples: there are, alfo, tables calculated for the
ready finding out their Keblah, or part towards which
they ought to pray, in places where they have no other
dire&ion.
2. /this are of two forts, legal and voluntary. The
legal alms are of indifpenfable obligation, being com¬
manded by the law, which diredls and determines both
the portion which is to be given, and of what things
it ought to be given; but the voluntary alms are left
to every one’s liberty, to give more or lefs, as he (hall
fee fit. The former kind of alms fome think to be pro¬
perly called zacatt and the fadakat; tho’ this
name be alfo frequently given to the legal alms. They
are called zacat, either becaufe they increafe a man’s
ftore by drawing down a blefiing thereon, and produce
in his foul the virtue of liberality ; or becaufe they pu¬
rify the remainmg part of one’s fubftance from pollu¬
tion, and the foul from the filth of avarice ; and fada-
kat, becaufe they are a proof of a man’s fincerity in
the worftrip of God. Some writers have called the
legal alms tithes, but improperly, fince in fome cafes
they fall (hort, and in others exceed that proportion.
3. Fajling is a duty of fo great moment, that Ma¬
homet ufed to fay it was the gate of religion, and that
the odour of the mouth of him who fafleth is more grateful
/«> God than that of mufk; and al Ghazali reckons
failing one fourth part of the faith. According to
« the Mahometan divines, there are three degrees of fall¬
ing : 1. The reftraining the belly and other parts of
the body from fatisfying their lulls; 2. The reltrain-
ing the ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other
members, from fin; and, 3. The falling of the heart
from worldly cares, and reftraining the thoughts from
every thing befides Gpd.
The Mahometans are obliged, by the exprefs com- Mahome*
mand of the Koran, to faft the whole month of Ra- tani*‘n-
madan, from the time the new-moon firft appears, till
the appearance of the next new moon ; during which
time they mud abftain from eating, drinking, and wo¬
men, from day-break till night or fun-fet. And this
injunction they obferve fo ftri&ly, that, while they
fait, they fuffer nothing to enter their mouths, or other
parts of their body, tfteeming the faft. broken and
null, if they fmell perfumes, take a clyfter or injec¬
tion, bathe, or even purpofely fwallow their fpittle ;
fome being fo cautious, that they will not open their
mouths to fpeak, left they (hould breathe the air too
freely : the faft is alfo deemed void, if a man kifs or
touch a woman, or if he vomit defignedly. But after
fun-fet they are allowed to refrefti themfelves, and to
eat and drink, and enjoy the company of their wives
till day-break ; though the more rigid begin the fad
again at midnight. This faft is extremely rigorous and
mortifying when the month of Ramadan happens to
fall in fummer, (for the Arabian year being lunar, each
month runs thro’ all the different feafons in the courfe
of 33 years) the length and heat of the days making
the obfervance of it much more difficult and uneafy
than in winter.
The reafon given why the month of Ramadan was
pitched on for this purpofe is, that on that month the
Koran was fent down from heaven. Some pretend,
that Abraham, Mofes, and Jefus, received their re-
fpedlive revelations in the fame month.
4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is fo neceffary a point
of pra&ice, that, according to a tradition of Maho¬
met, he who dies without performing it may as well die
a Jew or a Chrillian ; and the fame is exprefsly com¬
manded in the Koran.
The temple of Mecca Hands in the midft of the city,
and is honoured with the title of Masjad al elharam,
i. e. the facred or inviolable temple. What is princi¬
pally reverenced in this place, and gives fan&ity to
the whole, is a fquare (lone building, called the Caa¬
ba ; (fee that article).
To this temple every Mahometan, who has health
and means fufficient, ought, once at lead in his life,
to go on pilgrimage ; nor are women excufed from
the performance of this duty. The pilgrims meet at
different places near Mecca, according to the different
parts from whence they come, during the months of
Skawal and Dbu’ikaada ; being obliged to be there
by the beginning of Dhu’lhajja-; which month, as its
name imports, is peculiarly fet apart for the celebra¬
tion of this folemnity.
At the place above-mentioned the pilgrims properly
commence fuch ; when the men put on the Ihram or
facred habit, which conufts only of two woollen wrap¬
pers, one wrapped about their middle to cover their
privities, and the other thrown over their (boulders,
having their heads bare, and a kind of flippers which
cover neither the heel nor the inftep, and fo enter
the facred territory in their way to Mecca. While
they have this habit on, they mull neither hunt nor
fowl, (though they are allowed to fifh ;) which pre¬
cept is fo pun&uaHy o’oferved, that they will not kill
even a loufe or flea if they find them on their bodies:
there are feme noxious animals, however, which they
have permiffion to kill during the pilgrimage, as kites,
ravens,
MAH [ 4397 ] MAI
Mahome- ravens, fcorpions, mice, and dogs given to bite. Du-
tan‘fm‘ ring the pilgrimage, it behoves a man to have a
~~ conllant guard over his words and adions; to avoid
all quarrelling or ill-language, all converfe with women,
and all obfcene difcourfe ; and to apply his whole
attention to the good work he is engaged in.
The pilgrims, being arrived at Mecca, immediately
vifit the temple ; and then enter on the performance of
the preferibed ceremonies, which confift chiefly in go-
ing in proceflion round the Caaba, in running be¬
tween the mounts Safa and Merwa, in making the
ftation on mount Arafat, and flaying the victims, and
/having their heads in the valley of Mina.
In compaffiig the Caaba, which they do feven
times, beginning at the corner where the black done
is fixed, they ufe a fhort quick pace the three firft
times they go round it, and a grave ordinary pace the
four laft ; which, it is faid, was ordered by Mahomet,
that his followers might fliew themfelves ftrong and
adtive to cut off the hopes of the infidels, who gave
out that the immoderate heats of Medina had ren¬
dered them weak. But the aforefaid quick pace they
are not obliged to ufe every time they perform this
piece of devotion, but only at fome particular times.
So often as they pafs by the black done, they either
kifs it, or touch it with their hand and kifs that.
The running between Safa and Merwa is alfo per¬
formed feven times, partly with a flow pace, and partly
running : for they walk gravely till they come to a
place between two pillars; and there they run, and
afterwards walk again ; fometimes looking back, and
fometimes dopping, like one who had lod fomething,
to reprefent Hagar feeking water for her fon ; for the
ceremony is faid to be as ancient as her time.
On the ninth ofDhu’lhajja, after morning-prayer,
the pilgrims leave the valley of Mina, u'hither they
come the day before; and proceed in a tumultuous and
rufliing manner to mount Arafat, wdiere they day to
perform their devotions till fun fet : then they go to
Mozdalifa, an oratory between Arafat and Mina ;
and there fpend the night in prayer and reading the
Koran. The next morning by day-break they vifit al
MaJJjeralKaram, or “ the facredmonument;” and, de¬
parting thence before fun-rife, hade by Batn Mohaf-
fer to the valley of Mina, where they throw feven
dones at three marks or pillars, in imitation of Abra¬
ham, who, meeting the devil in that place, and being
by him didurbed in his devotions, or tempted to difo-
bedience when he was going to facrifice his fon, was
commanded by God to drive him away hy throwing
dories at him ; though others pretend this rite to be
as old as Adam, who alfo put the devil to flight in the
fame place and by the fame means.
This ceremony being over, on the fame day, the
tenth of Dhu’lhajja, the pilgrims flay their viftims in
the faid valley of Mina ; of which they and their
friends eat part, and the red is given to the poor.
Thefe viffims mud be either fheep, goats, kine, or
camels; males, if of either of the two former kinds;
and females, if of either of the latter; and of a fit
age. The facrifices being over, they fhave their heads
and cut their nails, burying them in the fame place;
after which the pilgrimage is looked on as completed:
though they again vifit the Caaba, to take their leave
of that facred building.
MAHOMETANS, thofe who believe in the reli- Mahoxc-
gion and divine miffion of Mahomet. See Mahomet, 'a!’s>
Mahometanism, and Alcoran. Jl £,>'
MAIDEN, an indrument for beheading cri¬
minals. .
Of the ufe and form of this indrument Mr Pennant
gives the following account. “ It feems to have been
confined to the limits of the fored of Hardwick, of
the 18 towns and hamlets within its precin&s. The
time when this cudom took place is unknown ; whe¬
ther Earl Warren, lord of this fored, might have
edablifhed it among the fanguinary laws then in ufe
againd the invaders of the hunting rights, or whether
it might not take place after the woollen manufaftures
at Halifax began to gain drength, is uncertain. The
lad is very probable ; for the wild country around the
town was inhabited by a lawlefs fet, whofe depre¬
dations on the cloth-tenters might foon difle the efforts
of infant indudry. For the prott&ion of trade, and for
the greater terror of offenders by fpeedy execution,
this cudom feems to have been edablidied, fo as at lad
to receive the force of law, which was, ‘ That if a
felon be taken within the liberty of the fored of Hard¬
wick, with goods dolen out, or within the faid pre-
cindts, either hand-habend, back-berand, or confef-
fion’d, to the value of thirteen-pence halfpenny, he
/hall, after three market-days or meeting-days within
the town of Halifax, next after fuch his apprehenfion,
and being condemned, be taken to the gibbet, and
there have his head cut from its body.’
“ The offender had always a fair trial; for as foon as
he was taken, he was brought to the lord’s bailid’ at
Halifax: he was then expofed on the three markets
which here were held thrice in a week), placed in a
ocks, with the greds dolen on his back, or, if the
theft was of the cattle kind, they were placed by him;
and this was done both to drike terror into others,
and to produce new informations againd him. The
bailiff then fummoned four freeholders of each town
within the fored to form a jury. The felon and pro-
fecutors were brought face to face; the goods, the
cow, or horfe, or whatfoever was dolen, produced.
If he was found guilty, he was remanded to prifon,
had a-week’s time allowed for preparation, and then
was conveyed to this fpot, where his head was druck
off by this machine. I fhould have premifed, that
if the criminal, either after apprehenfion, or in the
way to execution, could efcape out of the limits of the
fored (part being clofe to the town), the bailiff had no
farther power over him ; but if he fhould be caught
within the precindls at any time after, he was imme¬
diately executed on his former fentence.
“ Thisprivilege was very freely ufed during the reign
of Elizabeth : the records before that time were lod.
Twenty-five fudered in her reign, and at lead twelve
from 1623 to 1650; after which I believe the privi¬
lege was no more exerted.
“ This machine of death is now dedroyed ; but I faw
one of the fame kind in a room under the parliament-
houfe at Edinburgh, where it was introduced by the
Regent Morton, who took a model of it as he paffed
through Halifax, and at length fuffered by it himfelf.
It is in form of a painter’s eafel, and about ten feet
high : at four feet from the bottom is a crofs bar, on
which the felon lays bis head, which is kept down by
another
MAI [ 43.
Ms'ulftons anotlier placed above. In the Inner edges of the
Ii., frame are grooves ; in thefe is placed a (harp ax, with
r>l3!1‘ a vaft weight of lead, fupported at the very Jummit
with a peg; to that peg is fattened a-cord, which the
executioner cutting, the ax falls, and does the affair
effedlually, without fuffering the unhappy criminal to
undergo a repetition of Itrokes, as has been the cafe
in the common method. I muff add, that if the
fufferer is condemned for ftealing a horfe, or a cow,
the firing is tied to the bead, which, on being whip¬
ped, pulls out the peg, and becomes the execu¬
tioner.”
MAIDSTONE, a town of Kent, in England, feat-
ed on the river Medway, a branch of which runs
through it. It is a large, populous, and agreeable
place ; and the affixes for the county are held here.
It is a corporation, has a free fchool, and fends two mem¬
bers to parliament. E. Long. o. 37. N. Lat. 51. 20.
MAIENNE, a confiderable, handfome, and po¬
pulous town in France, with the title of a duchy ;
feated on a river of the fame name, in W. Long. o.
35. N. Lat. 48. 18.
MAIGNAN (Emanuel), a religious minim, and
one of the greatdl philofophers of his age, was born
of an ancient and noble family at Thouloufe in 1601.
Like the famous Pafcnl, he became a complete mathe¬
matician without the alMance of a teacher; and filled
the profcfTor’s chair at Rome in 1636, where, at the
expence of Cardinal Spada, he publifhed his book De
Pcrfpcttiva Horaria. He returned to Thouloufe in
1650, and was created provincial : the king, who in
1660 entertained himfelf with the machines and curi-
ofities in his cell, made him offers by Cardinal Maza¬
rine, to draw him to Paris; but he humbly defired to
fpend the remainder of his days in a cloyfter. He
publifhed a courfe of philofophy, 4 vols 8vo, at Thou¬
loufe ; to the fecond edition of which he added
two treatifes, one againfl the vortices of Defcartes,
and'the other on the fpeaking trumpet invented by Sir
Samuel Morland. He is faid to have ftudied even in
his deep, his very dreams being employed in theorems,
the demonftrations of which would awaken him with
joy. He died in 1676.
MAJESTY, a title given to kings, which fre¬
quently ferves as a term of diftinftion.—Thus, the
emperor is called Sacred Majcjly, Imperial Majefly,
and Cafarian Majcjly ; The king of France is called
His Moft Cbriftian Majefly ; and when he treats with
the emperor, the word [acred is added : And the king
of Spain is termed His Mofi Catholic Majefy. With
refpecl to other kings, the name of the kingdom is
added; as His Britannic Majefy, His Polijh Majefly,
&.C. Formerly prince's were more fparing in giving
titles, and more modeft in claiming them : before the
reign of Charles V. the king of Spain had only the
title of Highnefs; and before that of Henry VIII.
the kings of England were only addreffed under the
titles of Grace and Highnefs.
MAII inductio, an ancient cuftom for the priefi;
- and people of country.villages to go in proceffion to
fome adjoining wood on a May-day morning ; and
return in a kind of triumph, with a May-pole,
boughs, flowers, garlands, and other tokens of the
fpriug. This May-game, or rejoicing at the coming
of the fpring, was for a long time obferved, and ftill
38 ] MAI
is in fome parts of England ; but there was thought Mall
to he io much heathen vanity in it, that it was con- , . ll
demned and prohibited within the diocefe of Lincoln, r'aai"v'r
by the good old bifhop Grofthead. -
MAIL ( macula ), a coat of mail, fo called from the
French maille, which fignifies a fquare figure, or the
hole of a net: fo rnaille de houbergeons was a coat
of mail, becaufe the links or joints in it referable the
fquares of a net.
Mail is likewife ufed for the leather bag wherein
letters are carried by the poft.
Aftion of Mails and Duties, in Scots law. See
Law, p. (90), $ 7. and p. (102), $ 20.
MAIM, maihem, or Mayhem, in law, a wound by
which a perfon lofes the life of a member that might
have been a defence to him; as when a bone is broken,
a foot, hand, or other member cut off, or an eye put
out; though the cutting off an ear or nofe; or break¬
ing the hinder-teeth, was formerly held to be no maim.
A maim by caftration was anciently punifhed with
death, and other maims with lofs of member for mem¬
ber; but afterwards they were only pun idled by fine
and imprifonment. It is now enacted by the flatute
22 & 23Car. II. that if any perfon, from malice,afore-
thought, ihall difable any limb or member of any of
the king’s fubje&s with an intent to disfigure him,
the offender, with his aiders and abettors, (hall be
guilty of felony without benefit of clergy; though no
fuch'attainder thall corrupt the blood, or occafiou for¬
feiture of lands, &c.
MAIMBOURG (Louis), born at Nanci in 1610,
became a Jefuit in 1626; and acquired reputation as
a teacher, but yet more by the many hiftories which
he publifhed. The Janfenifts criticifed his hiffory
of Arianifm, and that of the Iconoclafes; and his
hiftory of Calvinifm, publifhed in 1681, ftirred up a
violent paper-war againft him, the operations whereof
he left entirely to his enemies, without giving himfelf
any trouble offenfively or defenfively. He was de¬
graded by the general of the Jefuits, on account ot
liis having declared too boldly in favour of the Gals
lican church againft the Ultramontains. He re¬
tired into the abbey of St Vidor, where he died in
1686.
He ought not to be confounded with Theodore
Maimbourg his coulln; who embraced Calvinifm, af¬
terwards returned to the Romifir church, returned
back to the reformed religion, embraced Socinianifm,
and died at London about the year 1693, after ha¬
ving ptiblifhed fome works.
MAIMONIDES (Mofes), or Moses the son of
Maimon, a celebrated rabbi,called by the Jews the eagle
of the dollars, was born of an illuftrious family at Cor¬
dova in Spain, in 1131. He is commonly named
JEgyptius, becaufe be fettled in Egypt, where he fpent
his whole life in quality of phyfician to the fultan. Here
he opened a fchool, which was foon filled with pupils
from all parts; from Alexandria and Damafcus efpe-
cially, whofe proficiency under him fpread his fame
all over the world. He was no lefs eminent in philo¬
fophy, mathematics, and divinity, than in medicine.
CaCaubon affirms it maybe truly faid of him, as Pliny
of old faid of Diodorus Siculus, that “ he was the fir it
of his tribe who ceafed to be a trifter.” It would be
tedious to enumerate all the works of Maimonides ;
fome
MAI [ 4399 ] MAI
Main fame were written originally in Arabic, but are now
.'i extant only in Hebrew tranflations. “ Thofe (fays
^nance*" Collier,) who defire to learn the do&rine and the
 L. canon law contained in the Talmud, may read Mai-
monides's compendium of it in good Hebrew, in his
book intitled lad; wherein they will find great part
of the fables and impertinences in the Talmud entirely
difcarded. But the More Nevochim is the moft valued
of ail his works; defigned to explain the obfcure words,
phrafes, metaphors, See. in Scripture, which, when li¬
terally interpreted, have either no meaning or appear
abfurd.
MAIN, an epithet ufually applied by failors to
whatever is principal, as oppofed to whatever is infe¬
rior or fecondary. Thus the main land is ufed in con-
Iradiftin&ion to an ifland or peninfula ; and the main-
mafti the main-wale, the main-keel, and the main¬
hatchway, are in like manner diftinguiflied from the
fore and mizen malls, the channel-wales, the falfe keel,
and the fore and after hatchways, &c.
MAINOUR, Manour, or Meinour, (from the
Trench manier, i. e. manu traciare), in a legal fenfe
denotes the thing that a thief taketh away or llealeth :
As to be taken with the mainour, [PI. Cor. fob 179.)
is to be taken with the thing ftolen about him; And
again [fol. 194.) it was prefented, that a thief was deli¬
vered to the fherilf or vifeount, together with the mai-
* nour: And again, [fol. 186.) if a man be indicled,
that he felonioufly (iole the goods of another, where,
in truth, they are his own goods, and the goods he
brought into the court as the mainour; and if it be de¬
manded of him, what he faith to the goods, and he
difclaim them ; though he be acquitted of the felony,
he fhall lofe the goods: And again, [fol. 149.) if the
defendant were taken with the manour, zn&ihz manour
be carried to the court, they, in ancient times would
arraign him upon the manour, without any appeal or
indidhnent. Cowel. See Blackf. Comment. Vol. III.
71. Vol. IV. 303. v
MAINPRIZE. See Falfe Imprisonnent.
The writ of mainprize, manucaptio, is a writ direc¬
ted to the (heriff, (either generally, when any man is
imprifoned for a bailable offence, and bail hath been
refufed; or fpecially, when the offence or caufe of com¬
mitment is not properly bailable below), commanding
him to take fureties for the prifoner’s appearance,
ufually called mainpernors, and to fet him at large.
Mainpernors dilfer from bail, in that a man’s bail may
imprifon, or furrender him up before the flipulated day
of appearance ; mainpernors can do neither, but are
barely furetit’S for his appearance at the day: bail are
only fureties that the parties be anfwerable for the fpe-
cial matter for which they ftipulate, mainpernors are
bound to produce him to anfwer all charges whatever.
See Habeas Corpus.
MAINTENANCE, in law, bears a near relation
to Barretry; being an officious intermeddling in a
fuit that no way belongs to one, by maintaining or af-
iilting either party with money or otherwife, to pj-o-
fecute or defend it: a pradf ice that was greatly encou¬
raged by the firft introdu&ion of ufes. This is an of¬
fence againft public juflice, as it keeps alive ftrength
and contention, and perverts the remedial procefs of
the law into an engine of oppreffion. And therefore,
By the Roman law, it was a fpecies of the crimen ftlf,
Vol. VI. 2
to enter into any confederacy, or do any aft to flip-M.intenon*
port another’s law-fuit, by money, witneffes, or patro-—  
nage. A man may, however, maintain the fuit of his
near kinfman, fervant, or poor neighbour, out of cha¬
rity and compaffion, with impunity. Otherwife the
punifhment by common law is fine and imprifonmenl;
and by the flatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 9. a forfeiture of
rol.
MAINTENON (Madame de), a French lady of
extraordinary fortune, defeended from an ancient fa¬
mily, and whofe proper name was Frances Daubigne,
was born in 1635. Her parents by misfortunes being
ill able to fupport her, fhe fell to the care of her mo¬
ther’s relations; to efcape which flate of dependence,
fhe was induced to marry that famous old buffoon the
abbe Scarron, who fublilted himfelf only on a penfion
allowed him by the court for his wit and parts. She
lived with him many years, which Voltaire makes no
fcruple to call the happieft years of her life; but when
he died in 1660, fhe found herfelf as indigent as fhe
was before her marriage. Her friends indeed endea¬
voured to get her hufband’s penfion continued to her,
and prefented fo many petitions to the king about it,
all beginning with “ The widow Scarron moft humbly
prays your majefty’s, &c.” that he was quite weary
of them, and has been heard to exclaim, “ Mull I al¬
ways be peftered with the widow Scarron ?’’ At lafty
however, through the recommendation of Madame dc.
Montefpan, he fettled a much larger penfion on her,
with a genteel apology for making her wait fo long;
and afterward made choice of her to take care of the
education of the young duke of Maine, his fon by Ma¬
dame de Montefpan. The letters fhe wrote on this oc-
cafion charmed the king, and were the origin of her ad¬
vancement; her perfonal merit Cffefted all the reft. He
bought her the lands of Maintenon, the only eftate fhe
ever had; and finding her pleafed with the acquifition,
called her publicly Madam de Maintenon; which was
of great fervice to her in her good fortune, by relea-
fing her from the ridicule attending that of Scarron,
Her elevation was to her only a retreat; the king came
to her apartment every day after dinner, b-Tore and*
after fupper, and continued there till midnight : here
he did bufinefs with his minifters, while Madam de
Maintenon, employed in reading or needle-work, never
fhewed any defire to talk of ftate-affairs, and carefully
avoided all appearance of cabal or intrigue; fhe did
not even make ufe of her power to dignify her own
relations. About the latter end of the year 1685,
Lewis XIV. married her, he being then in his 48th
and fhe in her 50th year ; and that piety with which
fhe infpired the king to make her a wife inftead of a
miftrefs, became by degrees a fettled difpofition of
mind. She prevailed on Lewis to found a religious
community at St Cyr, for the education of 300 young
ladies of quality; and here fhe frequently retired froia
that melancholy of which file complains fo pathetically
in one of her letters, and which few ladies will fup-
pofe fhe fhould be liable to in fuch an elevated fitua-
tion. But, as M. Voltaire fays, if anything could
ftiew the vanity of ambition, it would certainly be tin's
letter. Madame de Maintenon could have no other un-
eafinefs than the uniformity of her manner of living
with a great king ; and this made her once fay to the
count Daubigne her brother, “ I can hold it no lon-
24 Z ger;
MAT [ 4400 ] M A J
ger; I wlfli I was dead.’’ The anfwer he made to
her was, “ You have then a promife to marry the
Almighty Lewis, however, died before her in 17J5;
when fhe retired wholly to St Cyr, and fpent the red
of her days in ads of devotion; and what is moft fur-
priiing is, that her hufband left no certain provifion for.
her, recommending her only to the duke of Orleans.
She would accept no more than a penfion of 80,000
livres, which was punftually paid her till Hie died in
1719. A colledion of her letters has been publilhed,
and tranflated into Englifh; from which familiar in-
terconrfes her charader will be better known than from
defcription.
MAJOR, in the art of war, the name of feveral of¬
ficers of very different ranks and fundions.
Major of a regiment of Foot, the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldeft
captain: he is to take care that the regiment be well
exercifed, to fee it march in good order, and to rally
it in cafe of being broke in adion: he is the only of¬
ficer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horfe-
back in time of adion, that he may the more-readily
execute the colonel’s orders.
Major of a regiment of Horfe, as well as foot, ought
to be a man of honour, integrity, underftanding, cou¬
rage, adivity, experience, and addrefs: he fhould be
mafler of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regi¬
ment in every particular: he fliould be Ikilled in horfe-
manfhip, and ever attentive to his bufmefs: one of his
principal fundions is, to keep an exad rofter of the
officers for duty: he fhould have a perfed knowledge
in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his
poft to inftrud others, &c.
TVuw-Major, the third officer in order in a garri-
fon, and next to the deputy-governor. He fhould un¬
derhand fortification, and has a particular charge of
the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.
Major, is a particular officer appointed
for that purpofe only in camp : he goes every day to
head-quarters taTeceive orders from the adj'utant-ge-
neral: there they write exadly whatever is didated to
them : from thence they go and give the orders, at the
place appointed for that purpofe, to the different ma¬
jors or adjutants of the regiments which compofe that
brigade, and regulate with them the number of offi¬
cers and men which each are to furnifh for the duty of
the army ; taking care to keep an exad rofter, that
pne may not give more than another, and that each
march in their tour: in fhort, the major of brigade is
charged with the particular detail in his own brigade,
ip much the fame way as the adjutant-general is char¬
ged with the general detail of the duty of the army.
He fends every morning, to the adjutant-general an
exad return, by batttalion and company, of the men
of his brigade miffing at the retreat, or a report ex-
preffing that none are abfent:. he alfo mentions the of¬
ficers abfent with or without leave.
As all orders pafs through the hands of the majors
of brigade, they have infinite occafions of making
known their talents and exadnefs..
Major of Artillery, is alfo the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel. His poft is very laborious, as the
whole detail of the corps particularly refts with him ;
and for this reafon all the non-commiffioned officers
are fubordinate him, as his title of firjeant-major im¬
ports: in this quality they muft render him an exad Maj
account of every thing which comes to their know- '
ledge, either regarding the duty or wants of the artil¬
lery and foldiers. He ffiould poffefs a perfed know¬
ledge of the power of artillery, together with all its
evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive or¬
ders from the brigade-major, and communicates them
with the parole to his fnperiors, and then didates them
to the adjutant. He (hould be a very good mathema¬
tician, and be well acquainted with every thing be¬
longing to the train of artillery, &c.
Major of Engineers, commmonly with us called
fub-direElor, {hould be very well /killed in military ar-
chitedure, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He
{hould know how to fortify in the field, to attack and
defend all forts of pofts, and to condud the works in.
a fiege, &c. See Engineer.
Aid-Major, is on fundry occafions appointed toad
as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the
fame denomination. Our horfe and foot-guards have
their guidons, or fecond and third majors.
Major, is a non-commiffioned officer, of
great merit and capacity, fubordinate to the adjutant,
as he is to the major. See Serjeant.
Dr«wr-MAjoR, is not only the firft drummer in the
regiment, but has the fame authority over his drum¬
mers as the corporal has over his fquad. He inftruds
them in their different, beats ; is daily at orders with
the ferjeants, to know the numberofdrummers forduty.
He marches at their head when they beat in a body. In
the day of battle, or at exercife, he muft be very at¬
tentive to the orders given him, that he may regulate
his beats according to the movements ordered.
Fife-Major, is he that plays the belt on that in-
ftrument, and has the fame authority over the fifers as
the drum-major has over the drummers. He teaches,
them their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.
Major, in law, a perfon who is of age to manage
his own affairs. By the civil law a man is not a major,
till the age of 25 years; in England, he is a major at
21, as in Normandy at 2Q.
Major, in logic, is underftood of the firft propofi-
tion of a regular fylfogifm. It is called major, becaufe
it has a more extenfive fenfe than the minor propoli-
tion, as containing the principal term.. See Logic.
Major and Minor, in muftc, are applied to con¬
cords which differ from each other by a femi-tone.
See Concord..
Major tone is the difference between the fifth and:
fourth;, and major femi-tone the difference between;
the major fourth and the third. The major tone fur-
paffes the minor by a comma.
Major-ZJcwo, an appellation formerly given to the
Reward or mailer of the king’s houfehoUl.
MAJOR (John), a fcholaftic divine and hiftorian,.
was born at Haddington, in the province of Eaft Lo¬
thian in Scotland. It appears from fome paffages in.
his writings, that he refided a while Both at Oxford!
and Cambridge. He went to Paris in 1493, and ftu-
died in the college, of St Barbe, under the famous John.
Boulac. Thence he; removed to that of Montacute,
where he began to ftudy divinity under the celebrated,
Standouk. In the year 1498, he was entered of the
college of Navarre. In 1505, he was created doctor
divinity; returned to Scotland in 1519, and taught
theology
MAT [ 4401 1 MAI
Major, theology during feveral years in the univerfity of St
^^orca‘ Andrews. But at length, being difgufted with the
quarrels of his countrymen, he went back to Paris, and
refumed his lectures in the college of Montacute,
where he had feveral pupils, who afterwards became
men of great eminence. About the year 1530, he re¬
turned once more to Scotland, and was chofen profef-
for of theology at St Andrew’s, of which he after¬
wards became provott ; and there died in 1547, aged
78. His logical treatifes form one immenfe folio; his
commentary on Ariftotle’s phyfics makes another; and
his theological works amount to feveral volumes of the
fame fize. The maffes of crude and ufelefs difquifr-
tion, were the admiration of his cotemporaries. A
work, lefs prized in his own age, was to make him
known to posterity. His book De GsJUs Scotorui//,
was firit publifhed at Paris by Badius Afcenfius, in
the year 1521. He reje&s in it fome of the fi&ions
of former hiltorians; and would have had greater me¬
rit if he had rcjefted more. He intermingles the hi-
ftory of England with that of Scotland; and has in¬
curred the cenfure of fome partial writers, for giving
an authority to the authors of the former nation, which
he refufes to thofe of his own. Bede, Caxton, and
Froiifard, were exceedingly ufeful to him. What does
the greateft honour to this author is, the freedom
with which he has cenfured the rapacity and indolence
of ecclefiaftics, and the (train of ridicule with which he
treats the pope’s fupremacy. The ftyle in which he
wrote does not deferve commendation. Bifliop Spo-
tifwood calls it Sorbonnic and barbarous.
MAJORCA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, lying
between Yvica on the weft and Minorca on the eaft.
Thefe three idands were anciently called Baleares, fup-
pofed to be from the (kill of their inhabitants in fling¬
ing, for which they were very remarkable. Originally
they belonged to the Carthaginians; but during the
wars of that people with the Romans, they feem to
have regained their liberty. In 122 B. C. they were
fubdued by Metellus the Roman conful, who treated
the inhabitants with fuch cruelty, that out of 30,000
he fcarce left 1000 alive. He then built two cities on
Majorca; one called Palma, Majorca, to the eaft;
the other to the weft, named Pollentia, now no longer
in being. The ifland continued fubjedt to the Ro¬
mans, and to the nations who over-ran the weftern
part of the empire, for many ages. At laft it was fub¬
dued by the Moors about the year 800. By them the
ifland was put in a much better condition than it ever
was before or fince. The Moors being very induftri-
ous, and alfo populous, furrounded the whole coaft
with fortifications, that is, with a kind of towers and
lines between them; cultivated every fpot in the ifland
that was not either rock or fand ; and had no fewer
than 15 great towns, whereas now there are not above
three. Neither was it at all difficult for the Moorifli
monarch to bring into the field an army much fuperior
in number to the inhabitants that are now upon it, ta¬
king in all ranks, (exes, and ages. In 1229, the ifland
was fubdued by the king of Arragon, who eftabldhed
in it a new kingdom feudatory to that of Arragon,
which was again deftroyed in 1341 by the fame mo-
narchs; and ever fince, the ifland hath been fubjeft to
Spain, and hath entirely loft its importance. It is
shout 60 miles long, and 45 broad. The air is dear
and temperate, and, by its fituation, the heat in fum-
mer is fo qualified by the breezes, that it is by far the
moft pleafant of all the iflands in the Mediterranean. .
There are fome mountains; but the country is gene¬
rally flat, and of fuch an excellent foil, that it products
great quantities of corn as good in its kind as any in
Europe. Oil, wine, and fait, are very plentiful, as alfo
black cattle and (heep ; but deer, rabbits, and wild¬
fowl, abound fo much, that they alone are fufficient for
the fubfiftence of the inhabitants. There are no rivers,
but a great many fprings and wells, as well as feveral
good harbours. The inhabitants are robuft, adtive,
and good feamen.
Majorca, a handfome, large, rich, and ftrongtown,
in the ifland of the fame name, with a biihop’s fee. I:
contains about 6000 houfes, and 22 churches, befides
the cathedral. The fquares, the cathedral, and the
royal palace, are magnificent ftrudfures. A captain-
general refides there, who commands the whole ifland;
and there is a garrifon againft the incurfion of the
Moors. It was taken by the Englifh in 1706; but
was retaken in 1715, fince which time it has been in
the hands of the Spaniards. It is feated on the fouth-
weft part of the ifland, where there is a good harbour,
70 miles north-eaft of Yvica, 120 fouth-eart of Barce¬
lona, 140 eaft of Valencia, and 300 from Madrid. E.
Long 2. 55. N. Lat. 39. 36.
MAIRE (Streights le), a pafiage to Cape Horn,
fituated between Terra del Fuego and Staten ifland;
which, being difeovered by Le Maire, obtained his
name. It is now, however, lefs made ufe of than for¬
merly, (hips going round Staten Ifland as well as Terra
del Fuego.
MAITLAND (John), Lord Thyrleftone, chancel¬
lor of Scotland, was the fon of Richard Maitland of
Lithingtoun, and brother to fecretary Lithingtoun.
He was born in the year 1545, educated in Scotland,
and was afterwards fent to France to ftudy the law.
On his return to his native country, he commenced ad¬
vocate; in which profeffion his abilities became fo emi¬
nently confpicuous, that in the year 1584, he was
made fecretary of (late to king James VI. and, on the
death of the earl of Arran, the year following, created
lord high chancellor of Scotland.
The chancellor’s power and inflnence created him
many enemies among the Scots nobility, who made
feyeral attempts to deftroy him, but without fuccefs.
In 1589, he attended the king on his voyage to Nor¬
way, where his bride, the princefs of Denmark, wras
detained by contrary wind. The marriage was imme¬
diately confummaced, and they returned with the queen
to Copenhagen, where they fpent the enfuing winter.
During their refidence in Denmark, the chancellor be¬
came intimately acquainted with the celebrated Tycho
Brahe.
Towards the end of the year 1592, the chancellor
incurred the queen’s difpleafure, for refufing to relin-
quifti his lordlhip of Muflelburgh, which Are claimed
as being a part of Dumfermline. He abfented him-
felf for fome time from court; but was at length refto-
red to favour, and died of a lingering j^lnefs in the
year 1595, much regretted by the king. Spotifwood
and Johnlton give him the charadler of a man of great
learning and political abilities. His epigrams are
printed in Del. Poet. Scot. vol. ii.
24 Z 2 MAIZE,
Majorca
Maiihnd.
M A L
MAIZE, or Indian Corn. See Zea.
MAKE See Lemur.
MALABAR, the name given to a great part of
the weft coaft of thepeninfula,on thisfideof the Gauges,
from the kingdom of Baglala to Cape Comorin, or
only from the north extremity of the kingdom of Ca-
nara as far as Cape Comorin. It is bounded by the
mountains of Balligate on the eaft; by Decan on the
north; and on the weft and fouth is wafhed by the In¬
dian fea.
MALACCA, the moft foutherly part of the great
peninfula beyond the Ganges, is about 600 miles in
length, and contains a kingdom of the fame name. It^
is bounded by the kingdom of Siam on the north; by
the bay of Siam and the Indian ocean, on the eaft ;
and by the (freights of Malacca, which feparate it from
the iflandof Sumatra, on the fouth-weft. Thiscountry
is more to the fouth than any other in the Eaft Indies;
and comprehends the towns and kingdoms of Patan,
Pahan, Igohor, Pera, Queda, Borkelon, Ligor; and
to the north the town and kingdom of Tanaffery, where
the Portuguefe formerly carried on a great trade.
This laft either does or did belong to the king of Siam.
The people of Malacca are in general fubjedl to the
Dutch, who poftefs all the ftrong places on the coaft,
and compel them to trade on their own terms, exclu¬
ding all other nations of Europe from having any com¬
merce with the natives.
The Malays are governed by feudal law’s. A chief,
who has the title of king or fultan, HFues his com¬
mands to his great vaffals, who have other vaffals in
fubjeftion to them in a fimilar manner. A fmall part
of the nation live independent, under the title of ora-
nicai or noble, and fell their fervices to thofe who pay
them beft ; while the body of the nation is compofed
of flaves, and live in perpetual fervitude.
The generality of thefe people are reftlefs, fond of
navigation, war, plunder, emigrations, colonies, def-
perate enterprizes, adventures, and gallantry. They
talk incefihntly of their honour, and their bravery;
whilft they are univerfally con fide red by thofe with
whom they have intercoiirfe, as the moft treacherous,
ferocious people on earth. This ferocity, which the
Malays qualify under the name of courage, is fo well
known to the European companies who have fettle-
ments in the Indies, that they have univerfally agreed
in prohibiting the captains of their (hips who may put
into the Malay iflands, from taking on board any fea-
meo from that nation, except in the greateft diftrefs,
and then on no account to exceed two or three. It
is not in the leaft uncommon for an handful of thefe
horrid favages fuddenly to embark, attack a veffel by
furprife, maffacre the people, and make themfelves
mafter of her. Malay batteaux, with 24 or 30 men,
have been known to board European (hips of 30 or 40
guns, in order to take poffeffion of them, and mur¬
der with their poignards great part of the crew.
Thofe, who are not flaves, go always armed: they
would think themfelves difgrftced if they went abroad
without their poignards, which they call crii. As their
lives are a perpetual round of agitation and tumult,
they cannot endure the long flowing garments in ufe
among the other Afiatics. Their habits are exaftly
adapted to their (hapes, and loaded with a mukitutk
M A L
of buttons, which fallen them clofe to their bodies. Malacca.
The country poficfied by the Malays is in general
very fertile. It abounds with odoriferous woods, fuch
as the aloes, the fandal, and the cafiia. The ground
is covered with flowers of the greateft fragrance, of
which there is a perpetual fueceflion throughout the
year. There are abundance of mines o( the moft preious
metals, faid to be richer even than thofe of Brazil of
Peru, and in fome places are mines of diamonds. The
fea aifo abounds with excellent fi(h, together with am-
bergreafe, pearls, and thofe delicate birds-netls fo much
in requeft in China, formed in the rocks with the
fpawn of fifties, and the foam of the fca, by a fpecies
of fmall-fized fwallow peculiar to thofe feas. Thefe
are of fuch an exquifite flavour, that the Chinefe for a
long time purchafed them for their weight in gold, and
ftili buy them at an exceffive price. See BiRDS-A7^/?/.
Notwithftanding all this plenty, however, the Ma¬
lays are miferable. The culture of the lands, aban¬
doned to flaves, is fallen into contempt. Thefe wretch¬
ed labourers, dragged inceffantly from their ruflic
employments by their refllefs maflers, who delight in
war and maritime enterprifes, have never time or refo-
Intion to give the neceflary attention to the labouring
of their grounds; of confequence the lands for the
moft part are uncultivated, and produce no kind of
grain for the fubfiftence of the inhabitants. Tbe fago
tree indeed fupplies in part the defe& of grain. It
is a fpecies of the palm-tree, which grows naturally in
the woods to the height of about 20 or 30 feet; its
circumference being fometimes from five to fix. Its
ligneous bark is about an inch in thicknefs, and covers
a multitude of long fibres, which being interwoven
one with another envelope a mafs of a gummy kind
of meal. As foon as this tree is ripe, a whitifh duft,-
which Iranfpires thro’ the pores of the leaves, and ad¬
heres to thcdr extremities, indicates that the trees are in a
(late of maturity. TheMalays then cut them down near
the root, divide them into feveral ftflions, which they
fplit into quarters : they then fcoop out the mafs of
mealy fubltanee, which is enveloped by and adheres to
the fibres; they dilute it in pure water, and then pafs-
it through a draining bag of fine cloth, in order to
feparate it from the fibres. When this pafte has loft
part of its moifture by evaporation, the Malays throw
it into a kind of earthen vcficl of different (hapes,
where they allow it to dry and harden. Their pafte
is wholefome nouriftiing food, and preferves for many
years.
MALACCA, the capital of the country of the
fame name, is fituated in a flat country clofe to the
fea. The walls and fortifications are founded on a fo-
lid rock, and are carried up to a great height; the
lower part of them is waftied by the fea at every tide,
and on tbe land-fide is a wide canal or ditch, cut from
the fea to the river, which makes it an ifland. In 1641
it was taken from the Portuguefe by the Dutch, finer
which time it has continued in their poffeflion. In this
city there are a great many broad ftreets; but they
are very badly paved. The houfes are tolerably well
built, and fome of them have gardens behind or on
one fide. The inhabitants confift of a few Dutch,
many Malayans, Moors, Chinefe, and other Indians,
who are kept in awe by a fortrefs, whieh is feparated
from
[ 4402 ]
M ' A L [ 4403 ] M A L
Malachi from the city by a river, and by good walls and ba¬
ll ftions, as well as by ftrong gates, and a draw-bridge
Haldonat. that is on the eaftern fide. The city is well fituated
for trade and navigation. E. Long.. 102. 2. N. Lat.
2. 12.
MALACHI, or the prophecy of Malachi, a ca¬
nonical hook of the Old Teftament, and the laft of
the 12 leffer prophets, Malachi prophefied about 300
years before Chriit, reproving the Jews for their wic-
kednefs after their return from Babylon, charging them
with rebellion, facrilege, adultery, profanenefs, and
infidelity ; and condemning the priefts for being fcan-
daloufly carelefs in their miniftry : at the fame time
not forgetting to encourage the pious few, who, in
that corrupt age, maintained their integrity. This
prophet diftindtly points at the Mefiiah, who was fud-
denly to come to his temple, and to be introduced by
Elijah the prophet, that is, by John the Baptill, who
came in the fpirit and power of Elias, or Elijah.
MALACIA, in medicine, is a languilhing difor-
der incident to pregnant women, in which they long
fometimes for one kind of food and fometimes for
another, and eat it with extraordinary greedinefs.
MALACOPTERYGEOUS, among ichthyolo-
gifts, an appellation given to fuch fifties as have the
rays of their fins bony, but not pointed or (harp at the
extremities likethofe of ancanthopterygeous fifties.
MALACOSTOMOUS Fishes, thofe deftitute of
teeth in the jaws, called in Engiifti leather-mouthed, as
the tench, carp, bream, &c.
MALAGA, an ancient, rich, and ftrong town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Grenada, with two caftles,
a biftiop’s fee, and a good harbour, which renders it a
trading place. It is frequented by the Engiifti and
Dutch, who bring their vefiels there to load them with
fruits and wine. It is feated on the Mediterranean
fea, at the foot of a craggy mountain. E. Long. 4.
56. N. Lat. 36. 51.
MALAGMA, a cataplafm. See Cataplasm.
MALD1VIA islands, a clufter of fmall iflands
in the Indian ocean, 5O0 miles fouth-weft of the con¬
tinent of the ifland of Ceylon. They are about 1006
in number, and are very fmall ; extending from the fe-
cond degree of fouth latitude to the leventh degree
north latitude. They are generally black low lands,
furrounded by rocks and fands. The natives are of
the fame complexion with the Arabians, profefs the Ma¬
hometan religion, and are fubjcdi to one fovereign.
The channels between the iflands are very narrow, and
fome of them are fordable. They produce neither rice,
corn, nor herbage ; but the natives live upon cocoa-
nuts, and other fruits, roots, and fill). They have
little or nothing to barter with, unlefs the (hells called
cowry!, or blctchnore's teeth, with whiah they abound }
and thefe ferve inftead of fmali coin in many parts of
India.
MALDONAT (John), a Spanifh Jefuit born in
1534, was aceufed of herefy, and of procuring a
fraudulent will in feducing the prefident de St Andre
at Paris to bequeath his eftate to the Jeiuits. Peter
Gondi acquitted him of the firft charge, and the par¬
liament of Paris of the other. He retired after thefe
troubles to Bourges, but went to Rome by order of
pope Gregory XIII. to take care of the publication
of thfc Septuagint; and there, fini/hing his commen¬
tary on the gofpels in 1582, he died in the be- Male,
ginning of the following year. He wrote, belldes, Mjl|e-
Commentaries on Jeremiah, Baruch, Ezekiel, and Da- Ianc ,e'
niel ; a treatife on the facraments, on grace, on ori¬
ginal fin ; and feveral other pieces printed at Paris
in 1677, in folio. His ftyle is clear, lively, and eafy.
Pie does not fervilely follow the fcholaftic divines;
but is pretty free, and fometimes Angular, in his fen-
timents.
MALE, among zoologifts, that fex of animals
which has the parts of generation ihuated externaliy.
See Sex and Generation.
The term male has alfo, from fome fimilitude to
that fex in animals, been applied to feveral inanimate
things ; thus we fay, a male flower, a male ferew, &c.
See Mas Planta, Masculus Flos, and Screw; alfo
Female and Flos.
MALEBRANCHE (Nicholas),aneminent French
metaphylician, the fon of Nicholas Malebranche, fe-
Cretary to the French king, was born in 1638, and ad¬
mitted into the congregation of the oratory in 1660.
He at firft applied himfelf to the ftudy of languages
and hillory: but afterwards meeting with Des Cartes’s
Treatife of Mail, he gave himfclf up entirely to the
ftudy of philofophy. In 1699, he was admitted an
honorary member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris. Notwithilanding he was of a delicate con-
ftitution, he enjoyed a pretty good (late of health till
his death, which happened in 1715, at the age of 77.
Father Malebranche read little, but thought a great
deal. He defpifed that kind of philofophy which
conlifts only in knowing the opinions of other men,
lincc a perfon may know the hiftory of other mens
thoughts without thinking himfelf. He could never
read ten verfes together without difguft, He medita¬
ted with his windows (hut, in order to keep out the
light, which he found to be a difturbance to him. His
converfation turned upon the fame fubje&s as his books;
but was mixed Avith fo much modefty and deference to
the judgment of others, that it was extremely and
univerfally delired. His books are famous ; particu¬
larly his Recherche de la Verite, i. e. Search after
truth: his delign in which is, to point to us the errors
in which we are daily led by our fenfes, imagination,
and pafiions ; and to preferibe a method for difeover-
ing the truth, which lie does, by darting the notion
of feeing all things in God. And hence he is led to
think and fpeak merely of human knowledge, either
as it lies in written books, or in the book of nature,
compared with that light which difplays itfelf from
the ideal world ; and by attending to which, with
pure and defecate minds, he fuppofes knowledge to be
mod eafily had. The finenefs of this author’s fenti-
ments, together with his fine manner of expreffing
them, made every body admire his genius and abilities^
but he has generally pafled fora viiionary philofopher.
Mr Locke, in Ids examination of Malebianche’s opi¬
nion of feeing all things in God, ftyles him an acute
and ingenious author ;” and tells us, that there are “ a
great many very fine thoughts, judicious reafonings,
and uncommon refle&ions, in his Recherche” But Mr
Locke, in that piece, endeavours to refute the chief
principles of his fyftem. He wrote many other pieces
belides what we have mentioned, all tending fome way-
sir other to confirm his main fyftem, dlabliflied in the
Re-
M A L [ 4404 ]
Mail-'erBe 'Recherche, and to clear it from the objeflions w’nichs of lord Bacon'
Mallet '‘Vert brought againfl it, or from the confequence
 1_ which were deduced from it : and if he lias not at¬
tained what he aimed at in thefe ftveral prodtiftions,
he has certainly (hown great abilities, and a vaft force
of genius.
MALHERBE (Francis de), the beft French poet
of his time, was born at Caen about the year 1556, of
a noble and ancient family. He quitted Normandy at
17 years of age; and went into Provence, where he
attached himfelf to the family of Henry Angouleme,
the natural fon of king Henry II. and was in the fer-
vice of that prince till he was killed by Altoviti in
1586. At length cardinal de Perron, being informed
of his merit and abilities, introduced him to Hen. IV.
who took him into.his fervice. After that monarch’s
death, queen Mary de Medicis fettled a penfionofjoo
crowns upon our poet, who died at Paris in 1628.
The beft and moft complete edition of his poetical
works is that of 1666, with Menage’s remarks. Mal¬
herbe fo far excelled all the French poets who prece¬
ded him, that Boileau confiders him as the father of
French poetry : but he compofed with great difficulty,
and put his mind on the rack, in corredling what he
wrote. He was a man of a fingular humour, blunt
jn his behaviour, and without religion. When the
poor ufed topromife him, that he would pray to God
for him, he anfwered them, that “ he did not believe
they could have any great intereft in heaven, fince
they were left in fuch a bad condition upon earth; and
that he fhould be better pleafed if the duke de Luyne*
or fome other favourite, had made him the fame pro-
mife.” He would often fay that “the religion of gentle¬
men was that of their prince.” During his laft ticknefs
he had much ado to refolve to confefs to a prieft ; for
which he gave this facetious reafon, that “ he never
ufed to confefs but at Eafter.” And fome few mo¬
ments before his death, when he had been in a lethar¬
gy two hours, he awaked on a bidden to reprove his
landlady, who waited on him, for ufing a word that
was not good French ; faying to his conftfTor who re¬
primanded him for it, that “ he could not help it,
and he would defend the purity of the French language
to the laft moment of his life.
MALIGNANT, among phyficians, a term ap¬
plied to difeafes of a very dangerous nature, and gene¬
rally infeclious ; fuch are the dyfentery, hofpital-fever,
&c. in their worft ftages.
Malignity among phyficians fignifies much the fame
with contagion. See Contagion.
MALL, Sea-mall, or Sea-mew, in ornithology.
See Larus.
MALLARD, in ornithology. See Anas.
MALLEABLE, a property of metals whereby
they are capable of being extended under the ham¬
mer.
MALLENDERS, in farriery. See there, $ xxxiii.
MALLET, (David, Efq;) a North-Briton, was
tutor- to the duke of Montrofe, and to his brother
lord George Graham; and became fecretary to the
late prince of Wales. He married alady of very confi-
derable fortune, and w-as made keeper of the book
of entries for fhips in the port of London. He died
in 1 7165.
He was- the editor of a new and complete edition
M A L
works, to which he prefixed a life
of that great man ; and p’ublifhed the philofophical
works of the late lord Bolinbroke, agreeable to his
lordlhip’s laft will and teftament. His dramatic pieces
are, 1. Eurydice, a tragedy. 2. Muftapha, a tragedy,
3. Alfred, a mafque; written in conjun&ion with Mr
James Thomfon, author of the Seafons. Britannia*
a mafque, 1775. 5. Elvira, a tragedy, altered from La
Motte ; who founded this play on the famous ftory of
Agnes de Caftro, which Camoens has fo beautifully
introduced in his Luliad.—Mr Mallet’s tragedy was
afted with moderate applanfe at Drury-Lane play-
houfe in January 1763. The indifferent fuccefs it
met with may, in part, be aferibed to the unlucky
junchire in which it appeared ; at a time when party-
prejudice ran high againft the Scottifti nation, on ac¬
count of the unpopular adminiftration of the earl of
Bute, to whom Elvira was dedicated.
Mr Mallet’s other wmrks are colfeded in 3 vols
i2mo; among which the moft confidernble are, 1.
That fweet ballad intitled William and Margaret,
2. The Excurfion, a poem in two cantos. 3. Amyntor
and Theodora, or the Hermit.—This laft piece was ori¬
ginally intended for the ftage, but the author chofe
afterwards to alter his plan. There was likewufe an
additional colleftion of poems by the author, pub-
lifhed in 1762, in a thin volume o&avo, confifting
of fmall pieces on feveral occafions.
MALLEVILLE (Claud de), a French poet, born
at Paris, was one of the firft members of the French
academy, and gained a prize from Voiture and other
ingenious men. He became fecretary to M. de Baf-
fompierre, to whom he performed important fervices
while he was in pfifon ; and with the rewards he re¬
ceived for them he purchafed the place of fecre¬
tary to the king. He was likewife fecretary to the
French academy, and died in 1647. He wrote fon-
nets, ftanzas, elegies, epigrams, fongs, madrigals,
and a paraphrafe on fome of the Pfalms. His fonnets
are moft efteemed.
MALLICOLLO, one of the new Hebrides iflands
in the fouth-fea, and the moft confiderable of them
all next to Efpiritu Santo. It is 18 leagues long from
fouth-eaft to north-weft ; its greateft breadth, which
is at the fouth-eaft end, is eight leagues; the north-
weft end is two-thirds its breadth, and narrower in
the middle one-third. This contradiion is occalioned
by a wide and deep bay on the fouth-weft fide. It
appears to be very fertile, and well inhabited ; the
land on the fea-coaft is rather low, and lies with a
greater Hope from the hills which are in the middle of
the ifland: latitude 16 deg. 28 min. fouth ; 167
deg. 56 min. eaft. On inquiring of the natives the
name of this ifland, they were anfwered that it was
Mallicqllo, which has a near refemblance to Manicollo,
the name which Qniros received for it 160 years be¬
fore. He did not indeed vifit the ifland, but had his
intelligence from the natives.
The fouth coaft, which was moft attentively ex¬
amined by captain Cook, is luxuriantly clothed with
wood and other vegetables, from the fea-fhore to
the very fummits of the hills. To the north-weft, the
country is lefs woody, but more agreeably interfe&ed
by lawns, fome of which appeared to be cultivated.
The vegetable produdlions of this country feemed to
be
Mallet S „
Mallicolla.
M A L
[ 4445 ]
M A L
/jMallicollo. be in great variety; cocoa-nuts, bre.ad-fruit,. bananas,
fugar-canes, yams, eddoes and turmeric : but captain
Cook thought the fruits here not fo good as at the
Society and Friendly Ifles. Hogs, and common poul¬
try, are their domeftic animals; and as the frequent
fqueaking of pigs was heard in the woods, it was con¬
cluded that the former are in confiderable numbers here.
A brace of Taheitian puppies was given them, with a
view to ftock the country with that fpecies of animal :
thefe they received with ftrong figns of fatisfaftion.
The woods appeared to be inhabited by many fpe¬
cies of birds. Here was caught a lhark, which mea-
fured nine feet in length, on which the flnp’s com¬
pany feafted with great relifh : this fhark, when cut
open, was found to have the bony point of an arrow
flicking in its head, having been fhot quite through
the fkull. The wound was healed fo perfe£lly, that
not the fmalleft veftige of it appeared on the outfide :
a piece of the wood (till remained flicking to the
bony point, as well as a few fibres with which it
had been tied on ; but both the wood and the fibres
were fo rotted, as to crumble into dull at the touch.
Two large reddifli fifh of the fea-bream kind were
likewife caught, on which mod of the officers and
fome of the petty officers dined the next day. The
night following every one who had eaten of them
was feized with violent pains in the head and bones, at¬
tended with a fcorching heat all over the fltin, and
numbnefs in the joints ; even fuch hogs and dogs as
had partaken of thefe fifli, gave ftrong fymptons of
being poifoned : one hog, who had eaten of the gar¬
bage, fwelled to a great fize, and died at night:
feveral dogs were affe&ed in the fame manner; they
groaned moil piteoufly, had violent Teachings, and
could hardly drag their limbs along. Thefe fifli were
fuppofed to have been of the fame fort with thofe
which Qmros mentions to have produced fimilar effefts
on board his (hip, and which he calls pargor, which
is the Spanilh name for the fea-bream. Perhaps thefe
fifli are not always poifonous ; but, like many fpecies
in the Wert and Eall-Indies, may acquire that quali¬
ty by feeding on poifonous vegetables : which con-
clufion is fupported by the circumftance of the in¬
tertines have been found to be more poifonous than
the reft. The effedls of this poifon on the officers con¬
tinued for near a fortnignt, during which time their
piins returned every night, their teeth were loofe, and
their gums and palate excoriated-
The natives of Mallicollo are defcribed as the mod
ugly, ill-proportioned people imaginable, and in every
refpedl different from the other iflanders in the South-
Sea : they are of a very dark colour, and diminutive fize;.
with long heads, flat faces, and monky countenances;
their hair, in general, black or brown, fhort and cur¬
ly, but not quite fo foft and woolly as that of a ne
gro. Their beards are very ftrong, crifp, and bufliy,
and generally black and fhort. But what ferves great¬
ly to increafe their natural deformity is, acuftom which
they have of wearing a belt, or cord, round their
waift: this rope is as thick as a man’s finger; and is.
tied fo tight round their belly, that it would be fatal to
a perfon unaccuftomed from infancy to fuch afi unna¬
tural ligature; for it cuts fuch a deep notch acrofs the
navel, that the belly feems in a manner divided, one
part being above and the other below the rope. The
men go quite naked, except a piece of cloth, or leaf, Mallicolf.
ufed as a wrapper. Moll other nations invent fome kind •~
of covering from motives of ffiame; but here a roll of
clolh, continually faftened to the belt, rather difplays
than conceals, and is the oppofite of modefty. Be-
fides having the flat broad nofe and projecting cheek¬
bones of a negro, and a very fhort forehead, many in-
creafed their natural uglinefs, by painting their facts
and breafts with a black colour. Some fewhadafmall
cap on the head made of matted work. They wear
bracelets of white and black fhells, which prefs the
upper arm fo clofely, that they have been put on when
the wearer was very young: this tends, as well as the
belt, to reduce the Mallicollefe to that flender fhape
which chara&erifes them. The depreffion of their
foreheads is fuppofed to be artificial, as the heads of
infants may be fqueezed into any kind of form.
The firft natives that were feen carried clubs in their
hands, and waded into the water, carrying green
boughs, the univerfal fign of peace. In a day’s time
they ventured to come within a few yards of the fhip’s
boat, which was fent out; when they dipped their hands
to the fea, and gathering fome water in their palms,
poured it on their heads. The officers in the boat, in
compliance with their example, did the fame, with
which the Indians appeared to be much pleafed. They
repeated the word tontarr, or tomarro, continually ;
which feemed to be an expreffion among them equiva¬
lent to tayo among the Society Iflands. The greater
part were now armed with bows and arrows, and a few
with fpears. At length they ventured near the ffiip,
and received a few prefents of Taheitian cloth, which
they eagerly accepted, and handed up their arrows in
exchange, fome of which were pointed with wood,
and fome with bone, and daubed with a black gummy
fluff which was fuppofed to be poifoned ; but its ef¬
fects were tried on a dog, without producing any dan¬
gerous fymptoms. They continued about the fhip,
talking with great vociferation, but at the fame time
in fuch a good-humoured manner as was very enter¬
taining. On looking ftedfaftly at one of them, he be¬
gan to chatter with great fluency, and “grinned hor¬
ribly a ghaftly fmile.” Some continued about the fhip
till midnight ; finding, however, at length, that they
were but little noticed, for the captain wanted to get
rid of them, they returned on fhore, where the found
of finging and beating their drums was heard .all night.
Mr Foriler fnppofes there may be 50,000 inhabitants
on this extenfive aland, which contains more than 600
fquare miles. “ We ought (fays he) to' figure to
ourfelves this country as one extenfive foreft; they have
only begun to clear and plant a fewT infulated fpots,
which are loft in it like fmall iflands in the Pacific O-
cean.” Perhaps, if we could ever penetrate through the
darknefs which involves the hiftory of this nation, we
might find that they have arrived in the South-Sea
much later than the natives of the Friendly and Socle-
ty-Iflands: fo much.at leaf! is certain, that the latter
appear to be a race totally diftin6l from the former ;.
their form, their language, and their manners, ftrong-
ly mark this difference. The natives, on fome parts of
New-Guinea and Papua, feem to correfpond, in many
particulars, with what has been obferved of the Malli¬
collefe. They differ likewife very widely from the
light-coloured inhabitants of the South-Sea, by keep-
i«S
M A L [ 4406 ] M A L
:oUo. Jng their bodies entirely free of puhftures. Whatever
thefe people faw, they coveted; but they never repined
at a refufal. The looking-glaffes which were given
them were highly efteemed, and they took great plea-
fure in viewing themfelves ; fo that thefe ugly people
feemed to have more conceit than the beautiful nation
at O-Taheitee and the Society Iflands. Early the
next morning the natives came off to the fhip in their
canoes, and four or five of them went on board with¬
out any arms. They foon became familiar, and, with
the greateft eafe, climbed up the fiirouds to the maft-
head ; when they came down, the captain took them
into his cabbin, and gave them medals, ribbons, nails,
and pieces of red-baize. They appeared the moft in¬
telligent of any nation that had been feen in the
South-Sea: they readily underftood the meaning con¬
veyed by figns and gefiures; and in a few minutes
taught the gentlemen of the fhip feveral words in their
language, which appeared to be wholly diftinft from
that general language of which fo many dialeds are
fpoken at the Society-Iflands, the Marquefas, Friend¬
ly-Ifles, Eafter- Ifland, and New-Zeeland. Their lan¬
guage was not difficult to pronounce, but contained
more confonants than any of them. Mr Forfter, and
fome of the gentlemen from the fhip, went on fhore,
and converfed with the natives, who with great good¬
will fat down on the flump of a tree to teach them
their language. They were furprifed at the readinefs
of their guefts to remember, and feemed to fpend fome
time in pondering how it was poffible to preferve the
found by fuel) means as pencils and paper. They were
not only affiduous in teaching; but had curiofity enough
to learn the language of the ftrangers, which they pro¬
nounced with fuch accuracy as led their inflruftors to
admire their exteufive faculties and quick apprehenfion.
Obferving their organs of fpeech to be fo flexible, they
tried the mod difficult founds in the European languages,
and had recourfe to the compound Ruffian all
of which they pronounced at the firft hearing, without
the lead difficulty. They prefently learned the Eng-
lifh numerals, which they repeated rapidly on their
fingers ; fo that what they wanted in perfonal beauty
was amply compenfated to them in acmenefs of under-
danding. They exprefs their admiration by hiffing like
a goofe.
Their mufic is not remarkable either for harmony
or variety, but feemed to be of a more lively turn than
that at the Friendly-iflands. Their behaviour to their
vifitants was, in general, harmlefs, but cautious: they
gave them no invitation to day among them ; for they
feemed not to relilh the proximity of fuch powerful
people, being probably accudomed to adfs of violence
and outrage from their neighbours. “ In fome of
their countenances, (fays Mr Forder), we thought we
could trace a mifehievons, ill-natured difpofition; but
we might midake jealoufy for hatred.”
Very few women were feen, but thofe few were no
lefs ugly than the men : they were of fmall dature,
and their heads, faces, and dioulders, were painted
red. Thofe who were grown up, and probably mar¬
ried, had fhort pieces of a kind of cloth, or rather mat¬
ting, round their waids, reaching nearly ta their knees;
the red had only a dring round the middle, with a
wifp of draw; and the younger ones, from infancy to
the age of ten years, went dark naked, like the boys
of the fame age. The women were not obferved to Mallicoll®
have any finery in their ears or round their necks and !
arms, it being fafhionable in this ifland for the men only
to adorn themfelves; and wherever this eudom prevails,
the other fex is commonly oppreffed, defpifed, and in
a date of fervility. Here the women were feen with
bundles on their backs, which contained their chil¬
dren ; the men feemed to have no kind of regard for
them. None of them came off to the {hip, and they ge¬
nerally kept at a ffidance when any party landed from
the boat. They perforate the cartilage of the nofe be¬
tween the nodrils; and thrud therein a piece of white
done about an inch and a half long, which is bent like
the curvature of a bow. The houfes here are, like thofe
of the other ifles, rather low, and covered with a palm-
thatch. Some were inclofed or walled round with
boards, and the entrance to thefe was by a fquare hole
at one end.
Their weapons are bows and arrows, and a club
about two feet and a half in length, made of the cau-
fuarina wood, commonly knobbed at one end, and well
polifhed. This weapon they hang on their right ffioul-
der, from a thick rope made of a kind of grafs. It
appeared to be preferved for clofe engagements, after
having emptied the quiver. On the left vvrid they wear
a circular wooden plate, neatly covered, and joined
with draw, about five inches in diameter, upon which
they break the violence of the recoiling bow-dring,
and preferve their arm unhurt. Their arrows are made
of a fort of reed ; and are fometimes armed with a long
diarp point made of the red wood, and fometimes with
a very hard point made of bone : and thefe points are
all covered with a fubdance which was fuppofed to be
poifoned. Indeed the people themfelves confirmed
thefe fuppofitions; by making figns to the gentlemen of
the diip not to touch the point, and giving them to
underdand that if they were pricked by them they
would die : they are very careful of them themfelves,
and keep them always wrapt up in a quiver. Some of
thefe arrows are armed with two or three points each,
with fmall prickles on the edge to prevent the arrow
being drawn out of the wound. Repeated and effeftual
trials of the virulence of this poifon were made upon
dogs, but they gave tip-figns of being hurt by it.
Their food feems to be principally vegetables, fince
they apply themfelves to hufbandry. As hogs and
fowls are bred here, the natives, doubtlefs, fead fome¬
times on pork and poultry; and as they have canoes, it
may be fuppofed that they draw a part of their fub-
fidence from the ocean. The greated number of ca¬
noes that were feen along-fide the diip at one time did
not exceed 10, or, according to Mr Forder, 14, and
nd more than four or five people in each: they were
fmall, not exceeding two feet in length, of indifferent
workmandrip, and without ornament; but provided
with ati outrigger.
After fome flight indications of a hodile intention
on the part of the natives, which they had (hewn in
their canoes whild about the (hip, captain Cook, with
a party of marines in two boats, landed in the face of
400 or 500 Indians who were affembled on the (here.
Tlio’ they were all armed with bows and arrows, clubs
and fpears, they made not the lead oppofition ; on the
contrary, feeing the captain advance alone, unarmed,
^ith only a green branch in his hand, one of them.
M A L [ 4407 ] M A L
;!fc!a!rfbury who feemed to be a chief, giving his bow and arrows privateers to cdiize upon the Ertglifh. W. Long. r.
•' M 'l)- to another, met him in the water, bearing alfoa green 57. N. Lat. 48. 39.
J branch. When they met, the branches were exchan- MALPIGHI (Marcellos), an eminent Italian phy-
ged; and the chief led the captain by the hand up to fician and anatomift in the 17th century. He ftudied
the crowd, to whom he immediately diftributed pre- under Maffari and Mariano. The duke of Tufcany
fents : in the mean time the marines were landed, and invited him to Pifa, to be profeffor of phyfic there. In
drawn up upon the beach. The captain then made this city he contra&ed an intimate acquaintance with
figns that he wanted wood, and’they by figns gave Borelli, to whom he afcribed all the difcoveries he had
him permiflion to cut down the trees. A fmall pig made. He went back to Bologna, the air of Pifa not
was prefently brought, and prefented to the captain, agreeing with him. Cardinal Antonio Pignatelli, who
who in return gave the bearer a piece of cloth. It had known him while he was legate at Bologna, be-
was expe&ed, from this inftance, that an exchange of ing chofen pope- in 1691, under the name of /»««-
provilions for various articles of merchandize would cent XII. immediately fent for him to Rome, and ap-
take place: but thefe expedations proved fallacious; no pointed him his phyfician. But this did not hinder
more pigs were procured, and only about half a dozen him from purfuing his {Indies, and perfecting his
cocoa-nuts, and a fmall quantity of frefh water. As works, which have immortalized his memory. He
thefe iflanders were pofleffed of hogs as well as fowls, died in 1694; and his works, with his life written by
their backv/ardnefs to part with either might be owing himfelf prefixed, were firft collected and printed at
to the little eftimation in which they held fuch articles London in folio in 1697.
as were tendered in barter; for they fet no value on MALP1GHIA, Barbadoes cherry; a genus of
any nails, or any other kind of iron-tools, and held the triandria order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
all the gew-gaws of finery equally cheap. They would plants. There are eight or ten fpecies, all of them
now and then exchange an arrow for a piece of cloth, fhrubby evergreens of the warm parts of America, ri-
but very feldom would part with a bow. After fend- fing with branchy ftems from 8 or 10 to 15 or 20
ing on board what wood had been cut, the party all feet high, ornamented with oval and lanceolate en-
embarked, and the natives difperfed. When the fhip tire leaves, and large pentapetalous flowers, fucceeded
was about to leave this ifland, captain Cook gives the by red, cherry-fhaped, eatable berries ; of an acid and
following relation : “ When the natives favv us under palatable flavour ; and which, in the Wert Indies,
fail, they came off in canoes, making exchanges with where they grow naturally, are ufed inftead of cher-
more confidence than before, and giving fuch extraor- ries. Three of the fpeeies are reared in our gardens,
dinary proofs of their honefty as furprifed us. As the and make a fine variety in the ftove. They retain their
fhip at firft had frefh way thro’ the water, feveral of leaves all the year round ; and begin to flower about
the canoes dropped aftern after they had received the end of autumn, continuing in conftant fucceffion
goods, and before they had time to deliver theirs in till the fpring; after which they frequently produce
return ; inftead of taking advantage of this, as our and ripen their fruit, which commonly equals the fize
friends at the Society-illands would have done, they of a fmall cherry. The flowers are of a pale-red or
11 fed their utmoft efforts to get up wuth us, and deliver purple colour. Thefe plants are propagated by feed,
what they had already been paid for. One mAn in par- which muft be fown in fpring, in pots of rich earth :
ticular followed us a confiderable time, and did not then plunge them in’a hot-bed; and when the plants
reach us till it was calm, and the thing was forgotten, are three or four inches high, prick them in feparate
As foon as he came along-fide, he held up the article, fmall pots, give water, and plunge them in the bark-
which feveral on board were ready to buy: but he re- bed of the ftove; where, after they have remained a
fufed to part with it till he faw the perfon to whom he year or two, they may be placed in any part of it.
had before fold it; and to him he gave it. The perfon They may even be placed in the open air during a
not knowing the man again, offered him fomething in month or two of the hotteft weather in fummer; but
return, which he refufed ; and (bowing him what had muft be carefully fupplied with water during the whole
been given before, at length made him fenfible of the year.
nice fenfe of honour which had a&uated this Indian.” MALPLAQUET, a village of the Netherlands, ia
MALMSBURY, a town of Wiltfhire in England, Hninault, famous for a moft bloody battle fought here
pleafantly feated on a hill and on the river Avon, which on the nth of September 1709, between the French
almoft furrounds it, and over which it has fix bridges, under old marfhal Villars, and the allies commanded by
W. Long. 2. 7. N. Lat. 51. 34. prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. The
William of Malmsbury. See William. French armyamounted to 120,000 men ; and were poft-
MALO (St.), a fea-port town of France, in Bre- ed behind the woods of La Marte and Taniers, in the
tagne, with a bifhop’s fee. It has a large well fre- neighbourhood of Malplaquet. They had fortified
quented harbour, but difficult of accefs, on account of their fituation in fuch a manner with lines, hedges,
the rocks that furround it; is a rich, trading place, of and trees laid acrofs, that they feemed to be quite in¬
great importance, and defended by a ftrong callle. It acceffible. In this fituation they expected certain vic-
was bombarded by the Englifh in 1693, but without tory; and even the common foldiers were fo eager to
fuccefs. However, in June 1758, they landed men in engage^ that they flung away the bread which had
Cancalie Bay, who went to the harbour by land, and been juft given them, though they had taken no fufte-
burnt above 100 (hips, great and fmall; and then re- nance for a whole day before. The allied army beo-an
tired without lofs. It is feated on an ifland united to the attack early in the morning, being favoured by a
the main land by a caufeway ; is chiefly inhabited by thick fog. The chief fury of their impreffion was
feafaring men, who in time of war fit out a great many made upon the left of the enemy; and with fuch fuc-
Vol. VI. 2 25 A cefs.
Malpighi*
Malplaquet
M A L [ 4408 ] M A L
felt, cefs, that, ftotwithftanding their lines and barricadoes,
Malia. t^e prench were in lefs than an hour driven from their
entrenchments. But on the enemy’s right the combat
was fuftained with much greater obttinacy. The
Dutch, who carried on the attack, drove them from
their firll line; but were repulfed from the fecondwith
great {laughter. The prince of Orange, who headed
that attack, perfifted in his efforts with incredible per-
feverance and intrepidity, tho’ two horfes had been
killed under him, and the greater part of his officers
flain and difabled. At laft, however, the French
were obliged to yield up the field of battle ; but not
till after having fold a dear-bought vi&ory. Villars
being dangeroufly wounded, they made an excellent
retreat under the conduct of Bouflers, and took poft
near Guefnoy and Valenciennes. The conquerors took
poffiffion of the field of battle, on which above 20,000
of their beft troops lay dead. The lofs of the French,
it is faid, did not exceed 8000; and marfhal Villars con¬
fidently afferted, that, if he had not been difabled, he
would have gained an undoubted victory.
MALT. SccBrewing.
Malt-Tax, is the fum of 750,000!. raifed every
year by parliament fince 1697, by a duty of 6d. on
the bulhel of malt, and a proportionable fum on cer¬
tain liquors, fuch as cyder and perry, which might
otherwife prevent the confumption of malt. This is
under the management of the commiffioners of the ex-
cife; and is indeed itfelf nq other than the annual ex-
eife. In 1760, an additional perpetual excife of 3d, per
bufitel was laid upon malt; and in 1763, a proportional
excife was laid upon cyder and perry, but new-modelled
in 1766. See Excise.
MALTA, a celebrated iljand of the Mediterranean,
fituated between the 15th and 16th degrees of eaft
longitude, and between the 35th and 36th degrees of
north latitude. It is about 19 or 20 leagues in length,
nine or ten in breadth, and 60 in circumference. An-
1 ciently it was called Melitai and is fuppofed by Cluve-
Ancient vius, from its. fituation,and other particulars, to be the
Hiperia mentioned by Homer, whence the Pheaces
1 1 .md. were afterwards driven by the Phoenicians, and retired
into Scheria and the illand of Corfu ; which is the more
probable, as the ancient poet places the mountain Me-
lita in that ifland. He hath likewife brought fome
\'ery probable arguments to prove, that Mehta or
Malta is the ancient Ogygia; in which the famed nymph
Calypfo, daughter of the Ocean and Thetis, recei¬
ved the (hipwrecked Ulyfies, and detained him feven
years.
The mo!t ancient pofieffors of Malta of whom we
have any certain account, were the Carthaginians; from
whom it was taken by the Romans; and yet during
the whole time that it continued under the power of
thefe polite nations, it was almoft.entirely barren. The
foil was partly fandy and partly rocky, having fcarce-
ly any depth of earth ; and, withal fo ftony, that it
was hardly capable of producing corn or any other
grain except cummin, and fome feeds of a fimilar na¬
ture. Its chief produfts were figs, melons, honey,
cotton, and fome few other fruits and commodities
which the inhabitants exchanged for corn ; and in this
barren ftate it Lems to have continued till it came into
the poffeffion of the Maltefe knights. It faboured al-
fo under great fearcity of water and fuelupon all
which accounts it was till that time but tbinly inhabi- Malta-
led, there being only about 30 or 40 boroughs or other' ')
villages fcattered about, and no city except the capital,
called alfo Malta, and the town and fort of St Ange¬
lo, which defended the harbour: fo that the whole
number of its inhabitants did not exceed 12,000, in-
cluding*women and children; the great eft part of wh • n
were very indigent;
According to an ancient tradition, Malta was firft
poffefied by an African prince named Battus, an ene¬
my to queen Dido; from whom it was taken by the
Carthaginians, as may be jullly inferred from feveral
Punic inferiptions to be feen on ftone-piilars,and other
monuments yet {landing. From the Carthaginians it
palled to the Romans, who made themfelves mailers of
it at the fame time that they fubdued the ifland of Si¬
cily. Thefe were driven out by the Arabs in the year
828; who were driven out of it in their turn by Ro¬
ger the Norman, earl of Sicily, who took pofleffion of J
it in 1190 : from which time it continued under the
dominion of the Sicilian princes till the time of Char. V.
when it fell under his power, along with Naples and Si- |
cily. To cover the ifland of Sicily from the Turks, Malta give?
Charles gave the ifland to the knights of Rhodes, fince’0 J
ih^U^tcM^bdghts of Malta _ _ . Rhodes
I he origin and nutoryor tlieie knights is given un¬
der the article Knights of Malta and Rhodes. Here
it is Efficient to obferve, that in 1530, the knights of
Rhodes having been expelled from that ifland by Soli-
man theTurkifti fultan, and deftitute of an habitation,
accepted, tho’ not without fome relu&ance on account
of its barrennefs, the offer made them by Charles V. of
the ifland of Malta. The grand mailer having caufed:
his two large carracks, the galleys of the order, and a
good number of other tranfport-lhips laden with great
quantities of arms, ammunition,, and troops, to be got
ready, he and his knights embarked in the former,,
with all the effecls,. records, and treafure belonging to
the order, and the reft in the latter. In their paffage
they fuffered very much by a violent llorm; in which
one of their galleys fplit upon a rock, and one of the
carracks was run aground by the violence of the waves,
after having broke her three anchors. She lluck (o
fad, that they expedled every moment to fee her fplit
in pieces ; when providentially a contrary wind difen-
gaged her without damage. This event was counted a*
a lucky omen, and on the 26th of Oiflober that year,
all the company were fafely landed.
At the firll landing of the Maltefe knights, they
found themfelves obliged to lodge in a very poor town
or borough at the foot of the hill on which Hands the
caftle of St Angelo, and where their only habitations
were filbermens huts. The grand mailer, with the
principal knights,, took poffefiion of the caftle, where
the accommodations were fomewhat better; tho* thefe
too were very mean, and out of repair. Three days,
after, he took poffeffion of the efty, which was for¬
merly called Malta, but fince that time hath taken
the name of the Notable City; and after that, of the
whole ifland of Malta, and the neighbouring one of.
Gofa.
The firll care of the knights, after having fettled'
their authority thro’ the two iflands, was to provide
fome better accommodation for the pretent, and to
choofe a proper place where to fix their habitation.
But
ithout
Eiuccefs.
M A L [ 4409 ] M
Malta. But as the ifland had no other defence than the old Maltefe knights, this place
caftle of St Angelo, and was fo much expofed on all
fides, that it would have required greater foms than
their exhaitfted treafury could fpare, to put it in a
proper date of defence; the grand-mafter was obli¬
ged to content himfelf with furrounding the borough
abovementioned, wherein he had ordered new buildings
to be reared for the prefent habitation of his knights,
with a ftout wall, t o prevent its being furprifed by the
Turkirti and Barbary corfairs* His defign indeed,
at this time, was not to have fixed the abode of the
knights in the bare and defencelefs ifland of Malta,
3 but to day in it only till he had got a fufficient force to
hey at- attempt the conqued of Msdoti, a town of the Morea,
|onPi'cfteofand w!lich was not only a populous and opulent place,
Mod on ° "ut iay veT convenient for making an attempt on the
ifland of Rhodes, their ancient habitation, and to
which they were naturally attached. This, however,
did not hinder his taking all proper meafures for fecu-
ring Malta as well as Gofa, and laying out a proper
plan for fecuring them from attacks, in cafe the defign
on Modon fhould fail.
In the mean time, as fuperdition was then univer-
fally prevalent, the grand-mader, among other preci¬
ous relics which they had brought from Rhodes, cau-
fed the arm of St Catharine to be carried in procef-
fion td the cathedral. Whild they were on their march,
one of the centinels gave them notice, that a large
Turkifh merchantman was wrecked on their coad. The
grand-mader immediately difpatched fome of his
knights and foldiers thither; who finding Ifaac the
patron of the drip, a native of Modon, and one Mauri-
thifala Nocher, an excellent engineer, they were re¬
tained in the fervice of the order, and the latter was
immediately employed in fortifying the ifland.
The knights were hardly fettled in Malta, when the
emperor, and other European potentates, endeavoured
to engage them in a war with the inhabitants of Bar¬
bary, as the city of Tripoli, then held by Charles, was
in great danger of falling into the hands of the infi¬
dels. The attempt on Modon, however, was fird
made; but it proved unfuccefsful through the bafe ava-'
rice of the Maltde forces: for they having been ad¬
mitted into the city, during the night began to mur¬
der and plunder the inhabitants, without waiting for
the arrival of the galleys which were coming to their
afliitance. The confequence was, that the inhabitants
armed, and a defperate battle began ; in which the
Maltefe, notwithdanding the ntmofl efforts, were obli¬
ged to retire, but not till they had loaded t.hem-
felves with plunder, and catried away 800 women cap-*
tive.
the
The grand-mader, looking upon this <
as a fign that Providence had ordain
ifappo'ihtment
Malta to be
againft the the refidence of the knights, did not renew his attempts
ur s‘ upon-Modon; but, in 1532, joined with theemperof
agatnft the Turks, and fen; a great number of his gal¬
leys to join the confederate •!'•?» tinder the celebrated
Andrew Doria. In coniequence of this aid,' the un¬
dertaking proved fticcefsrVl; and in all probabih y the
conqued of Modon would have been accomplilhed, had
not the foldtery, difeouraged by the bad fuccefs of the
lad attempt, openly refufed to proceed, and obliged
the emperor to proceed to Coron, another town be-
longing to the Turks. Through the valour of the
A L
as foon obliged to capt- Malta-
tulate: and in a fecond expedition, in 1533,1116 knights
again didinguifhed themfelves in a mod eminent man¬
ner. They were quickly recalled, however, by the
grand-mader to the defence of the ifland, which wa
now threatened with an invafion by Barbaroffa the ce¬
lebrated Turkifh corfair, who fcoured thofc feas at the
head of above fourfeore galleys. This invafion, how¬
ever, did not take place; and in 1534, the grand-ma¬
der Villiers de L’Tfle Adam died, and was fuccteded
by Perino de Ponte, a native of the town of Ad in
Italy.
The new grand-mader, who received intelligence of
his ele£fion at St Euphemia in Calabria, very foon af¬
ter received another exprefs, giving an account of the
wars which at that time reigned in Tunis, and the dan¬
ger that Tripoli as well as Malta was in from Barba-
rod’a, who was by this time become mader both of Al¬
giers and Tunis; upon which he made all the hade he
could to his new government. His fird care was to
fend a drong reinforcement to Italy; after which, he
difpatched an embaffy to the emperor, intreating him
to equip a powerful fleet againd Barbaroffa, without
which it would be impoffible for Tripoli to hold out
much longer. j
By this embaffy from De Ponte, and another to the Africa in*
fame purpofe from Muley Haffan, the depofed Sharks^
of Tunis, Charles was eafily prevailed on to carry his
arms into Africa; in which he was afiided by a great
number of the braved knights, together with 18 bri¬
gantines of different fixes, four of the bed Maltefe gal¬
leys, and their veffel called the gnat carrack, of itfelf
almod equivalent to a fquadron. In this expedition the
knights didinguidied themfelves in a mod eminent 6
manner. At the fiege of Goletta, one of the knights, D<jfPer:it®
named Gonverfa, an excellent engineer, by means of a |he°Maltefe
barcalonga, gui almod clofe to the great tower, which lights,
he furioufly battered with large cannon, while the
great carrack, which was behind all the red of the vef-
fels, and by reafon of its height could fire over them,
did prodigious execution. A breach was foon made;
and hardly was it wide enough to be fealed, when the
Maltefe knights jumped out of the galleys into their
long-boats, and thence into the fea, with their fwords
in their hands, and waded through the water above
their girdles, it being too fhallow for boats to approach
the fhore. The dandard-bearer of the order was the
fird that jumped into the water, and led the red to
the attack; they claiming every where the pod of ho*
nour. They marched with the greated refolutiou
through the mod terrible firing, and {bowers of all
kinds of miflile weapons; and, having gained the (fcore,
quickly afeended the breach, on the top of which they
planted their great dandard. A great number loti
their lives, and fcarce one came od unwounded; but
the emperor did them thejudice to own, that the ta¬
king the place was chiefly owing to the valour of the
Maltde knights.
The city of Tunis was foon taken after the fortrefs
of Golctta; on the furrender of which, the emperor,
defigning to return into Europe, took his lad dinner
on board the great carrack ; where he was magnifi¬
cently entertained, and bedowed on the furviving
knights the greated encomiums, and marks of his
edeem and gratitude to the owrjer. Thefe. he accom-
25 A 2 panied
M A L [ 4410 ] M A L
Ma'la- panied with coniiderable prefents and with two new
grants. By the firft, they were allowed to import corn
Privileges an<^ ot^er Pr°vihans from Sicily, without paying duty ;
conferred and by the fecond, the emperor engaged, that none of
upon them the order fhould enjoy any of the ellates or revenues,
hy the em-(jy,. (0 Maltefe knights, throughout all his dominions,
I>eror‘ unlefs they were lawfully authorized by the grand-ma-
fler and his council; or till the originals had been ex¬
amined and regiftered by himfelf, or fuch minillers as
lie fhould appoint for that purpofe. The fleet then fet
fail for Malta; where, on their arrival, they received the
news of the grand-mafter’s death, who was fucceeded
by Didier de Tolon de St Jalle, a native of Provence,
and then grand prior of Tholoufe, where he refided at
the time of his eledHon.
The prefent grand-mafler was a man of great con-
dud and bravery, which he had formerly fhown at the
liege of Rhodes; and the fituation of affairs at this
time required a perfon of experience. The Turkifh
8 corfairs, quite tired out with the dreadful havoc made
wiake^au^5 amonS them by Botigella, grand prior of Pifa, w'ho
unfuccefs- feW°m quitted the fea, and never failed out without
ful attempt finking fome of them, or making confiderable prizes,
•11 Tripoli, had agreed to enter into a ftrong confederacy, either
to furprife the city of Tripoli where his retreat was,
or, if that failed, to lay fiege to it by fea and land; in
either of w'hich attempts, they were fure of all the af-
liftance of Barbarofla and Hayradin, theniord of Ta-
giora. This laft had undertaken the command and
conduft of the whole enterprife; but the governor be¬
ing informed of the defign, prepared to give him
a warm reception. Hayradin came thither with his
whole force in the dead of the night, and began to
fcale the walls in thofe places where he reckoned them
to be moft defencelefs. They no fooner appeared at
the foot of them, than the garrifon, which had been
kept up in arms, poured down fuch ftreams of wild¬
fire, boiling oil, melted lead, &c. and threw fuch vol-
lies of (tones, while the great and fmall guns fo annoy
eel thofe that flood fartheft off, that great numbers of
them were deftroyed. They perfifted in the attack,
however, with great fury and vigour, till Hayradin,
who was foremoft in one of the fcalades, was knocked
down by a mufket-fhot from the top of his ladder. He
fell into the ditch, and was taken up almofi: dead; up¬
on which his troops inftantly difperfed themfelves, and
abandoned the enterprife. The governor of Tripoli,
however, judging that this would not be the laft vifit
of the kind which in all probability he would receive,
immediately difpatched an exprefs to Malta, with pro-
pofals for1 fortifying.the city, and demolifhing aflrong
tower on that eoafl named Alcaid> which was held by
a Turkifh corfair. His advice being approved of, the
commander Botigella, now general of the galleys, was
immediately difpatched with a fufficient force ; who,
, having landed his men a: Tripoli, immediately march¬
ed, with them and a body of Arab mercenaries, to¬
wards Alcaid; mid without flaying to open the trenches,
or any other covering than his gabions, levelled his
artillery againft it. Hayradin being in-formed of this,
came with his Turks to its defence; but was intercep¬
ted by a flrong detachment of Maltefe knights at the
head of the hired Arabs, and repulfed with lofs; fo
that all he could do was to convey about 50 or 60
Turks into the place, and to annoy the Chriftians with
fome flight fkirmifhes. Botigella, perceiving that his Malta,
cannon did not make fuch quick difpatch as he wiflied, * ^
fent fome of his galleys; under the (belter of which he
quickly fprung a mine, which brought down part of
the wall, and buried moft of the corfairs under it; up¬
on which the reft, feeing the Maltefe knights mount
the breach fword-in-hand, immediately threw down,
their arms. The tower was then razed to the ground;
after which Botigella marched to a town called Ada-
bus, whence he drove Hayradin who had intrenched
himfelf in it, and gave the plunder to the Arabs. In
his return he attacked and took a large Turkifh galley,.,
the cargo of which was valued at 160,000 crowns, and
had on board 200 perfons ; fo that he landed in tri¬
umph, and was received with the loud acclamations of
the whole order, who came to meet him on his arrival.
Soon after the grand-mafter fell fick and died, and was
fucceeded by John de Homedes.
The Maltefe (till continued to behave with their
ufual valour againfl, the Turks; but, through the ne¬
gligence of Charles V. almoft all the places held by
the Chriftians on the African coaft. were reduced by
the infidels, and the valour exerted by the MaltefeSer¬
ved only to deftroy great numbers of them. At Jafl
the emperor’s affairs in Africa were totally ruined by
his unfuccefsful expedition againft Algiers, an account
of which was given under that article, n°i4 —20. 9
Here indeed it is thought that the emperor himfelf The empe-r
could not have efcaped, had not the Malcefe knightsror faved
repulfed the Turks, who had attacked even the impe-
rial quarters. They purfued them even to the gates ofjvialrefe
the city, and were in hopes of entering it with them; knights,
but the governor having caufed the gates to be (hut
before the Turks had all got in, the knights were dif-
appointed. When the Spanifh troops reimbarked, the
Maltefe were alfo of great fervice in repulfitrg the ene¬
my; and indeed behaved on both occafions with fo
much valour and intrepidity, that the reft of the allies-
could not fufficiently admire them. The misfortune,
however, was, that the lofs they luffered, both of men
and (hips, especially by fome of their belt commanders,
more than counterbalanced the glory they had gained-
The emperor, before they parted, gave them the moll
ample teflimony of his, fatisfa£tion and gratitude, as
far as words and encomiums could go ; after which, the
Maltefe commander fet fail, with the fmall remains of his-
knights, in three fhattered veffels, and arrived fafelyat
the port of Malta about the end of November 1548.
While the Maltefe were employed in this unfortu¬
nate expedition, the ifland was fq terribly annoyed by
the Turkifh and other corfairs, that the port vvas in.
fome meafure blocked up by them; whilit the coalts,
both here and of Gofa.lay expoftd to frequent infults
and depredations, and often to the lofs of their inhabi¬
tants. This obliged the Maltefe admiral Simeoni to re¬
fit his galleys with all poffible expedition, and again put
to fea in quell of thefe enemies. In this cnterprife he
fucceeded fo well, that he fent home a great namber of
the corfair captains in chains. Being obliged to put
in at the port of Tripoli, the governor informed him,
that be had juft received an exprefs from the king of
Tunis, acquainting him that Barbarofla was making
the moft prefling complaints to the Porte againft the
Maltefe knights, whilft his lieutenant Moral Haga
was making great preparations at Tachqra for the
Malta.
M A L [ 4411 ] M A L
Malta, fiege of Tripoli, which he doubted not would be fol-
J lowed by that of Tunis ; the king having become o-
dious to the Turks and Moors, on account of his al¬
liance with the emperor ; after whofe late difafter a
great number of towns in that kingdom had revolted
from him, and a much greater number of his fubjefts
had put themfelves under the prote&ion of the Alge¬
rine monarch, who was expected thortly from Conftan-
tinople at the head of a powerful fleet.
On the receipt of thefe unwelcome news, an embaf-
fy was feut to the emperor, in order to perfuade him
to caufe the fortifications of Tripoli be repaired ; but
without fuccefs. All that could be obtained was fair
10 words and promifes; the confequence of which was,
The Turks that the Maltefe made moft violent , and almoft incre-
Jf^andK-^ibl6 exertions againft their enemies, till at laft Soli-
foive to man refolved to expell the knights from Malta, as he
expel the had before done from Rhodes. To this he was chief-
knights ]y inftigated by Dragut, an old experienced corfair,
from M.. - wjio jiacj Stained the command of his fleet after the
death of Barbarofla. The liege was accordingly com¬
menced in 1551; but, by a ftratagem, the Turkilh com¬
mander was induced to depart. However, he reduced
the caftle of Gofa and the city of Tripoli, Nothing
happened of great confequence from that time till the
year 1564, when frefh complaints being made to Soli-
man, he propofed, in a grand council, where moft of
his officers attended, to extirpate the knights altoge¬
ther. Tins defign was ftrennoufly oppofed by Halt’,
one of Dragut’s moft experienced captains, who of¬
fered the moft folid reafons againft it; but being over¬
ruled by the reft, an expedition againft Malta was re¬
folved upon. One of the fultan’s firft cares was to
fend fome fpies, in the difguife of fifhermen, to take a
full view of the ifland, who found means to bring him
an exa£t plan of it, with all its fortifications, havens,
ftrength, and the number of its inhabitants, &c. whilft
he was haftening his armaments againft it. By this
time, as the Maltefe had very little reafon to doubt
that the Turkilh armaments were defigned againft their
ifland, the viceroy of Sicily, Don Garcia, was ordered
by his mailer to take it in his way to the caftle of Go-
letta, in order to confult with the grand-njafter about
the neceflary means for oppofing fuch a formidable
power. The grand-ihafter acquainted him, that, in
cafe of an attack upon Malta, he fliould want both
men and corn : upon which the viceroy engaged to
fupply him with both, on his return to Sicily; in pledge
of which he left one of his funs with him, who was
afterwards admitted into the order. He was no fooner
departed, than the grand-mafter fummoned all the
knights of the order, difperfed through feveral parts
of Europe, to repair to him. Thofe that were in Italy
railed a body of 2'oco foot, to which the viceroy of
Sicily added two companies of Spanilh forces. All the
galleys of the order were employed in tranfporting
thefe troops, together with all manner of provifions
and ammunition, into the ifland ; and the knights that
were in it, in diftributing, difeiplining, and exerciling
their new levies, as well as the Maltefe militia, againft
the liege. Thus the grand-mafter faw himfelf ftrength-
ened by the arrival of 600 knights, all of whom
brought with them retinues of llout good frrvants, fit
to alfift in the defence of the ifland; vhilft thofe, who
by reafon of age, ficknefs, or other impediments, could
not repair to him, fold their moft valuable effefls in
order to aflift him with,their purfes. The pope, on his
part, contented himfelf with fending a fupply of 10,000
crowns; and the king of Spain ordered his viceroy
Don Garcia to raife an. army of 20,000 men, to be
ready to fail thither as foot) as called for. The grand-
mafter employed the remainder of his time in viiiting
all the forts, magazines, arfenals, &c. and afiigning to
each tongue their feveral polls, and making all necef-
fary preparations, till the Ottoman fleet appeared in
fight on the 18th of May 1565. It confilted of ijqThc liege
large galleys and galleons, carrying on board 30,000“j111161*'
forces, janizaries and fpahis, belides the Haves at the
oar, accompanied by a confiderable number of other
veflels, laden with artillery, ammunition, and other ne-
ceflaries for a fiege. The whole armament was com¬
manded by Mullapha Bafha, an old experienced offi¬
cer, aged about 85 years, and an old favourite and
confidant of the fultan ; of an haughty cruel temper,
who made it a merit to violate his word, and to ufeall
manner of violence againft the Chriftians, efpecially
againft the Maltefe. This formidable army landed at
fome diftance from II Borgo, and foon afterwards
fpread themfelves over the country; fetting fire to the
villages, putting the peafants to the fword, and carry¬
ing off fuch of the cattle as, notwichftanding the orders
of the grand-maller, had not been fecured within the
forts and towns.
While the Turks were thus employed, La Valette
(the grand-mafter) fent out De Copier, marfhal of
the order, with 200 horfe and 600 foot, to watch their
motions. De Copier, an officer of great experience,
executed hiscommiffion with fo much prudence and vi¬
gour, that,by falling unexpeftedly on detached parties,
he cut off 15.00 Turks, with the lofs only of 80 men.
The Turkifh general held a council of war as foon
as all his troops were landed, to afiift him in refolving
where he fliould begin his attack. Piali, the Turkifii
admiral, agreeably to what he underttood to have been
the fultan’s inftruftions, was of opinion that they
ought not to enter upon a&ion till Dragut ftiould ar¬
rive. But Mu/lapha having received information of
the king of Spain’s preparations,- thought fomething
ought to be done inflantly for the fafety of the fleet
which lay at prefent in a creek, where it was expofed
to the violence of the eaft wind, and might be attack¬
ed with great advantage by the Spaniards. On this
account he was of opinion, that they ftiould immediate¬
ly lay fiege to a fort called St Elmo, which flood on a
neck of land near II Borgo, having the principal har¬
bour on one fide of it, and on the other another har¬
bour large enough to contain the whole fleet in fafe¬
ty. This propofal was approved by a majority of the
council, and Muftapha proceeded without delay to
carry it into execution.
La Valette did not expeft that a place which was Defpcraw
neither ftrong nor large enough to admit a numerous defence o£
garrifon, could be defended long againft fo great
force as was employed to reduce it; but he thought itmo'
neceffary that the fiege of this fort fliould be prolong¬
ed as much as poffible, in order to give the viceroy of
Sicily time to come to his relief. With this view, he
refolved to throw himfelf into St Elmo with a felefk
body of troops; and he was preparing to fet out,
when the whole body of knights remonftrated with
M A L [44
Malta. fUch earnefl importunity againft his leaving the town,
— jie a[ ]a^ confented to fuffcr the reinforcement,
which he had prepared, to be conduced to the fort
by a knight called De Medran, upon whofe condudt
and intrepidity he could rely with the moft affured
confidence.
Not long after De Medran’s arrival in the fort, the
garrifon made a vigorous fally, in which they drove
the enemy from their entrenchments, and put a num¬
ber of them to the fword. But the relt foon recover¬
ed from their furprife; and having returned to the
charge, they compelled the Chriftians to retire. In
this rencounter, the vigorous efforts of the Janifafies
were favoured by the wind, which blew the fmoke
of the guns upon the fort, and covered the befieged
with a thick cloud, through which it was impoffihle
to difcern the operations of the enemy. This incident
the Turks had the prefence of mind to improve to
very great - advantage. They feized, unperceived,
upon the eounterfcarps ; made a lodgement there with
beams, woolfacks, and gabions; and raifed a battery
upon it with incredible expedition. After the fmoke
was difperfed, the belieged beheld what had been done
with much aftonilhment ; and they were the more
difquieted, as the fortification which the Turks had
raifed upon the counterfcarp overtopped a ravelin
■which lay near it, in which the befieged could no
longer appear with fafety. They refolved, however,
to defend this ravelin as long as poffible, whatever it
fliouhl cofl them.
In the mean time Dragut, and another noted Cor-
fair named Uluchiali, arrived with 20 galleys; ha¬
ving, befides (laves and feamen, 2500 troops on board.
This reinforcement, and the prefence of Draguet, ad¬
ded frefh vigour to the operations of the fiege. This
gallant Corfair expofed himfelf, on all occalions, with
the uimofl intrepidity ; fpent whole days in the tren¬
ches ; and as, befides his other extraordinary talents,
he was particularly (kilful in the management of artil¬
lery, he cauftd fome new batteries to be raifed in
more advantageous fituations than had hitherto been
made choice of; and kept up a continual fire both on
the ravelin above-mentioned and a cavalier that co¬
vered the fort, and was one of its principal defences.
This cavalier foon became the only defence which
tfould prevent the befiegers from coming up to the
very foot of the wall. Some Turkifh engineers ha¬
ving approached the ravelin at day-break, to obferve
the effects of their artillery, they perceived a gun-port
fo low, that one of them, when mounted on the
flrouiders of another, looked into it, and faw the
Chrillian foldters lying on the ground afleep. Of
this they gave immediate information to the troops ;
who, advancing as quickly and filently as pofiible, and
clapping ladders to the gun-hole, got up into the
ravelin, and cut moft of the Chriftians tb pieces.
Between this ravelin and the cavalier lay the ditch,
over which the befieged bad thrown a temporary
bridge of planks, leading up to the cavalier. The
Turks, perceiving this, leaped inftantly upon the
bridge, and attempted to make themfelves mafters of
the cavalier, as they already were of the ravelin. But
the garrifon was now alarmed ; the braveft of the
knights haftened from different quarters to the poll of
danger ; and, after an obftinate engagement, they com-
12 ] MAI.
pelled the Turks to retire into the ravelin. There, Malta,
obferving another way of reaching the cavalier by a ^
pefth from the bottom of the ditch, they threw them¬
felves down without dread or hefitation ; and having
afeended by this path to the other fide, they renewed
their attack with greater fury than ever. The combat
lafted from fun-rife till noon, when the knights at
laft proved vidtorious. About 20 knights and 100
foldiers were killed ; and near 3000 of the enemy.
As the ravelin was open on the fide towards the
fort, the belieged pointed fome cannon againft it,
and made great havock among the infidels. But
Muftapha, fenlible of the value of the acquilition he
had made, poured in frefh foldiers without number,
and the pioneers coming forward with wool-facks,
planks, and gabions, put the troops at length in fafe-
ty. and made a lodgement in the ravelin, of which
the garrifon were never afterwards able to difpoffefs
them.
The grand-mafter’s concern on account of this dif-
after was greatly augmented, by conlidering, that it
could not have happened fo foon without fome negli¬
gence on the part of the garrifon. He fent them,
however, an immediate reinforcement; and both the
fiege and the defence were carried on with the fame
vigour as before..
But the fituation of the befieged was now become
much more dangerous than formerly. The Turks
applied with unremitting diligence to heighten the
ravelin till it overtopped the wall of the fort; and after
this the garrifon could no longer appear upon the pa¬
rapet with fafety. Many were killed by the enemy’s
artillery, feveral breaches were made in the wall,
and, the hearts of the braveft knights began to fail
within them. ^
They agreed therefore, though with much reluc- The
tance, to apply to the grand mafter for liberty toknights t,.e*
quit the fort ; and they made choice of the chevalier
de Medran for their meffenger. He reprefented, that t^e
the fort was in reality no longer tenible; and that, to fort, but
continue in it, though only for a few days, would in- ate refu-
fallibly occafion the deftrudion of the garrifon. fed*
Moft of the knights in council thought that this
requeft of the garrifon ought to be immediately grant¬
ed. But la Valette was of a contrary opinion.—
This he reprefented to the chevalier de Medran ; and
fent him back with inftru&ions to remind the knights
of the vows which they took, at their entrance into the
or^er, of facrificing their lives for its defence. He
likewife bad him aflure them, in his name", that he
.would not fail to fend them Inch reinforcements as
they fhould Hand in need of; and was determined, as
foon as it fhould be neceffary,*to come himfelf to their
afiiftance, with a fixed unalterable purpofe to lay
down his life, fooner than deliver the fort into the
hands of the infidels.
This anfwer had the defired effedl on feveral of the
knights, and particularly on thofe whofe principles
of honour and attachment to the order were confirmed
by years. But the greater part of them were much
diffatisfied. They thought the grand-mafter’s treat¬
ment of them harfh and cruel; and wrote him a letter,
fubferibed by 53, in which, after repeating their
former requeft, they informed him, that if he did not,
on the next night, fend boats to ca-'ry them to, the
town,
M A L
Malta, town, they were determined to fally out into the
“ Turkiih camp, where they might fall honourably by
the fword, inftead of fuffering fuch an ignominious
death as they had reafon to expebl if the fort was
taken by ftorm.
To this letter la Valette replied, “ That they were
much miftaken if they expe&ed tofatisfy their honour
by throwing away their lives ; fince it was no lefs
their duty to fubmit to hia authority, than to facrifice
their lives in defence of the order : that the preferva-
tion of the whole depended on their prefent obedience
to his commands: that no aid w’as to be expe&ed
from Spain, if the fort were given up. And that if he
fhould yield to their requeft, and bring them to the
towm, the town itfelf would then be immediately in-
vefted ; and they, as well as the reft, foon afterwards
reduced to a fituation more defperate than that from
which they were fo folicitous to efcape, by deferring
an impctant poft which they had undertaken to de¬
fend.” Befides this letter, he fent three commiffioners
to examine the ftate of the fortifications ; intending by
this meafure, either to gain time, or to prevent the gar-
rifon from finking into defpair.
Thefe commiffioners differed very widely in the
accounts which they delivered at their return. Two
of them thought it impoffible to defend the fort much
longer. But the third, named Conftantine Caftriot,
a Greek prince, defcended from the famous Albanian
hero Scanderbeg, whether from ignorance, or a con-
fcioufnefs of greater refources in his native courage
than the other two pofTeffed, maintained that the gar-
rifon was far from being reduced to the laft extremity;
and to give proof how firmly he Was perfuaded of the
truth of what he faid^ he offered to enter the fort
himfelf, and to undertake the defence of it with fuch
troops as fhould be willing to accompany him.
The grand-mafter, ftrongly imprtffed with a fenfe
©f the neceffity of protrafling the fiege, immediately
accepted this offer,, and bellowed the higheft enco¬
miums on Caftriot’s zeal and refolution. Nor did
Caftriot find any difficulty in perfuading a fuffibient
number to attend him, who were no lefs zealous and
refolute than himfelf. The foldiers crowded to his
ftandard, and were emulous to have their names en¬
rolled for that dangerous iervice in which he had en¬
gaged.
When la Yalette faw the fpirit by which thefe men
were animated, and had no longer any doubt of being
able, by their means, to prolong the fiege of the fort;
he fent a letter to the knights, acquainting them,
that he was now willing to give them their difcharge;
and would immediately fend another garrifon, into
whofe hands, he defired, they fhould be ready to de¬
liver up the fort, and come themfelves to the town in
the boats in which their fucceffors were to be tranf-
ported.
The contents and ftyle of this letter affedled the
knights in the moft fenfible manner, and roufed with¬
in them that delicate fenfe of honour by which the
order had been fo long and fo eminently diftinguifhed.
—They rtfolved without hefitation to remain in the
fort till every man fhould perifti, rather than either
deliver it to the new garrifon, or abandon it to the
enemy. And they went in a body to the governor,
andintreated him to inform the grand-mafter of their
M A L
repentance, and to join with them in praying that
the; might be fuftered to wipe out the remembrance
of their fault by their future conduft.
The grand-mafter fuffered himftlf at laft to be
overcome ; and henceforth the garrifon, difmiffing all
thoughts of tlieir own fafety, were intent on nothing
but how to prolong the defence.
The grand-mafter fent them every night frefh
troops, to fupply the place of the killed and wounded ;
and kept them well furnifhed with provifions, ammu- I4
nition, and fire-works. Of thefe laft he had invented Invention
a particular kind, which confided of hoops of wood, burning
covered with wool, and fteeped in boiling oil and other 00ps'
inflammable liquors, mixed with nitre and gunpowder.
To thefe machines they fet fire, and threw them
flaming in the midfl of the enemy when they were
crowded together at an affault. It happened often,
that two or three of the Turks were hooked together
and fcorched to death ; and the utmoft confufion was
produced wherever they were thrown.
The befieged flood much in need of this, and every
other inftrument of mifchief that could be devifed, for
their defence. In fpite of the moft vigorous oppofj-
tion, the Turks had caft a bridge over the ditch, and
begun to fap and undermine the wall. From the 17th
of June to the 14th of July, not a Angle day paffi-d
without fome rencounter; and Mullapha had fre¬
quently attempted to fcale the wall of the fort, but
had been as often repulfed with the lofs of fome of the
bravefl of his troops.
Afhamed at having been detained fo long before a
place of fuch inconfiderable ftrength, he refolved to
make one great decifive effort; and to bring to the
affault as many of his forces as the fituation of the
place would permit him to employ. He had already
made feveral breaches; but in order to fecure the fuc-
cefs of the affault which he now intended,, he kept his
batteries playing all the 15th without intermiffion, till
the wall oa that fide where he defigned his attack was
almoft level with the rock. On the 16th, the fleet
was dratvn up, before fun-rife, as near the fort as the
depth of the water would allow. Four thotifr.nd
mufketeers and archers were ftationed in the trenches;
and the reft of the troops, upon a fignal given, ad¬
vanced to the breach. The garrifon was prepared to
receive them; the breach was lined with feveral ranks
of foldiers, having the knights interfperfed among
them at certain diflances. The Turks attempted often
to break through this determined band, and to over¬
power them with their numbers ; but their numbers •
ferved only to augment the lofs which they fuflained.
Every (hot from the fort did execution. The artilleryr
made dreadful havoc among them and the burning
hoops were employed with aftonifhing fuccefs. The
novelty of thefe machines, and the ffivieks of thofe
who were caught in them, added greatly to the.terror
which they infpired ; and made it impoffible for the
Turkifti officers to keep their men firm and fteady
in purfuing the advantages which, had they pre-
ferved their ranks, their numbers mull have infallibly
acquired.
At length Muftapha, after having continued the
affault for more than fix hours, without gaining a
Angle inch of ground on the befieged, gave orders for
founding a retreat. In this attack the garrifon loft
about:
[ 44’3 I
MAI
Malts, about 20 knights, and 300 foldfers; but this lofs was
immediately fupplied by a reinforcement from the
town: and Mnftapha was at laft convinced, that, un-
lefs the communication between the fort and the town
were cut off, it wonld be impoffible to bring the fiege
of the former to a period, while any troops remained in
the other parts of the ifland. By the advice ofDragut,
he refolved to extend his trenches and batteries on the
fide next the town, till they fhould reach to that part
of the fea, or great harbour, where thofe fupplies
were landed which the grand-mafter daily fent to the
garrifon. This undertaking he knew muff be at¬
tended with the utmoft difficulty, becaufe all the fpace
between his intrenchments, and the point to which it
was neceffary to extend them, lay expofed to the artil¬
lery both of fort St Elmo and St Angelo. In viewing
the ground, a Sangiac, in whom he put confidence,
was killed by his fide ; and, which was ftill a more
irreparable lofs, Dragut received a mortal wound, of
which he died in a few days. This did not, however,
difcourage Muftapha from purfuing his defign. By
employing his troops and pioneers at the work day
and night, without intermiffion, he at length carried
it into execution. Then having planted batteries
along the (bore, and filled his trenches with muike-
teers, it was impoffible for any boat to pafs from the
town to the fort, without the moft imminent danger of
either being funk or intercepted.
After this precaution, he refumed with frefh vigour
his attempts to take the fort by ftorm. On the 21ft,
he made four different affaults: all of which the garri¬
fon withftood ; and, in repulfing fo many thoufand
brave and well-difciplined troops, difplayed a degree
of prowefs and fortitude which almoft exceeds belief,
and is beyond the power of defcription. But this
heroic garrifon was now exceedingly reduced in num¬
ber; and there was the ftrongeft reafon to apprehend,
that, in one affaulf more, they mult inevitably be
overpowered, unlefs a reinforcement were fent them
from the town. Of their defperate fituation they gave
intelligence to the grand-mafter, by one who fwam
acrofs the harbour in the night. The boats were in-
ftantly filled with knights and other foldiers, who ge-
neroufly refolved to devote themfelves to certain de-
ftru&ion for the general fafety, and the prefervation
of the fort. They fet off from the town with as
much alacrity as if they had entertained the moft
fanguine hopes of vi&ory ; but they found the Turks
every-where fo much upon their guard, and the lines
fo ftrongly defended, that, after feveral fruitlefs at¬
tempts to land, they were at laft obliged to return,
deprtffed with forrow for the fate of their brave com¬
panions.
The garrifon, now defpairing of relief, gave them¬
felves up for loft ; but inftead of either capitulating
or attempting to efcape, they prepared for death, and
paffed the night in prayer and in receiving the facra-
ment ; after which they embraced one another ten¬
derly, and then repaired to their refpeftive pofts ;
while fuch of the wounded as had been difabled
from walking, were, at their own earned defire, car¬
ried to the fide of the breach, where they waited,
without difmay, for the approach of the Turkilh
army.
Early in, the morning of the 23d of July, the
M A L
Turks advanced to the affault with loud fhouts, as to Malta.
certain victory, which they believed fo fmall a hand-
ful of men as now remained in the fort would not
dare to difpute with them. In this expectation they
were difappointed. The garrifon being refolved on
death, and defpifing danger, were more than men ;
and exerted a degree of prowefs and valour that filled
their enemies with amazement. The combat lafted The fort •
upwards of four hours, till not only every knight, but taken, and
every foldier had fallen, except two or three who faved t*le
themfelves by fwimming. The Turkifh colours werecut0 * ^
then planted on the ramparts ; and the fleet entered
the harbour, which the fort commanded, in a kind of
triumph. * When Muftapha took a view of the fort,
and examined its fize and fortifications, he could not
refrain from faying, “ What will not the father cod
us, (meaning the town,) when the fon, who is fa
fmall, has coft fo many thoufands of our braved
troops?” But this reflection, far from exc' ing his
admiration of that heroic fortitude which he had found
fo difficult to overcome, ferved only to infpire him tg
with a brutal fury. He ordered all fuch of the gar- Cruelty of
rifon as were found lying on the breach alive to be Muftapha.
ript open, and their hearts torn out: and, as an in-
fult on the knights and their religion, he caufed their
dead bodies to be fearched for, and large gafhes to be
made in them, in the form of a crofs; after which he
tied them on planks, and threw them into the fea, to
be carried by the wind and tide to the town or fort
Si Angelo.
The grand-mafter was at firft melted into tears <-
at this fliocking fpeCtacle ; but his grief was foon
converted into indignation and revenge: and thefe
paffions betrayed him into an aCIion unworthy of iy
the exalted charafter which he bore. In order to And of the
teach the bafha, as he pretended, to make war withgtand-
lefs barbarity, he caufed all the Turks whom he hadmaller*
taken prifoners to be maffacred ; and then putting
their heads into his largeft cannon, he (hot them into
the Turkifh camp.
In the fiege which has been related, the order
loft about 1500 men, including 130 of the braved
knights.
Muftapha vainly imagined, that, being intimidated
by the fate of their companions, they would be now
inclined to liften to terms of capitulation: and in this
hope, he fent an officer with a white flag to one of
the gates, attended by a Chriftian (lave defigned to
ferve for his interpreter. The Turk was not allowed
to enter within the town ; but the Chriftian was ad¬
mitted, and was led through feveral ranks of foldiers
under arms by an officer, who, after (hewing him all
the fortifications of the place, defired him to take
particular notice of the depth and breadth of the
ditch, and faid to him, “ See there, the only fpot we
can afford your general ; and there we hope foon to
bury him and all his Janizaries.”
This infulting fpeech being reported by the (lave,
excited in the fiery mind of the bafha the higheft de¬
gree of wrath and indignation, and made him refolve
to exert himfelf to the utmoft in the profeeution of
the fiege. His troops, though greatly diminidied,
were ftill fufficient to iuveft at once both the town
and the fort of St Michael. He kept a conftant fire
on both; but he intended firft to apply to the reduc-
[ 44'4 ]
M A L [ 4415 ] M A L
Malta, tion of the latter, which he propofed to attack both on that part of the (hore which the grand-mafte.r had Malta,
by land and water, at the extremity of the peninfula ftrengthened with entrenchments. At this important"
on which it ftands. In order to accomplilh this de- poft, the Chriftian troops were commanded by an an- 18
fign, it was neceffary he fhou'ld have fome (hipping cient knight of the name of This expe-The Turks
introduced into the harbour for tranfporting his forces, rienced officer referved his fire till the Turks had ad-
But the mouth of the harbour having been rendered vanced within a little diftance of the (hore, when, by a flaughter.
inacceffible by a great iron chain and the cannon of fingle difcharge, he killed about 400 men. This did
“St Angelo, his defign mud have been relinquilhed, if not prevent the relt from approaching. Candelifih
Piali had not fuggefted an expedient againft which puffied forwards while the Chriltians were loading
the grand-mafter had not provided. This was, to their cannon, and landed at the head of his Algerines,
make the Chriftian (laves and the crews of the (hips But Guimeran having referved fome cannon charged
draw a number of boats, by the firength of their with grape-(liot, did dreadful execution among them
arms, over the neck of land on which (food fort St after they had landed, and many of them began to fly
Elmo. Of this propofal, which Muitapha immedi- to their boats; which Candeliffa obferving, he com*
ately adopted, information was carried to the grand- manded the boats to be put off to a little diftance from
mailer by a Turklffi officer; who, being by birth a the (hore. His troops, perceiving then that they
Greek, was touched fudderdy with remorfe, and de- muft either die or conquer, took courage from defpair,
ferted to the Chriftians. In confequence of this in- and advanced boldly to the intrenchment, with lad-
teiligence, La Valette fet a great number of hands to ders for fealing it in one hand, and their fabres in the
work in'framing a ftacado along that pan of the pro- other. The combatants on both fides difplayed the
montory where the'Forks intended their attack; and mod'intrepid valour. Great numbers fell, and the.
at another part, where the depth of the water, or the ditch was choaked with blood, and with the bodies of
hardnefs of the bottom, would r-ot admit the ftacado, the dead and wounded. The Turks at lad, after an
he caufed drong intrenchments to be made upon the engagement of five hours, reached the top of the en-
beach. Mudapha, in the mean time, fired inceflantly trenchment, and there planted their enfigns. The
upon the fort, while the (laves and crews were em- knights, dung with (hame on account of their retreat,
ployed in tranfporting the boats over land into the returned with redoubled ardour. But they would pro-
harbour. At length the baffia, judging that the bably have been overpowered by the fuperior number
number of boats which he had tranfported would be of the enemy, had not the grand-mader'fent them a
fufficient, and that the breaches which his artillery feafonable reinforcement, under the admiral de Giou
had made were practicable, refolved, without further and the chevalier de Quiney ; who fell upon the Alge-
delay, to make an attack both by fea and land. He rines and Turks with tTdegree of fury that druck ter-
was the more confident of fuccefs, as, fince the taking ror into Candeliffa himfelf, who was noted for his in-
of St Elmo, he had received a confiderable reinforce- trepidity. Having ordered the boats to be brought
ment, by the arrival of Hafcem, fon of Barbaroffa, nearer the (hore, he was among the fird who fled. His
with 2500 felesft foidiers, commonly called theBravoes bravoes fought defperately for fqme time after he had
ef Algiers. Hafcem, who poffeffed a confiderable left them ; but were at length thrown down from the
(hare of his father’s fire, and was ambitious to didin- intreuchments, and compelled to fly to their boats with
guifh himfelf in the fultards fervice, begged of Muda- the "utmoft precipitation. The Chridians purfued
pha to intruft him with the affault of fort St Michael; them, and the batteries continued firing on them with-
snd vaunted, with his natural arrogance, that he out intermiffion. Many of the boats were funk ; the
would foon make himfelf matter of it fword-in-hand. water was covered with dead bodies, mangled limbs.
The baffia, whether from an opinion of his valour, or fhields and helmets. Of the 4000 who had been fent
an intention to make him learn at his own expence on this enterprife, fcarcely 500 remained, and many of
the folly of his prefumption, readily complied with thefe were dangeroudy wounded.
his reqned; and, having added 6000 men to his Al- Hafcem was not more fortunate in his affault by
gerines, he promifed to fupport him with the reft of land, than Candeliffa was by fea. After having been
his army. repulfed at one breach with great (laughter, he rallied
Hafcem divided his forces with Candeliffa, an old his troops, and led them on to another, where he
corfair, his lieutenant; to whom he committed the at- fought long and defperately, till, nioft of the bravoe*
tack by fea, whilfthe referved that on the land-fide to having fallen by his fide, he was obliged, with much
himfelf. reludlance and forrow, to found a retreat.
Candeliffa having put his troops on hoard the boats, Muflapha, not unmindful of his promife to fupport
fet out with drums beating, and hautboys and other him, no fooner perceived him beginning to retire, than
imffical inftruments playing, preceded by a boat filled he ordered the Januaries, whom he kept under arms,
with Mahometan priefts, fome of whom were' employ- to advance. The garrifon had maintained an engage- tncredible
ed in offering prayers to heaven for his fliccefs, or in ment with Hafcem for five hours, in the middle of the valour of
finging hymns; while others had books in their day, and in the hotteft feafon of the year; yet, as iftheMal-
hands, out of which they read imprecations againft they had not been fubjeft to the wants and weakneffeatefe*
the Chriftians. Candeliffa attempted firft to break of humanity, they advanced beyond the breach to
down the ftacado which had been formed to obftrudt meet the Janifaries, and fought apparently with as
his landing ; but finding it much Wronger than he ex- much vigour and fortitude as before. By the power
pedled, and that, while he was employed in demolifli- of fupenor numbers, they were compelled to fall back
ing it, his troops mtift fuller greatly from the enemy’s within the breach. But there they made the moft de-
fire, he thought it would be eafier to make a deicent fperate refiftance 3 and, being reinforced by De Giou
yon. VI. 2 25 6 and
M A L [ 4416 ] M A L
JVl i!fa. and De Qrnney, with the troops which had triumph- whole ifland into the hands of the infidels. Fort St Malta
ed over Candelifla, they at lalt repulfed the Janifaries Michael, which has been fo gallantly defended, and^
with dreadful (laughter; after having loft more than which is preferred by its communication with the town,
40 knights, and 200 of the braveft of the common would thus be foon reduced to the neceiiity of furren-
men. dering. There is no room in the caftle of St Angelo
Muftapha, enraged by this invincible obftinacy for the inhabitants and troops ; nor, if there were
which the Chriftians difplayed in their defence, and room, is there water in that fort for fo great a num-
dreading that the Spanifh fuccours, which had been
already delayed much longer than he expected, might
foon arrive, refolved now to employ his whole force at
once; and, while he himfelf profecuted the fiege of fort
St Michael with one half of his troops, to employ the
other, under Piali, againft the town. More batteries
were raifed. The trenches were advanced ftill nearer
than before. Bridges of fail-yards and mafts were
thrown over the ditches. Mines, notwithftanding the
bard and rocky foil, were fprung. Affaults were re¬
peated without number; and the two baftias, emulous
of one another, and each of them agitated with con¬
tinual anxiety left victory Ihould declare firft for his
competitor, exhibited the moft ftiining proofs of per-
fonal courage, and exhaufted all the art of war then
known in the world. Yet, thro’ the determined bra¬
very of the knights, conducted by the grand matter
with confummate prudence and indefatigable vigi-
20 lance, the Turks were baffled in every attempt, and
A great repnlfed with (laughter. Muftapha Haltered himfelf
number of once with the moft fanguine hopes of fuceefs on his
ft roved by Part’ ^rom a mac^uie invented by his principal engi-
a contri- neer, in the form of a huge calk bound ftrongly with
vauce of iron hoops, and filled with gun powder, nails, chains,
their own. bullets, and fuch other inftruments of death. After
fetting fire to a train which was fattened to this ma¬
chine, it was thrown, by the force of an engine, upon
a ravelin that was the principal defence of the fort.
But the garrifon, undifmayed, found means, before it
caught fire, to caft it out again into the midft of the
alfailants. In a moment afterwards it burft with
dreadful fury, and filled the Turks with confternation.
The knights then fallied out upon them fword-in-hand,
and, taking advantage of their confufion, killed many
of them, and put the reft to flight.
Piali had, on fome occafions, ftill more reafon than
Muftapha to entertain the hopes of vittory, altho’the
town was much ftronger than the fort, and LaValette
com manded there in perfon. By his batteries he had
demoliftied all the out-works of the place, and had
made an immenfe breach in the wall. While his
troops were engaged in a furious afiault, that engrofled
the whole attention of the befieged from morning till
night, he employed a great number of pioneers in rai¬
ling a cavalier or platform of earth and ftones, clofe by
the breach, and fo high as to overlook the parapet.
Night, in the mean time, came on, and prevented him
from carrying any further, this great advantage; but he
doubted not that next day he Ihould be able to make
2, himftlf mailer of the place.
The grand- As foon as he had drawn off his forces, a council of
matter pre- the order was convened, and moft of the knights were
krThts*6 °P'n'on t^iat the town was no longer tenible; that
from a ban- the fortifications which ftill remained Ihould be blown
doning the up; and that the garvifon and inhabitants Ihould retire
town. into the caftle of St Angelo. But the grand-mafter
received this propofal with horror and indignation.
This would be in effedl,’’ faid he, “ to deliver the
ber.” It was then propofed, that at leall the relics of
the faints and the ornaments of the churches Ihould be
carried into the caftle ; and the knights earnettly in-
treated the grand mailer to retire into it himfelf, af-
furing him that they would condudl the defence with
the utmoft vigour and vigilance. “ No, my bre¬
thren,” he replied, “ what you propofe as to the fa-
cred things would ferve only to intimidate the foldiers.
We mult conceal our apprehenfions. It is here we mull
either die or conquer. And is it poffible that I, at the
age of 71, can end my life fo honourably as in fight¬
ing, together with my friends and brethren, againft
the implacable enemies of our holy faith He then
told them what he thought proper to be done, and pro¬
ceeded inftantly to put it into execution. Having call¬
ed all the foldiers from fort St Angelo, except a few
who were neceffary for managing the artillery, he em¬
ployed them and the inhabitants all night, in throwing
up intrenchments within the breach ; after which he
fent out fome of the braveft knights, with a feleft bo¬
dy of troops, to make an attempt on the cavalier.
Thefe men Hole foftly along the foot of the wall till
they arrived at the place appointed ; when they fet up
a loud Ihout, and attacked the guards whom Piali had
left there with fo much fury, that the Turks, belie¬
ving the whole garrifon had fallen upon them, aban¬
doned their poll, and fled precipitately to their camp-
The cavalier was immediately fortified, a battery of
cannon planted on it, and a parapet raifed on the fide
towards the enemy. And thus the breach was ren¬
dered impra&icable ; the town put in greater fecurity
than before ; and a work, which had been devifed for
its deftrutflion, converted into a bulwark for its de¬
fence.
The grand mailer had now greater confidence than
ever of being able to hold out till the Spaniards Ihonlci
come to his relief. In confequence of the affuranees
given by Philip and the Sicilian viceroy, he had, long
before this time, entertained the hopes of their arri¬
val ; and had often earneftly folicited the viceroy to
haften his departure from Meffina. The condudl of this
nobleman was long exceedingly myllerious. The pa¬
tience of the knights was worn out by his delays ; and
they, and many others, fufpedled that the real motive
of his conduft was the dread of encountering with an
admiral of fo confiderable reputation as Piali. But it
afterwards appeared that the viceroy had a<fted agree¬
ably to his inftruttions from the court of Spain. For
ajtho’ Philip was, for the reafons abovementioned, lin-
cerely interefted in the prefervation of the knights, and
hadamufed them with the moft flattering promifes of
affiftance ; yet he feems from the firft to have refolved
not to expofe himfelf to danger on that account, and
to avoid, if poffible, a general engagement. Ungrateful
A generous and grateful prince would have a£ledan(I l,nge"
very differently towards an ally fo deferving of
fuppovi ; and if either generofity or gratitude hading 0£
been the leading principle of Philip’s conduil, it is Spain.
pro-
knights
reinforce*
M A L [ 4417 ] M A L
j. probable be would, on tin's occafion, have regarded difheartened by their ill fuccefs, he imagined that he Malta.
 the knights as his own fubje&s; and have thought it was about to be attacked by a fuperior army, confift- °
no lets incumbent on him to exert himfelf in their de- ing of the braveft and bed: difciplined troops in Spain. 14
fence, than if they had acknowledged him as their fo- Without waiting for information of their number, heT|ie 1 or:‘s
vereign. forthwith raifed the fiege, drew his garrifon out of St
But Philip was affe&ed by their danger only fo far Elmo, and, leaving all his heavy cannon behind him, pa„ic.
as it threatened the tranquillity of his own dominions, embarked his troops with as much precipitation as if
He had refolved to interpofe in their behalf, rather the Spaniards with fuperior forces had been in fight,
than to fuffer them to be overpowered ; but he appears He had fcarcely got on board when a deferter arri-
to have been very little touched with their calamities, ved from the Spanifh camp, and informed him, that
and to have intended to leave them to themfelves, as
long as there was any profpedf of their being able to
make refiftance ; by doing which he confidered, that
he would not only preferve his own ftrength entire, but
might afterwards engage with the Turks when they
were exhaufted by the operations of the fiege.
Philip adhered inflexibly to this plan, notwithftanding
the grand mailer’s repeated importunities, much longer
than was confiftent Avith his own felfifii views. For,
without a degree of fortitude and prowefs on the part
of the garrifon, and a degree of wifdom, vigilance,
and magnanimity on that of the grand-mafter, infi¬
nitely higher than there could be reafon to expect, it
muft have been impoffible for fuch a handful of men to
have withftood, for fo long a time, fo great a force,
and fuch mighty efforts, as were employed to reduce
them. Even the death of the grand-mafter alone,
whofe perfon was expofed to perpetual danger, would
have proved fatal to the knights, long before Philip
fent orders to his viceroy to give them any effe&ual fup-
port; and in this cafe, as his own dominions or his fleet
would have been immediately attacked, he would pro¬
bably have had little reafon to be fatisfied with the ti¬
mid, ungenerous counfels which he purfued.
Whatever judgment may be formed on this head,
the viceroy did not think himfelf at liberty to yield to
the repeated applications of the grand-mafter, till the
operations of the fiege began to-re!ax, and the Turkifh
forces were reduced from 45,00010 15,000 or 16,000;
of whom many were worn out with the fatigues which
they had undergone, and others rendered unfit for ac¬
tion by a bloody-flux, which for feveral weeks had ra-
,ged amongft them.
In this fituation of affairs, when it was probable that
the knights would, without affiftance, have compelled
the Turks to raife the fiege, the viceroy let the grand-
mafter know,, that he had now received fuch inftruc-
tions from the king, as put it in his power to fhew his
attachment to the order: that he was not indeed per¬
mitted to attack the Turkifh fleet; but that he would
immediately bring him a ftrong body of troops, whofe
commanders (as he bimftlf muft return to Sicily) were
to be entirely fubjedt to the grand-mafter’s authority
till the enemy fhould be expelled.
The viceroy? altho’ ftill fufpedled of interpofing un-
neceffary delays, at length fulfilled his promife ; and
on the 7th of September landed 6000 men, under
Don Alvaro de Sande and Afcanio della Coma, in that
part of the ifland which lay at the greateft diftance
from the Turks; after which, he immediately carried
back the fleet to Sicily.
In the mean time, intelligence being brought to
Muftapha that the Spaniards were 1 ''tided, and march¬
ing towards him, he was thrown into the moft dread¬
ful confternatiou. Scniible that his foldiers were much
with [5,000 or 16,000 men, he had fled before an ar¬
my that did not exceed 6000, having no general at
their head, and commanded by officers who were in¬
dependent of one another. The bafha was overwhelm¬
ed with fhame and vexation by this intelligence, and
would have immediately difembarked; but this, he
knew, he durft not attempt without confuking Piali,
Hafcem, and his other principal officers.
While he was deliberating upon it, the grand-ma¬
fter improved to the beft advantage the leifure that wa*
afforded him. He employed all the inhabitants, men,
women, and children, as well as the foldiers, in filling
up the enemy’s trenches, and demoliftiing their works 5
and put a garrifon without delay into fort St Elmo ; in
which the Turks now beheld from their (hips the ftan-
dard of St John ere&ed, where that of Mahomet had
lately flood.
This demonftrated to Muftapha how much new la¬
bour awaited him in cafe he fhonld return to the fiege;
but being enraged againft himfelf on acc. unt of the
precipitancy of his retreat, and difquicted at the
thoughts of the reception which he had reafon to ex-
,peft from Solyman, he wifhed to atone for his impru¬
dence, and to wipe off the reproach in which it had
involved him, by viftory or death. Piali, who, from
his jealoufy of the bafha’s credit with the fultan, was
not forry for the failure of his enterprife, reprefented
in a council of war convened on this occafion. That as
the troops were much difpirited and worn out, it would
be expoling them to certain dellrudlion, either to lead
them againft the enemy, or to refume the operations
of the fiege. But a majority of the council were of a
different opinion; and it was refolved to land the for¬
ces again without delay.
The Turkifh foldiers complained bitterly of this un- They re-
expefted refolution, and obeyed the orders to difem- U:rn. bl,t
bark with the greateft reludance. Theirofficers Were^e tlefca£''
obliged to employ threats with fome, and force with
others, At length the number intended was put on
fhore, and Muftapha fet out at their head in fearch of
the enemy.
The grand-mafter had not negle£led to give early
notice of their march to the Spanifh commanders,
who had intrenched their little army on a fteep hill,
which the Turks would have found almoft inacceffible;
and it was the opinion of fome of the principal offi¬
cers, that they ihould avail themfelves of the advan¬
tage of their fituation, and ftand on their defence.
But this propofal was reje&ed with difdain by the bold
adventrous De Sande, and the greateft pan of the
Spanifh officers ; and the troops were led out of their
encampment, to meet the enemy in the open field.
This condudl, more fortunate perhaps than prudent,
contributed to increafe the. dejetlion of the Turkifh
foldiers, and to facilitate their defeat. Having been
25 B 2 dragged
M A L [ 44*8 1 M A L
Malta, dragged againft tlieir inclination to the field of battle,
~ ~and being attacked by the Spaniards with great fury,
both in front and flank, they fcarcely fought, but,
being {truck with a fudden panic, fled with the utmoft
precipitation.
Muftapha, confounded and enraged by this pufilla-
nimous behaviour of his troops, was hurried along by
the violent tide of the fugitives. He fell twice from
his horfe, and would have been taken prifoner if his
officers had not refcued him. The Spaniards purfued
brilkly till they came to the fea fhore. There Piali
had his boats ready to receive the Turks, and a number
of fliallops filled with mufketeers drawn up to favour
their efcape. Without this precaution, they mu ft all
have perifhed ; and, even notwithftanding the protec¬
tion which it afforded them, the number of their kill¬
ed amounted to 2000 men, while the vi&ors loft; only
13 or 14 at moft.
Such, after four months continuance, was the con-
clufion of the fiege of Malta, which will be for ever
memorable on account of that extraordinary difplay of
the moft generous and heroic valour by which the
knights, fo few in number, were enabled to baffle the
moft vigorous efforts which could be made to fubdue
them by the moft powerful monarch in the world. The
news of their deliverance gave univerfal joy totheChri-
ftian powers ; and the name of the grand-mafter exci¬
ted every where the higheft admiration and applaufe.
Congratulations were fenthim from every quarter; and
in many ftaies public rejoicings were celebrated on ac-
■v count of his fuccefs.
With this fiege is concluded every thing of impor¬
tance in the hiftory of Malta. The power of the
Turks began about this time to be fo much circum-
fcribed, that they ceafed to be formidable to theChri-
ftian nations, and the knights of Malta had no longer
an opportunity of exerting their valour as formerly.
They have remained ever lince in quiet poffeffion of
their ifland, of which we have, the lateft defcriptiou
from Mr Brydone.
Defciiptton “ The approach of the ifland (fays he) is very fine,
of the although the fhore is rather low and rocky. It is every-
jfland, See. where made inacceffible to an enemy, by an infinite
number of fortifications. The rock, in many places,
has been floped into the form of a glacis, with ftrong
parapets and intrenchments running behind it.—On
getting afhore we found ourfelves in a new world in¬
deed.—The ftreets (of Valetta) crowded with well-
dreffed people, who have all the appearance of health
and affluence; and we were conduced by the Englifh
conful to an inn, which had more the appearance of a
palace.
“ After dinner we went to vifit the principal villas
of the ifland ; particularly thofe of the grand-mafter
and the general of the galleys, which lie contiguous
to one another. Thefe are nothing great or magni¬
ficent ; but they are admirably contrived for a hot
climate, where, of all things, fhade is the moft de-
firable. The orange-groves are indeed very fine,
and the fruit they bear fuperior to any thing of the
kind in Spain or Portugal.
“ The afpeff of the country is far from being plea-
fing : the whole ifland is a great rock of very white
free-ftone ; and the foil that covers this rock, is, in
moft places, not more than five or fix. inches deep; yet,
what is Angular, we Found their crop in general was Matts
exceedingly abundant. They account for it from the
copious dews that fall during the fpring and fum-
mer months; and pretend likewife that there is a
moifture in the rock below the foil, that is of great
advantage to the corn and cotton, keeping its roots
perpetually moift and cool : without which fingular
quality, they fay, they could have no crop at all; the
heat of the fun being fo exceedingly violent.—The
whole ifland produces corn only fufficient to fupply
its inhabitants for five months or little more ; but the
crop they moft depend upon is the cotton. They begin
tofow it about the middle of May, and continue till the
middle of June ; and the time of reaping is in the-
month of Oftober and beginning of November.
“ They pretend that the cotton produced from this
plant, which is fown and reaped in four months, is of
a much fuperior quality to that of the cotton-tree.
I compared them ; but I cannot fay I found it fo :
this is indeed the fined ; but that of the cotton-tree is
by much the ftrongeft texture. The plant rifestothe
height of a foot and an half; and is covered with a
number of nuts or pods full of cotton ; Thefe, when
ripe, they are at great pains to cut oft' every morning
before fun-rife; for the heat of the fun immediately
turns the cotton yellow; which indeed we faw from
thofe pods they fave for feed.
“ They manufafture their cotton into a great va- "
riety of ftufls. Their (lockings are exceedingly fine.
Some of them, they affured us, had beed fold for ten
fequins a pair. Their coverlets and blankets are
efteemed all over Europe. Of thefe the principal ma-
mifa&ures are eftablifhed in the little ifland of Gozzo,
where the people are faid to be more induftrious than
thofe of Malta, as they are more excluded frofn the
world, and have fewer inducements to idlenefs. Here-
the fugar-cane is dill cultivated with fuccefs, though,
not in any confiderable quantity.
“ -The Maltefe oranges certainly deferve the cha¬
racter they have of being the fineft in the world. The
feafon continues for upwards of feven months, from
November till the middle of June; during which time
thofe beautiful trees are always covered with abun¬
dance of delicious fruit. Many of them are of the red
kind, much fuperior, in my opinion, to the others,
which are rather too lufeious. They are produced, I
am told, from the common orange-bud, ingrafted on
the pomegranate dock. The juice of this fruit is as*
red as blood, and of a fine flavour. The greateft
part of their crop is fent in prefents to the different
courts of Eurbpe, and to the relations of the che¬
valiers.
“ The induftry of the Maltefe in cultivating their
little iftand is inconceivable. There is not an inch
of ground loft in any part of it ; and where there was
not foil enough, they have brought over (hips and
boats loaded with it from Sicily, where there is plen¬
ty, and to fpare. The whole ifland is full of inclofures
of free-ftone, which give the country a very uncouth
and barren afpedl ; and in fummer refieCls fuch a light
and heat, that it is exceedingly difagreeable and offen-
five to the eyes. The inclofures are very fmall and
irregular, according to the inclination of the ground.
This, they fay, they are obliged to ohferve, notwith¬
ftanding the deformity it occafions j otherwife the
floods;
M A L [ 4419 ] M A L
Malta, floods, to which they are fubjedt, would foon carry off
their foil.
“ The ifland is covered over with country-houfes
and villages, befides feven cities, for fo they term
them ; but there are only two, the Valetta, and Citta
Vecchia, that by any means deferve that appellation^
Every little village has a noble church, elegantly finilh-
ed, and adorned with ftatues of marble, rich tapdtry,
and a large quantity of hlver plate.
“ The city of Valetta has certainly the happieft
fituation that can be imagined. It (lands upon a
peninfula between two of the fined: ports,in the world,
which are defended by almoft impregnable fortifica¬
tions. That on the fouth fide of the city is the
largeft. It runs about two miles into the heart of the
ifland; and is fo very deep, and furrounded by fuch
high grounds and fortifications, that they aflured us
the largeft (hips of war might ride here in the moft
ftormy weather, almoft without a cable.
“ This beautiful bafon is divided into five diftinil
harbours, all equally fafe, and each capable of con¬
taining an immenfe number of (hipping. The mouth
of the harbour is fcarcely a quarter of a mile broad,
and is commanded on each fide by batteries that
would tear the tlrongeft (hip to pieces before (he could
enter. Befides this, it is fronted by a quadruple bat¬
tery, one above the other, the largeft of which is a
flcur d'eau, or on a level with the water: Thefe are
mounted with about 80 of their heavieft artillery : fo
that this harbour, I think, may really be confidered
as impregnable; and indeed the Turks have ever found
it fo, and I believe ever will.
“ The harbour on the north fide of the city, al¬
though they only ufe it for fifhing, and as a place of
quarantine, would, in any other part of the world,
be confidered as ineftimable. It is likewife defended
by very ftrong works ; and in the centre of the bafon
is an ifland on which they have built a caftle and a
lazaret.
“ The fortifications of Malta are indeed a moft
ftupendous work. All the boafted catacombs of Rome
and Naples are a trifle to the immenfe excavations
that have been made in this little ifland. The ditches,,
of a vaft fize, are all cut out of the folid rock. Thefe
extend for a great many miles, and raife our aftonifti-
ment to think that fo fmall a date has ever been able
to make them.
“ One fide of the ifland is fo completely fortified
by nature, that there was nothing left for art. The
rock is of a great height, and abfolutely perpendi¬
cular from the fea for feveral miles. It is very fingu-
lar, that on this fide there are ftill the veftiges of fe¬
veral ancient roads, with the tracks of carriages worn
deep in the rocks. Thefe roads are now terminated,
by the precipice, with the feas beneath ; and (hew, to
a demonftration, that this ifland has formerly been of
a much larger fize than it is at prefent; but the con-
vulfion thatoccafioned its diminution is probably much
beyond the reach of any hiftor.y or tradition. It has
been often obferved, notwith(landing the very great
diftance of mount iEtna, that this ifland has generally
been more or lefs affedted by its eruptions; and they
think it probable, that on fome-of thefe occafions a
great part of it may have been (haken into the fea.
« One half of mount iEtca is. clearly difeovered
from Malta. They reckon the diftance near 200 Ita-
lian miles. And the people of Malta affirm, that, in-
great eruptions of the mountain, their whole ifland is
illuminated, and from the reflexion in the water there
appears a great track of fire all the way from Malta
to Sicily. The thundering of the mountain is like¬
wife diltindlly heard.
“ We made an expedition through the ifland in
coaches drawn by one mule each; the only kind of ve¬
hicle the ifland affords. The catacombs, not far from
the ancient city of Melita, arc a great work : they are
faid to extend for 15 miles under-ground. Many peo¬
ple^ they aflure us, have been loft in them by advan¬
cing too far; the prodigious number of branches ma¬
king it next to impoffible to find the way out again.
The great fource of water that fupplies the city of Va¬
letta takes its rife near to this place ; and there is an
aquedud, compofed of fome thoufand arches, that con¬
veys it from .thence to the city. The whole of thte
immenfe work was finifhed at the private expence of
one of the grand-mafters.
“ Not far from the old city, there is a fmall church
dedicated to St Paul; and, juft by the church, a mi¬
raculous ftatue of the faint, with a viper on his hand ;
fuppofed to be placed on the very fpot where the houfe-
flood in which he was received after his (hipwreck on
the ifland, and where he (hook the viper off his hand
irito the fire without being hurt by it: at which time
the Maltefe affure us, the faint curfed all the venomous
animals of the ifland, and banilhed them for ever. Whe-
therthisbe the caufeofit or not, the fadl is certain, that
there are no venomous animals in Malta. They affured
us, that vipers had been brought from Sicily, and died
almoft immediately on their arrival.-
“ Adjoining to the church, is the celebrated grotto
in which the faint was imprifoned. It is looked upon
with the utmoft reverence and veneration ; and if the
dories they tell of it be true, it is well entitled to it all.
It is exceedingly damp, and produces (I believe by a
kind of petrifadlion from the water) a whitifh kind of
(lone, which, they affure us, when reduced to powder,
is a fovereign remedy in many difeafes, and faves the
lives of thoufands every year. There is not a houfe in
the ifland that is not provided with it: and they tell
us there are many boxes of it fent annually, not only
to Sicily and Italy, but likewife to the Levant, and to
the Eaft Indies, and (what is confidered as a daily
(landing miracle) notwithftanding this perpetual con-
fumption, it has never been exhaulled, nor even fenfi-
bly diminilhed; the faint always taking care to fupply
them with a frefh quantity the day following. I tailed
fome of it, and believe it is a very harmlefs thing. It
taftes like exceeding bad magnelia, and, I believe, has
pretty much the fame effedls. They give abgut a tea-
fpoonful of it to' children in the fmall-pox and in fe¬
vers. It produces a copious fweat about an hour af¬
ter, and, they fay, never fails to be of fervice. It is
likewife efttemed a certain remedy againft the bite of
all venomous animals. There is a very fine ftatue of
St Paul, in the middle of this grotto, to which they
aferibe great powers.
“ The grand-mailer of the knights of Malta is more
abfolut^, and poffeffes more power, than molt fovereign
princes. His titles are, ferene highnefs and etninencei
and his houfehold-attendance and court are all very
princelyj
M A L [ 4420 ] M A L
princely. As he has the difpofal of all lucrative of-
~ fices, he makes of his councils what he pleafes ; be-
fides, in all the councils that compofe the jurifdi&ion
of this little nation, he himfelf prelides, and has two
votes. He has the difpofal of 21 commanderies, and
one priory, every five years; and as there is always a
number of expeftants, he is very much courted. He
is chofen by a committee of 21 ; which committee is
nominated by the feven nations, three out of each na¬
tion. The eledlion muft be over within three days of
the death of the former grand-mafter; and, during
thefe three days, there is fcarce a foul that fletps at
Malta: all is cabal and intrigue; and moil of the
knights are mafked, to prevent their particular at¬
tachments and connexions from being known: the mo¬
ment the eledion is over, every thing returns to its
former channel.
“ The land-force of Malta is equal to the number
of men in the ifiand fit to bear arms. They have about
500 regulars belonging to the (hips of war; and 150
compofe the guard of the prince. The two iflands of
Malta and Gozzo contain about 150,000 inhabitants.
The men are exceeding robuft and hardy. I have feen
them row for to or 12 hours without intermifiion, and
without even appearing to be fatigued. Their fea-force
confifts of 4 gallies, 3 galliots, 4 (hips of 60 .guns, and
a frigate of 36, befides a number of the quick-failing
little veiTels called fcarnpavias, (literally runaways.')
Their (hips, galleys, and fortifications, are not only well
fupplied with excellent artillery, but they have like-
wife invented a kind of ordnance of their own, un¬
known to all the world befides. For we found, to our
no fmall amazement, that the rocks were not only cut
into fortifications, but likewife into artillery, to defend
thefe fortifications, being hollowed out, in many places,
into the form of immenfe mortars. The charge is faid
to be about a barrel of gunpowder, over which they
place a large piece of wood, made exa&ly to fit the
mouth of the chamber. On this they heap a great
quantity of cannon-balls, fhells, or other deadly ma¬
terials; and when an enemy’s (hip approaches the har¬
bour, they fire the whole into,the air: and they pre¬
tend it produces a very grea_t effeX; making a (hower
for 200 or 300 yards round, that would fink any vef-
feh
“ Notwithftanding the fuppofed bigotry of the
Maltefe, the fpirit of toleration is fo firong, that a
mofque has been lately built for their fworn enemies
the Turks. Here the poor flaves are allowed to enjoy
their religion in peace. It happened lately that fome
idle boys difturbed them during their fervice; they
were immediately fent to prifon, and feverely punifhed.
The police indeed is much better regulated than in the
neighbouring countries, and afTaffinations and robberies
are very uncommon ; the lait of which crimes the
grand-mailer punilhes with the utmoft feverity. He is
laid to be much more relaxed with regard to the firft.
“ Perhaps Malta is the only country in the world
where duelling is permitted by law. As their whole
eftablilhment is originally founded on the wild and ro¬
mantic principles of chivalry, they have ever found it
too inconfifient with thofe principles to abolifh duel¬
ling; but they have laid it under fuch reftriXions as
greatly to leffen its danger. Thefe are curious enough.
The dueUifts are obliged to decide their quarrel in one
particular ftreet of the city; and if they prefume to
fight any where elfe, they are liable to the rigour of
the law. But, what is not lefs Angular, but much
more in their favour, they are obliged, under the moll
fevere penalties, to put up their fwords when ordered
to do fo by a woman, a priejl, or a knight. Under thefe
limitations, in the midlt of a great city, one would
imagine it almoft impofiible. that a duel could ever end
in blood; however, this is not the cafe: a crofs is al¬
ways painted oppofite to the fpot where a knight has
been killed, in commemoration of his fall. We counted
about 20 of thefe crofles.
“ About three months ago, (Mr Brydone’s letter is
dated June 7. 1770), two knights had a difpute at a
billiard-table. One of them, after giving a great deal
of abufive language, added a blow 5 but, to the allo-
ni/hment of all Malta, (in whofe annals there is not a
a fimilar inftance),after io great a provocation, he ab-
folutely refufed to fight his antagonift. The challenge
was repeated, and he had tijne to refltX on the confe-
quences; but ttill he refufed to enter the lifts. He was
condemned to make the amende honorable in the great
church of St John for 45 days fucceflively; then to be
confined in a dungeon, without light, for five years;
after which,-he is to remain a prifoner in the caftle L-r
life. The unfortunate young man who received this
blow is likewife in difgrace, as he has not had an op¬
portunity of wiping it out in the blood of his adver-
fary.
“ The horfe-races of Malta are of a very uncommon
kind.. They are performed without either faddle,
bridle, whip, or fpur; and yet the horfes are faid to
run full fpted, and to afford a great deal of diverfion.
They are accuftomed to the ground for fome weeks
before; and although it is entirely over rock and pave¬
ment, there are very feidom any accidents. They have
races of affes and mules performed in the fame manner
four times every year. The rider is only furnilhed with
a machine like a fhoemaker’s awl, to prick on his cour-
fer if he is lazy.
“ As Malta is an epitome of all Europe, and an
affemblage of the younger brothers, who are common¬
ly the belt, of its firlt families, it is probably one of
the belt academies for politenefs in this part of the
globe; befides, where every one is entitled by law as
well as cuftom, to demand fatisfaXion for the leall
breach of it, people are under a neceffity of being very
exaX and circumfpeX, both with regard to their words
and aXions.”
Knights of Malta, otherwife called Kofpitalers of
St John of Jemfalem. A religious-military order,
whole refidenee is in the ifiand of Malta, fituated in
the Mediterranean Sea, upon the coaft of Africa. The
Knights of Malta, fo famous for defending Chrilten-
dom, had their rife as follows.
Some time before the journey of Godfrey of Bouil¬
lon into the Holy Land, fpme Neapolitan mercnants,
who traded in the Levant, obtained leave of the.caliph
of Egypt to build an houfe for thofe of their nation
who came thither in pilgrimage, upon paying an an¬
nual tribute. Afterwards they built two churches, and
received the pilgrims with great zeal and charity. This
example being followed by others, they founded a
church in honour of St John, and an hofpital for the
fick ; whence they took the name of Hofpitalers. A
little
Malta.
M A L [ 4421 ] M A L
Malta, little after Godfrey of Bouillon had taken JerufaJem,
“in 1099, they began to be diitinguiihed by black ha¬
bits and a crofs with eight points ; and, befides the or¬
dinary vows, they made another, which was to defend
the pilgrims againft the infults of the infidels. This
foundation was completed in 1104, in the reign of
Baldwin; and-fo their order became military, into
which many perfons of quality entered, and changed
the name of bofpitalers into that of knights.
When Jerufalem was taken, and the Chriftians loft,
their power in the Eaft, the knights retired to Acre
or Ptoiemais, which they defended valiantly in 1290.
Then they followed the king of Cyprus, who gave
them Limiffon in his dominions, where they itaid till
1310. That fame year they took Rhodes, under the
grand-mafter Foulques de Viliaret, a Frenchman ; and
next year defended it againli an army of Saracens:
fince which the grand-mafters have ufed thefe four let¬
ters, F. E. R. T. i. e. Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit;
and the order was from thence called knights of Rhodes.
In 1522, Soliman having taken Rhodes, the knights
retired into Candia, and thence into Sicily. In 1530,
Charles V. gave them the ifland of Malta, to cover his
kingdom of Sicily from the Turks. In 1566, Soli-
man befieged Malta; but it was gallantly defended by
the grand-mafter John de Valette Parifot, and the
Turks obliged to quit the ifland with great lofs.
The knights confifted of eight different languages
or nations, of which the Engltfti were formerly the
fixth; but at prefent they are but feven, the Englifti
having withdrawn themfelves. The firft is that of Pro¬
vence, whofe chief is grand commendator of religion:
the fecond, of Auvergne; ^whofe chief is marefchal of
the order: the third, of France, whofe chief is grand-
hofpitaler: the fourth, of Italy; and their chief, ad¬
miral: the fifth, of Arragon ; and their chief, grand-
con fervator : the fixth, of Germany; and their chief,
grand-bailiff of the order : the feventh, of Caftile; and
their chief, grand-chancellor. The chief of the Eng-
lifli was grand-commander of the cavalry.
None are admitted into this order but fuch as are of
noble birth both by father and mother’s fide for four
generations, excepting the natural fons of kings and
princes. The knights are of two forts; thofe who have
a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand-ma¬
fter, called grand-crojfes; and thofe who are only
knights affifants, who are taken from good families.
They never marry; yet have continued from 1090 to
the prefent time.
The order confifts of three eftates; the knights,
chaplains, and fervants at arms. There are alfo priefts
who officiate in the churches; friar-fervants, who affift
at the offices ; and donnes, or demi-crofts ; but thefe
are not reckoned as conftituent parts of the body. This
divifion was made in 1130, by the grand-mafter Rai-
mond du Puy.
The government of the order is mixed, being partly
monarchical, and partly ariftocratrcal. The grand-
mafter is fovereign, coins money, pardons criminals,
and gives the places of grand-priors, bailiffs, knights,
&c. The ordinary council is compofed of the grand-
mafter, and the grand-croffes. Every language has
feveral grand priories, and every priory a certain num¬
ber of commanderies.
The knights are received into this order, either by
undergoing the trials preferibed by the ftatntes, or by Malta
difpenfation. The difpenfations are obtained either by i1
the pope’s brief, or by a general chapter of the order, Maina u 'es
and are granted in cafe of fome deleft as to tlte nobi¬
lity of their pedigree, efpecially on the mother’s fide.
The knights are received, either as of age, under mi¬
nority, or pages to the grand-mafter. They muft be
16 years old complete before they are received: they
enter into the noviciate at 17, and are profeffed at 18.
They fometimes admit infants of one year old ; but
the expence is about 4000 livres. The grand-mafter
has 16 pages who ferve him, from 12 to 16 years of
age. The knights wear on the left-fide of their cloak
or waiftcoat a crofs of white waxed cloth, with eight
points, which is their true badge; that of gold being
only for ornament. When they go to war againft the
Turks they wear a red caffock, with a great white
crofs before and behind, without points, which are the
arms of the religion. The ordinary habit of the grand-
mafter is a fort of caffock of tabby-cloth, tied about
with a girdle, at which hangs a great purfe, to denote
the charitable inftitution of the order. Over this he
wears a velvet gown ; and on the left fide a white
crofs with eight points. His yearly revenue is 10,000
ducats. He acknowledges the kings of Spain, and
both the Sicilies, as his proteftors; and is obliged, by
his agreement with the emperor Charles V. to fupprefs
pirates.
MALTON, a town of the north-riding of York-
ffiire in England, feated on the river Derwent, over
which there is a good ftone-bridge. It is compofed of
two towns, the New and the Old; and is well inhabited,
accommodated with good inns, and fends two members
to parliament. W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 54. 8.
MALVA, the mallow; a genus of the poiyan-
dria order, belonging to the monadelphia clafs of plants.
There are 24 fpecies; confifting of herbaceous peren¬
nials, biennials, and annuals, for medical and orna¬
mental ufes; rifiag with ereft ftalks from about half a
yard to 10 or 12 feet high, garnifhed with large, round-
ifh, lobated leaves, and quinquepetalous flowers. They
are all eafily and plentifully railed from feed. The
leaves of the common mallow are reckoned the firft of
the four emollient herbs: they were formerly in fome
efteem, as food, for loofening the belly ; at prefent,
decoftions of them are fometimes employed in dyfen-
teries, heat, and fiiarpnefs of urine; and, in general,
for obtunding acrimonious humours: their principal
ufe is in emollient glyfters, cataplafms, and fomenta¬
tions. The leaves enter the officinal decoftion for gly¬
fters, and a conferve is prepared from the flowers.
MALVEZZI (Virgilio marquis de), an Italian
gentleman, born at Bologna, acquired great reputa¬
tion by his learning and writings. He was well verfed
in polite literature, mufic, law, phyfic, and the mathe¬
matics. He ferved alfo in a diftinguiihed poll in the
army of Philip IV. king of Spain, and was employed
by him in fome important negociations. He died at
Bologna, in the year 1654, leaving feveral works in
Spanifh and Italian. Among the latter, are his Dif-
courfes on the Firft Book of Tacitus: this work has
been tranflated into Englifli.
MALUS, in botany. See Pyrus.
MAMALUKES, the name of a dynafty that
reigned in Egypt. See that article, n° 98.
MAM-
MAN [ 4422. 1 MAN
Mamertum MAMBRUN (Peter), an ingenious and learned
II French Jefuit, born% in the diocefe of Clermont, in
an' the year 1581. He was one of the moft perfeft imi¬
tators of Virgil in Latin poetry, and his poems are of
the fame fpecies: Thus he wrote Eclogues; Georgies, or
four books on the culture of the foul and the under-
ftanding; together with a heroic poem intitled Con-
ftantine, or Idolatry overthrown. He (hewed alfo great
critical abilities in a Latin Peripatetical dijfertation on
epic poetry. He died in t66i.
MAMERTUM, or Mamertium, (anc. gepg.)»
an inland town of the Brutti. Mamertini, the people;
faid to have been expelled their country, and to have
been hofpitably received by the people of Meflana in
Sicily ; and thus the Meflanenfes were called Mamer¬
tini. Mamertinum Fretum, the (trait between Italy
and Sicily.
MAMMiE, in anatomy. See there, n° 376.
MAMMON, the god of riches, according to fome
authors ; tho’ others deny that the word (lands for fuch
a deity, and underftand by it only riches themfelves.
Our Saviour fays, We cannot ferve God and mammon;
that is, be religious and worldly-minded at the fame
time. Our poet Milton makes Mammon to be one of
the fallen angels, and gives us his charader in the fol¬
lowing lines.
Mammon, the lead erefted fpirit that fell
From heav’n : for ev’n in heaven his looks and thoughts
"Were always downward bent; admiring more
The riches of heavVs pavement, trodden gold,
Than ought divine, or holy elfe enjoy’d,
In beatific vifton: by him fir ft
Man alfo, and by his fuggeftion taught,
Ranftck’d the centre, and with impious hands
Rifled the bowels of their mothcrearth.
For treafures better hid. Soon had his crew
Open’d into the hill a fpacious wound,
And digg’d out ribs of gold. Let none admire,
That riches grow in hell; that foil may beft
Deferve the precious bane.
MAMMEA, Mammee-T/w ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the polyaudria clafs of
jrlants. There are two ipecies ; both of .them large
ever-green trees of the hot parts of America and Afia,
and retained here in hot-houfes for variety ; both of
them adorned with large, oval, oblong, fti(f leaves,
and large quadripetalous flowers, fucceeded by large
round eatable fruit of a moft exquifitely rich flavour.
They are propagated by feed, which is to be (owed in
fmail pots of light earth, and plunged in the bark-bed,
where they will foon come up; give gentle waterings,
and about Auguft tranfplant them into feparate pots
a fize larger, plunging them into the bark-bed, and
giving (hade and water till frefli-rooted. In this coun¬
try they muft never be taken out of the dove.
MAN, homo, in zoology, isjuftly reckoned at the
head of the animal-part of the creation ; making a
diftinft genus of that order of quadrupeds which
Linnaeus calls anthropomorpha, from their refemblance
to the human form.
The fame author diftinguifhes the race of mankind,
according to their different colours, into the Euro¬
peans, or white men ; the Americans, or ruddy-co¬
loured men ; the Afiatics, or tawney-coloured men ;
a,nd thofe of Africa, or blacks.
No fee teipfum, “ Know thyfelf,” is a precept worthy
of; the lawgiver of Athens, the ancient feat of polite
literature; an important branch of knowledge, which Man.
may be reduced to the following heads. 1. In a reli-
gious view, theologice, that you was created with an
immortal foul, after the image of God. 2. In a moral
fenfe; moraliter, that you alone was bleffed with a ra¬
tional foul, to be employed to the praife of the Crea¬
tor. 3. With refpedl to the other works of the crea¬
tion, natrpraliter, that you are conftituted their lord,
for whole ufe they were made. 4. In a phyfiological
fenfe, phyjiobgice, the moft perfedl and amazing fabric
of your body. 5. With regard to diet, d'uetetic'e,
what things are ufefu), and what hurtful, in this re-
fpecl. 6. In a pathological fenfe, pathologice, hovr
frail you are, and how fubjeft to a thoufand calami¬
ties.
Thefe are the heads which, according to Linnasus,
comprehend the knowledge of man, confidered as an
individual; a branch of knowledge fo effential to the
human race, that, without it, he feems to doubt whe¬
ther any other charafters be fufficient to entitle one
to be ranked among mankind: for he adds, Htec Ji
noveris, homo es, et a reliquis animalibus dijlinfiijjimum
genus.
The whole of this work may, in fome refpeft, be
accounted an analyfis of man; as comprehending his
knowledge of God, of himfelf, and of natural and ar¬
tificial objedls.
Ijland of Man, an ifland in the Irifti fea, lying
about feven leagues north from Anglefey, about the
fame diftance weft from Lancaftiire, nearly the like
diftance fouth-eaft from Galloway, and nine league:®
eaft from Ireland. Its form is long and narrow,
llretching from the north-eaft point of Ayr to the
Calf of Man, which lies fouth-weft, at lead 30 Englhh
miles. Its breadth in fome places is more than nine
miles, in moft places eight, and in fome not above
five, and contains about 160 fquare miles.
The firft author who mentions this ifland is Casfar;
for there can be as little doubt, that, by the Mona,
of which he fpeaks in his Commentaries, placing it in
the midft between Britain and Ireland, we are to un-
derftand Man ; as that the Mona of Tacitus, which
he acquaints us had a fordable ftreight between it
and the continent, can be applied only to Anglefey.
Pliny has fet down both iflands; Mona, by which he
intends Anglefey, and Monabia, which is Man. In
Ptolemy we find Monaaeda, or Monaida, that is, the
farther or more remote Mon. Orofius ftyles it Me-
naVia; tells us, that it was not extremely fertile ; and
that this, as well as Ireland, was then poffeffed by the
Scots. Beda, who diftinguifhes clearly two Menavian
iflands, names this the northern Menavia, bellowing
the epithet of fouthern upon Anglefey. In fame co¬
pies of Nennius, this ifle is denominated in
others, Menavia; but both are explained to mean
Man. Alured of Beverley alfo fpeaks of it as one of
the Menavian iflands. The Britons, in their own
language, called it Manaw, more properly Main au,
i. e. “ a little ifland,” which feems to be Latinized in
the word Menavia. All which clearly proves, that
this (mall ifle was as early inhabited, and as well known
to the reft of the world, as either Britain or Ire¬
land.
In the clofe of the firft century, the Druids, who
were the priells, prophets, and philofophers of the
old
M A N [ 4423 ] MAN
Man, old Britons, were finally expelled by Juliua Agricola
from the fouthern Mona; and we are told, that they
then took ftieltcr in the northern. This ifland they
found well planted with firs ; fo that they had, in
fome meafure, what they delighted in moft, the (belter
of trees; but, however, not the fheltcr of thofe trees
in which they mod delighted, viz. the oaks: and there¬
fore thefe they introduced. No hiilory tells ns this;
but we learn it from more certain authority, great
woods of fir having been difcovered interred in the
bowels of the earth, and here and there fmall groves
of oaks: but as thefe trees are never met with inter¬
mixed, fo it is plain they never grew together; and as
the former are by far the moft numerous, we may pre¬
fume them the natural produce of the country, and
that the latter were planted and preferved by the
Druids. They gave the people, with whom they
lived, and over whom they ruled, a gentle govern¬
ment, wife laws, but Withal a very fuperllitious
religion. It is alfo very likely that they hindered
them, as much as they could, from having any corre-
fpondence with their neighbours; which is the reafon
that, though the ifland is mentioned by fo many
writers, not one of them, before Orofius, fays a word
about the inhabitants. A little before his time, that
is, in the beginning of the fifth century, the Scots had
tranfported themfelves thither, it is faid, from Irelaad.
The tradition of the natives of Man (for they have a
traditionary hiitory,) begins at this period. They
ftyle this firft difeoverer Mannan Mac Lear; and
they fay that he was a magician, who kept this coun¬
try covered with mills, fo that the inhabitants of other
places could never find it. But the ancient chronicles
of Ireland inform us, that the true name of this ad¬
venturer was Orbfenius, the fon of Alladius, a prince
in their ifland; and that he was furnamed Mannanan,
from his having firft entered the ifland of Man, and
Mac Mr, i. e. “ the offspring of the fea,’’ from his
great fkill in navigation. He promoted commerce;
and is faid to have given a good reception to St Pa¬
trick, by whom the natives were converted to Chri-
ftianity.
The princes who ruled after him feem to have been
of the fame line with the kings of Scotland, with
which country they had a great intercourfe, aflilling
its monarchs in their wais, and having the educa¬
tion of their princes confided to them in time of
peace.
In the beginning of the feventh century, Edwin,
king of Northumberland invaded the Menavian iflands,
ravaged Man, and kept it for fome time, when, Beda
affures us, there were in it about 300 families; which
was lefs than a third part of the people in Anglefey,
though Man wants but a third of the fize of that
ifland.
The fecond line of their princes they derive from
Orri, who, they day, was the fon of the king of Nor¬
way ; and that there were 12 princes of this houfe
who governed Man. The old conftitution, fettled by
the Druids, while they fwayed the feeptre, was per-
fecfly reftored; the country was well cultivated, and
well peopled; their fubjtClKwere equally verfed in the
exercife of arms, a'.J in the knowledge of the arts of
peace: in a word, they had a confiderable naval force,
an extenfive commerce, and were a great nation, tho’
Vol. VI. 2
inhabiting only a little Hie. Guttred the fbn of Orri Ma
built the caftle of Ruffyn, A. D.^960, which is a ‘
ftrong place, a large palace, and has fubfilted now above
800 years. Macao was the ninth of thefe kings, and
maintained an unfuccefsful ftruggle againft Edgar,
who reduced all the little fovereigns of the different
parts of Britain to own him for their lord; and who,
upon the fubmiffion of Macao, made him his high-
admiral, by which title (archipirata, in the Latin of
thofe times,) he fubferibes that monarch’s charter to
the abbey of Glaftonbury.
After the death of Edward the Confeffor, whea
Harold, who poffeffed the crown of England, had de¬
feated the Norwegians at the battle of Stamford,
there was amongft the fugitives one Goddard Crow-
nan, the fon of Harold the Black, of Iceland, who
took flicker in the ifle of Man. This ifle was then
governed by another Goddard, who was a defeendant
from Macao, and he gave him a very kind and friendly
reception. Goddard Crownan, during the fliort ftay
he made in the ifland, perceived that his name-fake
was univerfally hated by his fubjefts; which ihfpired
him with hopes that he might expel the king, and
become mailer of the ifland. This he at laft accom-
plilhed, after having defeated and killed Fingal the
fon of Goddard, who had fucceeded his father.
Upon this he afiigned the north part of the ifland to
the natives, and gave the fouth to his own people;
becoming, in virtue of his conqueft, the founder of
their third race of princes. However he might ac¬
quire his kingdom, he governed it with fpirit and
prudence; made war with fuccefs in Ireland; gained
fevcral victories over the Scots in the Ifles; and, ma¬
king a tour through his new-obtained dominions, de-
ceafed in the ifland of Iflay. He left behind him
three fons. A civil war breaking out between the
two eldeft, and both of them deceafing in a few years,
Magnus king of Norway Coming with a powerful
fleet, poffeffed himfelf of Man and the ifles, and held
them as long as he lived; but, being flain in Ireland,
the people invited home Olave, the youngeft fon of
Goddard Crownan, who had fled to the court of
England, and been very honourably treated by Henry
the Second. There were in the whole nine prinoes
of this race, who were all of them feudatories to the
kings of England ; and often reforted to their court,
were very kindly received, and had penfions bellowed
upon them. Henry III. in particular, charged Olava,
king of Man, with the defence of the coalls of Eng¬
land and Ireland; and granted him annually for that
fervice 40 marks, 100 meafures of wheat, and five
pieces of wine. Upon the demife of Magnus, the
laft king of this ifle, without heirs-male, Alexander III.
king of Scots, who had conquered the other ifles,
feized Hkewife upon this; which, as parcel of that
kingdom, came into the hands of Edward I. who di-
refled William Huntercumbe, guardian or warden of
that ifle for him, to reftore it to John Baliol, who
had done homage to him for the kingdom of Scot¬
land.
But it feems there was Hill reipaining a lady named
Auftrica, who claimed this fovereignty, as coufin and
heareft of kin to the deceafed Magnus. This claimant
being able to obtain nothing from John Baliol, ap¬
plied herfclf next to king Edward, as the fuperior
25 C lord.
MAN [ 4424 ] MAN
Man. lord. He, upon this application, by his writ, which
“is yet extant, commanded both parties, in order to
determine their right, to appear in the kingVbench.
The progrefs of this fuit does not appear ; but we
know farther, that this lady, by a deed of gift, con¬
veyed her claim to Sir Simon de Montacute; and,
after many difputes, ir.vafions by the Scots, and other
accidents, the title was examined in parliament, in the
feventh of Edward III. and folemnly adjudged to
William de Montacute; to whom, by letters-patent,
dated the fame year, that monarch releafed all claim
what foe ver.
In the fucceeding reign, William Montacute, earl
'of Salifbury, fold it to Sir William Scroop, afterwards
earl of Wiltihire ; and, upon his lofing his head, it
was granted by Henry IV. to Henry Percy, earl of
Northumberland; who, being attainted, had, by the
grace of that king, all his lands reftored, except the
ifle of Man, which the fame monarch granted to Sir
John Stanley, to be held by him of the kings his
heirs and fucceflors, by homage, and a call of falcons
to be prefented at every coronation. Thus it was
poffelfed by this noble family, who were created earls
of Derby, till the reign of queen Elizabeth ; when,
upon the demife of earl Ferdinand, who left three
daughters, it was, as lord Coke tells us, adjudged to
thofe ladies, and from them purchafed by William earl
of Derby, the brother of Ferdinand, from whom it was
claimed by defcent, and adjudged to its prefent pof-
feflbr, his grace the duke of Athol.
This ifland, from its fituation dire&ly in' the mouth
of the channel, is very beneficial to Britain, by lefien-
ing the force of the tides, which would otherwife
break with far greater violence than they do at pre¬
fent. The air is (harp, but the winters are not fevere;
frofts feldom happen, and are of no great continuance;
• neither does fnow lie long upon the grounds But
they are frequently expofed' to very high winds, and
at other times to mifts, which, however, are not at all
unwholefome. The foil towards the north is dry and
fandy, of confeqnence unfertile, but not unimproveabie;
the mountains, which may include near two-thirds
of the ifland, are bleak and barren ; yet afford excel¬
lent peat, and contain feveral kinds of metals. They
maintain alfo a kind of fmall fwine, called purrs,
which are efteemed excellent pork. In the valleys
there is as good pafture, hay, and corn, as in any of
the northern counties; and the fouthern part of the
ifland is as fine foil as can be wiflied. They have
marl and lime-(lone fufiicient to render even their
pooreft lands fertile; excellent flate, rag-(lone, black
marble, and fome other kinds for building. They
have vegetables of all forts, and in the utmoft perfec¬
tion ; potatoes in immenfe quantities; and, where
proper pains have been taken, they have tolerable
fruit. They have alfo hemp, flax, large crops of oats
and barley, and fome wheat. Hogs, (heep, goats,
black cattle, and horfes, they have in plenty; and,
tbo^ fmall in fize, yet if the country was thoroughly
and fkilfully cultivated, they might improve the breed
of all animals, as experience has fhown. They have
rabbits and hares very fat and fine; tame and wild
fowl in great plenty; and in their high mountains they
they have one airy of eagles, and two of excellent
hawks. Their rivulets furnilh them with falmos,
trout, eels, and other kinds of frefh-water fi(h ; on
their coafts are caught cod, turbot, ling, halibut,
all forts of (hell-fifli, (oyfters only are fcarce, but
large and good), and herrings, of which they made
anciently a great profit, though this filhery is of late
much declined.
The commodities of this ifland are not many in
number, nor of great value. 'I’heir dates are efteem¬
ed not inferior to any ; their black marble is very
hard, and bears a fine polifh ; and, occafionally, they
export fome of each, as they formerly did a little
grain, and a confiderable quantity of ale ; but, of
late years, both have been found hardly equal to the
home-confumption. The reft are lambs-wool, hides,
tallow, fifh-oil, wax, and honey.
The inhabitants of Man, though far from being
unmixed, were, perhaps, till within the courfe of the
prefent century, more fothan any other under the do¬
minion of the crown of Great Britain ; to which they
are very proud of being fubjefts, though, like the in-
habitajats of Jerfey and Guernfey, they have a conftitu-
tion of their own, and a peculiarity of manners natu¬
rally refulting from a long enjoyment of it.—The
Manks tongue is the only one fpoken by the common
people. It is the old Britifh, mingled with Norfe,
or the Norwegian language, and the modern language.
The clergy preach and read the common prayer in it;
however, a Ihort catechifm, carefully taught in the
fchools, is the only printed book they have. In an¬
cient times they were diftinguifhed by tHeir ftature,
courage, and great (kill in maritime affairs. They
are at this day a bride, lively, hardy, induftrious, and
well-meaning people. Their frugality defends them
from want : and though there are few that abound,,
there are as few in diftrefs; and thofe that are, meet
with a cheerful unconftrained relief. On the other
hand, they are choleric, loquacious, and as the Jaw
till lately was cheap, and unincumbered with folicitors
and attornies, not a little litigious. The revenue, in
the earl of Derby’s time, amounted to about 2500 1.
a-year; from which, deducing his civil lift, which
was about 700 1. the clear income amounted to 18001.-
At the fame time the number of his fubjc&s was
computed at 20,000—The fovereign of Man, though
he has long ago waved the title of king, wras dill in-
vefted with regal rights and prerogatives ; but the
diftind jurifdiAion of this little fubordinate royalty,
being found inconvenient for the purpofes of public
juftice, and for the revenue, (It affording a commo¬
dious afylum for debtors, outlaws, and fmugglers), au¬
thority was given to the treafury, by (tat. 12. Geo. I.
c. 28. to purchafe the intereft of the then proprietors
for the ufe of the crown : w'hieh purcbafe was at
length completed in the year i'7<55, and confirmed by
flat. 5. Geo. III. c. 26. and 39.; whereby the w’hole
ifland and all its dependencies, (except the landed
property of the Athol family):, their manerial rights
and emoluments, and the patronage of the bifliopric
and other ecclefiaftical benefices, are unalienably verted
in the crown, and fubjedled to the regulation of the
Britifti excife and cuftoms.
MANAGE. See Manege.
MANATI, in zoology. See Trichecus.
MANGA, was a fquare piece*of gold coin, com¬
monly valued at 30 pence j zivimaticufa was as much
as
Man
ii
Manca*.
:
MAN
ancancel as a mark of filver, having its name from mami-cufa,
II being coined with the hand. Leg. Canut. But the
an amus- ixanca an(l mancufa were not aiway of that value ; for
fometirr.es the former was valued at fix foillings, and
the latter, asufedbythe Englilh Saxons, was equal
in value to our half-crown. Manca fexfolidis oejlimetur.
Leg. H. i. c. 69. Thorn, in his chronicle, tells us,
that mancufa efl pondus duorum folidorum et fex dena-
riorum; and with him agrees Du Cange, who fays,
that 20 niancte make 50 (hillings. Manca and man¬
cufa are promifououfly ufed in the old books for the
fame money.
MANCANCEL or Mancheneel. See Hippo-
mane.
MANCHA, a territory of Spain in the province of
New Caftile, lying between the river Guardiana and
Andalufia. It is a mountainous country ; and it was
here that the famous Don Quixote was fuppofed to
perforin his exploits.
MANCHESTER, a town of Laneafhire in Eng¬
land, fitnated in W. Long. 2. 42. N. Lat. 53. 27.—
Of this place the Revd Mr Whitaker has publilhed
a hiilory in two oftavo volumes; but as he does not
confine himfelf merely to the town of Manchefter, but
takes in many particulars of the hiftory and antiquities
of other parts of Britain, and even Ireland, his work
is incapable of abridgement ; though in many places
of this Di&ionary we have made excerpts from par¬
ticular pafiages of it.—He conjedures that the ftation
was firit occupied by the Britons about 500 B. C.
but that it firil received any thing like the form of a
town 450 years after, or 50 B. C. when the Britons
of Chefhire made an irruption into the territories of
their fouthern neighbours, and of confequence alarmed
the Selluntii, or inhabitants of Lancalhire, fo much,
that they began to build fortreffes in order to defend
their country. Its Britilh name was Mancenion, which
was changed by the Romans, who conquered it under
Agricola, A. D. 79, into Mancunium ; from whence
comes the prefent name of Manchefter.
The town is now very populous, large, and flou-
riihing, and has feveral curious manufa&ures, known at
London by the name of Manchefter goods. Their
■velvets are lately come into great repute, and are much
made ufe of for breeches. Its chief ornaments are the
■college, the market-place, and the collegiate church ;
which laft has a fmall choir of excellent workmanfhip.
There is alfo an elegant exchange, and a ftone-bridge
over the river Dwell, the arches of which are extreme¬
ly high, on account of the nature of the river;
which, defeending from the mountainous part of the
country, fometimes rifes four or five yards in one
night.—The town fends no members to parliament, but
has the title of a duchy.
MANCIPLE (?jianceps'), a clerk of the kitchen,
or caterer ; and an officer in the inner temple was an-
tiently fo called, who is now the fie ward there ; of
whom Chaucer, the ancient Engliffi poet, fome time it
Undent of that houfe thus writes;
A manciple there was within the temple,
Of which ail caterers might take enfample.
This officer (till remains in colleges, in the univer-
fities.
MANDAMUS, in law, a writ that iffues out of
the epurt of kingVbench, fent to a corporation, com-
MAN
manding them to admit or reftore a perfon to his Mandarin*
office. This writ alfo lies where juftices of the peace
refufe to admit a perfon to take the oaths in order to gl>ra
qualify himfelf for enjoying any poll or office; or 
where a bilhop or archdeacon refufes to grant a pro¬
bate of a will, to admit an executor to prove it, or to
fwear a church-warden, &c.
MANDARINS, a name given to the magiftrates
and governors of provinces in China, who are chofen
out of the mod learned men, and whofe government
is always at a great diilance from the place of their
birth. Mandarin is alfo a name given by the Chinefe
to the learned language of the country; for befides
the language peculiar to every province, there is one
common to all the learned in the empire, which is in
China what Latin is in Europe; this is called the man¬
darin tongue, or the language of the court.
MANDATE, in law, a judicial commandment to
do fomething, See the article Mandamus.
Mandate, in the canon law, a refeript of the pope,
commanding an ordinary collator to put the petfon
therein named in pofleffion of the firft vacant benefice
in his collation.
MANDERSCHEIT, a town of Germany in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and in the eleftorate of
Triers, capital of a county of the fame name, between
the diocefe of Triers and the duchy of Juliers. E.
Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 50. 20.
MANDEVILLE (Sir John), a phyfician, famous
for his travels, was born at St Alban’s, about the
beginning of the fourteenth century. He had a libe¬
ral education, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of phy-
fic; but being at length feized with an invincible
defire of feeing diftant parts of the globe, he left Eng¬
land in 1332, and did not return till 34 years after.
His friends, who had long fuppofed him dead, did
not know him when he appeared. He had travelled
through almoft all the eaft, and made himfelf mailer
of a great variety of languages. He particularly vi-
fited Scythia, Armenia the Greater and Lefs, Egypt,
Arabia, Syria, Media, Mefopotamia, Perfia, Chal¬
dea, Greece, Dalmatia, &c. His rambling difpofi-
tion did not fuffer him to reft ; for he left his own
country a fccond time, and died at Liege in the Ne¬
therlands, in 1372. He wrote an Itinerary, or am
account of his travels, in Englilh, French, and Latin.
MANDEVILLE (Bernard de),an eminent writer
in the eighteenth century, was born in Holland, where
he ftudied phyfic, and took the degree of doftor in
that faculty. He afterwards came over kito England,
and in 1714 publilhed a poem, intitled, “ The Grum¬
bling Hive, or Knaves turned honeft;” upon which
he afterwards wrote remarks, and publilhed the whole
at London, 1723, in 8vo, under the title of, “ The
Fable of the Bees, or private Vice made public Be¬
nefits; with an Eflayon Charity and Charity-fchools,
and a Search into the Nature of Society.” This
book was prefented by the jury of Middlefex in July
the fame year, and feverely animadverted upon in.
“ A letter to the Right Honourable Lord C. printed
in the London Journal of Saturday July 27. 1723.’*
Our author publilhed a vindication. His book wa*
attacked by feveral writers, He publilhed other pieces,
and died in 1724.
MANDRAGORA, in botany. See Atropa.
25 C 2 MAN-
[ 4425 1
'Mandralke
fl.
Mangancfe.
MAN [ 4426 ] MAN
MANDRAKE, in botany. See Atropa.
MANE, the hair hanging down from a horfe’s
neck; which fhould be long, thin, and fine ; and if
frizzled, fo much the better.
MANEGE, or Manage, the exercife of riding the
great horfe ; or the ground fet apart for that purpofe;
which is fometimes , covered, for continuing the exer¬
cife in bad weather; anddometimes open, in order to
give more liberty and freedom both to the horfeman
and horfe. See Horsemanship.
The word is borrowed from the French manage, and
that from the Italian maneggio; or, as fome will have
it, a manti agendo, afling with the hand.
MANES, in the Pagan fyftem of theology, a ge¬
neral name for the infernal deities or gods of hell.—
The ancients comprehended under manes not only Plu¬
to, Proferpine, and Minos ; but the fouls likewife of
the deceafed were taken into the number, and efteem-
«d gods of hell. It was ufual to ereft altars and offer
libations to the manes of deceafed friends and relations.
One branch of the magic art among the Pagans con-
fifted in confulting the manes of the dead in mat¬
ters of importance ; this was called necromancy*. See
Necromancy.
MANES, the founder of the Manichaean fyftem.
See Manichees.
MANGANESE, or Magnesia nigra ; a mine¬
ral fubftance ufed in the tinging of glafs. It is denfe,
ponderous, and heavy ; in its pureft and fineft pieces
approaching greatly to the colour of lapis hematites,
being compofed of regular parallel ftrias, diverging
from a centre to the circumference. There is another
kind, however, more common, of an iron-grey colour,
and irregularly ftreaked like the fteel-grained lead-ores.
But the moft common manganefe is entirely of an
irregular ftru&ure. It is very heavy, moderately hard,
and of a deep dufky grey, approaching to black ; tho’
fometimes of a ferruginous brown. It is found in
many parts of England and Germany, in large mafies,
of a rude, rugged, and unequal furface. It is com¬
monly fuppofed to be an ore of iron : but the experi¬
ments of Mr Pott and Mr Cronftedt (hew, that this
ftone contains little or no iron; and therefore the latter
author has made a diftinft order of this earth, which
he calls/erne magnefia. It has the following proper¬
ties: 1. It does not tffervefce with acids, tho’ they dif-
folve fome part of it, efpeeialty when it is calcined :
fpirit of vitriol acquires from it a rofe-colour : aqua
regia alfo acquires colour,, efpecially from the black
kind. FrornHhefe folutions fixed alkalies precipitate a
white earth. 2. A fmall quantity of this earth mixed
with glafs-frit, gives red or purplifh colours to the
glafs: larger quantities give a deep purple, or even
a black. Dr Lewis tells us, that preparations of iron,
whole colour in glafs, in a dilute ftate, is fometimes
yellow, and fometimes greenifh or bluifh, are always
of a dark brown or black when the glafs is overdofed
with them : hence many of the ferruginous earths
and ftones melt into a black glafs ; as the coloured
clays, feveral flates, and the ftone called nuhynn-Jlone.
Black glades or enamels made on this principle, have,
however, like the concentrated vegetable liquids, one
imperfedtion ; that though of a deep black colour
when in mafles of any confiderable thicknefs, yet, when
fpread thin, they always betray fome of the original
colour, or of the particular hue which they would
have if the colouring matter was in lefs quantity. To
this inconvenience the black glafs made with manga- .
nefe is likewife fubjetft : and therefore the heft method
of obtaining a perfedi black, is by mixing two or
more of the abovementioned darkening materials ; and
inftead of taking colourlefs glafs or enamel for the bafis,
to ufe fragments of different-coloured pieces, or compo-
fitions which have been fpoiled in trying to tinge them
of other colours.—The common black glafs of which
beads are made, is coloured with manganefe only; and
hence, when powdered, it looks of a dirty purple: the
moft perfect black ufed by the enamellers is compofed
of manganefe, zaffre, and fcales of iron. Manganefe
is alfo ufed to give a glazing to pottery. 3. Fufed
with nitre, or with fixed alkali; it gives to warm wa¬
ter various colours, green, purple, red, or blue ; which
change by agitating the water. 4. Cronftedt affirms,
that it deflagrates with nitre ; Pott fays it does not.
5. Cronftedt fays, that he has fometimes extradled a fmall
quantity of tin from manganefe. 6. The fame author
affirms, that the colours given by manganefe to glafs
are eafily deftroyed by arfenic, or calces of tin. 7. Dr
Lewis fufpefts, that it may increafe the fufibility of
glafs. An ingenious friend, he tells us, obferved,
that in making impreffions in different kinds of glafs,
he found this black fort to be by far the moft fufible
of any. 8. When manganefe is fufed with glafs, a
ftrong effervefcence enfues, whence it may be prefumed
that thefe two fubftances a£t violently on each other.
MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian hillorian, who
pretended to take all his accounts from the facred in-
fcriptions on the pillars of Hermes Trifmegiftus. He
was high-prieft of Heliopolis in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, at whofe requeft he wrpte his hiftory ir*
Greek ; beginning from their gods, and continu¬
ing it down to near the time of Darius Codoman-
nus who was conquered by Alexander the Great. His
hiftory of Egypt is a celebrated work, that is often
quoted by Jofephus and other ancient authors. Ju¬
lius Africanus gave an abridgement of it in his Chro¬
nology. Manetho’s work is however loft ; and there
only remain fome fragments extracted from Julius A-
fricanus, which are to be found in Eufebius’s Chro¬
nica.
MANFREDI (Euftachio), a celebrated mathema¬
tician, born at Bologna in 1674, where he was eloded
mathematical profeffor in 1698. He was made a mem¬
ber of feveral academies, and acquired great reputation
by his Ephemerides, 4 vols 410, as well as by othec
works. He died in 1739.
MANGE, in dogs. See Difeafes c/'Dogs.
Mange, in farriery. See there, $ xix.
MANGER, is a raifed trough under the rack in.
the (tall, made for receiving the grain or corn that a
horfe eats.
Manger, a fmall apartment, extending athwart the
lower-deck of a (hip of war, immediately within the
haufe-holes, and fenced on the after-part by a partition,
which feparates it from the other part of the deck be¬
hind it. This partition ferves as a fence to interrupt
the pafiage of the water, which occafionally guflies in
at the haufe-holes, or falls from the wet cable whilft
it is heaved in by the capftern. , The water, thus pre¬
vented from running aft, is immediately returned into
Manetho ]
Manger‘1
man
Manget the fea by feveral fmall channels, called fcuppcrs, cut
.li thro’ the ihip’s fide within the manger. The manger
Manichee*. js therefore particularly ufeful in giving a contrary di-
re&ion to the water that enters at the haufe-holes,
which would otherwife run aft in great ftreams upon
the lower deck, and render it extremely wet and uncom¬
fortable, particularly in tempeftous weather, to the
men who mefs and deep in different parts thereof.
MANGET (John-James), an eminent phyfician,
born at Geneva in 1652. The de&or of Branden¬
burg made him his firft phyfician in 1699; ,n which
poft he continued till his death, which happened at Ge¬
neva in 1742. He wrote many works; the moft
known of which are, 1. A colleftion of feveral Phar¬
macopoeias, in folio. 2. Bibliotheca phannaceutico-
me die a. 3. Bibliotheca anatomica. 4. Bibliotheca
chemica. 5. Bibliotheca chirurgica. 6. A bibliothe¬
ca at all the authors who have written on medicine, in
4 vols folio. All thefe works are in Latin. Daniel
le Clerc, the author of a hiflory of phyfic, afiifted him
in writing them.
MANGIFERA, the mango-tree; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There is but one fpecies, a native of many
parts of the Eaft Indies, whence it has been tranfplant-
ed to Brazil, and other warm parts of America. It
grows to a large fize; the wood is brittle, the bark rough
when old ; the leaves are feven or eight inches long, and
more than two inches broad. Tire flowers are produ¬
ced in loofe panicles at the ends of the branches, and
are fucceeded by large oblong kidney-fhaped plums.
This fruit, when fully ripe, is greatly efteemed in the
countries whete it grows; but in Europe we have
only the unripe fruit brought over in pickle. All at¬
tempts to propagate the plant have hitherto proved in-
effe&ual; and Mr Miller is of opinion that the Hones
will not vegetate unlefs they are planted foon after
they are ripe. He thinks therefore that the young
plants ought to be brought over in boxes of earth ;
after which they may be kept in the tan-bed of the
ftove.
MANGROVE. See Rhizophora.
MANHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Lower
Palatinate, with a very ftrong citadel, and a palace,
where the eleftor Palatine often refides. It is feated at
the confluence of the rivers Neckar and Rhine, in E.
Long. 8. 33. N. Lat. 49. 25.
MANIA, or Madness. See (the/«</<?* fubjoined
to) Medicine.
MANICHEES, or Manich^eans, Chriftian here¬
tics, in the third century ; followers of Manes, who
made his appearance in the time of the emperor Pro¬
bus. The hillory of this herefiarch is very extraordi¬
nary, and is briefly as follows.
One Terebinthus, a difciple of Scythianus a magi¬
cian, having retired out of Paleftine into Perfia, and
finding his opinions and enterprifes oppofed by the
priefts and learned men of that country, was obliged
to fhelter himfelf in the houfe of a widow woman,
where he was murdered. This woman being heirefs to
the money and books of Terebinthus, bought a Have
I 4427 1
MAN
and took that of Manes, which, in the Perfian lan- Manichees.
guage, fignifies a vejfel.   *
Some time after, fr,om the books of Terebinthus, he
began to broach an impofture, pretending to be the
Comforter whom our Saviour promifed to fend into
the world. This drew to him many followers, and he
became the head of a numerous feft. He taught his
difciples, that there are two principles, the one the
author of all good, and the other the author of all
evil: a dodrine which he borrowed from the Perfian
Magi.
Manes indulged his difciples in all manner of im¬
purities, and forbad them to give alms to or affill
any who were not of their own fed. He gave out,
that the fouls of his followers paffed thro’ the elements
to the moon, and from thence to the fun, to be puri¬
fied ; and then went to God, and were re-united with
his eflence: as for the fouls of all other men, they either
went to hell, or were fent into other bodies. He al¬
leged, that Chrill had his refidence in the fun, the
Holy Ghoft in the air, Wifdom In the moon, and
the Father in the abyfs of light. He denied the re-
furredion, and condemned marriage. He forbad the
ufe of eggs, cheefe, milk, and wine, as creatures
proceeding from the bad principle. He ufed a diffe¬
rent form of baptifm from that of the church. He
taught, that magiftrates were not to be obeyed, and
condemned the mod lawful wars.
It would be tedious to rehearfe all the impious te¬
nets of this herefiarch and his followers, of whom pope
Leo ufed to fay, that the devil, who reigned in all other
herefies, had built a fortrefs and raifed his throne in
that of the Manichees, who embraced all the errors
and impieties that the fpirit of man is capable of.
The death of this herefiarch was as dreadful as his
life was impious. The king of Perfia’s fon being
fick, Manes undertook to cure him ; upon which the
father difmified the phyficians, and the patient died.
Manes was thrown into prifon, out of which he made
his efcape ; but was foon after apprehended by the
king’s fervants, who caufed him to be Head alive, and
his carcafe thrown to the wild beads.
The Manichees were divided into the hearers and
the e/etf. Out of the latter they chofe 12, in imita¬
tion of the 12 apoflles: thefe were called majlers.
There was a 13th, who was a kind of patriarch, or
pope, among them. In the fourth century, the em¬
perors made fevere laws againd thefe heretics, and a
council was held againd them at Rome.
Although the Manichees profeffed toreceivethe books
of the New Tedament, yet, in effe&, they took only
fo much of them as fuited with their opinions, rejec¬
ting the red as foided in by later writers. They pub-
lifhed feveral apocryphal books, which they aferibed to
the apodles.
The oriental writers tell us, that Manes, being de-
firous of paffing among his followers for fomething
more than human, Ihut himfelf up in a grotto, into
which he had fecretly conveyed provifions for a year ;
telling his difciples he was going to take a journey to
heaven, and that he would return at the end of the
lamed Cubricus, whom die afterwards adopted, and year. Accordingly, when the year was expired, he
had him indrufted in all the fciences of Perfia. This came out of his retirement, bringing with him a book
man, after the death of the widow, changed his full of extraordinary images and figures, which he pre¬
name, to blot out the memory of his former condition, tended to have received in heaven. This book they
MAN [442:
Manicor- call ergenk and eftetik.
d°n MANICORDON, or Manjchord, a mufical in-
Manila ftrument in form of a fpinet; the firings of which,
‘ ‘: like thofe of the clarichord, are covered with little
pieces of cloth, to deaden as well as to foften their
found, whence it is alfo called the dumb-fpinet.
MANIFESTO; a public declaration made by a
prince in writing, fhowing his intentions to begin a
war or other enterprife, with the motives that induce
him to it, and the reafons on which he founds his rights
and pretenfions.
MANIHOT, or Manioc. See Jatropha.
MANILA, Luconia, qx Luzon, the name of the
large ft of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft Indies,
fubjedf to Spain. It had the name'of Luzon from a
cuftom that prevailed among the natives of beating or
bruifing their rice in wooden mortars, before they ei¬
ther boiled or baked it; luzon, in their language, fig-
nifying a mortar.
As to fituation, it is remarkably happy, lying be¬
tween the eaftern and weftern continents, and having
China on the north, at the diftance of about 60
leagues; the iflands of Japan on the north-eaft, at the
diftance of about 250 leagues from the neareft of them;
the ocean on the eaft ; the other iflands on the fouth ;
and on the weft Malacca, Patana, Siam, Cambodia,
Cochhin-China, and other provinces of India, the neareft
at the diftance of 300 leagues.
The middle of this ifland is in the latitude 15° north;
the eaft point in 130 30', and the moft northern point
.in 190. The fhape of it is faid to refemble that of
an arm bent ; the whole length being about 160 Spa-
nifh leagues, the greateft breadth between 30 and 40,
and the circumference about 350. As to the longi¬
tude, the charts differ, fome making the middle of
the ifland to lie 1130 eaft from London, and others in
160°. The climate is hot and moift. One thing is
held very extraordinary, that in ftormy weather there
is much lightning and rain, and that thunder is feldom
heard till this is over. During the months of June,
July, Auguft, and part of September, the weft and
fouth winds blow, which they call vendavales, bring¬
ing fuch rains arid (forms, that the fields are all over¬
flowed, and they are forced to have little boats to go
from one place to another. From Odtober till the
middle of December, the north wind prevails; and
from that time till May, the eaft and fouth-eaft; which
winds are there called breezes. Thus there are two
feafons in thofe feas, by the Portuguefe called mon-
zeens; whence our word monfoons, that is, the breezes
half the year, with a ferene dry air; and the venda-
vales the other half, wet and ftormy. It is further to
be obferved, that in this climate no vermin breed up¬
on Europeans, though they wear dirty fhirts, whereas
it is otherwife with the Indians. The days here being
always of an equal length, and the weather never
cold, neither their clothes, nor the hour of dining,
flipping, doing bufmefs, ftudying, or praying, are
ever changed ; nor is cloth worn, but only againft
the rain.'
The air here being, as has been obferved, very hot
and moift, is not wholefome : but is worfe for young
men, that come from Europe, than for the old. As
for the natives, without nfing many precautions, they
live very commonly to fourfeorepr too. The foil is fo
] ] MAN
rich, that rice grows even on the tops of the moun- Man
tains, without being watered ; and this makes it fo “
plentiful, that the Indians value gold fo little as not to
pick it up, though it lies almoft every where under
their feet.
Among the difadvantages of the ifland, befides fre¬
quent and terrible earthquakes, here are feveral burning
mountains. The face of the ifland, however, is far from
being disfigured by them, or by the confequences of
their explofions.
The mountaineers, called T/ngiani, have no particu¬
lar place of abode, but always live under the fhelter of
trees, which ferve them inftead of houfes, and furnifh
them with food; and when the fruit is eaten up, they
remove where there is a frefh fort.
Here are 40 different forts of palm-trees, the mod
excellent cocoas, wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs, and
fome fay wild cloves alfo; ebony; fandal-wood; and
the beft caflia, and in fuch plenty, that they feed their
hogs with its fruit; all kinds of cattle, and prodigious
quantities of gold, amber, and ambergrife.
There are feveral forts of people in this ifland be¬
fides the Spaniards, as the Tagalians or Tagaleze, the
Pintadoes or painted negroes, the Ilayas or Tingli-
anos, and the Negrellos. The Tagalians, who are
thought to be Malayans by defeent, are a modeft, trac¬
table, and well difpofed people. The Pintadoes, or
painted negroes, are tall, ftraight, ftrong, adtive, and
of an excellent difpofition. The Tinglianos, whom
fome fuppofe to be defeended from the Japanefe, are
very brave, yet very courteous and humane. They live
entirely on the gifts of nature; and never deep under
any other (hade than that of the trees or a cave. The
Negrillos, who are held to be the Aborigines of the
ifland, are barbarous and brutal to the laft degree.
When they kill a Spaniard, they make a cup of his
fkull and drink cut of it.
This ifland is divided into feveral provinces, con¬
taining divers towns, the chief of which are Manila,
Caceres, New-Segovia, Bondo, Paffacao, Ibalon, Bu-
law, Serfocon, or Bagatao, Lampon, Fernandina, Bo-
linao, Playahonda, Cavite, Mindora, Caltleya, and
Balayan.
Manila, the capital of an ifland of the fame name
in the Eaft Indies, on the fouth-eaft fide of the ifland,
where a large river falls into the fea, and forms a noble
bay 30 leagues in compafs, to which the Spaniards
have given the name of Bahia, becaufe the river runs
out of the great lake Bahi, which lies at the diftance
of fix leagues behind it. In compafs it is two miles,
in length one third of a milt; the fhape irregular, be¬
ing narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle. On
the fouth it is wafhed by the fea, and on the north and
eaft by the river; being alfo“11rongly fortified with
walls, baftions, forts, and batteries.—Manila contains
about 30,000 fouls, who are a very motley race, diftin-
guifhed by feveral ftrange names, and produced by the
conjundb'on of Spaniards, Chinefe, Malabars, Blacks,
and others inhabiting the city and iflands depending
on it. Without the walls are large fuburbs, particu¬
larly that inhabited by the Chinefe merchants, called
Sangleys. In proportion to the fize of the place, the
number of churches and religious houfes is very great.
Only fmall veflels can up to Manila; but three leagues
fouth of it is the tq>vn and port of Cavite, defended by
M A N [ 4429 ] MAN
the caftle of St Philip and capable of receiving the
larged fliips. Here ftands the arfenal where the gal¬
leons are built, for which there are from 300 to 600
or 800 men condantly employed, who are relieved
every month, and while upon duty are maintained at
the king’s expence. By an earthquake which hap¬
pened here in 1645, 3 third part of the city of Manila
was dedroyed, and no lefs than 3000 people perilhed
in the ruins.
In the late war, Spain having entered into engage¬
ments with France, in confequence of the family-com-
paft of the houfe of Bourbon, it was found expedient
by Britain to declare war alfo againd Spain. Where¬
upon a force was fent out from our Ead-India fettle-
ments, particularly Madrafs, for the conqued of the
Philippine Iflands, under general Draper and admi¬
ral Cornidi: who, after a fiege of 12 days, took Ma¬
nila, on the 6th of O&ober 1762, by dorm; but, to
fave fo fine a city from dedruftion, agreed to accept a
ranfom, amounting to a million derling, a part of
which, it is faid, was never paid. The Spanifh vice¬
roy refides in this city, and lives like a fovereign
prince. The government is faid to be one of the bed
in the gift of the king of Spain. When the city was
taken, as above, the archbifhop, who is a kind of
pope in this part of the world, was alfo viceroy. Five
large fliips, loaded with the riches of the Fad, as dia¬
monds from Golconda, cinnamon from Ceylon, pepper
from Sumatra and Java, -cloves and nutmegs from the
Moluccas and Banda iflands, camphire from Borneo,
benjamin and ivory from Cambodia, filks, tea, and
china-ware from China, Sec. fail yearly from hence to
Acapulco in Mexico, and return freighted with filver,
making 400 per cent, profit.
The city of Manila is governed by two alcaides: the
red of the cities and great towns have each an alcaide;
and in every village there is a corrigidore. Appeals
from their fentences are made to the royal court at
Manila, in which there are four judges, and a fifeal or
attorney-general; each of thefe judges has a falary of
3300 pieces of eight per annum. The viceroy is pre-
fident; and in that quality has an income of 4000
pieces of eight, but he has no vote ; yet if the judges
are equally divided, the prefident names a dodtor of
the civil law, who, in virtue of his appointment, has
a decifive voice. The attorney-general, in right of
his office, is proteflor of the Chinefe, in confideration
©f which he receives 600 pieces of eight every year.
As for the Indians that are in fubje&ion, they pay tri¬
bute in the following proportions : Young men from
18, and from thence, if they continue Angle, to the
age of 60, pay five rials of plate by way of capita¬
tion ; as Angle women likewife do from 24 to 50 :
married men pay ten rials. It is computed, that there
are within the compafs of this government 250,000
Indians, fubjeft to his Catholic majefty, of whom
two-fifths hold immediately from the king, and the
reft from lords or proprietors, who pay two rials each
for the maintenance of the forces, and the like fura
for the parifh-prieft. The royal revenue is computed
at about half a million of pieces of eight, exclufive
of cafualties. In regard to the military eftablifti-
ment, the garrifon of Manila confifts of about 800
or 1000 men, and there arc about 3000 more in
the Philippines. The viceroy is by his office cap¬
tain-general, with a falary of about 4000 pieces of
eight.
MANILIUS (Marcus), a Latin poet, whofe poem
had the ill luck to lie buried in feme German libraries,
and was not heard of in the world, until Poggius, about
two centuries ago, publifhed him from fome old ma-
nuferipts he found there. There is no account to be
found of him but what can be drawn from his poem,
which is called AJironomkon; and contains a fy Item of the
ancient aftronomy and aftrology, together with the phi-
lofophyof the Stoics. It confifts of five books; though
there was a fixth, which has not been recovered. From
the ftyle, and no mention of the author being found in
ancient writers, it is probable he died young. It is
collefted, however, that he was a Roman of illuftrious
extradiion, and lived under the reign of Auguftus,
whom he invokes, though not by name, yet by cir-
cumftances and chara&er that fuit no other empe¬
ror. The beft editions of Manilius are, that of Jofeph
Scaliger in 1600, and that of Bentley at London in
1738.
MANILLE, in commerce, a large brafs ring in the
form of a bracelet, either plain or engraven, flat or
round.
Manilles are the principal commodities which the
Europeans carry to the coaft of Africa, and exchange
with the natives for flaves. Thefe people wear them
as ornaments on the fmall of the leg, and on the thick
part of the arm above the elbow. The great men wear
manilles of gold and filver; but thefe are made in the
country by the natives themfelves.
MANIOC, or Manihot. See Jatropha.
MANIPULUS, in Roman antiquity, a body of in¬
fantry, confifting of 200 men, and confthuting the
third part of a cohort. See Cohort.
Among phyficians, the term manipulus fignifies a
handful of herbs or leaves, or fo much as a man can
grafp in his hand at once; which quantity is frequent¬
ly denoted by the abbreviature, M, or m.
MANIS, the Scaly Lizard, in zoology, a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of bruta, the
charafters of which are thefe : They have no foreteeth
either in the upper or under jaw; the tongue is long
and cylindrical; the fnout is long and narrow; and the
body is covered with hard feales. There are two fpe-
cies: 1. The pentada&yla, or fcaly lizard, with five
toes on each foot. The head is fmaller than the neck;
the eyes are very fmali; the length of the body in¬
cluding the tail, is from fix to eight feet. The
whole body is covered with hard feales, excepting
the under-part of the head and neck, the breaft,
the belly, and the internal fide of each leg. Be¬
twixt the feales of this animal there are fome hairs-
like the briftles of a hog, brownifh at the points. The
feales are of a reddilh colour, very hard, convex above,
and concave below. All the parts which want fcales-
are naked. The feales are unconneifted; and the ani¬
mal can raife or lower them at pleafure, like the quills-
of the porcupine. When irritated, he ere£ts his feales,,
and rolls himfelf up like a hedge-hog. In this fitua-
tion, neither the lion, tiger, nor any other animal can
hurt him. It is faid to deftroy the elephant by twill¬
ing itfelf round his trunk, and comprefiing that tender
organ with its hard feales. It feeds on lizards and in¬
fects $ turns up the ground with, its nofe; walks with
Manilius
MAN [ 4430 ] MAN
Manley Its claws bent under its feet ; grows very fat; and is
il efteemed delicate eating; makes no other noife than a
an 1US' kind of fnorting. It is a mild inoffenfive creature, is
flow of motion, and has no other method of efcaping
the purfi'it of man, but by concealing himfelf in cran¬
nies of rocks, and in holes which they dig in the
ground, and where they likewife bring forth their
young. It is a native of the Eaft Indies, and is very
rare. Mr Pennant conjeflures that it may be a native
of Guinea ; the qnogeli of the Negroes, which, Des
Marchais fays, grows to the length of eight feet, of
which the tail is four. It lives in woods and marfliy
places; feeds on ants, which it takes by laying its long
tongue acrofs their paths, which is covered with a vif-
cous faliva, fo that the infefts which attempt to pafs
over it cannot extricate themfelves.
2 The tetradaftyla, 6r fcaly lizard with four toes
on each foot. This fpecies is very limilar to the for¬
mer ; only the tail of it is much longer in proportion
to the body; and fuch parts as want fcales, inftead of
being naked, are covered with a foft hair. It is alfo
found in the Eaft Indies. See Plate CLXII. fig. 4.
MANLEY (Mrs.) the celebrated writer of the A-
talantis, was the daughter of Sir Roger Manley, the
reputed author of the firft volume of the Turki/b Spy.
She loft her parents very early ; and after having been
deluded into a falfe marriage by her guardian, who was
her coufin, and afterwards deferted her, fhe was pa¬
tronized by the duchefs of Cleveland, miftrefs of
Charles II. But the duchefs, being a woman of a
very fickle temper, grew tired of Mrs Manley in fix
months time; and difcharged her upon a pretence,
whether groundlefs or not is uncertain, that (he in¬
trigued with her fon. After this fhe wrote her firft
tragedy, called Royal Mifchief, which was a&ed with
great applaufe in 1696; and her apartment being fre¬
quented by men of wit and gaiety, (he foon engaged in
amours, and was taken into keeping. Her pen now
grew as licentious as her conduit: for, in her retired
hours, (he wrote four volumes, called Memoirs of the
New Atalantis; in which (he was not only very free
in her wanton tales of love-adventures, but fatirized
the chara&ers of many diftinguiflred perfonages, efpe-
cially thofe who had a principal concern in the Revo¬
lution. A profecution was commenced againft her for
this work; but whether thofe in power were afhamed
to bring a woman to trial for a few amorous trifles,
or whether the laws could not reach her difguifed fa-
tire, (lie was difcharged ; and a total change of the
miniftry enfuing, Mrs Manley lived in high reputation
and gaiety, amufing herfelf with the converfation of
wits, and writing plays, poems, and letters. She died
in 1724.
MANLIUS (Capitolinus), the renowned Roman
conful and general, who faved the capitol when it was
attacked by the Gauls in the night : he was alarmed
by the cries of geefe, which were ever after held fa-
cred. But being afterwards accufed of afpiring at the
fovereignty, he was thrown from the top of the capi-
tol, 384 B. C. See Gaul and Rome.
Manlius (Torquatus), a celebrated oonful and Ro¬
man captain; had great wit, but a difficulty in expref-
fing himfelf, which induced'Manlius Imperiofus, his
father, to keep him almoft by force in the country.
Pompey, tribune of the people, enraged at this in-
ftance of feverity, formed a defign of accufing Man- Mane*,
lius the father before the judges; but Torquatus be- i
ing informed of it, went to that tribune, and, with a
poniard in his hand, made him fwear that he would
not proceed in that accufation againft him to whom he
owed his life. At length Torquatus was made mili¬
tary tribune, and killed a foldier of the Gauls in Angle
combat, from whom he took a gold chain that he
wore about his neck. From this adlion he obtained
the name of Torquatus. He was conful in the war
againft the Latins ; when he ordered his own fon to
be beheaded, for fighting contrary to his orders, tho'
he had gained the' victory. He conquered the enemies
of the republic, and was feveral times made conful;
but at laft refufed the confuKhip, faying, That it was
no more poffible for him to bear with the vices of the
people, than it was for the people to bear with his fe¬
verity.
MANNA, in the materia medica, the juice of cer¬
tain trees of the a(h kind, either naturally concreted
on the plants, or exficcated and purified by art. There
are feveral forts of manna in the (hops. The larger
pieces, called flake manna, are ufually preferred; though
the fmaller grains are equally good, provided they are
white, or of a pale yellow colour; very light, of a fweet,
not unpleafant tafte, and free from any vifible impuri¬
ties.. Some people injudicioufly prefer the fat honey-iikc
manna to the foregoing; this has either been expofed
to a moift air, or damaged by fea or other w'ater. This
kind of manna is faid to be fometimes counterfeited by
a compofition of fugar and honey, mixed with a little
fcammony; there is alfo a fadtitious manna, which is
white and dry, faid to be compofed of fugar, manna,
and fome purgative ingredient, boiled to a proper con-
fiitence. This may be diftinguiflied by its weight, fo-
lidity, untranfparent whitenefs, and by its tafte, which
is different from that of manna.
Manna is a mild, agreeable laxative ; and may be
given with fafety to children and pregnant women :
neverthelefs, in fome particular conftitutions, it a&s
very unkindly, producing flatulencies and diftenfions
of the vifeera: thefe inconveniencies may be prevented
by the addition of any grateful warm aromatic. It
operates fo weakly, that it does not produce the full
effedt of a cathartic, unlefs taken in large dofes; and
hence it is rarely given in this intention by itfelf. It
may be commodioufly diflblved in the purging mineral
waters, or joined to the cathartic falls, fenna, rhubarb,
or the like. Geoffrey recommends acuating it with a
few grains of emetic tartar: by this management, he
fays, bilious ferum will be plentifully evacuated, with¬
out any naufea, gripes, or other inconvenience. It is
remarkable, that the efficacy of this drug is greatly
promoted, (if the account of Valiifnieri is to be relied
on) by a fubftance which is itfelf very flow of opera¬
tion, viz. cafia. See Casia.
Manna, is alfo a Scripture-term, fignifying a mi¬
raculous kind of food which fell from heaven for the
fupport of the Ifraelites in their paffage through the
wildernefs, being in form of coriander-feeds, its co¬
lour like that of bdellium, and its tafte like honey.
They called it manna, either from the Hebrew word
tnanah, a “ gift,” to intimate its being a gift from
heaven ; or from minnah, which fignifies “ to prepare,”
becaufe the manna came to them ready for eating, and
needed
Manna
!l
Manners.
* See
Fraxinus.
MAN [ 4431 ] MAN
needed no preparation but gathering ; or from the
Egyptian word, tuan, “ what is it?” which lad ety¬
mology feems the more probable, in regard the Scrip ¬
ture takes notice of the furprize they were under when
they firft faw this new food defcend.
Salmafnis, however, prefers another. According to
him, the Arabs and Chaldeans ufed the word man to
fignify a kind of dew or honey that fell on the trees,
and was gathered in great abundance oh mount Liba-
nus: on which footing, the Ifraelites did not ufe the
term manna out of furprize, but becaufe they found
this food fall with the dew, in the fame manner as the
honey fo well known under the name of man.
Salmafius adds, that the manna of the Ifraelites was
in reality no other than that honey or dew condenfed;
and that the one and the other were the fame with the
wild honey wherewith St John was fed in the wilder-
nefs. So that the miracle did not confid in the for¬
mation of any new fubftance in favour of the Ifraelites;
but in the pun&ual manner in which it was difpenfed
by Providence for the fuftenance of fo vaft a multitude.
Manna-TV^, is a fpecies of the alb*, called the
fraxinus rotundifolia, a native of Calabria in Italy.
The (hoots of this tree are much (horter, and the joints
clofer together, than thofe of the common afh ; the
fmall leaves are (horter, and deeper fawed on their
edges, and are of a lighter green. The flowers come
out from the fide of the branches, which are of a
purple colour, and appear in the fpring before the
leaves come out. This tree is of humble growth, fel-
dom rifing more than 15 or 16 feet high in this coun¬
try.
MANNER, in painting, a habitude that a man ac¬
quires in the three principal parts of painting, the ma¬
nagement of colours, lights and (hadows; which is ei¬
ther good or bad according as the painter has prafti-
fed more or lefs after the truth, with judgment and
ftudy. But the beft painter is he who has no manner
at all. The good or bad choice he makes is called
goute.
MANNERS, the plural noun, has various fignifi-
•cations; as, The general way of life, the morals, or
habits, of any perfon or people ; alfo, Ceremonious
behaviour, or ftudied civility. See the next article.
Good-Manners, according to Swift, is the art of
making thofe people eafy with whom we converfe.
Whoever makes the fewefl: perfons uneafy, is the beft
-bred in the company.
As the beft law is founded upon reafon, fo are the
beft manners. And as feme lawyers have introduced
onreafonable things into common law; fo likewife many
teachers have introduced abfurd things into common
good-manners.
One principal point of this art is to fuit our beha¬
viour to the three feveral degrees of men; our fuperi-
ors, our equals, and thofe below us.
For inftance, to prefs either of the two former to
-eat or drink, is a breach of manners ; but a tradefman
•or a farmer muft be thus treated, or elfe it will be dif¬
ficult to perfnade them that they are welcome.
Pride, ill-nature, and want of fenfe, are the three
great fources of ill-manners: without fomc one of thefe
defe&s, no man will behave himfeif ill for want of ex¬
perience; or of what, in the language of fools, is call¬
ed knowing the world.
Vou VI. 2
“ I defy (proceeds our author) any one to afiign
an incident wherein reafon will not dirt<ft us what we
are to fay or to do in company, if we are not mified by
pride or ill-nature. Therefore, I infift that good fenfe
is the principal foundation of good-manners; but be¬
caufe the former is a gift which very few among man¬
kind are pofllffed of, therefore all the civilized nations
of the world have agreed upon fixing feme rules for
common behaviour, beft fuited to their general cu-
ftoms, or fancies, as a kind of artificial good-fenfe ;
fupply the defeds of reafon. Without which, the gen¬
tlemanly part of dunces would be perpetually at cuffs,
as they feldom fail when they happen to be drunk, or
engaged in fquabbles about women or play. And,
God be thanked, there hardly happeneth a duel in a
year, which may not be imputed to one of thofe three
motives. Upon which account, I fltould be exceed¬
ingly forry to find the legiflature make any new laws
againft the praftice of duelling; becaufe the methods
are eafy, and many, for a wife man to avoid a quarrel
with honour, or engage in it with innocence. And I
can difeover no political evil in fuffering bullies, (harp¬
ers, and rakes, to rid the world of each other by a me¬
thod of their own, where the law hath not been able to
find an expedient.
“ As the common forms of good-manners were in¬
tended for regulating the conduft of thofe who have
weak underftandings; fo they have been corrupted by
the perfons for whofe ufe they were contrived. For
thefe people have fallen into a needlefs and endlefs way
of multiplying ceremonies, which have been extremely
troublefome to thofe who pra&ife them, and infup-
portable to every body elfe ; infomuch that wife men
are often more uneafy at the over-civility of thefe re¬
finers, than they could pofixbly be in the converfations
of peafants or mechanics.
“ The impertinencies of this ceremonial behaviour
are nowhere better feen than at thofe tables where la¬
dies prefide, who value themfc'ves upon account of
their good-breeding; where a man muft reckon upon
puffing an hour without doing anyone thing he hath a
mind to, unlefs he will be fo hardy as to break through
all the fettled decorum of the family. She determineth
what he loveth beft, and how much he (hall eat; and
if the mafter of the houfe happeneth to be of the fame
difpofition, he proceedeth in the fame tyrannical man¬
ner to preferibe in the drinking part: at the fame time
you are under the neceffity of anfwering a thoufand
apologies for your entertainment. And although a
good deal of this humour is pretty well worn off among
many people of the beft falhion, yet too much of it
dill remained), efpecially in the country ; where an ho¬
ned gentleman affured me, that having been kept four
days againft his will at a friend’s houfe, with all the
circumftanees of hiding his boots, locking up the ftable,
and other contrivances of the like nature, he could not
remember, from the moment he came into the houfe,
to the moment he left it, any one thing wherein his in¬
clination was not dire&ly contradi&ed; as if the whole
family had entered into a combination to torment him.
“ But, befides all this, it would be endlefs to re¬
count the many foolifti and ridiculous accidents I have
obferved among thefe unfortunate profelytes to cere¬
mony. I have feen a duchefs fairly knocked down by
the .precipitancy of an officious coxcomb running to
25 D fave
M A N [ 4432 ] MAN
Manners. fave her the trouble of opening a door. I remember,
upon, a birth-diy at court, a great lady was rendered
utterly difeonfolate, by a difli of fauce let fall by a
page dire&ly upon her head-drefs and brocade, while
the gave a fudden turn to her elbow upon fome point of
ceremony with the perfon who fat next her. Monfieur
Buys, the Dutch envoy, whofe politics and manners
were much of a fize, brought a fon with him about (3
years old, to a great table at court. The boy and his
father, whatever they put on their plates, they firlt of¬
fered round in order, to every perfon in the company;
fo that we could not get a minute’s quiet during the
whole dinner. At laft their two plates happened to
encounter, and with fo much violence, that, being
china, they broke in twenty pieces, and ftained half
the company with wet fweetmeats and cream.
“ There is a pedantry in manners as in all arts and
fciences, and fometimes in trades. Pedantry is pro¬
perly the over-rating any kind of knowledge we pre¬
tend to. And if that kind of knowledge be a trifle in
itfelf, the pedantry is the greater. For which reafon
I look upon fiddlers, dancing-mafters, heralds, mafters
of the ceremony, &c. to be greater pedants than Lip-
fius, Or the elder Scaliger. With thefe kind of pedants,
the court, while I knew it, was always plentifully
flocked: I mean from the gentleman-ufher (at leaft)
inclufive, downward to the gentleman-porter; who are,
generally fpeaking, the molt infignificant race of peo¬
ple that this ifland can afford, and with the fmalleft
tinfture of good-manners, which is the only trade they
profefs. For being wholly illiterate, converfing chiefly
with each other, they reduce the whole fyffem of
breeding within the forms and circles of their feveral
offices: and as they are below the notice of miniilers,
they live and die in court under all revolutions, with
great obfequioufnefs to thofe who are in any degree of
credit or favour, and with rudenefs and infolence to
every body elfe. From whence I have long concluded,
that good-manners are not a plant of the court-growth:
for if they were, thofe people who have underftand-
ings dire&ly of a level fur fuch acquirements, and who
have ferved fuch long apprenticefhips to nothing elfe,
would certainly have picked them up. For as to the
great officers who attend the prince’s perfon or coun¬
cils, or prefide in his family, they are a tranfient body,
who have no better a title to goad-manners than their
neighbours, nor will probably have recourfe to gentle-
men-ulhers for inftruftion. So that I know little to
be learned at court on this head, except in the mate¬
rial circumftance of drefs ; wherein the authority of
the maids of honour mud indeed be allowed to be al-
moit equal to that of a favourite aflrefs.
“ I remember a paffage my lord Bblingbroke told
me: That going to receive prince Eugene of Savoy at
his landing, in order to conduct him immediately to
the queen, the prince faid he was much concerned that
he could not fee her majefty that night: for Monfieur
Hoffman (who was then by) had affured his highnefs,
that he could not be admitted into her prefence with
a tied-up periwig; that his equipage was not arrived;
and that he had endeavoured in vain to borrow a long
one among all his valets and pages. My lord turned
the matter to a jell, and brought the prince to her ma-
jefly: for which he was highly cenfured by the whole
tribe of gentlemen-ufhers; among whom Monfiecr
Hoffman, an old dull refident of the emperor’s, had Manners..
picked up this material point of ceremony ; and which, ———■
I believe, was the befl leffon he had learned in five and
twenty years refidence.
“ I make a difference between good-manners and
good-breeding; although, in order to vary my expref-
fion, I am fometimes forced to confound them. By
the firll, I only underltand the art of remembering,
and applying, certain fettled forms of general behavi¬
our. But good breeding is of a much larger extent:
for befides an uncommon degree of literature fufficient
to qualify a gentleman for reading a play, or a poli¬
tical pamphlet, it taketh in a great compafs of know¬
ledge; no lefs than that of dancing, fighting, gaming,
making the circle of Italy, riding the great horfe, and
fpeaking French ; not to mention fome other fecon-
dary or fubaltern accomplifhments, which are more
eafily acquired. So that the difference between good¬
breeding and good-manners lieth in this, That the for¬
mer cannot be attained to by the bell underflandings
w'ithout ftudy and labour; whereas a tolerable degree
of reafon will inltruft us in every part of good-man¬
ners without other affiftance.
“ I can think of nothing more ufeful upon this fub-
je&, than to point out fome particulars wherein the
very eflentials of good-manners are concerned, the ne-
gledl or perverting of which doth very much dillurb
the good commerce of the world, by introducing a
traffic of a mutual uneafinefs in moll companies.
“ Firll, a neceffary part of good-manners is a punc¬
tual obfervance. of time at our own dwellings, or thofe
of others, or at third places; whether upon matters of
civility, bufinefs, ordiverfion: which rule, though it
be a plain diftate of common reafon, yet the greatell
miniller * l ever knew, was the greateft trefpaffer againft ^
it; by which all his bufinefs doubled upon him, and f r
placed him in a continual arrcar. Upon which I oftenior^
ufed to rally him as deficient in point: of good-man- high trea-
ners. I have known more than one ambafihdor, and furer to
fecretary of (late, with a very moderate portion of in - iueen •drint.-
telleftuals, execute their office with great fuccefs and
applaufe, by the mere force of exadlnefs and regula¬
rity. If you duly obferve time for the fervice of ano¬
ther, it doubles the obligation; if upon your own ac¬
count, it would be manifcft folly, as well as ingrati¬
tude, to negledl it ; if both are concerned,, to make
your equal or inferior attend on you to his o\yn difad-
vantage, is pride and injuftice.
“ Ignorance of forms cannot properly be ffyled///-
nmnners: becaufe forms are fubjedi to frequent changes;;
and confequently, being not founded upon reafon, are
beneath a wife man’s regard. Befides, they vary in
every country; and after a (hort period of time vary
frequently in the fame: fo that a man who travdleth,
mult needs be at firll a ftranger to them in every court
through which he paffeth; and perhaps, at his returrl,.
as much a ftranger in his own; and, after all, they are
eafier to be remembered or forgotten than faces dr
names.
“ Indeed, among the many impertinencies that fir-
perficial young men bring with them from abroad, this
bigotry of forms is one of the principal, and more
predominant than the reft ; who look upon them not
only as if they were matters capable of admitting of
choice, but even as points of importance ; and there-
MAN [ 4433 ] MAN
Manoeuvre, fore are zealous upon all occafions to introduce and pro-
Manometer.pagate the new forms and fafhions they have brought
back with them: fb that, ufuully fpeaking, the woril-
bred perfon in the company, is a young traveller juft
arrived from abroad.”
MANOEUVRE, in a military fenfe, confifts folely
in diftributing equal motion to every part of a body of
troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their
pofition, in the molt expeditious and belt method, to
anfwer the purpofes required of a battalion, brigade,
or line, of cavalry, artillery, or infantry. It has al¬
ways been lamented, that men have been brought on
fervice without being informed of the ufes of the
different manoeuvres they have been practifing ; and,
having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of
the parade, inftantly fall into diforder and confufion
when they lofe the ftep, or fee a deviation from the
ftraight lines they have been accultomed to at exercife.
It is a pity to fee fo much attention given to (how, and
fo little to inftruft the troops in what may be of life
to them in real fervice.—No manoeuvre Ihould be exe¬
cuted in prefence of the enemy, unlefs prote&ed by
fome divilion of the troops.
MANOMETER, or Manoscope, an inftrument
to fhovv or meafure the alterations in the rarity or
denfity of the air. The manometer differs from the
barometer in this, That the latter only ferves to mea¬
fure the of the atmofphere, or of the column
of air over it; but the former, the denfity of the air
in which it is found; which denfity depends not only
on the weight of the atmofphere, but alfo on the
aftion of heat and cold, &c. Authors, however, ge¬
nerally confound the two together; and Mr Boyle
himfelf gives us a very good manometer of his contri¬
vance, under the name of a Jiatical barometer, con¬
fining of a bubble of thin glafs, about the lize of an
orange, which, being counterpoifed when the air was
in a mean (late of denfity, by means of a nice pair of
fcales, funk when the atmofphere became lighter, and
rofe as it grew heavier.
Another kind of manometers were made ufe of by
colonel Roy, in his attempts to corredl the errors of
the barometer, and are defcribed in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions, Vol. LXVII. p. 689. “ They were
(fays he) of various lengths, from four to upwards of
eight feet: they confided of ftraight tubes, whofe
bores were commonly from T-jAli to -j^j-th of an inch
in diameter. The capacity of the tube was carefully
meafured, by making a column of quickfilver, about
three or four inches in length, move along it from one
end to the other. Thefe fpaces were feverally marked,
with a fine-edged file, on the tubes ; and transferred
from them to long flips of pafteboard, for the fubfe-
quent conftrudiion of the fcales refpeiftively belonging
to each. The bulb, attached to one end of the mano¬
meter at the glafs-houfe, was of the form of a pear,
whofe point being occafionally opened, dry. or moift air
could be readily admitted, and the bulb leafed again,
without any fenfible alteration in its capacity.
t! The air was confined by means of a column of
quickfilver, long or fhort, and with tire bulb down¬
ward.or upwards, according to the nature of the pro-
pofed experiment. Here it mull be obferved, that,
from the adhefion of the quicklilver to the tube, the
inlloiment will not acl truly, except it be in a vertical
2
pofition; and even then, it is neceffary to give it a Mi-c-
fmall degree of motion, to bring the quickfilver into
its true place; where it will remain in equilibrio, be-_____
tween the exterior preffure of the atmofphere on one
fide, and the interior elaftic force of the confined air
on the other.
“ Pounded ice and water were ufed to fix a freez¬
ing point on the tube; and by means of fait and ice,
the air was farther condenfed, generally four, and
fometimes five or fix degrees below zero. The ther¬
mometer and manometer were then placed in the tin
veffel, among water which was brought into violent
ebullition ; where having remained a fufficient time,
and motion being given to the manometer, a boiling
point was marked thereon. After this the fire was re¬
moved, and the gradual defeents of the piece of quick¬
filver, correfponding to every 20 degrees of tempera¬
ture in the thermometer, were fucceffively marked on
a deal rod applied to the manometer. It is to be
obferved, that both inftruments, while in the water,
were in circumftances perfectly fimilar; that is to fay,
the ball and bulb were at the bottom of the veffel.
“ In order to be certain that no air had efcaped
by the fide of the quickfilver during the operation,
the manometer was frequently placed a fecond time
in melting ice. If the barometer had not altered be¬
tween the beginning and end of the experiment, the
quickfilver always became ftationary at or near the firft
mark. If any fudden change had taken place in the
weighTof the atmofphere during that interval, the fame
was noted, and allowance made for it in afterwards pro¬
portioning the fpaces.
“ Long tubes, with bores truly cylindrical, or of
any uniform figure, are fcar.tly ever met with. Such
however as were ufed in thefe experiments, generally
tapered in a pretty regular manner from one end to
the other. When the bulb was downwards, and the
tube narrowed that way, the column of quickfilver
confining the air lengthened in the lower-half ; f the
fcale, and augmented the preffure above the mean.
In the upper-half, the column being fhortened, the
preffure was diminiftied below the mean. In this
cafe, the obferved fpaces both ways from the centre,
were diminiftied in the inverfe ratio of the heights of
the barometer at each fpace, compared with its mean
height. If the bore widened towards the bulb when
downwards, the obferved fpaces, each way from the
centre, were augmented in the fame inverfe ratio; but
in the experiments on air lefs denfe than the atmo¬
fphere, the bulb being upwards, the fame equation was
applied with contrary figns: and if any extraordinary
irregularity took place in the tube, the correfponding
fpaces were proportioned both ways from that point,
whether high or low, that anfwered to the mean.
“ The obferved and equated manometrical fpaces
being thus laid down on the parteboard containing
the meafures of the tube$ the 2120 of the thermo¬
meter, in exaft proportion to the fedlions of the bore,
were conftrufted along-fide of them : hence the co¬
incidences with each other were eafily feen; and the
number of thermometrical degrees anfwering to each
manometrical fpace readily transferred into a table
prepared for the purpofe.”
MANOR, Manerium, ('a manendo, becaufe the
ufua] refidence of the owner,) feems to have been a
25 D 2 diftrid
MAN [ 4434 ] MAN
Manor, diftrift of ground, held by lords or great perfonages;
' who kept in their own hands fo much land as was
neceflary for the ufe of their families, which were
Bhckft. called terra; dorninicales, or demefne lands; being oc-
tlommnt. cupied by the lord, or dc,minus ?nanerii, and his fer-
vants. The other, or tenemental lands, they diftri-
buted among their tenants; which, from the different
modes of tenure, were called and diftinguifhed by two
different names.—Firft, book land, or charter-land,
which was held by deed under certain rents and free
fervices, and in effect differed nothing from free focage
lands: and from hence have arifen molt of the free¬
hold tenants who hold of particular manors, and owe
fuit and fervice to the fame. The other fpecies was
called folk-land, which was held by no affurance in
writing, but diftributed among the common folk or
people at the pleafure of the lord, and refumed at his
difcretion; being indeed land held in villenage. See
V1LLENAGE.
The refidue of the manor, being uncultivated, was
termed the lord's nnajle, and ferved for public roads, and
for common of pafture to the lord and his tenants. Ma¬
nors were formerly called baronies, as they ftill are lord-
flips; and each lord or baron was empowered to hold
a domeftic court, called the court-baron, for redrefiing
mifdemefnors and nnfances within the manor, and for
fettling difputes of property among the tenants. This
court is an infeparabie ingredient of every manor; and
if the number of fuitors thould fo fail, a? not to leave
fufficient to make a jury or homage, that is, two te¬
nants at the lead, the manor itfelf is loft.
In the early times of our legal conftitution, the king’s
greater barons, who had a large extent of territory
held under the crown, granted out frequently fmaller
manors to inferior perfons to be held of themfelves;
which do therefore now continue to be held under a
fuperior lord, who is called in fuch cafes the lord pa¬
ramount over all thefe manors: and his feignory is
frequently termed an honour, not a manor; efpecially
if it hath belonged to an ancient feodal baron, or hath
been at any time in the hands of the crown. In imi¬
tation whereof, thefe inferior lords began to carve out
and grant to others ftill more minute eftates, to be
held as of themfelves, and were fo proceeding down¬
wards in infinitum, till the fnperior lords obferved,
that, by this method of fnbinfeudation, they loft all
their feodal profits of ward (hips, marriages, and ef-
cheats, which fell into the hands of thefe mefne or
middle lords, who were the immediate fuperiors of
the terre-tenant, or him who occupied the land; and
alfo that the mefne lords themfelves were fo irapove-
rilhed thereby, that they were difabled from perform¬
ing their fervices to their own fuperiors. This occa-
fioned, firft, that provifion in the jad chapter of magna
charta, 9 Hen. III. (which is not to be found in the
firft charter granted by that prince, nor in the great
charter of king John,) that no man fhould either
give or fell his land, without referving fufficient
to anfwer the demands of his lord ; and, afterwards,
the ftatute of Weftm. 3. or quta emptores, 18 Edw. I.
c. i. which dire&s, that, upon all fales, or feoffments
of land, the feoffee fhall hold the fame, not of his im¬
mediate feoffor, but of tlie .chief lord of the fee, of
whom fuch feoffor himfelf held it. But thefe provifions
not extending to the king’s own tenants in capits, the
like law concerning them is declared by the ftatutes Mans
of prxrogativa regis, 17 Edw. II. c. 6. and of fl
34 Edw. HI. c. 15. by which laft all fubinfeudations,
previous to the reign of king Edward I. were rnn. -ue cr
firmed ; but all fubfequent to that period were left
open to the king’s prerogative. And from hence it
is clear, that all manors exifting at this day, muft
have exifted as early as king Edward the Firft: for
it is effential to a manor, that there be tenants who
hold of the lord; and, by the operation of thefe fta¬
tutes, no tenant in capite fince the acceffion of that
prince, and no tenant of a common lord fince the fta¬
tute of quia emptores, could create any new tenants
to hold of himfelf. See Villen age.
MANS, an ancient, rich, and populous town of
France, capital of the county of Maine, with a bifhop’s
fee. Its wax and fluffs are famous. It is feated on a
high hill near the river Sarr, in E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
47. 58.
MANSFELD, a city of Germany, and capital of
a county of the fame name, in the circle of Upper
Saxony. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
MANSFIELD, a town of Nottinghamftiire in
England, feated in the foreft of Sherwood. It is a
pretty large town, with good houfes; drives a great
trade, and is famous for malt. W. Long. 1.6. N. Lat.
53. 12.
MANSIO, a term often mentioned in itineraries,
denoting inns on the public roads to lodge in, at
the diftance of eighteen miles from each other;
(Laflantjus). Alfo, in the lower ages, it came to
denote an encampment for one night,” (Lampri-
dius).
Mansio, or Manfus, was fometimes alfo ufed in
the fame fenfe with hide; that is, for as much land as
one plough could till in a year. See Hide.
MANSE, Mansus, Manfa, or Manfum; in an¬
cient law-books, denotes an houfe, or habitation, ei¬
ther with or without land. See House, and Man¬
sion. The word is formed a manendo, “ abiding;”
as being the place of dwelling or refidence.
Capital Manse, (Manfum Capitate,) denotes the
manor-houfe, or lord’s court. See Manor, and
Court.
Mansus Prejbyteri, is a parfonage or vicarage
houfe for the incumbent to refide in. This was ori¬
ginally, and ftill remains, an effential part of the en¬
dowment of a pariih-church, together with the glebe
and tythes. It is fometimes called Prefyterium. See
Presbytery.
MANSION, Mansio, a dwelling-houfe, or habi¬
tation, efpecially in the country. See Manse.
Mansion is more particularly ufed for the lord’s
chief dwelling-houfe within hia fee; otherwife called
the capital mejfuage, or chief manor-place. See
Manor.
MANSLAUGHTER, the unlawful killing of a-
nother, without malice either exprefs or implied:
Which may be either voluntarily, upon a fudden
heat; or involuntarily, but in the commiffion of fome
unlawful adl. Thefe were called, in the Gothic
conftitutions, homicidia vulgaria; qua out cafu, aut
etiam fponte committuntur, fed in fubitaneo quodam ira-
cundice calore et impetu. And hence it follows, that
ia manlkughter there can be no acceffories before
MAN [ 4435 ] MAN
Man- the fadl; becaufe it iruift be done without premcdi-
flaughter, tation<
1. As to the firft, or voluntary branch : If upon a
fudden quarrel two perfons fight, and one of them kills
the other, this is manflaughterand fo it is, if they
upon fuch an occafion go out and fight in a field ; for
this is one continued aft of paffion : and the law-
pays that regard to human frailty, as not to put a
hatly and deliberate aft upon the fame footing with
regard to guilt. So alfo if a man be greatly provoked,
as by pulling his nofe, or other great indignity, and
immediately kills the aggreffor, though this is not ex-
cufable fe defendcndo, fince there is no abfolute ne-
cefiity for doing it to preferve himfelf; yet neither is
it murder, for there is no previous malice; but it is
roanflaughter. But in this, and in every other cafe
of homicide upon provocation, if there be a fufficient
cooling-time for paffion to fubfide and reafon to inter-
pofe, and the perfon fo provoked afterwards kills the
other, this is deliberate revenge, and notheat of blood;
and accordingly amounts to murder. So if a man
takes another in the aft of adultery with his wife, and
kills him direftly upon the fpot; though this was al¬
lowed by the laws of Solon, as likewife by the Roman
civil law, (if the adulterer was found in the huffiand’s
own houfe), and alfo among the ancient Goths; yet
in England it is not abfolutely ranked in the clafs of
juflifiable homicide, as in cafe of a forcible rape, but
it is manfiaughter. It is, however, the lowefl degree
of it; and therefore in fuch a cafe the court direfted
the burning in the hand to be gently inflifted, becaufe
there could not be a greater provocation. Man¬
flaughter therefore, on a fudden provocation, differs
from excufable homicide fe defendendo in this : That in
one cafe there is an apparent neceffity, for felf-prefer-
vation, to kill the aggreffor ; in the other no neceffity
at all, being only a fudden aft of revenge.
2. Thefecond branch, or involuntary manflaughter,
differs alfo from homicide excufable by mifadventure,
in this; That mifadventure always happens in confe-
quence of a lawful aft, but this fpecies of manflaugh¬
ter in confequence of an unlawful one. As if two
perfons play at fword and buckler, unlefs by the
king’s command, and one of them kills the other :
this is manflaughter, becaufe the original aft was un¬
lawful ; but it is not murder, for the one had no in¬
tent to do the other any perfonal mifchief. So where
a perfon does an aft, lawful in itfelf, but in an unlaw¬
ful manner, and without due caution and circumfpec-
tion ; as when a workman flings down a ftone or
piece of timber into the ffreet, and kills a man ; this
may be either mifadventure, manflaughter, or mur¬
der, according to the circumilances under which the
original aft was done. If it were in a country village,
where few pafftngers are, and he calls out to all peo¬
ple to have a care, it is mifadventure only : but if it
were in London, or other populous towns, where
people are continually paffing, it is manflaughter,
though he gives loud warning ; and murder, if he
knows of their paffing and gives no warning at all,
for then it is malice againft all mankind. And, in
general, when an involuntary killing happens in con¬
fequence of an unlawful aft, it will be either murder
or manflaughter, according to the nature of the aft
which occaftoued it. If it be in profecution of a fe¬
lonious intent, or in its confequences naturally tended Manta
to bloodflted, it will be murder ; but if no more was
intended than a mere civil trefpafs, it will only amount
to manflaughter.
3. As to the puniffiment of this degree of homi¬
cide : The crime of manflaughter amounts to felony,
but within the benefit of clergy ; and the offender
fhall be burnt in the hand, and forfeit all his goods
and chattels.
But there is one fpecies of manflaughter, which is
puniflied as murder, the benefit of clergy being taken
away from it by ffatute; namely, the offence of mor¬
tally flabbing another, though done upon fudden pro¬
vocation. See Stabbing.
MANTA, in ichthyology. See Raja.
MANTE, a conliderable town of France, capital
of the Mantois; feated on the-river Seine, in E. Long.
1. 45. N. Lat. 48. 58.
MANTELETS, in the art of war, a kind of
moveable parapets, made of planks about three inches
thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almoft
fix feet, generally cafed with tin, and fet upon little
wheels, fo that in a fiege they may be driven before
the pioneers, and ferve as a blinds to fhelter them from
the enemy’s fmall (hot.
MANTINEA, (anc. geog.) a town fituate in the
fouth of Arcadia, on the confines of Laconia, (Pto¬
lemy) ; called afterwards Antigonea, in honour of king
Antigonus. It is memorable for a battle fought in
its neighbourhood between the Thebans and Spartans,
in which fell the celebrated commander Epaminondas.
See Thebes.
MANTIS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order of hemiptera, the charafters of which
are thefe: The head bending forward, maxillous, and
furnrihed with palpi: four membranaceous convoluted
wings, the two lowermoft plicated: the fore-feet
compreffed, ferrato-denticulated underneath; armed
with a fingle claw, and a fetaceous, lateral-jointed toe :
the thorax linear, long, and narrow. There are 14
fpecies, of which the moft remarkable is the fi-
cifolia, or walking-leaf, faid to be brought from the
Spanilh Weft Indies: it is very flat-bodied; of the
reddilh colour of fome dried leaves; the wings being
a little more yellow, fome of them inclining to green.
Mr Edwards is of opinion, that they change from
green to a reddifti brown, according as the leaves of
the trees change with the feafon of the year, in order
the better to deceive birds that may feed on them.
The hinder legs are perfect 5 but our author believes
the outer joints of the four other legs broke off, and
he did not care to fupply them by conjefture. See
Plate CLXVI. fig. 1.
MANTLE, or Mantle-Tree, in architefture, the
lower part of the chimney, or that piece of timber
which is laid acrofs the jaumbs, and fuftains the com¬
partments of the chimney-piece.
Mantle, or Mantling, in heraldry, that appear¬
ance of folding of cloth, flouriftiing, or drapery, which
in any atchievement is drawn about a coat of arms.
See Heraldry, p. 3607.
MANTO, in poetic hiftory, the daughter of Tire-
fias, and like her father ftrongly infpired with prophe¬
cy. She was in fo great efteem, that, when the Ar-
gives pillaged Thebes, they thought they could not
acquis
MAN [ 4436 1 MAN
Mantua, acquit their vow to Apollo, of confecrating to him the
Mantuan. mofl prec;0us thing in their plunder, without offering
him this young woman. She was therefore fent to the
temple of Delphi. But this did not engage her in
any vow of continency; or, if it did, die obferved it
very ill. For (he bore a foil, called Amphilocus, to Alc-
meon, who had been generaliffimo of the army which
took Thebes; and a daughter to the fame, named Ti-
ftphone. Thefe children were the fruits of an amour
carried on during the madnefs which had ftized Alc-
meon, after he had put his mother to death. Virgil
tranfports her into Italy, not for the fake of fecuring
her virginity, but to produce a fon of her who built
Mantua.
MANTUA, anciently a town of the Tranfpada-
na, in Italy, fituated on the Mincius, a river running
from the Lacus Benacus, (Pliny) ; a very old town,
fuppofed to be older than Rome. It is dill called
Mantua, and is the capital of the duchy of that name.
It is now a large place, having eight gates and about
16,000 inhabitants. The ftreets are broad and ftraight,
and the houfes well built. It is very ftrong by iitua-
tion as well as by art ; lying in the middle of a lake,
or rather morafs,''formed by the river Minchio. There
is no accefs to the city but by two caufeways which
crofs this morafs, and which are ftrongly fortified ; fo
that the city is looked upon to be one of the mod con-
liderable fortreffes of Europe ; and the allies in 174J,
tho’ their army was in the duchy, durd not undertake
the fiege. It was greatly noted for its filk-manufac-
tures, which are now much decayed. The air in the
fummer-time is very unwholefome. The celebrated
poet Virgil was born at a village near this city. E.
Long. 10. 47. N. Lat. 45. 10.
Mantua, the duchy of, a country of Italy, lying
along the river Po, which divides it into two parts. It
is bounded on the north by the Veronefe; on the fouth,
by the duchies of Reggio, Modena, and Mirandola :
on the ead, by the Ferrarefe ; and on the wed, by the
Cremonefe. It is about 50 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth ; is fruitful in corn, padures, (lax, fruits, and
excellent wine. Charles IV. the lad duke of Mantua,
being a vaffal of the empire, took part with the French,
in the difpute relating to the fucceffion of Spain ; for
which reafon he was put under the ban of the em¬
pire, and died at Venice in 1708. He having no heirs,
the emperor kept the Mantuan in his own hands, and
the duke of Savoy had Montferrat, which were con¬
firmed to them by fubfequent treaties. After the
death of the emperor, in 1740, his elded daughter,
uow emprefs-queen, kept poffefllon of the Mantuan ;
and the governor of the Mdanefe had the adminidra-
tion of affairs. The Mantuan comprehends the du¬
chies of Mantua, Guadalla, and Sabioneta ; the prin¬
cipalities of Cadiglione, Solforino, and Bofolo; like-
wife the county of Novellara. The principal rivers are
the Po, the Oglio, and the Minchio; and the princi¬
pal town is Mantua.
MANTUAN (Baptid), a famous Italian poet,
born at Mantua in 1448. He took his name from the
town ; not having a right to that of his father, as be¬
ing a natural fon. In his youth, he applied himfelf
to Latin poetry, which he cultivated all his life; for
it does not appear that he wrote any thing in Italian.
He entered among the Carmelites, and became gene¬
ral of the order; tho’ he quitted that dignity upon Manual,
fome difgud in 1515, and died the year following. ’ “
The duke of Mantua, fome years after, ere&ed a
marble datue to his memory crowned with laurel, and
placed it. next to Virgil. His works were colleSed
and publidied at Paris in three volumes folio in 1513,
with the commentaries of St Murrhon, S. Brant, and
I. Badius.
MANUAL, a word fignifying any thing perform¬
ed by the hand.
Manual, (manualis), in law, fignifies what is em¬
ployed or ufed by the hand, and whereof a prefent
profit may be made: as fuch a thing in the manual
occupation of one is where it is adually ufed or em¬
ployed by him.
Manual Exercife, in the army, confifts in the ob-
fervance of certain words of command appointed for
this purpofe. When a regiment is drawn up, or para¬
ded for exercife, the men are placed three deep, either
by companies, or divided into platoons, with the gre¬
nadiers on the right. When foldiers are drawn up for
exercife, the ranks and files (hould be exa&ly even; and
each foldier fhould be inllruded to carry his arms well,
to keep his firelock fteadyand even upon his (houlder,
with the right hand hanging down, and the whole body
without conftraint. The diftances between the files
muff be equal, and the ranks eight feet diftant from
each other. Every motion {hould be performed with
life, and the greateft exa&nefs obferved in all firings,
wheelings, and marching ; and therefore a regi¬
ment (hould never be under arms longer than two
hours.
The following is an abftrafl; of the words of com¬
mand at the manual exercife, with their explanations.
I. Poifeyourfirelock: i. e. Seize the firelock with your
right hand, and turn the lock outwards, keeping the
firelock perpendicular ; then bring up the firelock with
a quick motion from the (houlder, and feize it with
the left hand, jult above the lock, fo that the fingers
may lie upon the (lock, with the elbows down, and
the thumb upon the (tock; the firelock muff not be
held too far from the body, and the left-hand muff be
of an equal height with the eyes. 2. Cock your fire¬
lock ; i. e. Turn the barrel oppofite to your face, and
place your thumb upon the cock, raifing your elbow
fquare at this motion ; then cock your firelock, by
drawing your elbow down, placing your right-thumb
on the breech-pin, and the fingers under the guard.
3. Prefent: i. e. Step back about fix inches to the
rear with the right-foot, bringing the left-toe to the
front; at the fame time the butt-end of the firelock
muff be brought to an equal height with the (houlder,
placing the left-hand on the fwelj, and the fore-finger
of the right-hand before the trigger, finking the
muzzle a little. 4. Fire: i. e. Puli the trigger brilk-
ly, and immediately after, bringing up the right-foot
to the infide of the left, come to the priming pofi-
tion, with the lock oppofite to the right-bread, the
muzzle to the height of the hat, keeping it firm and
(teady; and at the fame time feize the cock with the
fore-finger and thumb of the right-hand, the back of
the hand being turned up. 5. Half-cock your firelock:
i. e. Half bend the cock brilkly with a draw-back of
the right-elbow, bringing it clofe to the butt of the
fire-lock- 6. Handle your cartridge : i .e. Bring your
right?
. Manual.
MAN [ 4437 ] MAN
right-Jiand with a /hort round to your pouch, {l.)p-
' ping it hard ; feize the cartridge, and bring it with a
quick motion to your mouth ; bite the top well off,
and bring the hand as low as the chin, with the elbow
down. 7. Prime i i. e. Shake the powder into the
pan, placing the three laft fingers behind the rammer,
with the elbow up. 8. Shut your pans: i. e. Shut
your pans brifkly, drawing your right~arm at this
motion towards your body, holding the cartridge faft
in your hand, as before; then turn the piece nimbly
round to the loading pofition, with the lock to the
front, and the muzzle to the height of the chin, bring¬
ing the right hand behind the muzzle, with both feet
kept faft in this motion. 9. Charge 'with cartridge:
i. e. Turn up your hand, and put the cartridge into the
muzzle, fhaking the powder into the barrel ; place
your hand, clofed, with a quick and ftrong motion,
upon the rammer. \o. Draw your rammer: i. e. Draw
the rammer with a quick motion half out, feizing it at
the muzzle back-handed; draw it quite out, turn it,
and enter it into the muzzle, n. Ram down your
charge : i. e. Ram the cartridge well down in the bar¬
rel, inftantly recovering and feizing the rammer back-
lianded at the centre, turning it, and entering it as
far as the lower pipe, placing at the fame time the
edge of the hand on the butt-end of the rammer, with
fingers extended. 12. Return your rammer: i. e. Re¬
turn the rammer, bringing up the piece with the left-
hand to the fhoulder, feizing it with the right-hand
under the cock, keeping the left-hand faft at the fwell,
turning the body fquare to the front. 13. Shoulder
your firelock i. e. Quit the left-hand, and place it
ffrong upon the butt ; quit the right-hand, and throw
it down the right-fide. 14. Rejl your firelock: i. e.
Seize the firelock with the right-hand, turning the
lock outwards ; raife the firelock from the fhoulder,
and place your left-hand with a quick motion above
the lock, holding the piece right up and down in both
hands before you, and your left-hand even with your
eyes ; ftep brifkly back with your right-foot, placing
it a handrs breadth diftance from your left-heel, and
at the fame time bring down your firelock as quick
as p'offible to the reft, finking it as far down before
your left-hand as your right-hand will permit without
eonftraint ; your left-hand being at the feather-fpring,
and your right, with fingers extended, held under the
guard, taking care to draw in the muzzle well towards
your body, and to drefs in a line with the butt-end.
15. Order your firelock: i. e. Place your firelock nimb¬
ly with your left-hand againft your right- fhoulder ;
quit the firelock with the right-hand, finking it at
the fame time-with your left; feize it at the muzzle,
which muft be of an equal height with your chin, and
hold it clofe againft your right-fide; lift up your right-
foot, and place it by your left ; at the fame time throw
back your left-hand by your left-fide, and with your
right bring down the butt-end ftrong upon the ground,
placing it even with the toe of your right-foot ; the
thumb of your right-hand lying along the barrel, and
the muzzle kept at a little diftance from your body.
16. Ground your firelock .- i. e. Half-face to the right
upon your heels, and at the fame time turn the fire-
hick, fo that the lock may point to the rear, and the
flat of the butt-end lie againft the in fide of your foot ;
at the fame time flipping the right-foot behind the
butt of the firelock, the right-toe pointing to the Manual,
right, and the left to the front : ftep direfliy forward
with your left-foot, about as far as the fwell of the
firelock, and lay it upon the ground, your left hand
hanging down by your left-leg, and your right kept
faft, with the butt-end againft it; raife yourfelf up
again nimbly, bringing back your left-foot to its for¬
mer pofition, keeping your body faced to the right ;
face again to the left upon your heels, and come to
your proper front, letting your hands hang down,
without motion. 17. Take up your firelock; i. e. Face
to the right upon both heels ; fink your body down,
and come up to the pofition deferibed in the fecond mo¬
tion of grounding ; raife yourfelf and firelock, bringing
it clofe to your right-fide; come to your proper front,
feizing your firelock at the muzzle, as in explana¬
tion 15. Reft your firelock : i. e. Bring your right-
hand as far as the fwell ; raife the firelock high up in.
a perpendicular line from the ground with your right-
hand, and feize it with your left above the fpring, the
cock being at the height of the waift belt ; ftep back
with your right-foot, placing it behind your left-heel,
and come to the reft. 19. Shoulder your firelock .- i. e.
Lift up your right foot, and place it by your left; bring
the firelock at the fame time-to- your left-fhoulder, and
feize the butt-end with the left-hand, keeping it in the
fame pofition as above deferibed ; throw your right-
hand briikly back. 28. Secure your firelock ; i. e. Bring
the right-hand briikly up, and place it under the Cock,
keeping the firelock fteady in the fame pofition ; quit
the butt with the left-hand, and feize the firelock with
it at the fwell, bringing the elbow clofe down upon
the lock; the right-hand being kept faft in this mo¬
tion, and the piece ftill upright ; quit the right-hand,
and bring it down your right-fide, bringing the fire¬
lock nimbly down to the fecure ; the left-hand in a
line with the waift-belt. 21. Shoulder your firelock :
i. e. Bring the firelock up to a perpendicular line, fti-
zing it with the right hand under the cock ; quit the
left-hand, and place it ftrong upon the butt; quit the
right-hand, and bring it fmartly down the right-fide.
22. Fix your bayonet : i. e. Firft and fecond motions,
as in the two firft of the fecure ; quit the right-hand,,
and bring the firelock fmartly down to the left-fide
with the left-hand, as far as it will admit without con-
ftraint, feizing the bayonet at the fame time with the
right-hand, and fixing it, placing that hand juft be¬
low the brafs, with the piece kept clofe to the hollow
of the-Ihoulder.. 23. Shoulder your firelock : i. e. Quit
the right-hand, and bring up the firelock with the left;
feize it again under the cock with your right, as in the
fecond motion of the fecure ; quit the left hand, and
place it ftrong upon the butt ; quit the right-hand,
and bring it down the right-fide. 24. Prefient your
arms ; i. e. as explained in three motions of the 14th
word of command. 25. To the right face : i. e. Bring
up the firelock with a quick motion high before you,
till your left-hand comes even with your eyes, with
the fingers of that hand extended along the (lock, juft:
above the feather fpring, the right-foot to be brought
clofe up to the left-heel in this motion ; face to the
right, taking care in facing to hold the firelock right
up and down, and fteady in your hands; ftep back
with your right-foot, and come down to your prefent,
as in the foregoing explanation. 26. To the right
MAN [ 4438 1 M A N
Manual, fact', i. e. as in the foregoing explanation, facing to
the right. 27. To the right-about face; i. e. as in the
25th explanation, only coming to the right-about in-
Head of to the right. 28. To the left face: i. e. Bring
the right-foot briikly to the hollow of your left, with
the firelock in the fame pofition as in the firft motion
of facing to the right; face to the left; come down to
the prefent, as before. 29. To the left face; i. e. as
in the foregoing explanation. 30. To the left-about
face', i. e. as before, coming to the left-about inftead
of to the left. 31. Shoulder your firelock; i. e. as in
the two motions of the 19th explanation. 32. Charge
your bayonet; i. e. as in the firft explanation: bring
the fwell of the firelock down ftrong upon the palm
of the hand, grafping the piece at the fmall, behind the
lock, and as high as the waift-belt; the firelock upon
a level with the barrel upwards. 33. Shoulder your
firelock: i. e. Bring up the firelock to the fhoulder,
place the left-hand upon the butt, bringing the feet
fquare to the front ; quit the right-hand, and throw
it down the right fide. 34. Advance your ar^ns; i. e.
firft and fecond motions, as in the firft explanation :
bring the firelock down the right-fide, with the right-
hand as low as it will admit without conftraint, flip¬
ping up the left-hand at the fame time to the fwell,
the guard between the thumb and fore finger of the
right-hand, the three laft fingers under the cock, with
the barrel to the rear; quit the left-hand. 35. Shoul¬
der your firelock ; i. e. bring up the left-hand, and feize
it at the fwell; come fmartiy up to the poife; fhoul-
der. 36. Prime and load: i. e. Come fmartiy to the
recover, by fpringing the firelock ftraight up with the
left-hand, turning the barrel inwards to the proper
height of the recover: at the fame time that the left-hand
fprings the firelock, the right-hand is raifed brifkly
from the right-fide, and feizes the firelock acrofs the
breaft : as it rifes below the cock, the left-hand comes
with a quick motion from the butt, and feizes the
firelock ftrong above the lock, the little finger of the
left-hand at the fpring of the lock, the left-hand at au
equal height with the face, the butt clofe to the bo¬
dy, but not preffed, the firelock perpendicular ®ppo-
lite the left-fide of the face: bring the firelock down
with a brifk motion to the priming pofition, the left-
hand holding the firelock, as in priming; the thumb
of the right-hand placed againft the face of the fteel,
the fingers clinched, and the elbow a little turned out,
that the wrift may be clear of the cock : open the pan,
by throwing up the fteel with a ftrong motion of the
right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the fire¬
lock fteady in the left-hand : handle your cartridge ;
prime ; (hut your pan ; caft-about; load ; draw ram¬
mers ; ram down the cartridge; return the rammers ;
Ihoulder. N. B. The motion of recover, and coming
down to the priming pofition and opening pans, are to
be done in the ufual time. The motions of handling
cartridge to (hutting the pans, are to be done as quick
as poifible : when the pans are (hut, a fmall paufe
is to be made, and then caft about together; then
the loading motions are to be done as quick as
pofiible ; but before the rammer is returned, another
fmall paufe is to be made, counting 1, 2, between each
motion, till the firelock is (houldered.—Front rank,
make ready : i. e. Spring the firelock briikly to the
recover, keeping the left-foot fa ft in this motion ; as
foon as the firelock is at the recover, without any flop, Manual.’
fink the body briikly without Hooping forward, with 3 *
quick motion down upon the right knee ; the butt-
end of the firelock at the fame time falls upon the
ground, the front part of the butt being in a line with
the heel of the left-foot. As foon as the butt comes
to the ground, the firelock is to be cocked, immediate¬
ly feizing the cock and fteel in the right-hand ; the
firelock to be held firm in the left-hand, about the
middle of that part of the firelock between the lock and
the fweli of the ftock; the point of the left-thumb to
be clofe to the fwell, pointing upwards. As the body
is finking, the right-knee is to be thrown as far back
as the left-leg may be right up and down ; the right
foot to be thrown a little to the right; the body to^be
kept ftraight; the head up, looking to the right along
the rank, the fame as if Ihouldered ; the firelock to
be upright, and the butt about four inches to the right
of the infide of the left-foot. Prefent: i. e. Bring the
firelock brilkly down to the prefent, by extending the
left-arm to the full length with a ftrong motion ; at the
fame time fpring up the butt by the cock with the
right-hand, and raife up the butt fo high upon the
right-Ihoulder, that you may not be obliged to ftoop
too much with the head ; the right-cheek to be clofe
to the butt, and the left-eye (hut, and look along the
barrel with the right-eye from the breech-pin to the
muzzle; keep the left-elbow down in an eafy pofition,
and ftandas fteady as poflible; the thumb of the right-
hand to remain in the pofition as deferibed in the third
explanation of the manual. Fire : i. e. Pull the trig¬
ger as dire&ed in the manual; and as foon as the piece
is fired, give yourfelf a ftrong fpring upon your left-
leg, railing your body brilkly, and ftraight up, keep¬
ing your left foot faft, and bringing the'"right-heel to
the infide of the left ; at the fame time the firelock is
to be brought up to the priming-pofition, and half-
cocked immediately: a Ihort paufe is to be made; then
handle cartridge, and go on with the loading motions
deferibed in the explanation of prime and load. —Centre
rank, make ready : i. e. Spring the firelock brillcly to
the recover ; fo foon as the left-hand feizes the firelock
above the lock, the right-elbow is to be nimbly raifed
a little, placing the thumb of that hand upon the cock;
the fingers open by the plate of the lock, and as quick
as poflible force the piece to the cock, by dropping the
elbow, and forcing down the cock with the thumb,
ftepping at the fame time a moderate pace to the right,
keeping the left foot faft; as the firelock is cocked, the
thumb is to fall below the cock, the right-hand feizing
the firelock clofe under the cock, firmly, the fore¬
finger not to be before the trigger; the piece to be
held in this pofition perpendicular, oppofite the left-
fide of the face, the butt clofe to the left-breaft, but
not prefled ; the body to be ftraight, and as full to the
front as poflible; the head kept up, looking to the
right of the rank, that the body and the firelock may
not ftoop forward, nor lean much out of the rank.
Prefent: i. e. Spring the firelock from the body to the
arm’s length with a quick motion, prefling down the
muzzle with the left-hand, and fpring up the butt with
the right-hand, as in the foregoing explanation of the
front-rank. Fire. As in explanation 4, in the manual,
with this difference, that the left-foot is to be brought
up to the right, at the fame time that the firelock is
brought
MAN [ 4439 ] MAR
Manufac- brought down to the priming pofition. The loading
tuie motions as in the explanations of priming and loading;
JVUnutius. an<^ at ^a^ fhouldering, to fpring to the
—  left again, and cover the file-leaders.—Rear rank, make
ready ; i. e. Recover the firelock, and cock as before di-
rcfled for the centre rank; as the firelock is recovered
and cocked, ftep brilkly ftraight to the right, with the
right-foot, a full pace; bring the left-heel about fix
inches before the right-foot ; the body ftraight, and
as fquare to the front as pofiible, as in the explanation
of the centre rank. Prefent: As in explanation prefentt
before. Fire: As in explanation of tht centre rank;
and as the firelock is coming down to the priming po¬
fition, the left is to be brought back to the right; end
at the laft motion of ftiouldering, to fpring to the left
again, and cover the file-leader.
There are feme peculiar words of command at the
manual exercife of the grenadiers, when apart from
the battalion ; and alfo for the cavalry and artillery.
MANUFACTURE, a commodity produced by
the work of the hand, as cloth, &c.
MANUFACTURER, one who works up a natu¬
ral product into an artificial commodity.
MANURE, any thing ufed for fattening and
improving land. See Agriculture, Sedt. I. II.
and III.
MANUSCRIPT, in matters of literature, denotes
a written book, in contradiftindtion to a printed book.
See Book.
MANUTIUS (Aldus), the firft of thofe cele¬
brated Venetian printers, who were as illuftrious for
their learning, as for uncommon Ikill in their profef-
fion. He was born at Baflano in Italy, about the
middle of the 15th century; and hence is fometimes
called BaJJianut, though generally better known by
the name of Aldus. He was the firft who printed
Greek neatly and corredtly ; and acquired fo much
-reputation by it, that whatever was finely printed, was
proverbially faid to have “ come from the prefs of
Aldus.” We have a kind of Greek grammar of his,
with notes upon Homer, Horace, &c.
Manutius (Paulus), fon of the former, was born
at Venice in 1512. He was more learned than his
father; and he acquired, by continual reading of Tully,
fuch a purity in writing Latin, that even Scaliger al¬
lows, a Roman could not exceed. Pope Pius IV. pla¬
ced him at the head of the apoftolical prefs, and gave
him the charge of the Vatican library. His Epiftles
are infinitely laboured, and very correft ; but, as may
be faid of mod of the Ciceronians, they contain fcarce-
ly any thing but mere words. This conftant reading
of Tully, however, together with his profound know¬
ledge of antiquity, qualified him extremely well for an
editor of Tully; whofe works he accordingly publish¬
ed, with Commentaries on them, in 4 vols folio, at
Venice in 1523. He died in 1574.
Manutius (Aldus), the Younger, the fon of Pau¬
lus, and the grandfon of Aldus Manutius, was efteem-
ed one of the greatett geniufes and moll learned men
of his time. Clement VIII. gave him the direction of
the Vatican printing-houfe; but probably the profits
of that place were very final], fince Manutius was obli¬
ged, for his fubfiftence, to accept of a profeflbr of rhe¬
toric’s chair, and to fell the excellent library that was
in his family, which his father, his uncle, and his great-
Vol. VI. 2
uncle, had colle&ed with extraordinary care, and Mao*
which it is faid contained 80,000 volumes. He died at H
Rome in 1597, without any other recompenfe than the Maragnan*
praifes due to his merit. He wrote, 1. Commentaries
on Cicero. 2. A treatife on orthography. 3. Three
books of epiftles ; and other works in Latin and Ita¬
lian, which are efteemed.
MAON, (anc. geog.), a town of the tribe of Judah,
to the fouth-eaft, towards the Dead Sea. It gave
name to the ’wildernefs of Maon, 1 Sam. xxii.
MAP, a plain figure, reprefenting the furfaceof the
earth, or a part thereof, according the laws of perfpec-
tive. See Geography, n° 13—23.
MAPLE. See Acer.
MAPLETOFT (Dr John), defeended from a good
family in Huntingdonlhire, was born in 1631. He
was educated in Trinity-college, Cambridge, and qua¬
lified himfelf for the profeflion of phyfic; and in 1675
was chofen profeflbr of that art at Greftiam college.
He tranflated Dr Sydenham’s Obfervationes Medic*
circa morborum acutorum hijloriam et curationem into
the Latin, and Sydenham dedicated them to Maple-
toft. He married in 1679, and foon after transferred
his ftudies from phyfic to divinity; took orders ; ob¬
tained the vicarage of St Lawrence Jewry, with the
lefturelhip of St Chriftopher’s in London ; and ha¬
ving been a benefadtor to Sion college, was, in 1707,
ele&ed prefident. He continued to preach in his
church of St Lawrence Jewry till he was above 80 years
of age; and in his decline printed a book intitled The
principles and duties of the Chrifian religion, 8cc. 8vo.
1710. a copy of which he fent to every houfe in his
parifti. He was a polite fcholar; and befide fome other
pieces on moral and theological fubje&s, there are in
the Appendix to Ward’s Lives of the profefibrs of
Grefham-college, three Latin le&ures read there by
him, on the origin of the art of Medicine, and the hi-
ftory of its invention.
MAPPARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the officer
who gave the fignal to the gladiators to begin fight¬
ing; which he did by throwing an handkerchief that
he had received from the emperor or other magi-
ftrate.
MARACANDA (anc. geog), capital of the Sog-
diana. Now thought to be Samarcand, a city of
Ufbec Tartary in Afia, the country and royal refi-
dence of Tamerlane. See Samarcand.
MARACAYBO, a rich and confiderable town of
South America, and capital of the province of Vene¬
zuela, feated near a lake of the fame name. It carries
on a great trade in fkins and chocolate, which is the
beft in America ; and they have likewife very fine to¬
bacco. It was taken by the French bucaneers in 1666
and 1678. W. Long. 70. 45. N. Lat. 10. o.
Maracaybo, a lake in South America, 200 mile*
long aird 100 broad, which difcharges-iifelf by a river
into the North Sea. It is well defended by ftrong
forts; which, however, did not hinder Sir Henry Mor¬
gan, a bucaneer, from entering it, and plundering fe-
veral Spaniih towns on the coaft, after defeating a fqua-
dron fent out againft him.
MARAGNAN, a province of Brazil in South A-
merica, which comprehends a fertile populous ifland,
112 miles in circumference. The French fettled here
in 1612, and built a town; but they were foon driven
25 E from
MAR [44
Manldi from thence by the Portuguere, who have pofiefled it
l! ever finee. The town is little, but ftrong; and has a
arano. ca^[e> a harbour, and a bilhop’s fee. The climate is
very agreeable and wholefome, and the foil produces
plenty of all the neceffuries of life. W. Long. 54. 35.
S. Lat. 2. o.
MARALDI (James Philip), a learned mathema¬
tician and altronomer, of the academy of fciences at
Paris, was born in 1665. He was the fon of Francis
Maraldi and Angela Catharine Cafmi, the fifter of the
famous aftronomer of that name. His uncle made him
go to France in 1687, where he acquired great repu¬
tation on account of his learning and obfervations. He
made a catalogue of the fixed ftars, which is more par¬
ticular and exaft than Bayer’s; and has given a great
number of curious and interefting obfervations in the
memoirs of the academy; in particular, thofe on bees
and petrifaclions have been univerfally applauded.
He died in 1729.
MARANA (John Paul), an ingenious writer of the
17th century, was of a diitinguifhed family, and born
at Genoa; where he received an education fuitable to
his birth, and made a great progrefs in the ftudy of
polite literature and the fciences. HavingTeen enga¬
ged in the confpiracy of Raphael della Terra, to deli¬
ver up Genoa to the duke of Savoy, he was in 1670,
when 28 years of age, imprifoned in the tower of that
city, and remained there four years. Being at length
fet at liberty, he was ordered to write the hiftory of
that confpiracy; but, when finifhed,it was feized, and
prevented from being publifhed. When the republic
of Genoa was at variance with the court of France,
Marana, who had always an inclination for that court,
was afraid of being imprifoned a fecond time; and re¬
tired to Monaco, where he again wrote the hiftory of
the confpiracy in Italian; and, in 1 682, went to Lyons
to get it printed. From Lyons he went to Paris,
where his merit foon acquired him powerful protec¬
tors. He fpent the reft of his life in a happy and tran¬
quil mediocrity, devoted to ftudy and the fociety of
men of learning ; and died in 1693. His hiftory of the
confpiracy contains many curious and interefting anec¬
dotes, which are nowhere elfe to be found. He alfo
wrote feveral other works ; the moft known of which
is the Turkilh Spy, in 6 vols i2mo, which was in
1742 augmented to feven. Of this ingenious work
we have an excellent Englifh tranflation.
MARANO, a town of Italy, in the territory of
Venice and province of Friuli, with a ftrong citadel;
feated in a marfh at the bottom of the G5lph of Ve¬
nice, which renders it difficult of accefs.
MARANS, a rich town of France, in the territory
of Aunis and diocefe of Rochelle, feated among fait
marfhes, near the river Sevre, three miles from the fea.
It carries on a very great trade in corn ; and is feated
in W. Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 46. 20.
MARANTA, Indian Arrow-root; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs
of plants. There are two fpecies, the arundinacea
and galanea, both of them herbaceous perennial exotics
of the Indies, kept here in hot-houfes for curiofity :
they have thick, knotty, creeping roots, crowned with
long, broad, arundinaceous leaves, ending in points,
and upright ftalks, half a yard high, terminated by
bunches of monopetalous, ringent, 'five-parted flowers.
140 ] MAR
They are propagated by parting the roots in fpring, Marafmufc j
and planting them in pots of light rich earth, and then !l I
plunging them in the bark-bed. The root of the ga- Mara»dmgJ
langa is ufed by the Indians to extraft the •virus com¬
municated by their poifoned arrows ; from whence it
has derived its name of arrow root.
MARASMUS, among phyiicians, denotes an atro¬
phy or confumption in its laft and moft deplorable ftage.
MARATHON, (anc. geog.), one of the demi or
hamlets of Attica ; about 10 miles to the nortb-eaft of
Athens, towards Bceotia, near the fea; famous for the
vidtorypf the Athenians over the Perfians under Mil-
tiades; and for the Marathonian bull flain by Thefeus,
(Plutarch, Ovid). Near Marathon is a bog, into which
the Perfians plunging in their flight ftuck faft, and
were (lain by the conquerors.
MARATTI (Carlo), a celebrated, painter, was
born' at Camorano, near Ancona, in 1625. He
came a poor boy to Rome, when only 11 years old;,
and at 12 recommended himfelf fo tffedliraily to An¬
drea Sacchi, by his drawings after Raphael in the Va¬
tican, that he took him into his fchool, where he con¬
tinued 25 years till his mafter’s death. His graceful
and beautiful ideas occafioned his being generally em¬
ployed in painting madonas and female faints. No
man ever performed in a better ftyle, or with a greater
elegance. From the fineft ftatues and pi&ures, he
made himfelf mafter of the moft perfetft forms, and the
moft charming airs of heads, which he Iketched with
equal eafe and grace. He has produced a noble va¬
riety of draperies, more artfully managed, more richlye
ornamented, and with greater propriety than even the
beft of the moderns. He was inimitable in adorning
the head, in the difpofal of the hair, and the elegance
of his hands and feet, which are equal to thofe of Ra¬
phael; and he particularly excelled in gracefulnefs. In
his younger days he etched a few prints, as well of his
own invention as after others, with equal fpirit and
correiflnefs. It would be endlefs to recount the cele¬
brated paintings done by this great man. Yet he exe¬
cuted nothing flightly, often changed hi&idefign, anfl,
almoft always for the better, whence his pi&ures were
long in hand. By the example of his matter, he made
feveral admirable portraits of popes, cardinals, and
other people of diftindfon; from whom he received the
higheft tellimonies of elteem, as he likewife'did from
almoft all the monarchs and princes of Europe. Inno¬
cent XI. appointed him keeper of the paintings in his
chapel and the Vatican. Maratti ereded two noble
monuments for Raphael and Hannibal, at his own exr-
pence, in the Pantheon. How well he maintained the
dignity of his profeffion, appears by his-anfwer. to a
Roman prince, who complaining of tire exeeffiye price
of his pidures, he told him there was a vaft debt due
from the world to the famous artifts his predeceflbrs,
and that he, as their rightful fticctfFor, was come to
claim thofe arrears. His abilities in painting were ac¬
companied with many virtues, and particularly with an
extenfive charity. This great painter died at Rome in
1713, in the 88tb year of his age.
MARAUDING, in a military fenfe, means a party
of foidiers, who, without any order, go into the neigh¬
bouring houfes and villages, when the army is either
in camp or garrifon, to plunder and deftroy, &c. Ma¬
rauders are a flifgrace to the camp, to the military pro-
Lffion,
MAR [ 4441 ] MAR
Wsrbte. fefiion, arul deterve no better quarter from their officers
' than they wive to poor peafants, &c.
MARBLE, in natural hiftory, a germs of foffils;
being bright and beautiful ttones compofed of fmall
feparate concretions, moderately hard, not giving fire
■with fteel, fermenting with and foluble in acid menitrua,
and calcining in a flight fire.—The word comes from
the French rnarbre, and that from the Latin mannor,
•of the Greek to “ fliine or glitter.”
The colours of marbles being a very obvious and
flriking character, they are arranged according to them
in the following divilions. 1. Of the white plain
marbles there are two forts; the Parian marble of the
ancients, and ftatuary marble of the moderns, an ex¬
tremely bright and elegant marble ; and the Carara
marble, a very fine marble, more compadt and clofe
than the former, but lefs bright. 2. Of the plain yel-
lowifh marbles there is only one fort, which is a'hard,
pale yellow', and glofly marble, found in many parts of
Italy. 3. Of the bluilh and black marbles there are a
great many fpecies, as the China marble, bafaltes, &c.
4. Of the plain green marbles there is only one kind,
the Lacedaemonian marble of the ancients. 5. The
pale coloured or whitilh brown, commonly called Dar¬
by marble. 6. The green marbles with fliells. 7. The
black caralloide marble, with and without fliells.
8. Of the white variegated marbles there are a great
many fpecies, variegated with purple, brown, red, blue,
&c. 9. Of the brown variegated marbles there are
likewife feveral forts, fome with red veins, others with
white, black, or brown veins. 10. Of the yellow-
veined and variegated marbles, fome are veined with
purple, and others with blue. 11. Of the black va¬
riegated marbles, fome are veined with white, and
others with blue, yellow, red, &c. 12. The green
variegated marbles are likewife diftinguifhed by the co¬
lour of their veins. 13. The gray fpotted marbles are
variegated, fome with black, and others with green
fpots. 14. The red variegated marble is the broca-
tello of the Italians, with white and gold veins.
Marble, w'hen chemically examined, appears toconfift
of calcareous earth united with much lixed air ; and is,
like limeftone or chalk, capable of being converted in¬
to a ftrong quicklime.—Dr Black derives the origin
of marbles, as well as limeftone and marie, from the
fame fource, viz. from the calcareous matter of (hells
and lithophyta. In one kind of limeftone known by
the name of PortlandJlor.e, and confifting of round
grains united together, it was fnppofed to be com¬
pofed of the fpawn of fifh; but comparifons of other
phenomena have explained it. It is plain that it has
been produced from a calcareous fand, which is found on
the (hore of fome of the iflands in the fouthern climates.
By the conftant agitation the fofter parts are wore off,
and the harder parts remain in the form of particles
that are highly pulifhed, and which are afterwards
gradually made to concrete togetlier by caufes of which
we have yet no knowledge.—There are indeed fome
few of the limeftones and marbles in which we cannot
difeover any of the relics of the (hells; but there are
many figns of their having been in a diffoived or liqui¬
fied (late ; fo we cannot expe£l to fee the remains of
the form of the fhtJis : but even in many of the marbles
that have the greateft appearance of a complete mix¬
ture, we Hill find often the confufed remains of the
(hells of which they have been originally compofed.
We (hould (fill find it difficult to conceive how fuch ' '
maffes (hould have derived their origin from (hells ;
but, confidering the many colle&ions that we have an
opportunity of feeing in their fteps towards this pro-
cefs, and a little concreted together, fo that by their
going a ftep further they might form limeftone and
marbles, we (hall foon fee the poffibility of their be¬
ing all produced in the fame manner. Thus vaft quan¬
tities of (hells have been found in the province of Tu¬
rin In France; and indeed there is no place where they
have not been found. The lithophyta likewife feeni
to be a very fruitful fource of this kind of earth. In
the cold climates, where the moderate degree of heat
is not fo produftive of animal-life, we have not fuch an
opportunity of obferving this: but in the hot climates,
the fea, as well as the fand, fwarms with innumerable
animals; and, at the bottom, with thofe that produce
the corals and madri£>ores. We learn from the hiftory
of a (hip that was funk in a ftorm in the Gulf of
Mexico, the vaft growth there is of thefe bodies. A-
bout 30 years after, they attempted to dive into it to
get out a quantity of filver; but they found great dif¬
ficulty in getting it, from the (hip being overgrown
with coral. Sir Hans Sloan, in the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions, and in his hiftory of Jamaica, obferves, that
the (hip’s timber, the iron, and money, were all con¬
creted by the growth of the calcareous matter. So in
a tradl of many thoufands of years the quantity of it
Ihould be very great; and as this is going on through
a very great extent of the bottom of the fea, it will
produce very extenfive as well as maffy colledtions of
calcareous matter.
Colouring Marble. This is a nice art; and, in or¬
der to fucceed in it, the pieces of marble on which the
experiments are tried, muft be well poliftied, and free
from the lead; fpot or vein. The harder the marble
is, the better will it bear the heat neceffary in the ope¬
ration ; therefore alabafter and the common foft white
marble are very improper for performing thefe opera¬
tions upon.
Heat is always neceffary for opening the pores of
marble, fo as to render it fit to receive the colours:
but the maible muft never be made red-hot; for then
the texture of it is injured, and the colours are burnt,
and lofe their beauty. Too fmall a degree of heat is
as bad as one too great; for, in this cafe, though the
marble receives the colour, it will not be fixed in it,
nor ftrike deep enough. Some colours will ftrike even
cold ; but they are never fo well funk in as when a
juft degree of heat is ufed. The proper degree is that
which, without making the marble red, will make the
liquor boil upon its furface. The menftruums ufed to
ftrike in the colours muft be varied according to the
nature of the colour to be ufed. A lixivium made
with horfe’s or dog’s urine, with four parts of quick¬
lime, and one of pot-a(hes, is excellent for fome co¬
lours; common ley of wood-a(hes is very good for
others; for fome, fpirit of wine is bed; and laftly, for
others, oily liquors, or common white-wine.
The colours which have been found to fucceed beft
with the peculiar menftruums, are thefe. Stone-blue
diffoived in fix times the quantity of fpirit of wine, or
of the urinous lixivium, and that colour which the
painters call litmm, diffoived in common ley of wood-
25 E 2 afhes.
MAR [ 4442 ] MAR
Marble, afhes. An extraft of faffron, and that colour made of
backthorn berries, and called by painters fap green,
both fucceed well when difiblved in urine and quick¬
lime ; and tolerably well when diffolved in fpirit of
wine. Vermilion, and a very fine powder of cochi¬
neal, alfo fucceed very well in the fame liquors. Dra¬
gon’s-blood fucceeds in fpirit of wine, as does alfo a
tindlure of logwood in the fame fpirit. Alkanet-root
gives a fine colour : but the only menltruum to be ufed
for it is oil of turpentine; for neither fpirit of wine,
nor any lixivium, will do with it. There is another
kind of fanguis draconis, commonly called dragon’s-
blood in tears, which, mixed with urine, gives a very
elegant colour.
Befides thefe mixtures of colours and menftruums,
there are other colours which mult be laid on dry and
unmixed. Thefe are, Dragons-blood of the pureft kind,
for a red ; gamboge, for a yellow; green wax, for a
green ; common brimftoney- pitch, and turpentine, for
a brown colour. The marble for thefe experiments
muft be made confiderably hot, and then the colours
are to be rubbed on dry in the lump. Some of thefe
colours, when once given, remain immutable, others
are eafily changed or deftroyed. Thus, the red colour
given by dragon’s-blood, or by a decoftion of log¬
wood, will be wholly taken away by oil of tartar, and
the polilh of the marble not hurt by it.
A fine gold colour is given in the following man¬
ner: Take crude fal ammoniac, vitriol, and verdigrife,
of each equal quantities. White vitriol fucceeds bell;
and all muft be thoroughly mixed in fine powder.
The ftaining of marble to all the degrees of red or
yellow, by folutions of dragon’s-blood or gamboge,
may be done by reducing thefe gums to powder, and
grinding them with the fpirit of wine in a glafs
mortar. But, for fmaller attempts, no method is fo
good as the mixing a little of either of thofe powders
with fpirit of wine in a filver fpoon, and holding it
over burning charcoal. By this means a fine tindture
will be extradled: and, with a pencil dipt in this, the
fined traces may be made on the marble while cold;
which, on the heating of it afterwards, either on fand,
or in a baker’s oven, will all fink very deep, and re¬
main perfe&ly diftinft on the ftone. It is very eafy
to make the ground-colour of the marble red or yel¬
low by this means, and leave white veins in it. This
is to be done by covering the places where the white-
nefs is to remain with fome white paint, or even with
two or three doubles only of paper ; either of which
will prevent the colour from penetrating. All the de¬
grees of red are to be given to marble by this gum
alone ; a flight tinfture of it, without the adiftance of
heat to the marble, gives only a pale flefh-colour: but
the ftronger timftures give it yet deeper ; to this the
afiiftance of heat adds greatly; and finally, the addi¬
tion of a little pitch to the tindlure, gives it a tenden¬
cy to blacknefs, or any degree of deep red that may
be defired.
A blue colour may be given alfo to marble by dif-
folving turnfole in lixivium, in lime and urine, or in
the volatile fpii it of urine; but this has alway a ten¬
dency to purple, whether made by the one or the
other of thefe ways. A better blue, and ufed in an
eafier manner, is furnifhed by the Canary turnfol,
a fubftance well known among the dyers. This needs
only to be diflblved in water, and drawn on the place Mathfe,
with a pencil: it penetrates very deeply into the Marblif|g;
marble; and the colour may be increafed, by drawing
the pencil wetted afrefh feveral times over the fame
lines. This colour is fubjeft to fpread and diffufe it-
felf irregularly : but it may be kept in regular bounds,
by qircumfcribing its lines with beds of wax, or any
fuch fubftance. It is alfo to be obferved, that this
colour fhould always be laid on cold, and no heat
given even afterwards to the marble : and one great
advantage of this colour is, that it is therefore eafily
added to marbles already ftained with other colours,
is a very beautiful tinge, and lafts a long time.—
For other methods of ftaining marble, fee Chemis¬
try, n° 197.
Arundel Marbles, ancient marbles with a chro¬
nicle of the city of Athens inferibed on them many
years before our Saviour’s birth ; prefented to the uni-
verfity of Oxford by Thomas earl of Arundel, whence
the name.
MARBLING, the method of preparing and co¬
louring the marbled paper.
There are feveral kinds of marbled paper; but the
principal difference of them lies in the forms in which
the colours are laid on the ground: fome being dif-
pofed in whirls or circumvolutions; fomc in jagged
lengths; and others only in fpots of a roundilh or
oval figure. The general manner of managing each
kind is, neverthelefs, the fame; being the dipping
the paper in a folution of gum-tragacanth, or, as it
is commonly called, gum-dragon ; over which the co¬
lours, previoufly prepared with ox-gall and fpirit of
wine, are firft fpread.
The peculiar apparatus neceffary for this purpofe,
is a trough for containing the gum-tragacanth and
the colours ; a comb for difpofing them in the figure
ufually chofen; and a burnifhing ftone for polilhing
the paper. The trough may be of any kind of wood;
and muft be fomewhat larger than the (beets of paper,
for marbling which it is to be employed: but the
(ides of it need only rife about two inches above the
bottom; for by making it thus (hallow, the lefs
quantity of the folution of the gum will ferve to fill it.
The comb may be alfo of wood, and five inches in
length ; but (hould have brafs teeth, which may be
about two inches long, and placed at about a quarter
of an inch diftance from each other. The burnilhing
ftone may be of jafper, or agate ; but as thofe ftones
are very dear when of fufficient larg.enefs, marble or
glafs may be ufed, provided their furface be polifhed
to a great degree of fmoothnefs.
Thefe implements being prepared, the folution of
gum-tragacanth muft be made, by putting a fufficient
proportion of the gum, which fhould be white and
clear from all foulneffes, into clean water; and letting
it remain there a day or two, frequently breaking the
lumps and ftirring it, till the whole (hall appear dif¬
folved, and equally mixed with the water. The con¬
fidence of the folution fhould be nearly that of ftrong
gum-water, ufed in miniature-painting; and if it ap¬
pear thicker, water muft be added; or if thinner,
more of the gum. When the folution is thus brought
to a due date, it muft be paffed through a linen cloth ;
and being then put into the trough, it will be ready
to receive the colours.
The
MAR
MAR [ 4443 1
Mai-bllng. The colours employed for red are carmine, lake,
rofe-pink, and vermilion ; but the two laft are too
hard and glaring, unlefs they be mixed with rofe-
pink, or lake, to bring them to a fofter caft; and
with refpeft to the carmine and lake, they are too
dear for common purpofes :—for yellow, Dutch pink
and yellow oker may be employed :—for blue, Pruf-
fian blue and verditer may be ufed :—for green, vcr-
digrife, a mixture of Dutch pink and Pruffian blue,
or verditer, in different proportions:—for orange,
the orange-lake, or a mixture of vermilion, or red
lead, with Dutch pink:—for purple, rofe-pink and
Prufiian blue.
Thefe feveral colours fhould be ground with fpirit
of wine till they be of a proper finenefs ; and then, at
the time of ufing them, a little fifh-gall, or in de¬
fault of it the gall of a beaft, fhould be added, by
grinding them over again with it. The proper pro¬
portion of the gall mult be found by trying them ;
for there muft be juft fo much as will fufftr the fpots
of colour, when fprinkled on the folution of the gum-
tragacanth, to join together, without intermixing or
running into each other.
When every thing is thus prepared, the folution of
the gum-tragacanth muft be poured into the trough ;
and the colours, being in a feparate pot, with a pen¬
cil appropriated to each, muft be fprinkled on the fur-
face of the folution, by ihaking the pencil, charged
with its proper colour, over it; and this rauft be done
with the feveral kinds of colour defired, till the furfacc
be wholly covered.
When the marbling is propofed to be in fpots of a
fimple form, nothing more is neceffary : but where
the whirls or fnail-ihell figures are wanted, they muft
be made by means of a quill; which muft be put
among the fpots to turn them about, till the effedt be
produced. The jagged lengths- muft be made by
means of the comb above defcribed, which muft be
pa{Ted through the colours from one end of the trough
to the other, and will give them that appearance : but
if they defired to be pointed both ways, the comb muft
be again paffed through the trough in a contrary di¬
rection ; or if fome of the whirles or fnail-iheli figures
be required to be added, they may be yet made by
the means before direfted.
The paper ftiould be previoufly perpared for re¬
ceiving the colours, by dipping it over-night in water;
and laying the iheets on each other with a weight
over them. The whole being thus ready, the paper
muft be held by two corners, and laid in the moft
gentle and even manner on the folution covered with
the colours; and there foftly prefled with the hand,
that it may bear every- where on the folution. After
which it muft be railed and taken off with the fame
care, and then hung to dry acrofs a proper cord,
fubtended sear at hand for that purpofe : and in that
ftate it muft continue, till it be perfe&ly dry. It
then remains only to give the paper a proper poliih :
in order to which, it’is firft rubbed with a little foap ;
and then muft be thoroughly fmoothed by the glafs
polilhers, fuch as are ufed for linen, and called xhe.caleri-
der glajfes. After which it fhould be again rubbed by
a but niftier ofjafper, or agate ; or, in default of them,
of glafs ground to the higheft polifti: for on the per¬
fect polifh of the paper depends in a great meafure its
beauty and value. Marca
Gold or filver powders may be ufed, where defired, II
along with the colours ; and require only the fame arcel ll*‘
treatment as them, except that they muft be firft tem¬
pered with gum-water.
Marbling of books or paper is performed thus:
Diffolve four ounces of gum-arabic into two quarts of
fair water; then provide feveral colours mixed with
water in pots or (hells ; and, wdth pencils peculiar to
each colour, fprinkle them by way of intermixture
upon the gum-water, which muft be put into a
trough or fome broad-veffel; then with a ftick curl
them, or draw them out in ftreaks, to as much variety
as may be done. Having done this, hold your book
or books clofe together, and only dip the edges in, on
the top of the water and colours, very lightly ; which
done, take them off, and the plain impreflion of the
colours in mixture will be upon the leaves; doing as
well the ends as the front of the book in the like
manner.
Marbling a book on the covers is performed by
forming clouds with aqua fortis or fpirit of vitriol
mixed with ink, and afterwards glazing the covers.
See the article Book-binding.
MARCA (Peter de), one of the greateft orna¬
ments of the Gallican church, was born in Bearn, of
an ancient family, in 1594. He firft ftudied the law,
was made prefident of the parliament of Bearn, and,
going to Paris in 1639, was ma<3e a counfellor of
ftate: the good opinion entertained of his knowledge
was confirmed by his Hijlory of Bearn. By the king’s
order he publiftied a work, De concordia facerdotii et
imperii, five de libertatibus ecclefise Gallica;, in refuta¬
tion of a book that appeared under the title of Optatur
Gallus; and on this account, when on the death of
his wife he was nominated biftiop of Conferans, the
court of Rome refufed the bulls in his favour, until
by another book he explained away all he had faid on
behalf of the ftate, to the limitation of the papal
power. He obtained his confirmation, after feven
years fufpenfe, in 1648 ; was tranflated to the arch-
bifhopric of Touloufe in 1652; and was made mini-
fter of ftate in 1658. He died at Paris in 1662, a
ftiort time after he had received the bulls as the arch-
biftiop of that metropolis. After his death appeared his
Pojihumous works, with prefaces, notes, &c. by M.
Baluze. In all he wrote, he (hewed great abilites
and learning, but is reproached for accommodating
them to his views ofintereft and ambition.
MARCASITE, in mineralogy. This name has
long been given indifferently to all forts of minerals;
to ores, pyrites, and to femimetals. Lately, it feems
to be confined to pyrites, and Wallerius propofes to
confine it to fuch pyrites as are regularly formed.
This feems to be better than to leave it a vague and
indeterminate fignification, on account of the ambi¬
guity and obfcurity which might thereby be introduced.
See Pyrites.
MARCELLINUS (Ammianus.) See Ammianijs.
MARCELLUS (Marcus Claudius), a Roman com¬
mander, famous for his valour, was five times conful.
He was called The fword of the Romans, artd killed
king Britomarus with his own hand. He fubdued
the Infubrians, and took Milan their capital ; as alfo
Syracufe, where he endeavoured to pieferve Archi¬
medes,
MAR [ 4444 ] MAR
Marcorave medes. He fought two days with Hannibal with'
M H ! equal fuccefs; but was killed on the third, and his
atc ‘ '' corpfe treated with all imaginable refpefl by the con¬
queror, See Carthage, Rome, and Sicily.
MA.RCGRAVE, or Margrave, a kind of dig¬
nity in Germany, anfwering to our marquis. See
Marquis, The word is derived from the German
Marche, or Marche, which fignrfies a frontier; and
Graffe, count, governor; Marcgraves being origi¬
nally governors of cities lying on the, frontiers of a
country or Hate.
MARCH, Martius, the third month of the
year, according to the common way of computing.
See Month, and Year.
Among the Romans, March was the firfl: month :
and in fome eccletiailicah computations; that : order ia
Hill preferred; as particularly reckoning the number
of years from the incarnation of our Saviour; that is,
from the 25th of March.
Till the year 1564, the French reckoned the be¬
ginning of their year from Eafter: fo that there were
two months of March in one year, one of which they
called March before Eafter, and the other March after
Eafter. When Eaiter fell within the month of March,
the beginning of the month was in one year, and the
end in another.
It was Romulus who divided the year into months;
to the firft of which he gave the native of his fuppofed
father Mars. Ovid, however, ohferves,1 that the
people of Italy had the month of Mdrch before Ro¬
mulus’s time; but that they placed it very differently,
fome making it the third, fome the fourth, fome the
fifth, and others the tenth month of the year.
In this month it was that the Romans facrdiced- to
Anna Perenna; that they begun their comitia; that
they adjudged their public farms and leafes; that the
miftreffes ferved the flaves and fervants at table, as the
mailers did in the Saturnalia; and that the veftals re¬
newed the, facred fire.
The month of March was always under the protec¬
tion of Minerva; and always cqnlilted of 31 days.—
The ancients held it an unhappy month for marriage,
as well as the month of May.
March, in the military art, is the moving of a
body of men from one place to another. Care muft
be taken, in marching of troops, that they are not
liable to be flanked or intercepted ; for of all opera¬
tions none is more difficult, becaufet they muft not
only be direifted in the objects they have in view,
but according to the movements the enemy may have
made.
Of all the mechanical parts of war, none' is more
effential than that of marching. It may he juftly
called the key which leads to all fublime motions and
manoeuvres of an army ; for they depend entirely on
this point. A man can be attacked in four different
ways; in the frpat, on both flanks, and in the rear:
but he can defend himfelf, and annoy the enemy,
only when plated with his face towards him. Hence
it follows, >lhat( the general object of inarching is
reduced to'three points only; to march fofwardsyand
on bothefides, becaufe it is impoflible to do it for any
% time backwards, and' by'that rrflarts face'1 the Cnenvy'
wherever he prefents himfelf. ' The* different fteps to
be made uit of are three; flow, fall, afnd oblique.
The firft is proper in advancing, wh.:n at a confder- Mardv,1
able dirtance from the enemy, and when the giound 1—1
is unequal, that the line may not be broke, and a re¬
gular fire kept up without intermiffion. The fecond
is chiefly neceffary, when you want to anticipate,the
enemy in occupying fome poll, in pa fling a defile, and,
above all, in attacking an intrenchment, to avoid be*
i-ng a long while espofed to the fire of the artillery
and fmall arms, &c. The third ftepis of infinite con-
fequence, both in the infantry and cavalry: columns
may be opened and formed into lines, and, vice verfa,
lines into columns, by this kind of Hep, in a leffer
fpace, and confequently in Id’s time, than by any
other method whatfoever. In coming out of a defile,
you may inftantly form the line without prefenting the
flank to the enemy. The line may be formed, though
ever fo near to the enemy, with fafety, becaufe you
face him, and can with cafe and fafety protedt and
cover the motion of the troops, while they are coming
out of the defiles, and forming. The fame thing
may be equally executed, when a column is to be
formed in order to advance or retreat ; rvhtch is a
point of infinite confequence, and fhould be dtablifhed
as an axiom.
The order of march of the troops muft be fo dif-
poied, that each fhould arrive at their rendezvous, if
poffible; on the fame day. The quarter-mafter-general,
or his deputy, with an able engineer, (hould fuffi-
ciently reconnoitre the country, to obtain a perftdf
knowledge of it and the enemy, before he forms his
routes.
Before a march, the army generally receives feveral
days bread. The quarter-mailers, camp colour-men,
and pioneers, parade according to orders, and, march
immediately: after, commanded by the quarterimafler-
general, or* his deputy. They are to clear the roads,
level the ways, make preparations for the inarch of
the army, &c. The general, for inflance, beats at 2,
the affentbly at 3, and the army to march in 20 minutes
after. Upon beating the general, the village, and ge¬
neral officer’s guards, quarter and rear-guards, join
their refpeftive corps ; and the array pack up their
baggage. Upon beating the ajfembly, the tents are to
be ttruck, and ftnt with the baggage to the place ap¬
pointed, &c.
The companies draw up in their feveral ftreets, and
the rolls are called. At the time appointed, the drum¬
mers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head
of the line ; upon which the companies march out from
their feveral ftreets, form battalions as they advance to
the head of the line, and then halt.
The feveral battalions will be formed into co¬
lumns by the adjutant-general, and the order of
march, &c. be given to the general officers who lead
the columns.
The cavalry generally march by regiments or fqua-
drons. The heavy artillery always keeps the great
roads, in the centre of the columns, efcorted by a ftrong
party of infantily and cavalry. The field-pieces marck
with the columns.
Each foidier generally marches with 36 rounds !©§
powder and ball, and 2 gbod-flints; 'one of which is
toi-be-fixed irv the eook of.ihs firelock. The routes mult!'
be formed ft} that no'columns crofs one another on
the march.-1 • = 1 ! ;; ’• 1 - • -- : q
MAR*
MAR [ 4445 1 MAR
MarcViantia MARCHANTIA, in botany, a genes of the or-
li der of algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
Marches plants. There are eight fpecies, of which the molt
remarkable are, 1. The polymorphs, or great ftar-
handed marchanfia, is a native of Britain, growing
on the batiks of rivulets, on fhady moift rocks,, the
Tides of wells, add foretimes bogs. The leaves are
about three inches long ; .frortr half atr inch to an inch
broad, lying flat on the ground, and adhering clofe-
ly to it by numerous downy radilces, which grow
out of the middle and bafe of the leaf on the un¬
der fide. Thefe leaves are fituated on their edges,
their upper furface of a dark, Ihining, green colour,
reticulated with numerous, minute, rhomboidal, or
lozenge-like feales; varioufly divided into obtufe lobes,
and in the middle by a blackilh purple vein ; their
under fide is of a paler green, and their fubftance co¬
riaceous, and nearly opaque. There are three varie¬
ties, from one of which is produced a yellow powder,
fhowing a moft eprious and wonderful mechaniim when
examined by the mfcfofcope. The leaves have a ftrong
aromatic fmell, and acrid tafle; and are recommended,
in a deco&ion of (kimtned milk, as good in the jaun¬
dice and other diforders of the liver. 2. The conica,
or conic-mufhroom marchantia, with warted leaves,
grows on moift fliady banks by the lides of rivulets.
The leaves are broad, flat, about two inches long, di¬
chotomous, obtufelylobed, and lie upon one another.
Their furface is of a pale-green glofly colour, curiouf-
ly teffclated with rhomboidal and hexagonal tubercles,
each having a white veficle or wart in the centre, with
a punfture on its head. The leaves have a peculiar
ftrong fragrant fmell, and acrid aromatic tafte. They
are fuppofed to poflefs the, fame attenuating quali¬
ty as the firft, but in a Jiigher degree. They are al¬
io recommended as an antifcorbutic, and for thinning
the blood.
MARCHE, a province of France, bounded on the
north by Berry, on the eaft by Ave'rgne, on the weft
by Angoumois, and on the foiith by Limofin. It is
about 55 miles in length, and 25 in breadth, and is
pretty fertile in corn and Wine.
MARCHENA, an hapdfome, ancient, and confi-
derable town of Spain, in Andalufia, with the title of
a duchy, and a fuburb as large as the town, feat-
ed in the middle of a plain, particularly fertile in
olives, tho’very deftitute of water. W. Long. 5. 20.
N. Lat. 37. 20.
MARCHERS,, or Lqrds-Marchers, were thofe
noblemen that lived on the marches of Wales or Scbif-
land ; who, in times paft, according to Camden, had
their laws, andfo-tefidtenf vita, See. like petty kings,
which are abpjiflied by the flat. 27 H. 8. c. 26, and
I Edw. 6. Y.Ta. In old records the .lords marches of
Wales were ftylcd Marchianes de Mar chi a Wallin. See
i <b 2 P. 6 M- c. 15,
.MARCHES,' (inarchia,) from the German march,
f. e. times, or from the French' i&drqudi vivi;Jtgriuth;
(being the notorious diftin&ion between two countries
Or, territories), are the limits between England and
Wales, or between England and Scotland, which laft
are divided into.weft and middle marches, 4 Heti. 5.
e. 7. 22 Ed. 4. c. 8. 24 Hen. 8. c. 9. And there
was formerly a court called the court of the marches of
Wales, where pitas of debt or damages, not above
the value of 50 pounds, were tried and determined; Marcitfn
and if the council of the marches held plea for debts (I
above that fum, &c. a prohibition might be awarded. Mare-
Hill. 14. Car. 1. Cro. Car. 384.
MARCION, an herefiarch, born at Sinope in
Paphfagonia, or Pontus, in the fecond century. In
his younger years he followed the ftoic.philofophy, and
loved folitude and poverty ; but being convided of
uncleannefs with a virgin, he was expelled the church
by his father, who was biftiop. Afterwards he came
to Rome, where he invented his herefies. His doc¬
trines were, many of them, the fame that were after¬
wards adopted by the Manichaeans; as, for inftance,that
there two cofeternal independent principles, one the au¬
thor of all good, the other the author of all evil. Mar-
cion meeting St Polycarpus in' the ftreets of Rome, alk-
ed him, whether he knew him? “ Very well, (anfwered
the bifhop), I know you to be the devil’s eldeft fon.”
Tertullian relates, that Marcion, repenting of his er¬
rors, would have abjured them publicly, provided be
might have been again admitted into the church ;
which was’ agreed to, on condition he would bring
back all thofe he had feduced from it: but before be
could effefl this talk, he died.
MARC IONITES. See Marcion.
MARCOMANNI, an ancient people of Germany,
who feem to have taken their name from their fit na¬
tion on the limits or marches, to the eaft of the High¬
er Rhine, and the north of the Danube. Cluverius
allots to them the duchy of Wurtemburg, a part of
the palatinate between the Rhine and the Necker, the
Brifgaii, and a part of Suabia, lying between the
fprings of the Danube and the river Bregentz: they
afterwards removed to the country of the Boii, whom
they expelled and forced to withdraw more to the eaft,
occupying what is now Bohemia. (Strabo,Vel-
. lei us.)
MARCOSIANS, a fet of Chriftian heretics of the
fecond century, fo called From their leader Marcus,
who reprefented the fupreme God as confining not of
a Trinity, but a Quaternity; viz. the Ineffable, Si¬
lence, the Father, and Truth.
MAR.CUS (Aurelius Antoninus). See Antoni-
MARDIKERS, or TopassEs, a mixed breed of
Dutch, Portuguefe, Indians, and other nations, incor¬
porated with the Dutch at Batavia, in the Eaft In¬
dies. :
MARE, the female of the horfe kind. See the ar¬
ticle Equus.
Before a mare is covered, fhe ftiould be in the
houfe about fix weeks, during which time fhe fltould
be well fed with good hay and oats well lifted;,
and in order to render her conception the more cer¬
tain, near a quart of blood may be taken from each
fide of her neck, about five or fix days before covering.
Another method to bring a mare in feafon and make
her fetain; is to give her, for the fpace of eight days
before you bring her to the horfe, about two quarts
of hemp-feed in the morning, and as much at night;
and if Ihe refufes to eat it, to mingle it with a little
bran or oats, or elfe to let her fall for a while : and if
the illallion alfo eat of it, it will greatly contribute to
generation.
Mares go with foal 11 jnocths, ajid as many days
MAR
[ 444^ ]
MAR
Marets. as they are years old ; and therefore the propereft
time for covering them is in the beginning of June,
that they may foal the May following, when there will
be plenty of grafs, which will afford the mares a great
abundance of milk for nourifhing their foals. Af¬
ter covering, let her, for three weeks or a month,
have the fame diet as before, and be kept clean
in the ftable till the middle of May, with her feet
well pared and thin fhod: take her in again about
the latter end of September, if not before, and keep
her to the end of her foaling. If (he cannot readi¬
ly bring forth, hold her noftrils fo as to flop her
taking wind; and if that will not do, diffolve mad¬
der, to the quantity of a walnut, in a pint of ale,
and give it her warm. In cafe fhe cannot void her
fecundine, or after-burden, boil two or three handfuls
of fennel in running water; then put half a pint of
that liquor into as much fack, or, for want thereof,
into a pint of ale, with a fourth part of falad-oil,
mixed together, and pour it lukewarm into her no¬
ftrils, holding them clofe for fome time. Otherwife,
give her green wheat, or rye, the laft of which is
bell.
If the mare has but little milk, boil as much as
you can get from her, with the leaves of lavender
and fpike, and bathe the udder with it warm, till the
knobs and knots are diffolved. She fhould now drink
only white water, whith is bran put into water; give
her alfo fweet mafhes: and a month after foaling, let
her have a mafli with fome brimdlone or favin in it.
MARETS (Jean de), a Parifian, one of the fineft
geniufes of the 17th century, became at laft a vifionary
and a fanatic. He was a great favourite of cardinal
Richlieu, and poffefTed an employment of genius un¬
der him; for he was called upon to relax and divert
him, after the fatigue ofbufinefs, by facetious conver-
fation. He ufed, in order to triumph over the virtue
of women, when they objected to him the intereft of
their falvation, to lead them into atheillical principles.
He was a member of the French academy from its firfl
ereftion. He wrote feveral dramatic pieces, which
were well received. He attempted an epic poem; but
after fpending feveral years about it, dropped the de-
iign, to W'rite books of devotion. He likewife wrote ro¬
mances; but not fuch virtuous ones as ufed to be wrote
at that time. He was a declared enemy of the Jan-
fenifts. His vifions are well deferibed by the Meffieurs
de Port Royal. He promifed the king of France, by
the explication of prophecies, the honour of overthrow¬
ing the Mahometan empire. In his lafl years he wrote
fomething againfl Boileau’s Satires.
Marets (Samuel de), one of the moft celebrated
divines of the reformed church, was born in Picardy,
in 1599. In 1620, he was fettled in the church of
Eaon; but, in 1624, accepted a call to that of Sedan:
in 1642, he obtained a profeflbrlhip at Groningen;
and, from that time to his death, exerted himfelf fo
much in the fervice of that univerfity, that it was rec¬
koned one of the moft flouriihing in the Netherlands.
Ilis Syftem of Divinity was found to be fo methodi¬
cal, that it was made ufe of at other academies; and
at the end of it may be found a chronological table of
all his works. Their number is prodigious; and their
variety fiiows the extent of his genius. He was more¬
over engaged in many difputes and controverfies, and
died in 1673. Margaret. ,
MARGARET (countefs of Richmond andDerby), 
the learned and pious mother of Henry VII. was born
at Betfhoe in Bedfordfhire, in 1441; and was the foie
heirefs of John Beaufort, duke of Somerfet, grandfon
to John of Gaunt. Her mother was the heirefs of
lord Beauchamp of Powick. Whilft yet very young,
the great duke of Suffolk, minilter to Henry VI. or
rather to queen Margaret, fought her in marriage to
his fon ; and fhe was at the fame time folicited by the
king for his half-brother Edmund, earl of Richmond.
To the latter fhe gave her hand. Henry VII. was the
foie fruit of this marriage, his father dying when he
was but 15 weeks old. Her fecond hufband was Sir
Henry Stafford, knight, fecond fon to the duke of
Buckingham ; by whom fhe had no iffue. Soon after
his death, which happened in the year 1482, fhe
fought confolation in a third hufband, Thomas lord
Stanley, who, in the firfl year of her fon’s reign,
was created earl of Derby. He died in the year 1504,
without iffue, being then high conftable of England.
She furvived her lord not quite five years, dying at
Wellminfter in June 1509, in the 69th year of her
age. She was buried in Henry VII.’s chapel, on the
fouth-fide of which was erefted to her memory an al¬
tar-tomb of black marble, with her flatue of brafs.
From her funeral fermon preached by her confeffor
bifhop Fifher, who, fays Ballard, knew the veryfecrels
of her foul, we learn, “ that fhe poffeffed almofl all
things that were commendable in a woman, either in
mind or body.” She underflood the French language
perfedlly, and had fome knowledge of the Latin. She
was devout even to auflerity, in humility romantic,
profufe in the encouragement of learning, and fingu-
larly chafle; but this laft virtue became confpicuous
only towards the latter end of a third marriage. “ In
her laft hufband’s days (fays Baker), fhe obtained a
licence of him to live chafte, whereupon fhe took upon
her the vow of celibacy.” ‘ A boon, (fays Mr Wal¬
pole), as feldom requefted, I believe, of a third huf¬
band, as it probably would be eafily granted.’ Her
life, from the turbulence of the times, and viciflitude
of her fon’s fortune, muft neceffarily have been fubjedl
to infinite difquiet, which however fhe is faid to have
fupported with fingular fortitude.— She wrote, 1. The
mirroure of golde for the finful foule, tranflated from
a French tranflation of a book called Speculum d'ureum
peccatorum. Emprynted at London, in Flete-ftrete,
at the.figne of St George, by Richard Pynfon, quarto,
with cuts on vellum. 2. Tranflafion of the fourth
book of Dr Gerfen’s treatife of the imitation and fol¬
lowing the bleffed life of our moft merciful Saviour
Chrift. Printed at the end of Dr Wm. Atkinfon’s
Englifh tranflation of the three firfl books, 1504. 3. A
letter to the king ; in Howard’s collection. 4. By
her fon’s order and authority, fhe alfo made the Orders
for great eftates of ladies and noble w^men, for their
precedence, and wearing of barbes at funerals, over
the chin and under the fame.
Margaret, the daughter of Woldemar III. king
of Denmark, flyled the Senriramis of the North: fhe
fucceeded her father in the throne of Denmark, her
hufband in that of Norway, and the crown of Sweden
was given her as a recompence for delivering the
Swedes from the tyranny of Albert their king. Thus
MAR [ 4447 ] MAR
Margaret poflefled of the three kingdoms, Hie formed the grand
li, political defign of a perpetual union, which (he ac-
complifhed, pro tempore only, by the famous treaty
ftyled the #«/!?« a/' Colmar. She died in 1412, aged
59-
Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Rene D’Anjou,
king of Naples, and wife of Henry VI. king of Eng¬
land; an ambitious, enterprifing, courageous woman.
Intrepid in the field, (he fignalized herfelf by heading
her troops in feveral battles againft the houfe of York;
and if (he had not been the authorefs of her hu(band’s
misfortunes, by putting to death the duke of Glou-
cefter his uncle, her name would have been immorta¬
lized for the fortitude, adlivity, and policy with which
Ihe fupported the rights of her hufband and fon, till
the fatal defeat at Tewkfbury; which put an end to
all her enterprifes, the king being taken prifoner, and
prince Edward their only fon bafely murdered by Ri¬
chard duke of York. Margaret was ranfomed by her
father, and died in Anjou in 1482. See England,
n° 190,—198.
MARGARITA, or Pearl-island, an illand of
South America, the middle of which is feated in W.
Long. 64. 2. N. Lat. 11. 30. It was difcovered by
Columbus, and is about 35 leagues in compafs. The
foil is very fertile in maize and fruits, and abounds in
pafture and verdant groves ; yet is totally deftitute of
frefh water, which the inhabitants are obliged to bring
from the continent. When the Spaniards firft landed
here, they found the natives bufy in fiihing for oyfters.
Columbus ordered fome of the favages aboard his (hip,
who were fo far from being terrified, that they very
foon became familiar with the Spaniards. The latter
at firft imagined that the oyfters ferved them for food;
but on opening the (hells, they found they contained
valuable pearls. Upon this difcovery they immedi¬
ately landed, and found the natives ready to part with
their pearls for the mereft trifles. In procefs of time
the Spaniards built a caftle, called Monpadre, and em¬
ployed prodigious numbers of Guinea and Angola Ne¬
groes in the pearl-fifhery; cruelly forcing them to tear
up the oyfters from the rocks to which they (luck, du¬
ring which time many of them were deftroyed by the
Iharks and other voracious fifties. In 1620, this
ifland was invaded by the Dutch, who demoliftied the
caftle upon it: fince which time it has been in a man¬
ner abandoned by the Spaniards ; and is now princi¬
pally inhabited by the natives, to whom fome particu*
lar indulgences were granted by the court of Spain,
on account of their ready fubmiffion to Columbus. ,
MARGARITA, the Pearl, in natural hiftory.
See Pearl, andMvA.
MARGATE, a fea-port town of Kent, in the ifle
ofThanet, much frequented in the furamer-tirae for
bathing in the fait-water. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat.
51. 24.
MARIA, or S^ancta Maria, an ifland of the In¬
dian Ocean, lying about five miles eaft from Madagaf-
car. It is about 27 miles long, and five broad; well
watered, and furrounded by rocks. The air is ex¬
tremely moift, for it rains almoft every day. It is in¬
habited by 500 or 600 negroes, but feldom vifited by
flifps.
Maria (St.), a confiderable town of South Ame¬
rica, in the audience of Panama, built by the Spaniards
Vol. VI. 2
after they had difcovered the gold mines near it, and Mari,
foon after taken by the Englifti. It is feated at the il.
bottom of the Gulf of St Michael, at the mouth of a 1VI‘inl!e*
river of the fame name; which is navigable, and the br-
geft that falls into the gulf. The Spaniards come
here every year in the dry feafon, which continues three
months, to gather thegold-duft out of the fands of the
neighbouring dreams; and carry away great quanti¬
ties. W. Long. 148. 30-N. Lat. 7.0.
Maria (St.), a handfome and confiderable town
of Spain, in Andalufia, with a fmall caftle. It was ta¬
ken by the Englifti and Dutch in 1702, for the arch¬
duke of Auftria. It is feated on the Guadaleta, at
the mouth of which s a tower and a clofe battery.
W. Long. 5. 33. N. Lat. 36. 35.
MARIAN islands. See Ladrone Ifands.
MARIANA (John), a learned Spanilh hiftorian,
born at Talavera in the diocefe of Toledo. He entered
among the Jefuits in 1554,31 17 years of age; and be¬
came one of the mod learned men of his time. He
was a great divine, a good humanift, and profoundly
verfed in ecclefiaftical as well as profane hiftory. He
taught at Rome, in Sicily, at Paris, and in Spain ;
and died at Toledo in 1624. His principal works are,
1. An excellent hiftory of Spain in 30 books; which
he himfelf tranflated from the Latin into Spanifh,
without fervilely following his own Latin edition.
2. Scholia, or fhort notes on the bible. 3. A trea-
tife on the changes the fpeeie has undergone in Spain;
for which he was thrown into prifon by the duke of
Lerma, the Spanifli minifter. 4. A famous treatife
Ds rege et regis injlitutione, which made much noife,
and was condemned by the parliament of Paris to be
burnt by the hands of the common hangman, for his
aflerting in that work, that it is lawful to murder ty¬
rants. 5. A work on the faults of the government of
the fociety of Jefuits, which has been tranflated into
Spanifti, Latin, Italian, and French, &c.
MARIANUS scotus, an Irifti monk, was related
to the Venerable Bede, and wrote a chronicle which
is efteemed. He died in the abbey of Fuld, in 1086,
aged 58.
MARIGALANTE, an ifland of North America,
andoneof the leaftof the Caribbees. It was difcovered
by Chriftopher Columbus in 1493; the French fettled
here in 1648; and it was taken by the Englifti in 1691,
but the French foon got pofl'efiion of it again. The
land is proper for fugar-canes, indigo, tobacco, and
cotton; but fometimes they are in great want of wa¬
ter. W. Long. 60. 51. N. Lat. 16. 32.
MARINE, a general name for the navy of a king¬
dom or date; as alfo the whole oecbnomy of naval af¬
fairs 5 or whatever refpects the building, rigging, arm¬
ing, equiping, navigating, and fighting (hips. It com¬
prehends alfo the government of naval armaments, and
the date of all the perfons employed therein, whether
civil or military.
The hiftory of the marine affairs of any one date is
a very comprehenfive fubjeft, much more that of all
nations. Thofe who would be informed of the mari¬
time affairs of Great Britain, and the figure it has made
at fea in all ages, may find abundance of curious mat¬
ter in Selden’s Mare Claufum; and from his time to
ours, we may trace a feries of fafts in Lediard’s and
Burchet’s Naval Hiftory, but above all in the Lives
25 F of
Marines
(i
Mariner.
MAR [ 4448 ] MAR
of tlie Admirals, by-the accurate and judicious Dr
Campbell.
MARINES, or Marine Forces, a body of foldiers
raifed for the fea-fervice, and trained to fight either in
a naval engagement, or in an aftion afhore.
The great fervice of this ufeful corps was manifeft-
ed frequently in the cdurfe of the late war, particular¬
ly at the fiege of Belleifle, where they acquired a great
chara&er, although lately raifed and hardly exercifed
in military difcipline. At fea they are incorporated
with the fhip’s crew, of which they make a part; and
many of them learn in a fhort time to be excellent fea-
men, to which their officers are ordered by the admi¬
ralty to encourage them, although no fea-officer is to
order them to go aloft againft their inclination. In a
fea-fight their fmall-arms are of very great advantage
in fcouring the decks of the enemy; and when they
have been long enough at fea to (land firm when the
flrip rocks, they muft be infinitely preferable to feamen
if the enemy attempt? to board, byfraifing a battalion
with their fixed bayonets to oppofe him.
The marine forces of Great Britain in the time of
peace are ftationed in three divifions; one of which is
quartered at Chatham, one at Portfmouth, and another
at Plymouth. By a late regulation, they are ordered
to do duty at the feveral dock yards of thofe ports, to
prevent embezzlement of the king’s {lores, for which
a captain’s guard mounts every day; which certainly
requires great vigilance, as fo many abufes of this kind
have beep committed, that many of the inhabitants,
who have been long ufed to an infamous traffic of this
kind, expeft thefe conveyances at certain periods as
their due, and of courfe refent this regulation in the
higheft degree as an infringement of their liberties as
Britiffi fubjedls.
Marine Difcipline, is the training up foldiers for
fea-fervioe, in fuch exercifes as the various pofitions of
the firelock and body, and teaching them every ma¬
noeuvre that can be performed on board {hips of war at
fea. See Exercise.
Marine Chair, a machine invented by Mr Irwin,
for viewing the fatellites of Jupiter at fea, and of
courfe determining the longitude by their eclipfes. An
account of it is given in the Journal EJlranger for
March 1760. An account of its accuracy was pub-
liffied the year following, by M. de L’lfle aftronomer
in the imperial academy of Peterfburg: but notwith-
ftanding the encomiums beftowed upon it by this gen¬
tleman, it hath never come into general ufe; and there¬
fore we may conclude, that it is much inferior to the
inventions of Mr Harrifon for the fame purpofe. See
Harrison and Navigation.
MARINER, the fame with a failoror feaman. See
thefe articles.
Method of Preferving the Health c/'Mariners. See
Seamen.
Mariner’/ Compafs. See Compass.
The invention of the compafs is ufually afcribed to
Flavio da Melfi, or Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about
the year 1302; and hence it is, that the territory of
Principato, which makes part of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, where he was born, has a compafs for its arms.
Others fay that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, making
a journey to Chiri^ brought back the invention with
him in 1260. What confirms this conjeflure is, that
at firft they ufed the compafs in the fame manner as Mariner,
the Chinefe ftill do; i. e. they let it float on a little Manno-
piece of cork, inftead of fufpending it on a pivot. It
is added, that their emperor Chiningus, a celebrated
aftrologer, had a knowledge of it 1120 years before
Chrift. The Chinefe only divide their compafs into 24
points. Fauchette relates fome verfes of Guyot de
Provence, who lived in France about the year 1200,
which feem to make mention of the compafs under the
name of marinette, ox mariner's Jlofte; which {hew it
to have been ufed in France near 100 years before ei¬
ther the Melfite or Venetian. The French even lay
claim to the invention, from the fleur de ^/ wherewith
all nations ftilbdiftinguifh the north point of the card.
With as much reafon Dr Wallis afcribes it to the Eng-
lifh, from its name compafs, by which name moll na¬
tions call it, and which he obferves is ufed in many
parts of England to fignify a circle.
The compafs hath fometimes been obferved to be
difturbed by the electricity of its glafs-cover j and
this from fo flight an application of the finger as was
barely neceffary to .wipe off a little dull. The fame
glafs, rubbed a little more with the finger, a bit of
muflin, or paper, would attradt either end of the needle,
fo as to hold it to the glafs for feveral minutes, far out
of the due dire&ion, according to that part of" the
glafs which was mod excited. And when the needle, af¬
ter adhering to the glafs, has dropped loofe, and made
vibrations, thofe would not be bifefted as ufual by
that point where the needle fliould reft," but would ei¬
ther be made all on one fide, or be very unequally di¬
vided, by means of fome remains of eledlrical virtue in
that part of the glafs which had attracted the needle,
until at length, after 15 minutes or more, all the-elec¬
tricity being difcharged, the magnetical power took
place. The remedy for this inconvenience is to moi-
ften the furface of the glafs: a wet finger will do it im¬
mediately and effectually. The mariner’s compafs with
a chart is much lefs dangeroufly moved than the com¬
mon compafs with a bare needle : and the deeper, or
farther diftant, the needle hangs below the glafs, the
lefs difturbance it is likely to receive.
St MARINO, a fmall town and republic of Italy,
fituated in E. Long. 13. 44. N. Lat. 44. 21. This
fmall republic confifts only of a mountain, and a few
hillocks, that lie fcattered about the bottom of it. The
number of the inhabitants is about 5000. The S<6un-
tain yields good wine, but they have no other than rain
or fnow water. The founder of the republic was a
Dalmatian, and a maCon, who upwards of 1300 years
ago turned hermit, and retired to this mountain. Here
his devotion and aufterity, and, in confequence of that,
his reputation for fanClity, were fuch, that the prin-
cefs of the country made him a prefent of the moun¬
tain, on which many, out of veneration for the faint,
foon after took up their abode. Thus was the foun¬
dation laid of the town and republic, which ftill bears
the name of the faint. The town {lands on the top of
the mountain, and there is only one way by which it
can be come at. In the whole territory are only three
caftles, three convents, and five churches. The largeft
of the churches is dedicated to the faint, and contains
his alhes and his ftatue. He is looked upon as the
greateft faint, next lathe bleffed Virgin ; and to fpeak
difrefpedfully of him is accounted blafphemy, and pu-
niftied
;
!
MAR [ 4449 ] MAR
Marino niftied as fuch. The republic is under the protedlion
Jl. of the pope. All that are capable of bearing arms are
‘*ntime' cxercifed, and ready at a minute’s call. In the ordi¬
nary courfe of government, the adminiftration is in the
hands of the council of 60, which, notwithilanding its
name, confifts only of 40 ; one half of the members of
which are of the noble families, and the other of the
plebeian : on extraordinary occafions, however, the
arengo, in which every houfe has it reprefentative, is
called together. The two principal officers are the ca-
pitaneos, who are chofen every half year; and next to
them is the commiffary, who judges in civil and cri¬
minal matters, and is joined in commiffion with the
capitaneos; both he and the phyfician muft be fo¬
reigners, and both have their falaries out of the pub¬
lic flock. When any perfon, after due fummons,
negledts to affift at the council according to their fta-
tute-book, he is to be fined in about a penny Englifh ;
and when an ambafiador is to be fent to any foreign
ftate, he is to be allowed about 1 s. a-day.
MARINO (John Baptift), a celebrated Italian
poet, born at Naples in 1569. His father, who was an
able civilian, obliged him to ftudy the law; at which
being difgufted, he left his parents, and retired to the
houfe of the Sieur Manzi, who was a friend to all per-
fons of wit. He at length became fecretary to Mat¬
thew of Capua, great admiral of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and contradfed a friendfhip with Taffo. A fhort
time after, he went to Rome, and entered into the fer-
vice of cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew to pope Cle¬
ment VIII. who took him with him to Savoy. Ma¬
rino was in great favour with the court of Turin; but
afterwards created himfelf many enemies there, the
moft furiofis of whom was the poet Gafpard Murtola,
who, attempting to fhoot him with a piftol, wounded
one of the duke of Savoy’s favourites. Marino being
obliged to leave Turin, went to Paris at the defire of
queen Mary de Medicis, and publifhed there his poetn
on Adonis. He afterwards went to Rome, where he
was made prince of the academy of the humorifti;
from thence to Naples, where he died while he was
preparing to return home. He had a very lively ima¬
gination, but little judgment; and, giving way to the
points ^nd conceits then in vogue, his authority, far
from corredling the falfe tafte of the Italians, ferved
rather to keep it farther from reformation. His works,
which are numerous, have been often printed.
MARIOTTE (Edme), an eminent phyfician and
mathematician, was born in Burgundy, and was made
a member of the academy of fciences. He died in
1684. His works, which are much efteemed, were
printed,at Leyden in 1717, 2 vols 410.
MARJORAM, in botany. See Origanum.
MARITAGIUM, that portion which is given with
a daughter in marriage.
Maritagium, or Marriage, ftrifUy taken, is that
right which the lord of the fee had, to marry the
daughters of his vaflals after their death: Others tell
us, it was that profit which might accrue to the lord,
by the marriage of one under age, who held his lands
of him by knight’s fervice.
MARITIME, fomething relating to, or bounded
by the fea. Thus a maritime province, or country, is
one bounded by the fea; and a maritime kingdom is
one that makes a confiderable figure, or that is very
powerful at fea. Hence, by maritime powers among Maritim
the European ftates, are underftood Great Britain and
Holland.
Maritime State, in Britiffi polity, one of the three
general divifions of the laity: (See Laity.) This
llate is nearly cennedted with the military; though
much more agreeable to the principles of our free
conftitution. The royal navy of England hath ever
been its greateft defence and ornament; it is its an¬
cient. and natural (Length ; the floating bulwark of
the illand; an army, from which, however llrong*and
powerful, no danger can ever be apprehended to li¬
berty : and accordingly it has been affiduoufly culti¬
vated from the earlieft ages. To fo much perfection
was our naval reputation arrived in the 12th century,
that the code of maritime laws, which are called the
laws ofOleron, and are received by all nations in Eu¬
rope as the ground and fubftrudtion of all their ma¬
rine conftitutions, was confefledly compiled by our
king Richard I. at the ifle of Oleron on the coaft of
France, then part of the pofleffions of the crown of
England. And yet, fo vaftly inferior were our an-
ceftors in this point to the prefent age, that even in
the maritime reign of queen Elizabeth, Sir Edward
Coke thinks it matter of boaft, that the royal navy of
England then confided of three and thirty (hips. The
prefent condition of our marine is in great meafure
owing to the falutary provifions of the datutes called
the navigation atts; whereby the condant increafe of
Engliffi (hipping and feamen was not only encouraged,
but rendered unavoidably neceffary. By the datute
5 Ric. II. c. 3. in order to augment the navy of Eng¬
land, then greatly diminilhed, it was ordained, that
none of the king’s liege people (hould fliip any mer¬
chandize out of or into the realm, but only in (hips of
the king’s ligeance, on pain of forfeiture. In the
next year, by datute 6 Ric. II. c. 8. this wife provi-
fion was enervated, by only obliging the merchants to
give Engliffi (hips (if able and fufficient) the prefer¬
ence. But the mod beneficial datute for the trade
and commerce of thefe kingdoms is that navigation-
adl, the rudiments of which were fird framed in 1650,
with a narrow partial view; being intended to mortify
our own fugar-iflands, which were difaffecfed to the
parliament, and dill held out for Charles II. by dop-
ping the gainful trade which they then carried on
with the Dutch, and at the fame time to clip the
wings of thofe our opulent and afpiring neighbours.
This prohibited all (hips of foreign nations from tra¬
ding with any Englifh plantations, without licenfe
from the council of date. In 1651, the prohibition
was extended alfo to the mother-country: and no
goods were fuffered to be imported into England, or
any of its dependencies, in any other than Englilh
bottoms; or in the (hips of that European nation, of
which the merchandize imported was the genuine
growth or manufa&ure. At the Redoration, the
former provifions were continued, by flat. 12 Car. II.
c. 18. with this very material improvement, that the
mafler and three-fourths of the mariners (hall alfo be
Engliih fubje&s.
Many laws have been made for the fupply of the
royal navy with feamen; for their regulation when on
board; and to confer privileges and rewards on them
during and after their farvice.
25 F 2
1. For
MAR [ 4450 ] MAR
Maritime. 1. For their fupply. The principal, but the molt debt which extends to half that value, but not to a lefs Marin*
odious, though often neceflary method for this pur-
pofe, is by impreffing; fee Impressing. But there
are other ways that tend to the increafe of feamen,
and manning the royal navy. Parilhes may bind out
poor boys apprentices to the mailers of merchantmen,
who lhall be protected from imprefling for the firft
three years; and if they are imprefled afterwards, the
mailers lhall be allowed their wages: great advantages
in point of wages are given to volunteer feamen, in
order to induce them to enter into his majdly’s fer-
vice: and every foreign feaman, who, during a war,
fliall ferve two years in any man of war, merchant¬
man, or privateer, is naturalized ipfo faflo. About
the middle of king Willliam’s reign, a fcheme was
fet on foot for a regiller of feamen to the number of
30,000, for a conllant and regular fupply of the
king’s fleet; with great privileges to the regiltered
men, and, on the other hand, heavy penalties in cafe
of their non-appearance when called for: but this re-
gillry, being judged to be rather a badge of flavery,
was abolilhed by flat. 9 Ann. c. 21.
2. The method of ordering feamen in the royal
fleet, and keeping up a regular difcipline there, is
diredled by certain exprefs rules, articles, and orders,
firft ena&ed by the authority of parliament foon after
the Reftoration; but fince new-modelled and altered,
after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, to remedy fome
defe&s which were of fatal confequence in conducing
the preceding war. In thefe articles of the navy al-
moft every pofiible offence is fet down, and the pu-
nilhment thereof annexed: in which refped the fea¬
men have much the advantage over their brethren in
the land- fervice; whofe articles of war are not enafled
by parliament, but framed from time to time at the
pleafure of the crown. Yet from whence this diftinc-
tion arofe, and why the executive power, which is li¬
mited fo properly with regard to the navy, fhould be
fo extenfive with regard to the army, it is hard to
aflign a reafon; unlefs it proceeded from the perpetual
eftablifhment of the navy, which rendered a permanent
law for their regulation expedient, and the temporary
duration of the army, which fubfifted only from year
to year, and might therefore with lefs danger be fub-
jedled to difcretionary government. But, whatever
was apprehended at the firft formation of the mutiny-
aft, the regular renewal of our Handing force at
the entrance of every year has made this diftinftion
idle. For, if from experience paft, we may judge of
future events, the army is now Saftingly ingrafted into
the Britifli conftitution; with this Angularly fortunate
circumftance, that any branch of the legiflature may
annually put an end to its legal exiftence, by refufing
to concur in its continuance.
3. With regard to the privileges conferred on
failors, they are pretty much the fame with thofe
conferred on foldiers ; with regard to relief, when
maimed, or wounded, or fuperannuated, either by
county-rates, or the royal hofpital at Greenwich;
with regard alfo to the exercife of trades, and the
power of makilfg nuncupative teftaments: and, far¬
ther, no feaman aboard his majefty’s ftiips can be
arrefted for any debt, unlefs the fame be fworn to
amount to at lead twenty pounds; though, by the
annual mutiny-afts, a foldier may be arrefted for a
amount.
MARIUS, the Roman general, and feven times
conful, who-fullied his great military reputation by fa-
vage barbarities, died about 86 B. C.
St MARK the. Evangelift's Day, a feftival of the
Chriftian church, obferved April 25.
St Mark was by birth a Jew, and defeended of the
tribe of Levi. He was converted by fome of the a-
poftles, probably by St Peter; to whom he was a con-
ftant companion in all his travels, fupplying the place
of an amanuenfis and interpreter. He was by St Pe¬
ter fent into Egypt, fixing his chief refidence at A-
lexandria, and the places thereabout: where he was
fo fuccefsful in his miniftry, that he converted multi¬
tudes both of men and women. He afterwards remo¬
ved weftward, towards the parts of Libya, going
through the countries of Marmorica, Pentapolis, and
others thereabouts; where, notwithftanding the bar¬
barity and idolatry of the inhabitants, he planted the
gofpel. Upon his return to Alexandria, he ordered
the affairs of that church, and there fuffered martyr¬
dom in the following manner. About Eafter, at the
time the folemnities of Serapis were celebrated, the
idolatrous people, being excited to vindicate the ho¬
nour of their deity, broke in upon St Mark, while he
was performing divine fervice, and, binding him with
cords, dragged him through the ftreets, and thruft
him into prifon, where in the night he had the com¬
fort of a divine vifion. Next day, the enraged mul¬
titude ufed him in the fame manner, till, his fpirits
failing, he expired under their hands. Some add,
that they burnt his body, and that the Chriftians de¬
cently interred his bones and afhes near the place
where he ufed to preached. This happened in the year
of Chrift 68.
Some writers affert, that the remains of St Mark
were afterwards, with great pomp, tranflated from A-
lexandria to Venice. However, he is the tutelar faint
and patron of that republic, and has a very rich and
ftately church erefted to his memory.
Some have confounded this evangelift with John
Mark fo often fpoken of in the Afts of the A-
poftles : but this opinion is now generally given up.
This apoftle is author of one of the four gofpels in-
feribed with his name. See the following article.
St Mark’/ Gofpel, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, being one of the four gofpels.
St Mark wrote his gofpel at Rome, where he ac¬
companied St Peter in the year of Chrift 44. Ter-
tullian and others pretend, that St Mark was no more
than an amanuenfis to St Peter, who diftated this go¬
fpel to him; others affirm, that he wrote it after St
Peter’s death. Nor are the learned lefs divided as to the
language it was wrote in ; fome affirming it was com-
pofed in Greek, others in Latin. Several of the ancient
heretics received only the gofpel of St Mark : others,
among the Catholics, rejected the 12 laft verfesof this
gofpel. The gofpel of St Mark is properly an abridge¬
ment of that of St Matthew.
Canons of St Mark, a congregation of regular ca¬
nons, founded at Mantua, by Albert Spinola a prieft,
towards,the end of the J2th century. Spinola made
a rule for them, which was approved, correfted, and
confirmed by feveral fucceeding popes. About the
year
MAR [ 4451 j MAR
Mark year 1450, they were reformed, and followed only
|l the rule of St Auguftine. This congregation having
Marlbo- flourjfted by the fpace of 400 years, declined by little
,, r°Ug ' and little, and is now become extindl.
Knights of Si Mark, an order of knighthood in
the republic of Venice, under the protedion of St
Mark the evangelift. The arms of the order are,
gules, a lion winged or; with this device, Pax tibi
March Evangelista. This order is never conferred
but on thofe who have done fignal fervice to the com¬
monwealth.
Mark, or Marc, alfo denotes a weight ufed in fe-
veral dates of Europe, and for feveral commodities,
efpecially gold and filver.. In France, the mark is di¬
vided into eight ounces, 64 drachms, 192 derniers or
penny-weights, 160 ederlines, 300 maills, 640 felins,
or 4608 grains. In Holland, the mark weight is al¬
fo called Troy-^sueight, and is equal to that of France.
When gold and filver are fold by the mark, it is di¬
vided into 25 carats.
Mark, is alfo ufed among us for a money of ac¬
count, and in fome other countries for a coin. See
M"on e y - Table*
The Englifh mark is two thirds of a pound Sterling,
or 12 s. 4d. and the Scotch mark is of equal value in
Scots money of account, viz. 13* d.
MARKET, a public place in a city or town, in
which live-cattle, proviiions, or other goods, are fet
to fale; and alfo a privilege, either by grant or pre-
feription, by which a town is enabled to keep a
market.
MARKHAM (Gervafe), an Englilh author, was
the fon of Robert Markham of Gotham, efq ; in Not-
tinghamlhire, and bore a captain’s commiffion under
Charles I. in the civil wars. He was efteemed both a
good foldier and a good fcholar. He was particularly
mailer of the French, Italian, and Spanilh. He wrote,
I. The tragedy of Herod and Antipater, which was
printed in 1622. 2. Many volumes upon hufbandry
and horfemanlhip. 3. A piece on the art of fowling.
4. The foldiers accidence and grammar.
MARKLAND (Jeremiah,) one of the mod
learned fcholarS and penetrating critics of the age,
was born in 1692, and received his education inChrift’s-
hofpital. He became firft publicly known by his “ E-
piftola Critica, addrefled to bilhop Hare. In this he
gave many proofs of extenfive erudition and critical fa-
gacity. He afterwards publilhed an edition of Statius,
and fome plays of Euripides; andaflifted Dr Taylor in
his editions of JLyfias and Demofthenes, by the notes
which he communicated to him. He has alfo very
happily elucidated fome paffages in the New Tefta-
ment, which may be found in Mr Bowyer’s edition of
it; and was author of a very valuable volume of re¬
marks on the epiftles of Cicero to Brutus, and of an
excellent little treatife under the title of Quaftio
Grammatica. He died in 1775, at Milton, near
Dorking in Surry ; and was a man not more valued
for his univerfal reading, than beloved for the ex¬
cellency of his heart and primitive fimplicity of man¬
ners.
MARLBOROUGH, a town of Wiltlhire in Eng¬
land, fo called, as fome think, from its chalky foil. It
is an ancient borough by prefeription, and fends two
members to parliament. It has fuffered greatly by
fire; particularly, in 1728, there was fuch a confla- Marlbo-
gration, that, if the ftreet had not been very broad,
the whole town would probably have been burnt.—L: .T.,
down.
Marlborough (duke of). See Churchill.
Marlborough-Tw*/, an Englifh factory on the
weft coaft of the ifland of Sumatra in Alia ; feated
three miles weft of the town of Bencoolen. E. Long.
101. 12. S. Lat. 4. 21.
MARLE, a kind of calcareous earth, very much
ufed in agriculture as a manure. See Agriculture,
n° 169, 170.
Marie is dug in many places of Great Britain and
Ireland. In digging for it in Ireland, they meet with
horns and other curious foffils. The marie always lies
in the bottoms of low bogs, and is found by boring
with augres made for that purpofe. It ufually lies at
five, feven, or nine feet depth. The obtaining it in
many places is attended with very confiderabie expen-
ces in draining off the water. The manner of digging
it is this: They employ fix able labourers and a fu-
pernumerary ; and thefe cut up a hole of 12 feet
fquare, which is fuppofed a pit that this number of
men can manage in one day. Two men dig, two
throw it up, and two throw it by, and the fupernu-
merary man fupplies defefts on all occafions. For the
firft three feet they dig through a fuzzy earth, fit for •
making of turf or fuel. Under this lies a ftratum of
gravel, of about half a foot: under this often, for
three feet more, there is a more kindly mofs, which
would make better fuel. This lower ftratum is always
full of fgflile wood, which is ufually fo foft, that the
fpade cuts as eafily through it as through the earth it
lies in. Under this, for the thicknefs of about three
inches, is found a feries of leaves, principally of the
oak. Thefe appear very fair to the eye, but fall to
pieces on being touched ; and this ftratum is fottietimes
interrupted by vaft heaps of feed, which feem to be
broom or furze feed. In fome places there appear
berries of different kinds, and in others feveral fpecies
of fea-plar.ts ; all lying in the fame confufed manner
as the oak-leaves. Under this vegetable ftratum there
lies one of blue clay, half a foot thick, and ufually full
of fea-(hells. This blue clay is not fo tough as com¬
mon clay ; but is thrown carefully up, and ufed as
marie in fome places. Under this always appears the
true marie; the ftratum of which is ufually from two
to four feet thick, and fometimes much more.—This
marie looks like buried lime, and is full of (hells ;
which are ufually of a fmall fize, and of the periwinkle
kind; but there are feveral other forts at times found
among them. Among this marie, and often at the
very bottom of it, are found great numbers of very
large horns of the deer kind, which are vulgarly call¬
ed e/y(’.r horns. Thefe, where they join to the head,
are thick and round ; and at that joining there grows
out a branch, which is about a foot long, and feems
to have hung juft over the creature’s eyes: it grows dill
round for about a foot above this ; and then fpreads
out broad, and terminates in branches long and round,
terminating with a fmall bend. The labourers are
obliged to work in a hurry in all thefe pits, fo that they
feldom bring out the horns whole. There are alfo, at
times, found the leg-bones and other parts of the (ke-
letons of the fame beafts; but this more rarely, only a
MAR [ 4452 ] MAR
Marie few together, and but in few places.
H Dr Black is of opinion, that all kinds of marie de-
, ar ^ rive their origin from the calcareous matter of (hells and
lithophyta.
Shell-marle, fays he, is compofed of the (hells of
acquatic animals, which are fometimes very entire,
and often decayed or mixed down with other earthy
fubftances. Examining this matter as occurring in dif¬
ferent places, it may be diftinguiftied into fre(h-water
marie, and the marie of fea-(hells. Of the firft: we have
an example in the Meadovy at Edinburgh. Wherever the
foil is turned up fo the depth of fix inches, a quantity
appears. It is compofed of the (hells of a fmall frclh-
water fnail or welk. This animal, when alive, is not
eafily difcernible, the (hell being much of the fame
obfcure colour as the (lones covered with the water.
But we can obferve a great number of them in all
running brooks and other colle&ions of fre(h water ;
and as the animal dies the (hells are depofited where
the water (lagnates in very great quantity. That com¬
pofed of fea (hells, conftitutes greater colleftions that
are found in innumerable places now far removed from
the fea. That mod particularly defcribed by Reau¬
mur is a colle&ion of this kind in a province of France,
andatTurin. Thatpart of the country where itisfound
is computed to contain 80 fquare miles of furface; and
wherever they dig to a certain depth, they find this
colledtion of (hells: the country at prefent is 108
miles from the fea. They find the marie eight or
nine feet below the furface, and they dig it to the
depth of 20 feet. It is dill deeper, but they find it
too expenfive to fearch for it. He fuppofes it to be
only 18 feet deep; and even at this depth the quan¬
tity will appear enormous. It will amount to 140
millions of cubic fathoms of (hells that are modly de¬
cayed and broken into fragments, and mixed with
other marine produftions, as millipores, madripores,
and other coralline bodies, which are all produc¬
tions of the fea.
MARLIN, in fea-affairs, are tarred white drains, or
long wreaths or lines of untwided hemp, dipped in
pitch or tar, with which cables and other ropes are
wrapped round, to prevent their fretting or rubbing
in the blocks or pullies through which they pafs.
The fame ferves in artillery upon ropes ufed for rig¬
ging gins, ufually put up in fmall parcels called
jkains.
MARLOE (Chridopher), anEnglifli dramatic au¬
thor, was a dudent in the univerfity of Cambridge ;
but aferwards turning player, he trode the fame dage
with the inimitable Shakefjleare. He was accounted
an excellent poet even.by Ben Johnfon himfelf. He
wrote fix tragedies, one of which called Luft's Domi¬
nion, or the Lafcivious Queen, has been altered by
Mrs Behn, and a&ed under the title of Abdelazar,
or the Moor's Revenge. Some time before his death,
he had made a confiderable progrefs in an excellent
poem entitled Hero and Lecinder; which was after-
w’ards finifhed by George Chapman, who is faid to
have fallen (hort of the fpirit and invention difcovered
by Marloe. Mr Anthony Wood reprefents him as a
free-thinker, in the word fenfe of the word; and
gives the following account of his death. Falling
deeply in love with a low girl, and having for his
rival ^fellow in livery, Marloe, imagining that his
midrefs granted him favours, was fired with jealoufy, Marlow
and rufhed upon him in order to dab him with his I.
dagger: but the footman avoided the droke, and, Maronit«;
feizing his wrid, dabbed him with his own weapon ;
of which wound he died, in the year 1593.
MARLOW, a town of Buckinhamlhire, in Eng¬
land, featedon the river Thames, over which there is a
bridge into Berklhire. It fends two members to par¬
liament. W. Long. o. 43. N. Lat. 51. 34.
MARLY, a palace belonging to the king of France,
between Verfailles and St Germain ; feated in a val¬
ley, near a village and fored of the fame name. It
is noted for its fine gardens and water-works, there
being a curious machine on the river Seine, which
not only fupolies them with water, but alfo thofe of
Verfailles. It is 10 miles N. W. of Paris. E. Long.
2. 11. N. Lat. 48, 32.
MARMANDE, a town of France, in Guienne,
and in Agennois. It carries on a great trade in corn
and wine, and is feated on the river Garonne, in E.
Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 38. 35.
MARMALADE, a confedlion of plums, apricots,
quinces, &c. boiled up to a confidence with fugar.
MARMOR. See Marble.
MARMORA, the name of four iflands of Afia,
in the fea of the fame name. The larged is about 30
miles in circumference; and the foil of them all pro¬
duces corn, wine, and fruits. The fea of Marmora
is a large gulph, which communicates both with the
Archipelago and the Black Sea by that of Condan-
tinople, being 120 miles in length, and 50 in breadth,
and all drips mud pafs through it that fail to Con-
dantinople from the Mediterranean. It was anciently
the Propontis.
MARMORICA, a country of Africa anciently
inhabited by the Libyans. It was bounded on the
ead by Egypt, on the wed by Cyrenaica, on the
fouth by Sahara, or the defert of Libya Interior, and
on the north by the Mediterranean ; and was reckoned
a part of Egypt. There is no didinft hidory of the
country.
MARONITES, certain eadern Chridians fo called,
who inhabit near mount Libanus in Syria. The
name is derived either from a town in the country,
called Maronia ; or from St Maron,. who built a mo-
nadery there in the fifth century.
The Maronites hold communion with the Romifh
church. Pope Gregory XIII. founded a college at
Rome, where their youth are educated, and then
fent to their own country. They formerly followed
the errors of the Jacobites, Nedorians, and Monothe¬
lites ; but they were re-united to the Roman church
in the time Gregory XIII. and Clement VIII. The
patriarch of the Maronites was prefent in the fourth
Lateran Council, under Innocent III. in 1215.
The Maronites have their patriarch, archbilhops,
bifhops, and about 150 inferior clergy, who are fo op-
preffed by the Turks, that they are reduced to work
for their living. They keep Lent according to the
ancient rigour, eating but one meal a-day, and that
after mafs, which is laid at 4 o’clock in the afternoon.
Their prieds are didinguifhed by a blue fcarf, which
they wear about their caps. Married men may be¬
come prieds, but none may marry after he is in or¬
ders. They wear no furplices, oSferve particular fads
MAR [ 4453 ] MAR
Maroon, and feafts, and differ im many other things from the
^arot- church of Rome.
The patriarch of the Maronites is a monk of St
Anthony, claims the title of patriarch of Antioch,
and is always called Peter. He has about nine bifhops
under him ; and refides at Edem Canobin, a mona-
ftcry built on a rock. They read their fervice both
in the vulgar language and in Latin ; and, while they
perform it, turn their heads fometimes on one fide,
and fometimes on the other, pronouncing the word
Num or Eynam foftly, which fignifies yes, or yes
verily, by which they exprefs their aflent to what
they read. They have fo great a veneration for their
bilhops, that they often proflrate themfelves before
them.
In 1180, the Maronites were above 40,000 in num¬
ber, and very valiant. They did the kings of Jerufa-
lem great fervice again ft the Saracens.
Befides feveral convents of Maronite monks, there
is one of nuns, who are highly efteemed for their fanc-
tity. This edifice is no more than a church, in
which the nuns are fhut up clofe, like pigeons in their
holes, in little corners or cells, which are fo low, that
few of them can ftand upright or turn themfelves
round in them.
To MAROON, to put one or more failors afhore
upon a defolate ifland, under pretence of their having
committed feme great crime. This, deteftable expe¬
dient has been repeatedly pradfifed by fome inhuman
commanders of merchant-fhips, particularly in the
Weft Indies.
MAROT (Clement), the beft French poet of his
time, was born at Cahors in 1495 ; and was the fon
of John Marot, valet de chambre to Francis I. and
poet to queen Anne of Brittany, He enjoyed his
father’s place of valet de chambre to Francis I. and
was page to Margaret of France wife to the duke
of Alengon. In 1521* he followed that prince into
Italy, and was wounded and taken prifoner at the
battle of Pavia; but at his return to Paris was ac-
cufed of herefy, and thrown into prifon, from whence
he was delivered by the proteftion of king Francis I.
He at length retired to the queen of Navarre, then
to the duchefs of Ferrara, and in 1536 returned to
Paris ; but declaring openly for the Calviniits, he was
obliged to fly to Geneva, which he at length left,
and retired to Piedmont, and died at Turin in 1544,
aged 50. His verfes are agreeably filled with natural
beauties. La Fontaine acknowledged himfelf his dif-
ciple, and contributed greatly to reftore to vogue
the works of this ancient poet. Marot, befides his
other works, has tranflated part of the Pfalms into
verfe, which was continued by Beza, and are ftill
fung in the Proteftact churches abroad. —Michael
Marot, his fon, was alfo the author of fome verfes ;
but they are not comparable to thofe of John, and
much lefs to thofe of Clement Marot.—The works of
the three Marots were colle&ed and printed together
at the Hague, in 1731, in 3 vols 410. and in 6
vols i2mo.
MARPURG, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Germany, in the Upper Rhine, and in the landgra-
vate of Heffe-Caffel, with an univerfity, a caftle, a
palace, a handfome fquare, and a magnificent town-
houfe. It is feated on the river Lohn, in a pleafant
country, 15 miles fouth of Waldeck, and 47 fouth- Marpurg
weft of Caflel. E. Long. 8. 53. N. Lat. 50. 42. SI
Marpurg, a handfome town of Germany, in Lower arciue as*
Styria, feated on the river Drave, 25 miles fouth-weft
of Gratz, and 60 north-eaft of Laubach. E. Long.
16. 10. N. Lat. 46. 42.
MARQUARD (Freher), an eminent German ci¬
vilian, born at Augfburg in 1565. He ftudied at
Bourges, under the learned Cujas ; and acquired great
fkill in polite literature, and in the laws. At his re¬
turn to Germany, he became counfellor to the ele&or
Palatine, and profefibr of law at Heidelberg ; and was
afterwards fent by the eledfor Frederic IV. as his mi-
nifter, into Poland, to Mentz, and feveral other courts.
He died at Heidelberg in 1614. He wrote many
works which are efteemed ; the principal of which
are, 1. De re monetaria veterum Romanorum, is ho-
dierni apud Germanos imperii. 2. Rerum Bohemica-
rum feriptores. 3. Rerum Germanicarum feriptores.
4. Corpus hiftorix Francice, See.
MARQUE, or Letters of Marque, in military af¬
fairs, are letters of reprifal, granting the fubjedfs of
one prince or ftate liberty to make reprifals on thofe of
another.—They are fo called from the German marcke,
“ limit, frontier as being jus concejfum in alterius
principis marckas feu limitts tranfeundi, fibique ejus fa-
ciendi; as being a right of pafiing the limits or fron¬
tiers of another prince, and doing one’s felfjuftice.
Letters of marque among us are extraordinary com-
miffions granted by authority for reparation to mer¬
chants taken and defpoiled by ftrangers at fea ; and re¬
prifals is only the retaking, or taking of one thing for
another *. The form in thefe cafes is, the fufferer * See Prt^
muft firft apply to the lord privy-feal, and he {ha]lroiat've'
make out letters of requeft under the privy-feal; and
if, after fuch requeft of fatisfadtion made, the party
required do not, within convenient time, make due fa-
tisfadlion or reftitution to the party grieved, the lord
chancellor (hall make him out letters of marque under
the great fcal; and by virtue of thefe he may attack
and feize the property of the aggreffor nation, without
hazard of being condemned as a robber or pirate.
MARQUESAS islands, the name of certain
iflands in the South Sea, lying between eight and ten
degrees of fouth latitude, and between 139 and 140
degrees of weft longitude. They are five in number,
viz. La Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica, Santa
Chriftina, and Hood Ifland. All the natives of their
iflands may be fuppofed to be of the fame tribe. Thofe
fpots that are fit for culture are very populous; but as
every ifland is very mountainous, and has many inac-
cefiible and barren rocks, it is to be doubted whether
the whole population of this group amounts 1050,000
perfons. The Spaniards, who firft vifited here, found
the manners of this people gentle and inoffenfive ; but
thefe qualities did not prevent thofe who landed
from wantonly butchering feveral of the natives at
Magdalena.
The inhabitants of thefe iflands colleftively, fays
captain Cook, are, without exception, the fineft race
of people in the South-Sea. For fymmetry of (hape,
and regular features, they perhaps furpafs all other na¬
tions. Not a Angle deformed or ill-proportioned per-
fon was feen on the ifland; all were ftrong, tall, well-
limbed, and remarkably a£live. The men are about
MAR [ 4454 ] MAR
Marqnefas five feet ten or fix inches high; their teeth are not fo
good, nor are their eyes fo full and lively, as thofe of
many other nations: their hair is of many colours, but
none red ; fome have it long, but the molt general cu-
itom is to wear it Ihort, except a bunch on each fide
the crown, which they tie in a knot: their countenan¬
ces are pleafing, open, and full of vivacity : they are of
a tawny complexion, which is rendered almoft black
by pundlures over the whole body. They were entirely
naked, except a fmall piece of cloth round their waift
and loins. The pundtures were difpofed with the ut-
moll regularity^ fo that the marks on each leg, arm,
and cheek, were exadtly fimilar. The women, in
two days time, began to appear in confiderable num¬
bers, and the failors found them not lefs kind than
thofe of the other iflands which they had vilited: they
were inferior to the men in ftature, but well propor¬
tioned ; their general colour was brown ; no punc¬
tures were obferved upon them ; they wore a Angle
piece of cloth made of the mulberry bark, which co¬
vered them from the Ihoulders to the knees.
The principal head-drefs ufed in the iflands,and what
appear to be their chief ornament, is a fort of broad fillet,
curioufly made of the fibres of the hulks of cocoa-nuts;
in the front is fixed a mother-of pearl Ihell, wrought
round to the fize of a tea-faucer; before that another
fmaller, of very fine tortoife-lhell, perforated into cu¬
rious figures ; alfo before, and in the centre of that, is
another round piece of mother-of-pearl, about the fize
of half a crown ; and before this another piece of per¬
forated tortoife-lhell, the fize of a Ihilling. Befides
this decoration in front, fome have it alfo on each
fide, but in fmall pieces; and all have fixed to them
the tail-feathers of cocks, or tropic-birds, which when
the fillet is tied on Hand upright, fo that the whole
together makes a very fprightly ornament. They
wear round the neck a kind of ruff, or necklace, made
of light wood, the outward and upper fides covered
with fmall peas, which are fixed on with gum ; they
alfo wear fome bunches of human hair faftened to a
firing, and tied round the legs and arms. But all the
above ornaments are feldom feen on the fame perfon.
All thefe ornaments, except the laft, they freely part¬
ed with for a trifling conlideration ; but the human
hair they valued very highly, though thefe bunches
were the ufual refidence of many vermin. It is pro¬
bable, that thefe were worn in remembrance of their
deceafed relations, and therefore were looked upon
with fome veneration ; or they may be the fpoils of
their enemies, worn as the honourable tefiimonies of
vi&ory. However, a large nail, or fomething which
ftruck their eyes, commonly got the better of their
fcruples. The king, or chief of the ifland, came to
vifit captain Cook ; he was the only one feen com¬
pletely drefled in this manner. Their ordinary orna¬
ments are necklaces, and amulets made of fhells, &c.
All of them had their ears pierced, though none were
feen with ear-rings. The king had not much refpe£t
paid him by his attendants : he prefentedcaptain Cook
with fome fruit and hogs; and acquainted him that bis
name was Honoo, and that he was he-ka ai, which title
feems to correfpond with the aree of O-Taheitee, and
arekee of the Friendly Ifles. Their dwellings are in
the valleys, and on the fides of the hills near their plan¬
tations, They are built in the fame manner as thofe
at O-Taheitee, which will be particularly deferibed Marquefos,'
when we fpeak of that ifland; but they are much “
meaner, and are only covered with the leaves of the
bread-fruit tree : in general, they are built on a fquare
or oblong pavement of (lone, raifed forne height above
the level of the ground ; they likewife have fuch pave¬
ment near their houfes, on which they fit to eat and
amufe themfelvs. Along the uppermoft edge of the
mountain a row of flakes, or pallifadoes clofely con-
ne&ed together, were feen like a fortification, in which,
by the help of glafles, appeared fomething like huts,
which feemed to bear a great refemblance to the hip-
pas of New-Zealand, which will be deferibed in fpeak-
ing of that country. Their canoes refemble thofe of O-
Taheitee, but not fo large ; their heads had common¬
ly fome flat upright piece, on which the human face
was coarfely carved ; and their fails were made of
mats, triangular in fltape, and very broad at the top :
the paddles which they ufed were of heavy, hard wood,
fhort, but fliarp-pointed, and with a knob at the upper
end ; they were from 10 to 20 feet long, and about
15 inches broad.
Their weapons were all made of the club-wood, or
cafuarina; and were either plain fpears about 8 or jo
feet long, or clubs which commonly had a knob at
one end. They have alfo flings with which they throw
ftones with great velocity, and to a great diftance, but
not with a good aim.
The language of thefe people is much nearer to
that of O-Taheitee, than any other dialedt in the
South-Sea, except that they could not pronounce the
letter r.
The only quadrupeds feen here were hogs, except
rats; here were fowls, and feveral fmall birds in the
woods, whofe notes were very melodious. The chief
difference between the. inhabitants of the Marquefas
and thofe of the Society-Iflands, feems to confirt in
th^ir different degrees of cleanlinefs: the former do
not bathe two or three times a-day, nor wafh their
hands and face before and after every meal, as the
latter do; and they are befides very flovenly in the
manner of preparing their meals. Their diet is chiefly
vegetable; though they have hogs and fowls, and catch
abundance of fifh at certain times. Their drink is pure
water, cocoa-nuts being fcarce here.
It was not long before the propenfity of the natives
was difeovered to be, rather to receive than give; for
when they had taken a nail as the price of a bread¬
fruit, the article fo purchafed could not be obtained
from them. To remove this diflioneft difpofition,
captain Cooke ordered a mufleet to be fired over
their heads, which terrified them into fair-dealing.
Soon after the natives had gathered courage enough
to venture on board the fliip, one of them unfortu¬
nately ftole an iron ftanchion from the gang-way,
with which he fprang into the fea, and, notwithftand-
ing its weight, fwam with it to his canoe, and was
making to the fliore with all fpeed. A mufleet was
fired over his head to frighten him back, but to no
effeft, he ftill continued to make off with his booty ;
the whiftling of another ball over his head was as in-
effe&ual: an officer, lefs patient of fuch an injury than
reafon and humanity fliould have taught him to be, le¬
velled a mufleet at the poor fellow, and (hot him thro’
the head. Captain Cook had given orders to fire over
MAR [ 4455 ] MAR
Marquefas, the canoe, but not to kill any one; he was in a boat,
Marquetry. an(j came Up can0e foon after. There were
 twe men in her: one fat bailing out the blood and wa¬
ter in a kind of hyfteric laugh; the other, a youth
of about 14 or 15 years of age, who afterwards pro¬
ved to be the fon of the deceafed, fixed his eyes on
the dead body with a ferious and dejefted countenance.
This a& of feverity, however, did not eftrange the
i{landers to the fliip, and a traffic was carried on to the
fatisfaflion of both parties; bread-fruit, bananas, plan¬
tains, and fome hogs, were given in exchange for fmall
nails, knives, and pieces of Amfterdam cloth ; red fea¬
thers of the Amlterdam-Ifland were, greatly efteemed
here. Captain Cook, accompanied with the gentle¬
men of the fliip, in their walks about the country lit
on the houfe which had been the habitation of the
man who had been (hot; there they found bis fon,
who fled at their approach : they inquired for his fe¬
male relations, and were told that they remained at
the top of the mountain, to weep and mourn for the
dead. Notwithftanding they were then among the re¬
lations of a man who had been killed by them, not the
leaft tokens of animofity, or revenge, were difcernible
among the natives.
The weather being extremely hot, the inhabitants
made ufe of large fans to cool themfelves, of which
great numbers were purchafed ; thefe fans were
formed of a kind of tough bark, or grafs, very
firmly and curioufly plaited, and frequently whitened
with (hell-lime. Some had large feathered leaves of
a kind of palm, which anfwered the purpofe of an
umbrella.
The natives at length became fo familiar as to
mount the fides of the (hip in great numbers. They
frequently danced upon deck for the diverfion of
the failors: their dances very much refembled thofe
of O-Taheitee; their mufic too was very much the
fame.
A failor having been inattentive to his duty, recei¬
ved feveral blows from captain Cook ; on feeing which,
the natives exclaimed, tape-a beite tin a, “ he beats
his brother.” From other inftances that had occurred,
it was clear that they knew the difference between the
commander and his people, but at the fame time they
conceived them all brethren ; and, fays Mr Forfter,
“ to me the mod; natural inference is, that they only
applied an idea to us in this cafe, which really exifted
with regard to themfelves ; they probably look on
themfelves as one family, of which the eldeft born is
the chief or king.”
MARQUETRY, in-laid work; a curious kind
of work, compofed of pieces of hard fine wood of dif¬
ferent colours, faftened, in thin dices, on a ground,
and fometimes enriched with other matters, as tortoife-
fhell, ivory, tin, and brafs.
There is another kind of marquetry made, infteadof
wood, of glades of various colours; and a third,
where nothing but precious (tones, and the richeft
marbles, are ufed : but thefe are more properly called
mofaic •work. See Mosaic.
The art of inlaying is very ancient; and is fuppofed
to have pafled from the eaft to the weft, as one of the
fpoils brought by the Romans from Ada. Indeed it
was then but a Ample thing ; nor did it arrive at any
tolerable perfeftion, till the 15th century, among the
Vol. VI.
Italians: It feems, however, to have arrived at its Marquetry,
height in the 17th century, among the French. ————
Till John of Verona, a cotemporary with Raphael,
the fined: works of this kind were only black and
white, which are what we now call Morefco’s; but
that religious, who had a genius for painting, (tained
his woods with dyes or boiled oils, which penetrated
them. But he went no further than the reprefenting
buildings and perfpeftives, which require no great va¬
riety of colours. Thofe who fucceeded him, not only
improved on the invention of dyeing the woods, by a
fecret which they found of burning them without con-
fuming, which ferved exceedingly well for the fha-
dows ; but had alfo the advantage of a number of fine
new woods of naturally bright colours, by the difeo-
very of America. With thefe affiftances the art is
now capable of imitating any thing; whence fome
call it the art of painting in 'wood.
The ground whereon the pieces are to be ranged
and glued, is •rdinarily of oak or fir well dried ; and
to prevent warping, is compofed of feveral pieces glu¬
ed together. The wood to be ufed, being reduced into
leaves, of the thicknefs of a line, is either ftained with
fome colour, or made black for (hadow ; which fome
effed by putting it in fand extremely heated over the
fire, others by fteeping it in lime-water and fublimate,
and others in oil offulphur.—Thus coloured, the con¬
tours of the piece are formed, according to the parts of
the defign they are to reprefent.
The laft is the moft difficult part of marquetry, and
that wherein moft patience and attention are required.
The two chief inftruments ufed herein are the faw and
the vice ; the one, to hold the matters to be formed;
the other, to take off from the extremes, according to
occafion. The vice is of wood, having one of its
chaps fixed, the other moveable, and is opened and
(hut by the foot, by means of a cord faftened to a
treadle. Its ftru&ure is very ingenious, yet Ample
enough.
The leaves to be formed (for there are frequently
three or four of the fame kind formed together) are
put within the chaps of the vice, after being glued on
the outermoft part of the defign whofe profile they are
to follow ; then the workmen preffing the treadle, and
thus holding faft the piece, with his law runs over all
the out-lines of the defign.—By thus joining and form¬
ing three or four pieces together, they not only gain
time, but the matter is likewife the better enabled to
fuftain the efforts of the faw; which, how delicate
foever it may be, and how lightly foever the work¬
man may conduft it, without fuch a precaution, would
be apt to raife fplinters, to the ruin of the beauty of
the work.
When the work is to confift of one fingle kind of
wood, or of tortoife-ftiell, on a copper or tin ground,
or vice verfa ; they only form two leaves on one ano¬
ther, i. e. a leaf of metal, and a leaf of wood or (hell:
this they callfa’wing in counter-parts; for by filling the
vacuities of one of the leaves by the pieces coming out
of the other, the metal may ferve as a ground to the
wood, and the wood to the metal.
All the pieces thus formed with the faw, and marked
to know them again, and the (hadow given in the man¬
ner already mentioned ; they vaneer or fallen each in
its place on the common ground ; ufing for that pur-
25 G pofc
Marquis
i!
Marriage.
M A R [ 4456 ] M A R
pofe the bed Englifh glue.
The whole is pm in a prefs to dry, planed over, and
polifhed with the Ikin of the fea-dog, wax, and fhave-
grafs, as in fimple vatfeering ; with this difference, how¬
ever, that in marquetry the fine branches, and feveral
of the more delicate parts of the figures, are touched
up and finifhed with a graver.
It is the cabinet-makers, joiners, and toy-men
among us, who work in marquetry ; it is the enamel-
lers and done-cutters, who deal in mofaic work : the
indruments ufed in the former are modly the fame
with thofe ufed by the ebonifts.
MARQUIS* a title of honour, next in dignity to
that of duke. His office is to guard the frontiers and
limits of the kingdom, which were called the marchesy
from the Teutonic word marche, a limit : as, in par¬
ticular, were the marches of Wales and Scotland, while
they continued hodile to England. The perfons who
bad command there, were called lords marchers, or
marquejfes ; whofe authority was aboliihed by datute
27 Hen. VIII. c. 27. though the title had long be¬
fore been made a mere defign of honour, Robert Vere
earl of Oxford being created marquis of Dublin by
Richard II. in the eighth year of his reign. A mar¬
quis is created by patent; his mantle is double ermine,
three doublings and a half; his title is mojl noble; and
his coronet has pearls and drawberry-leaves intermix¬
ed round, of equal height.
MARR, that part of Aberdeenfhire fituated be¬
tween the rivers Dee and Don.
MARRIAGE, a contraft, both civil and religious,
between a man and a woman, by which they engage
to live together in mutual love and friendfhip for the
ends of procreation, &c. See Moral Philosophy,
n° 125, &c.
The fird inhabitants of Greece lived together with¬
out marriage. Cecrops, king of Athens, was the fird
author of this honourable inditution among that
people. After the commonwealths of Greece were
fettled, marriage was very much encouraged by their
laws ; and the abdaining from it was difcountenanced,
and in many places punifhed. The Lacedaemonians
were particularly remarkable for their feverity towards
thofe who deferred marrying, as well as to thofe who
wholly abdained from it. The Athenians had an ex-
prefs law, that all commanders, orators, and perfons
entruded with any public affair, diould be married
men. Polygamy, or the having more than one wife at
a time, w'as not commonly tolerated in Greece. See
Polygamy.
The time of marriage was not the fame in all places;
the particular number of years to which they were li¬
mited, depended upon the humour of each lawgiver,
nothing being generally agreed on this matter.
The Greeks thought it fcandalous to contraft mar¬
riage within certain degrees of confanguinity ; while
mod of the barbarous nations allowed inceduous mix¬
tures. Mod of the Grecian dates required that citi¬
zens ftiould match with none but citizens; and the chil¬
dren were not allowed to marry without the confent
©f their parents : when there were orphan-virgins with¬
out any inheritance, the next of kin was obliged to
marry them, or to fettle a portion on them according
to his quality.
The Romans, as well as the Greeks, difallowed of
polygamy. A Roman might not marry any woman
who was not a Roman. It was thought difhonour-
able for a woman to marry twice. Among the Ro¬
mans, the kalends, nones, and ides, of each month
were thought unlucky to be married in, as was alfo
the fead of the parentalia, or feralia, and the whole
month of May was reckoned the mod unhappy feafon.
We find but few laws in the books of Mofes con¬
cerning the inditution of marriage : he redrained the
Ifraeiicesfrom marrying within certain degrees of con¬
fanguinity ; but we find that polygamy, though not
exprefsly allowed, is however tacitly implied in the laws
of Mofes: there is a particular law that obliged a man,
whofe brother died without iffue, to marry his widow,
and raife up children to his brother. The Hebrews
purchafed their wives, by paying down a competent
dowry for them ; and a man was at liberty to marry,
not only in any of the 12 tribes, but even out of
them, provided it was with fuch nations as ufed cir-
cumcifion.
The ancient Chridian church laid feveral redraints
upon her members in relation to marriage; fuch was
the rule forbidding Chridians to marry with infidels and
heathens: another redraint related to the confanguinity
and affinity prohibited in Scripture: a third was, that
children under age fhould not marry without the con-
fent of their parents, guardians, or next relations: and
another was, that there fhould be forae parity of con¬
dition between the contracting parties. They not
only condemned polygamy, but even reckoned it un¬
lawful to marry after a divorce. As to the feafon in
which marriage might or might not be celebrated in
the Chridian church, all we find is, that it was for¬
bidden in Lent. The Romifh church requires of the
clergy perpetual abdinence from marriage ; and has
advanced this inditution to the dignity of a facrament.
The church of England, though die does not confider
marriage as a facrament, yet looks upon it as an inditu¬
tion fo facred, as that it ought always to be celebrated
by an ecclefiadical perfon ; but marriages, without
this fanftion, are not therefore null and void. There
is no canon of this church, which forbids marriages to
be folemnized at any time. The canonical hours for
celebrating of matrimony, are from eight to twelve in
the forenoon. The impediments to marriage are fpeci-
fied in canon 102 of the Englifh church, and are thefe:
I. A preceding marriage or contrad, or any con-
troverfy or fuit depending on the fame. 2. Confan¬
guinity or affinity. 3. Want of confent of parents,
or guardians, &c.
Marriage, according to our law, cannot be diffolved
but by death, breach of faith, or other notorious mif-
behaviour. It is requilite to complete a marriage,
that there be a free and mutual confent between the
parties. The marriages performed by Romidi priefts,
whofe orders are acknowledged by the church of
England, are deemed good in fome indances ; but
they ought to be folemnifed agreeable to the rites of
our own church, to be intitled to the benefits attend¬
ing on marriage here, fuch as dower, thirds, &c. A
marriage in reputation, as among the quakers, is al¬
lowed to be fufficient to give title to a perfonal edate;
though in the ca! of a perfon married by a diffcnting
minider, who was not in orders, it has been held, that
where a hufband demands a right due to him as fuch
Marriage.
.Marriage.
MAR [ 4457 ] MAR
by the ecclefiaftical law, he ought to prove himfelf a
bufband, thereby to be intitled to it; and yet this
marriage is not altogether a nullity, becaufe, by the
laws of nature, the contraA is binding. On a pro-
mife of marriage, if it be mutual on both fides, da¬
mages may be recovered in cafe either party refufes to
marry: and though no time for the marriage be agreed
on, if the plaintiff aver that he offered to marry the
defendant, who refufed it, an action is maintainable
for the damages; but no a&ion fhall be brought upon
@ny agreement, except it is in writing, and figned by
the party to be charged.
For the better preventing clandeftine marriages,
and the inconveniences arifing therefrom, an a£t of
parliament was paffed, wherein the following regu¬
lations were made, viz. That from and after March 25,
1754, banns of matrimony fhall be publifhcd in the
parifh-church, or fome public chapel belonging to the
parifh wherein the parties dwell, upon three Sundays
before the marriage, during the time of fervice, im¬
mediately after the fecond leffon: and where the par¬
ties dwell in different parifhes, the banns fhall be pub-
lifhed in both; and the marriage fhall be folemnifed
in the church or chapel wherein the banns were pub-
lifhed, and no-where elfe: and it is alfo required,
that both or either of the parties to be married, do
refide four weeks at leaft in the parifh where the banns
are publifhed. Nothing in this aft deprives the arch-
bifhop of Canterbury of his ufual right of granting
fpecial licenfes to marry at any convenient time or
place. All marriages folemnized contrary to the fore-
faid regulations, fhall be void; and the perfon folem-
nizing the fame, fhall be adjudged guilty of felony,
and be tranfported for 14 years to his majefty’s colo¬
nies. Marriages folemnized by licenfe, where either
of the parties (not being a widow or widower,) fhall
be under age,. without the confent of the father firlt
had (if living), or of the guardians or one of them,
and, where there fhall be no guardians, of the mother
(if living and unmarried), or of the guardian ap¬
pointed by chancery, (hall be void to all intents and
purpofes. Where any fuch guardian fhall be «a«
compos mentis, or in parts beyond the fea, or fhall re-
fufe their confent to a proper match, the party may
apply by petition to the lord-chancellor, lord-keeper,
or lords commiflioners of the great feal, who fhall
proceed on fuch a petition in a fummary way; and
where the marriage propofed fhall appear to be pro¬
per, they fhall judicially declare the fame to be fo by
an order of court, which fliall be deemed effeftual.
All marriages fhall be folemnizcd in the prefence of
two or more creditable witneffes befides the minifter ;
and an entry thereof fhall be immediately made in a
regitter kept for that purpofe. This aft fhall not ex¬
tend to the marriages of any of the royal family, nor to
Scotland, nor to thofe perfons called quakers, nor thofe
profefiing the Jewifh religion. See Law, n0 clx.
Policy of encouraging Marriage. Dr Halley ob-
ferves, that the growth and increafe of mankind is
not fo much ftinted by any thing in the nature of the
fpecies, as it is from the cautious difficulty moft people
make to adventure on the ftate of marriage, from the
profpeft of the trouble and charge of providing for a
family: nor are the poorer fort of people herein to be
blamed, who, betides themfelvea and families, are
obliged to work for the proprietors of the lands that Marrow
feed them; and of fuch does the greater part of man- II
kind con tiff. Were it not for the backwardnefs to Mar a -
marriage, there might be four times as many births as
we find ; for by computation from the table given
under the article Mortality, there are 15,000 per¬
fons above 16 and under 45, of which at leaft 7000
are women capable of bearing children; yet there are
only 1238, or little more than a fixth part of thefe,
that breed yearly: whereas, were they all married, it
is highly probable that four of fix fhould bring forth
a child every year, the political confequences of which
are evident. Therefore, as the ftrength and glory of
a kingdom or ftate confifts in the multitude of fub-
jefts, celibacy above all things ought to be difcou-
raged, as by extraordinary taxing or military fervice:
and, on the contrary, thofe who have numerous fami¬
lies fhould be allowed certain privileges and immuni¬
ties, like the Jus triurn liberorum among the Romans;
and efpecially, by effeftually providing for the fubfift-
ence of the poor.
MARROW, in anatomy, a foft oleaginous fub-
ftance contained in the cavity of the bones. Sec Ana¬
tomy, n° 5.
MARRUBIUM, white horehound; a genus of
the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia
clafs of plants. There are nine fpecies, the moft re¬
markable of which is the vulgare, a native of Britain,
growing naturally in wafte places, and by way-fides
near towns and villages, but not common. It has a
ftrong and fomewhat mufky fmell, and bitter tafte.
It is reputed attenuant and refolvent; an infufion of
the leaves in water, fwcetened with honey, is recom¬
mended in afthmatical and phthifical complaints, and
moft other difeafes of the breaft and lungs.
MARS, in aftronomy. See there, n° 4. 22. 44. 151.
Mars, in Pagan worfhip, the god of war. He
was, according to fome, the fon of Jupiter and Juno;
while others lay that he was the fon of Juno alone,
who, being difpleafed at Jupiter’s having produced
Minerva from his brain, in revenge conceived by-
touching a flower, and became the mother of this
formidable deity. The amours of Mars and Venus,
and the manner in which Vulcan caught and expofed
them to the laughter of the other gods, have been
deferibed by feveral of the ancient poets. He is re-
prefented as having feveral wives and miftreffes, and a
confiderable number of children. He was held in the
higheft veneration by the Romans, both from his be¬
ing the father of Romulus their founder, and from
their inclination to conqueft ; and bad magnificent
temples erefted to him at Rome.
Mars is ufually reprefented in a chariot, drawn by
furious horfes. He is completely armed ; and ex¬
tends his fpear with the one hand, and grafps a
(word, imbrued in blood, with the other. He has a
fierce and favage afpeft. Difcord is reprefented pre¬
ceding his car; and Clamour, Fear, and Terror, ap¬
pear in his train. The viftims facrificed to him were
the wolf, the horfe, the wood-pecker, the vulture, and
the cock.
Mars, among chemifts, denotes iron; that metal
being fuppofed to be under the influence of the planet
Mars.
MARSAL, a town of France, in Lorrain, re-
25 G ? markable
MAR [ 445 § ] MAR
Marfal* markable for its falt-works; feated in a marfh* on the
I river Selle, of difficult accefs, which, together with the
fortifications, render it an important place. E. Long.
6. 43. N. Lat. 48. 46.
MARSALA, an ancient and ftrong town of Sicily,
in the valley of Mazara. It is well peopled, and
built on the ruins of the ancient Lilybceum. E. Long.
12. 37. N. Lat. 37.52.
MARSAN, or Mount-Marsan, a town of France,
in Gafcony, and capital of a fmall territory of the
fame name, fertile in wine ; feated on the river Mi-
dufe, in W. Long. o. 39. N. Lat. 44. o.
MARSAQUIVER, or Marsalquiver, a ftrong
and ancient town of Africa, on the coaft of Barbary,
and in the province of Beni-Arax, in the kingdom of
Tremefen, with one of the belt harbours in Africa. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1732. It is feated on a
rock near a bay of the fea, in W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
35- 4°-
MARSEILLES, a ftrong fea port town, and the
moft rich and trading place of Provence, in France.
Here is a good harbour, where the French galleys are
ftationed; for it will not admit large men of war. It
is divided into the Old Town and the New: in the
Old, the houfes are not fo well built as in the other.
They are feparated by a ftreet, bordered by trees on
each fide. It is faid to contain 100,000 inhabitants.
It is one of the moft trading towns in France, to
which its harbour contributes, which has a chain
acrofs its mouth. Without the walls is the caftle of
Notre Dame, which is very well fortified. It is a
bifhop’s fee, and there is a Trench academy, it having
been noted at all times for men of learning. In 1660,
Lewis XIV. built the citadel and fort St John to
keep the inhabitants in awe, becaufe they pretended
to be free. The Jefuits had a very fine obfervatory
here; and in the arfenal, built not long ago, there
are arms for 40,000 men. In the Houfe of Difcipline
they weave gold, filver, and filk brocades. They
reckon 2000 country-houfes round Marfeilles, where
the inhabitants go in fummer to take the air. The
public buildings are very handfome ; and the fineft
drugs are brought thither from all parts of the world.
It is feated on the north ftiore of the Mediterranean, in
E. Long. 4. 27. N. Lat. 43. 18.
MARSH (Narciffus), an exemplary Iriffi prelate,
born at Hannington in Wiltffiire in 1638. He was
made principal of St Alban’s hall, Oxford, in J673,
but removed to the provoftfhip of Dublin college in
1678. He was promoted to the bilhopric of Leighlin
and Ferns in 1682, tranflated to the archbilhopric of
Caffiel in 1690, to Dublin in 1694, and to Armagh
in 1703. While he held the fee of Dublin, he built
a noble library for the ufe of the public, filled it with
choice books, and fettled a provifion for two libra¬
rians. He repaired, at his own expence, feveral de¬
cayed churches, befides buying in and reftoring many
impropriations, and prefenting a great number of
oriental MSS. to the Bodleian library. He was a
very learned and accomplifhed man ; was well verfed
in facred and prophane literature, in mathematics,
natural philofophy, the learned languages, efpecially
the oriental, and in both the theory and pradiice
of mufic. He publifiied, 1. Injiitutiones logic*.
2. ManuducUo ad logic am t written by Philip de
Trieu; to which he added the Greek text of Ari- Marfli
ftotle, and fome fome tables and fchemes. 3. An ll ■{
introdudlory efiay on the dodtrine of founds, &c. He
died in 1713.
MARSH, fignifies a piece of ground flowed with
water, yet fo that the grafs and other vegetables
rife above the furface of the water, and, by their
decaying, give rife to putrid effluvia, which are very
pernicious to the human body.
MARSHAL, in its primary fignification, means
an officer who has the command or care of horfes;
but it is now applied to officers who have very diffe¬
rent employments, as earl-marjhal, knight-marjhal,
marjhal of the king's houfe, &c.
Marshal of the King's-bench, an officer who ha*
the cuftody of the King’s-bench prifon in Southwark.
This officer is obliged to give his attendance, and to
take into his cuftody all perfons committed by that
court.
Marshal of the Exchequer, an officer to whom that
court commits the king’s debtors.
Marshal of the King's Hall, an officer who has the
care of placing the houfehold fervants and ftrangers at
table, according to their quality.
Marshal or Marefchal of France, an officer of
the greateft dignity in the French armies. When
two or more marffials are in the army, the eldeft
commands.
Marshal (Thomas), a very learned Engliffi divine
in the 17th century, was educated at Oxford. This
city being garrifoned upon the breaking out of the
civil wars, he bore arms for the king. Afterward he
had feveral fucceffive preferments in the church; and
died at Lincoln-college, of which he was redfor. By
his will he left all his books and MSS. to the univer-
fity of Oxford, and money to Lincoln-college for the
maintenance of three fcholars. He was a noted critic,
efpecially in the Gothic and Englifh-Saxon tongues;
and eminent for his piety and other valuable qualities.
He wrote, 1. Obfervationes in Evangeliorurn verfiones
per antiques duos, Goth, fcilicet <fo Anglo-Sax. &c.
2. Notes on the church-catechifm, See.
MARSHALLING a Coat, in heraldry, is the
difpofal of feveral coats of arms belonging to diftindt
families in one and the fame cfcutcheon or ftiield, toge¬
ther with their ornaments, parts, and appurtenances.
See Heraldry, chap. vi. p. 3610.
MARSHALSEA (the Court of), and the Palace-
court at Weftminfter, though two diftinft courts, are
frequently confounded together. The former was
originally holden before the fteward and marfhal of
the king’s houfe, and was inftituted to adminifter
juftice between the king’s domeftic fervants, that they
might not be drawn into other courts, and thereby
the king lofe their fervice. It was formerly held in,
though not a part of, the aula regis; and, when that
was fubdivided, remained a diftinct jurifdi&ion: hold¬
ing plea of all trefpaffes committed within the verge
of the court, where only one of the parties is in the
king’s domeftic fervice, (in which cafe the inqueft
fliall be taken by a jury of the country); and of all
debts, contradfs and covenants, where both of the
contracting parties belong to the royal houfehold;
and then the inqueft fttail be compofcd of men of the
houfehold only. By the ftatute of 13 Ric. II. ft. 1.
e* y
MAR [ 4459 ] MAR
Marflialfca c. 3. (In affirmance of the common law,) the verge of
. the court in this refptft extends for 12 miles round
Marf'sl1' the king’s place of refidence. And, as this tribunal
was never fubjedl to the jurifdi&iori of the chief jufti-
ciary, no writ of error lay from it (though a court of
record) to the king’s-bench, but only to parliament,
till the ftatutes of 5 Edw. III. c. 2. and toEdw. III.
ft. 2. c. 3. which allowed fuch writ of error before the
king in his place. But this court being ambulatory,
and obliged to follow the king in all his progreffes,
fo that by the removal of the houfehold, aftions were
frequently difcontinued, and doubts having arifen as
to the extent of its jurifdi&ion, king Charles I. in the
fixth year of his reign, by his letters-patent eredted a
new court of record, called the curia palatii, orpalace-
court, to be held before the fteward of the houfehold
and knight-marfhal, and the fteward of the court, or
his deputy; with jurifdi&ion to hold plea of all man¬
ner of perfonal adtions whatfoever, which fhall arife
between any parties within 12 miles of his majefty’s
palace at Whitehall. The court is now held once a
week, together with the ancient court of marfhalfea,
in the borough of Southwark: and a writ of error
lies from thence to the court of king’s-bench. But
if the caufe is of any confiderable confequence, it is
ufually removed on its firft commencement, together
with the cuftody of the defendant, either into the
king’s-bench or common-pleas by a writ of habeas
corpus cum caufa: and the inferior bufinefs of the
court hath of late years been much reduced, by the
new courts of confcience eredled in the environs of
Eondon ; in confideration of which the four counfel
belonging to thefe courts had falaries granted them
for their lives by the flat. 23 Geo. II. c. 27.
MARSHAM (Sir John), a very learned Englifti
writer in the 17th century. He ftudied the law in
the Middle Temple, and was fworn one of the fix
clerks in the court of chancery in 1638. In the be¬
ginning of the civil wars he followed the king to Ox¬
ford ; for which he was fequeflered of his place by the
parliament at Weftminfter, and plundered. After
the declining of the king’s affairs, he returned to
London ; compounded, among other royalifts, for his
real eftate ; and betook himfelf wholly to his ftudies
and a retired life, the fruits of which were fome ex¬
cellent works. He wrote Diatriba Chronologica; Chro-
nicus Canon, JEgyptiacus, Ebraicus, Grtecus, &c. He
died in 1685.
MARSHMALLOW, in botany. See Althjea.
MARSICO nuovo, a final], rich, and handfome
town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the
Hither Principato, with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated
at the foot of the Appenines, near the river Agri, in
E. Long. 15.49. N. Lat. 20. 42.
MARSIGLI (Lewis Ferdinand, count), an Ita¬
lian famous for letters as well as arms, was defcended
from an ancient and noble family, and born at Bo¬
logna in 1658. He acquired 3 great knowledge in
the art of war and fortification; ferved under the em¬
peror Leopold II. againft the Turks, by whom he
was taken prifoner in 1683, but redeemed after a
year’s captivity. In the Spanifh fucceffion war, Mar-
figli, then advanced to the rank of marlhal, being in
the fortrefs of Brifac, which furrendered to the duke
ef Burgundy in 1703, when the place was deemed
capableof holding out much longer; the count d’Arco Maifhm
who commanded was beheaded, and Marfigli, ftripped .. H.
of all his commiffions, had his fword broke over him. arta an*
He now fought for "confolation in thefciences; as,
amidft all the hurry and fatigue of war, he had made
all the advantages the moll philofophic man could do,
who had travelled purely in queft of knowledge. He
had a rich colledlion of every thing proper to the ad¬
vancement of natural knowledge, inftruments aftro-
nomical and chemical, plans of fortification, models of
machines, &c. all which be prefented to the fenate of
Bologna by an authentic adt in 1712, forming at the
fame time out of them what he called the injiitute of
the arts and fciences at Bologna. He alfo founded a
printing-houfe, and furnifhed it with the bell types
for Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, which he
prefented in 1728 to the Dominicans at Bologna, on
condition of their printing all the writings of the in¬
jiitute at prime coft: this was called the printing-houfe
of St Thomas Aquinas. His writings on philofophical
fubjects are numerous and valuable, in Latin, Italian,
and French: he died in 1730.
MARSTON (John), an Engliffi dramatic writer,
who lived in the time of James I. Wood fays he was
a ftudcnt in Corpus Chrifti college, Oxford ; but we
neither know his family, nor the time of his birth.
He contributed eight plays to the ftage, which were
all a&ed at Black-friars with applaufe; and one of
them, called the Dutch Courtezan, was once revived
fince the Reftoration, under the title of the Revenge,
or a Match in Newgate. There is no account when
he died; but we find his works were publifhed after
his death by Shakefpeare, and may thence reafonably
conclude that it happened about the year 1614. He
was a chafte and pure writer; avoiding all that ob-
fcenity, ribaldry, and fcurrility, which too many
of the play-wrights of that time, and indeed much
more fo in fome periods fince, have made the bafis
of their wit, to the great difgrace and fcandal of the
ftage.
MARSYAS, in fabulous hiftory, a Phrygian who
excelled in playing on the flute. Arriving at Nyfa,
he prefumed to difpute with Apollo the prize of
mufic: but that god, finging to his lyre, was de¬
creed the conqueror; when, being enraged at Mar-
fyas’s prefumption, he had him tied to an oak, and
flead alive. Apollo afterwards changed him into a
river of Phrygia, which was -therefore called by his
name. See Apollo.
MART, a great fair held every year for buying
and felling goods. Public marts, or places of buying
and felling, fuch as markets and fairs, with the tolls
thereunto belonging, can only be fet up by virtue of
the king’s grant, or by long and immemorial ufage
and prefcription, which prtfuppofes fuch a grant. The
limitation of thefe public reforts, to fuch tjme and
place as may be moll convenient for the neighbour¬
hood, forms a part of ceconomics, or domeftic polity;
which, confidering the kingdom as a large family, and
the king as the mailer of it, he has clearly a right to
difpofe and order as he pleafes.
MARTABAN, a province of Afia in the kingdom
of Pegu, lying in the gulph of Bengal. It is a coun¬
try that produces rice and all kinds of fruits proper
to the climate. It has miftes of feveral forts of me¬
tals,.
MAR [ 4460 ] MAR
Martha and carries on a great trade. The chief town,
II. which is of the fame name, is rich, handfome, and very
—populous, with a good harbour. E. Long, 97. 50.
N. Lat. 15. 3 5.
MARTHA (St.), a province of South America,
on the coaft of Terra Firma, bounded on the north by
the North Sea, on the eaft by Rio de la Hache, on
the fouth by New-Granada, and on the weft by
Carthagena. It is 300 miles in length and 200 in
breadth, is a mountainous country, and the land very
high. Here begins the famous ridge of mountains
called the Cordilleras des los Andes, which run from
north to fouth the whole length of the continent of
South America. It is extremely hot on the fea-coaft;
but cold in the internal parts, on account of the moun¬
tains. It abounds with the fruits proper to the cli¬
mate; and there are mines of gold and precious ftones,
as alfo fait-works. The Spaniards poflefs but one part
of this province, in which they have built Martha the
capital. The air about the town iswholefome; and is
feated near the fca, having a harbour furrounded with
high mountains. It was formerly very confiderable
when the galleons were fent thither, but is now come
almoft to nothing. W. Long. 74. 11. N. Lat. 11.
20.
Martha (St.) or Sierra Nevada, a very high
mountain in New Spain. Some fay it is 100 miles in
circumference at the bottom, and five miles in height.
. The top is always covered with fnow in the hotteft
weather ; and the French affirm, that they can per¬
ceive it from the ifland of St Domingo, which is 370
miles diftant. W. Long. 74. 35. N. Lat. 8. o.
Martha’/ Vineyard, an ifland of North America
near the coaft of New-England, 80 miles fouth of
Bofton. The inhabitants apply themfelves chiefly to
their filheries, in which they have great fuccefs. W.
Long. 70. 35. N. Lat. 41. o.
MARTIAL law, is the law of war that depends
upon the juft but arbitrary will and pleafure of the
king, or his lieutenant: for though the king doth not
make any laws but by common coufent in parliament,
yet, in time of war, by reafon of the neceffity of it
to guard againft dangers that often arife, he ufeth ab-
folute power-, fo that his word is a law. Smith de Re-
puh. Angl. lib. 2. c. 4.
Buc the martial law, (according to Chief Juftice
Hale), is in reality not a law, but fomething indul¬
ged rather than allowed as a law; and it relates only to
members of the army, being never intended to be ex¬
ecuted on others, who ought to be ordered and go¬
verned by the laws to which they are fubjeft, tho’ it
be a time of war. And the exercife of martial law,
whereby any perfon might lofe his life, or member, or
liberty, may not be permitted in time of peace, when
the king’s courts are open for all perfons to receive ju¬
ftice.
MARTIALIS (Marcus Valerius), a famous La¬
tin poet, born at Bilbilis, now called Bubiera, in the
kingdom of Arragon in Spain, was of the order of
knights. He went to Rome at the age of 21, and (laid
there 35 years, under the reign of Galba and the fuc-
ceeding emperors, till that of Trajan ; and having ac¬
quired the efteem of Titus and Domitian, he was
created tribune. At length, finding that he was ne¬
glected by Trajan, he returned to his own country
Bilbilis, where he married a wife, and had the hap- Martlguet
pinefs to live with her feveral years. He admires and
commends her much, telling her that flic alone was »rtiinco,
fufficient to fupply the want of every thing he enjoyed
at Rome, “ Romarn tu mihi fola facts," fays he, in
the 21 ft epigram of the 12th book. She appears like-
wife to have been a lady of a very large fortune ; for,
in the 31ft epigram of the fame book, he extols the
magnificence of the houfe and gardens he had received
from her, and fays that flic had made him a little kind
of monarch.”
Munera funt domino : pojl feptima lujlra reverfo.
Has Marcella domos, parvaque regna dealt.
There are ftill extant 14 books of his epigrams, filled
with points, a play upon words, and obfeenities.
The ftyle is affeded. However, fome of his epigrams
are excellent ; many of them are of the middling kind;
but the greateft part of them are bad : fo that Mar¬
tial never fpoke a greater truth, than when he faid of
his own works,
Sunt bona, funt quadam mediocra, funt mala plura.
There is alio attributed to him a book on the fpec-
tacles of the amphitheatre ; but the molt learned cri¬
tics think that this lart work was not written by Mar¬
tial. The beft editions of Martial are, that in Ufum
Delphinii 410, Paris, 1617, and that cum Noth Va~
riorum.
MARTIGUES, a fea-port town of France, in Pro¬
vence, with the title of a principality; feated near a
lake 12 miles long and five broad, which is navigable
throughout, and from whence they get excellent fait.
E. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 43. 28.
MARTIN (St.),afmall but ftrong town of France,
in the ifle of Rhee, with a harbour and a ^rong cita¬
del, fortified after the manner of Vauban. The ifland
lies near the coaft of Poitou. W. Long. 1. o. N. Lat.
45.40. ... I
Cape Martin, a promontory of Valencia in Spain,
near a town called Denia, and feparates the gulph of
Valencia from that of Alicant.
Martin (St.), an ifland of America, and one of
the Caribbees, lying on the gulph of Mexico, to the
north-weft of St Bartholomew, and to the fouth-weft
of Anguilla. It is 42 miles in circumference; has nei¬
ther harbour nor river, but feveral falt-pits. After va¬
rious revolutions, it is at length in pofleffion of the
French and Dutch, who poflefs it conjointly. W.
Long. 62. 35. N. Lat. 18. 15.
Martin, in zoology. See Hiaundo and Mu»
STELA.
.Free Martin. See Hermaphrodite.
MARTINGALE, in the manege, a thong of
leather, faftened to one end of the girths under a horfc’s
belly, and at the other end to the mufs-roll, to keep
him from rearing.
MARTINICO, the chief of the French Caribbee-
illands, the middle of which is fituated in W. Long.
61. o. N. Lat. 14. 30.
This ifland was firft fettled by M. Defnambuc a
Frenchman, in the year 1635, with only 100 men from
Chriftophers. He chofe rather to have it peopled
from thence than from Europe ; as he forefaw, that
men, tired with the fatigue of fuch a long voyage,
would moftly perifli foon after their arrival, either from
the
MAR [ 4461 ] M A R
Maulnito. the climate, or from the hardlhips incident to moft
emigrations. They completed their firft fettlement
without any difficulty. The natives, intimidated by
their fire-arms, or feduced by promifes, gave up the
weftern and fouthern parts of the ifland to the new
comers. In a fhort time, however, perceiving the
number of thefe enterprifing ftrangers daily increafing,
they refoived to extirpate them, and therefore called
in the favages of the neighbouring ifiands to affift
them. They fell jointly upon a little fort that had
been baftily ere&ed ; but were repulfed, with the lofs
of 700 or 800 of their beft warriors, who were left
dead upon the fpot.
After this check, the favages for along time difap-
peared entirely ; but at laft they returned, bringing
with them prefents to the French,.and making ex-
cufes for what had happened. They were received in
a friendly mnnntr, and the reconciliation fealed with
pots of brandy. This peaceable ftate of affairs, how¬
ever, was of no long continuance ; the French took
fuch undue advantages of their fuperiority over the fa¬
vages, t hat they foon rekindled in the others that ha¬
tred which had never been entirely fubdued. The fa¬
vages, whofe manner of life requires a vaft extent of
land, finding themfelves daily more and more ftraight-
ened, had recourfe to ftratagem, in order to deftroy
their enemies. They feparated into fmall bands, and
way-laid the French as they came fingly out into the
woods to hunt, and, waiting till the fportfman haddif-
charged his piece, rufhed upon and killed him before
he could difeharge it again. Twenty men had been
thus affaffinated before any reafon could be given for
their fudden difappearance: but as foon as the matter
was known, the French took a fevere and fatal re¬
venge ; the favages were purfued and maffacred, with
their wives and children, and the few that efcaped
were driven out of Martinico, to which they never re¬
turned.
The French being thus left foie matters of the
ifland, lived quietly on thofe fpots which beft fuited
their inclinations. At this time, they were divided
into two claffes. The firft confifted of thofe who had
paid their paffage to the ifland, and thefe were called
inhabitants; and to thefe the government diftributed
lands, which became their own, upon paying a year¬
ly tribute. Thefe inhabitants had under their com¬
mand a multitude of diiorderly people brought otrer
from Europe at their expence, whom they called en¬
gages., or bondfmeo. This engagement was a kind of
fiavery for the term of three years; on the expiration
of which they were at liberty, and became the equals
ef thofe whom they had ferved. They all confined
themfelves at firft to the culture of tobacco and cotton;
to which was foon added that of arnotto and indigo.
The culture of fugar alfo was begun about the year
1650. Ten years after, one Benjamin D’Acofta, a
Jew, planted fome cocoa trees; but his example was
not fallowed till 1684, when chocolate was more com¬
monly ufed in France. Cocoa then became the prin¬
cipal fupport of the colonifts, who had not a fufficient
fund to undertake fugar-plantations; but by the in¬
clemency of the feafon in 1718, all the cocoa trees
were deftroyed at once.'—Coffee was then propofed as
a proper objetff of culture. The French minittry had
received as a prefent from the Dutch, two of thefe
trees, which were carefully preferred in the king’s Martinfco.
botanical garden. Two young {hoots were taken from*-"" —*
thefe, put on board a fiiip for Martinico, and entrufted
to the care of one Mr Defclieux. The ffiip happened
to be ftraitened for want of freffi water; and the trees
would have perifhed, had not the gentleman fiiared
with them that quantity of water which was allowed
for his own drinking. The culture of coffee was then
begun, and attended with the greateft and moft rapid
fuccefs. About the end of laft century, however, the
colony had made but fmall advances. In 1700, it had
only 6597 white inhabitants. The favages, rnulattoes,
and free negroes, men, women, and children, amounted
to no more than 507. The number of flaves was but
14,566. All thefe together made a population of
2 1,645 petfons. The whole of the cattle amounted to
3668 horfesor mules, and 9217 head of horned cattle.
The ifland produced a great quantity of cocoa, tobac¬
co, and cotton ; had nine indigo-houfes, and 183 fmall
fugar plantations.
After the peace of Utrecht, Martinico began to
emerge from that feeble ftate in which it had fo long
continued. The ifland then became the mart for all
the windward French fettlements. In the ports of it
the neighbouring iflands fold their produce, and bought
the commodities of the mother-country ; and, in ffiort,
Martinico became famous all over Europe. In 1736,
there were on the ifland 447 fugar-works; 11,953,232
coffee-trees, 193,870 of cocoa ; 2,068,480 plants of
cotton, 39,400 of tobacco, 6,750 of arnotto. The
fupplies for provifion confifted of 4,806,142 banana
trees; 34,483,000 trenches of caffava; and 247 plots
of potatoes and yams. The number of blacks amount¬
ed to 72,000; men, women, and children. Their
labour had improved the plantations as far as wascon-
fiftent with the confumption then made in Europe of
American produftions ; and the annual exports from
the ifland amounted to about 700,000 1.
The conne&ions of Martinico with the other iflands
entitled her to the profits of commiffion, and the
charges of tranfport; as {he alone was in the pofftffion
of carriages. This profit might be rated at the tenth
of the produce ; and the fum total muft have amount¬
ed to near 765,000!. This {landing debt was feldom
called in, and left for the improvement of their plan¬
tations. It was increafed by advances in money,
flaves, and other neceffary articles ; fo that Marti-
nico became daily more and more a creditor to the
other iflands, and thus kept them in coffftant de¬
pendence ; while they all enriched themfelves by her
affiftance.
The connexions of this ifland with Cape Breton,
Canada, and Eouifiana, procured a market for the or¬
dinary fugars, the inferior coffee, the molaffes, and
rum, which would not fell in France. In exchange
the inhabitants received falt-fifh, dried vegetables,
deals, and fome flour. In the clandeftine trade on the
coafts of Spanilh America, confifting wholly of goods
manufaftured by the nation, {he commonly made a
profit of 90 per cent, on the value of about 175,000!.
lent yearly to the caraccas, or neighbouring colonies.
So many profperous engagements brought immenfe
fums into Martinico. Upwards of 787,000!. were
conilantly circulated in that ifland with great rapidi¬
ty ; and this is perhaps the only country in the world,
where
MAR
[ 4462 ]
MAR
■Martinico. where the fpecte has been fo confiderable as to make
“ it a matter of indifference to them whether they dealt
in gold, filver, or commodities. This extenfive trade
brought into the ports of Martinico annually 200 fhips
from France; 14 or 15 fitted out by the mother-
country for the coaft of Guinea, 60 from Canada, 10
or 12 from the iflands of Margaretta and Trinidad;
befides the Englifh and Dutch {hips that came to carry
on a fmuggling trade. The private navigation from
the ifland to the northern colonies, to the Spanifh con¬
tinent, and to the windward iflands, employed 130 vef-
fels from 20 to 30 tons burden.
The war of 1744 put a flop to this profperity. Not
that the fault was in Martinico itfelf; its navy, con-
ftantly exercifed, and accuftomed to frequent engage¬
ments, which the carrying on a contraband-trade re¬
quired, was prepared for adion. In lefs than fix
months, 40 privateers, fitted out at St Peter’s, fpread
themfelves about the latitude of the Caribbee iflands.
They fignalifed themfelves in a manner worthy of the
ancient freebooters ; returning conftantly in triumph,
and laden with an immenfe booty. Yet, in the midft
of thefe fuccefles, an entire flop was put to the navi¬
gation of the colony, both to the Spanifh coaft, and
to Canada, and they were conftantly difturbed even
on their own coafts. The few fhips that came from
France, in order to compenfate the hazards they were
expofed to by the lofs of their commodities, fold them
at a very advanced price, and bought them at a very
low one. By this means the produce decreafed in va¬
lue, the lands were ill cultivated, the works neglefted,
and the flaves perifhing for want.
When every thing thus feemed tending to decay,
the peace at laft reftored the freedom of trade, and with
it the hopes of recovering the ancient profperity of the
ifland. The event, however, did not anfwer the pains
that were taken to attain it. Two years had not elap-
fed after the ceffation of hoftilities, when the colony
loft the contraband-trade fhe carried on with the Ame¬
rican Spaniards. This was owing to the fubftitution
of regifter-fliips to the fleets; and thus were the at¬
tempts of the fmugglers confined within very narrow
bounds. In the new fyftem, the number of fhips-was
undetermined, and the time of their arrival uncertain:
which occafioned a variation in the price of commo¬
dities unknown before; and from that time the
fmuggler, who only engaged in this trade from the cer¬
tainty of a fixed and conftant profit, would no longer
purfue it, when it did not fecure him an equivalent
to the rifks he ran. But this lofs was not fo fenfibly
felt by the colony, as the hardfhips brought upon
them by the mother-country. An unfkilful admini-
ftration clogged the reciprocal and neceflary connec¬
tion between the Iflands and North-America with fo
many formalities, that in 1755 Martinico fent but four
veflels to Canada. The direftion of the colonies, now-
committed to the care of ignorant and avaricious
clerks, foon loft its importance, funk into contempt,
and was proftituted to venality. The debts which
had been contrafted, during a feries of calamities, had
not yet been paid off, when the war broke out afrefh.
fperity, that had made it of fo much importance. For Martini
fome years paft, the contraband-trade carried on to
the Spanifh coafts was almoft entirely loft. The cef-
fion of Canada had precluded all hopes of opening
again a communication, which had only been inter¬
rupted by temporary miftakes. The productions of
the Grenades, St Vincent, and Dominica, which
were now become Britifh dominions, could no longer
be brought into their harbours; and a new regulation
of the mother-country, which forbad her having any
intercourfe with Guadalupe, left her no hopes from
that quarter.
The colony, thus deprived of every thing, as it were,
and deftitute, neverthelefs contained, at the laft fur-
vey, which was taken on thefirft of January 1770, in
the compafs of 2.8 parifties, 12,450 white people of
all ages and of both fexes ; 1814 fre? blacks or mu-
latoes ; 70,553 flaves, and 443 fugitive negroes. The
number of births in 1766, was in the proportion of
one in 30 among the white people, and of one in 25
among the blacks. From this obfervation, if it were
conftant, it fliould feem that the climate of America
is much more favourable to the propagation of the A-
fricans than of the Europeans; fince the former mul¬
tiply ftill more in the labours and hardlhips of flavery,
than the latter in the midft of plenty and freedom.
The confequence muft be, that in procefs of time the
increafe of blacks in America will furpafs that of the
white men ; and, perhaps, at laft avenge this race of
victims on the defcendents of the oppreffors.
The cattle of the colony confifts of 8283 horfes or
mules ; 12,376 head of horned cattle; 975 hogs; and
13,544 flieep or goats.
Their provifions are, 17,930,596 trenches of cafla-
va ; 3,509,048 banana-trees ; and 406 fquares and a
half of yams and potatoes.
Their plantations contain 11,444 fquares of land,
planted W’ith fugar ; 6,638,957 coffee-trees; 871,043
cocoa-trees ; 1,764,807 cotton plants ; 59,966 trees
of calfia, and 61 of arnotto.
The meadows or favannahs take up 10,072 fquares
of land ; there are 11,966 in wood, and 8448 uncul¬
tivated or forfaken.
The plantations which produce coffee, cotton, co¬
coa, and other things of lefs importance, are 1515 in
number. There are but 286 for fugar. They employ
116 water-mills, 12 wind-mills, and 184 turned by
oxen. Before the hurricane of the 13th of Auguft
1766, there were 302 fmall habitations and I5fugar-
works more.
In 1769, France imported from Martinico, upon
202 trading veffels, 177,116 quintals of fine fugar,
and 12,579 quintals raw fugar J 68,518 quintals
of coffee ; 11,731 quintals of cocoa; 6048 quintals
of cotton ; 2518 quintals of caffia ; 783 calks of rum;
307 hoglheads of molaffes; 150 pounds of indigo;
2147 pounds of preferred fruits; 47 pounds of cho¬
colate; 282 pounds of rafped tobacco; 494 pounds
of rope-yarn; 234 chefts of liqueurs ; 234 hoglheads
of molaffes, &c. 451 quintals of wood for dyeing;
and 12,108 hides in the hair. All thefe produ&ions
After a feries of misfortunes and defeats, the ifland fell together have been bought in the colony itfelf, for
into the hands of the Britifti. It was reftored, how- 536,631!. 9 s. 10 d. It is true, that the colony has
ever, in July 1.763, 16 months after it had been con- received from the mother-country to the amount of
quered; but deprived of all the neccffary means of pro- 588,412!. 16s. 6 d. of merchandife; but part of
this
MAR [ 4463 ] MAR
ari’mico. this has been fent away to the Spanifh coafts, and
—.—“another part has been conveyed to the Englifh fettle-
ments.
The ifland is 16 leagues in length and 45 in circum¬
ference, leaving out the capes, Tome of which extend
two or three leagues into the fea. It i$ very uneven,
and interfered in all parts by a number of hillocks;
which are moftly of a conical form. Three mountains
rife above thefe fmaller eminences. The highetl bears
the indelible marks of a volcano. The woods with
which it is covered, continually attratT the clouds,
which occafions noxious damps, and contributes to
make it horrid and inacceffible ; while the two others
are in nioft parts cultivated. From thefe mountains
iffue the many fprings that water the ifland. Thefe
waters which flow in gentle ftreams, are changed into
torrents on the flighted ftorm. Their qualities are
derived from the foil over which they flow. In fome
places they are excellent, in others fo bad, that the in¬
habitants are obliged to drink the water they have col¬
lected during the rainy fea.
Of all the French fettlements in the Weft Indies,
Martinico is the moft happily fituated with regard to
the winds which prevail in thofe feas. Its harbours
poflefs the ineftimable advantage of affording a certain
fhelter from the hurricanes which annoy thefe latitudes.
The harbour of Fort Royal, is one of the beft in all
the windward iflands; and fo celebrated for its fafety,
that, when it was open to the Dutch, their fhipmafters
had orders from the republic to take fticlter there in
June, July, and Auguft, the three months in which the
hurricanes are moft frequent. The lands of the La-
mentin, which are but a league diftant, arc the richeft
and moft fertile in the whole ifland. The numerous
ftreams which water this fruitful country, convey load¬
ed canoes to confiderable diftance from the fea. The
proteAion of the fortifications fecured the peaceable
enjoyment of fo many advantages; which, however,
were balanced by a fwampy and unwholefome foil.
This capital of Martinico was alfo the rendezvous of the
men of war; which branch of the navy has always op-
preffed the merchantmen. On this account, Fort-
Royal was an improper place to become the centre of
trade, and was therefore removed to St Peter’s. This
littletown, not with ftanding the fires that have four times
reduced it to afhes, ftill contains 1700 houfes. It is
fituated on the weftern coaft of the ifland, on a bay,
or inlet, which is almoft circular. One part of it is
built on the ftrand along the fea-fide, which is called
the anchorage; and is the place deftined for (hips and
ware-houfes. The other part of the town (lands upon
a low hill: it is called the Fur/, from a fmall fortifica¬
tion that was built there in (665, to check the fedi-
tions of the inhabitants againft the tyranny of mono¬
poly; but it now ferves to protetft the road from fo¬
reign enemies. Thefe two parts of the town are fepa-
rated by a rivulet.
The anchorage is at the back of a pretty high and
fteep hill. Shut up as it were by this hill, which in¬
tercepts the eaflerly winds, the moft conftant and moft
falubrious in thefe parts ; expofed, without any re-
frefhing breezes, to the fcorching beams of the-fun, re-
fiedled from the hill, from the fea, and the black fand
on the beach; this place is extremely hot, and always
nnwholefome. Befides, there is no harbour; and the
-Vol. VI. 2
(hips which cannot winter fafely upon this coaft are Martlet*
obliged to take fhelter at Fort-Royal. But thefe dif- ^ 11^
advantages are compenfated by the conveniency of the ait^r*1
road of St Peter’s, for loading and unloading of goods;
and by its fituation, which is fuch that fhips can free¬
ly go in and out at all times and with all winds.
MARTLETS, in heraldry, little birds reprefented
without feet; and ufed as a difference or mark of di-
ftin£lion for. younger brothers, to put them in mind
that they are to truft to the wings of virtue and merit,
in order to raife themfelves, and not to their feet, they
having little land to fet their foot on. See Heraldry,
Art. 2. p. 3585.
MARTYNIA, in botany, a genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies; both of them tender,
herbaceous, flowery plants of South America; one of
them an annual, the other a perennial, rifing with ereit
ftalks, from a foot, to two feet high, garnifhpd with
oblong fimple leaves, and terminated by (hprt fpikes
of large monopetalous, bell-fliaped flowers, of blue and
purple colours. They flower in July and Auguft, and
are very ornamental, but require always to be kept in
the hotted part of the ftove.
MARTYR, is one who lays down his life, or fuf-
fers death, for the fake of his religion. The word is
Greek, M-aPT,Jp, and properly fignifies a “ witnefs.’’ It
is applied, by way of eminence, to thofe who fuffer in
witnefs of the truth of the gofpel.
The Chriftian church has abounded in martyrs, and
hiftory is filled with furprifing accounts of their Angu¬
lar conftancyand fortitude under the crueleft torments
human nature was capable of fuffering. The primitive
Chriftians were accufed by their enemies of paying a
fort of divine worfliip to the martyrs. Of this we have
an inftance in the anfwer of the church of Smyrna to
the fuggeftion of the Jews, who, at the martyrdom of
Polycarp, defired the heathen judge not to fuffer the
Chriftians to carry off his body, left they fhould leave
their crucified maftet, and worfliip him in his (lead,
To which they anfwered, “ We can neither forfake
Chrift, nor worfliip any other : for we worfliip him as
the Son of God; but love the martyrs as the difciples
and followers of the Lord, for the great affrilion they
have (hewn to their King and Mafter.” A like an¬
fwer was given at the martyrdom of Frudluofus in
Spain. For when the judge afleed Eulogius, his dea¬
con, Whether he would not worfliip Frudluofus? as
thinking, that, tho’ he refufed tp worfliip the heathen
idols, he might yet be inclined to worfliip a Chrillian
martyr; Eulogius replied, “ I do not worfliip Fruc-
tuofus, but him whom Fruftuofus worfliips.” The
primitive Chriftians believed, that the martyrs enjoyed
very Angular privileges; that upon their death they
were immediately admitted to the beatific vifion, while
other fouls waited for the completion of their happi-
nefs till the day of judgment; and that God would
grant chiefly to their prayers the haftening of his king¬
dom, and (hortening the times of perfecution.
The churches built over the graves of the martyrs,
and called by their names, in order to preferve the me-
rtiory of their fufferings, were diftinguiflied by the title
niartyrium confejjio, or ?nemoria.
The feftivals of the martyrs are of very ancient dati
in the Chriftian church, and may be carried back at
35 H leaft
Martyr
!!
Marvell.
MAR [ 4464 ] MAR
lead till the time of Polycarp, who fuffered martyrdom
about the year of Chrift 168. On thefe days the Chri-
ftians met at the graves of the martyrs, and offered
prayers and thankfgivings to God for the examples
they had afforded them: they celebrated the eucha-
rift, and gave alms to the poor; which, together with
a panegyrical oration or fermon, and reading the a&s
of the martyrs, were the fpiritual exercifes of thefe an-
niverfaries.
MARTYR (Peter), a famous divine, born at Flo¬
rence in 1500. He ftudied philofophy and the tongues
at Padua and Bononia, was a regular Auguftine in
the monaftery of Fifcoli, and was counted one of the
beft preachers in Italy. Zuinglius and Bucer’s wri-
tings gave him a good opinion of the Proteftants, and
his converfation with Valdes confirmed it. He preach¬
ed that do&rine at Rome in private; but, being im¬
peached, fled to Naples, and thence to Lucca, where
he brought over to the Proteftant intereff Emanuel
Tremellius, Celfus Martinengus, Paul Laficius, and
Jeremiah Zanchy. He was fent for to England by
king Edward VI. and made profeffor of divinity at Ox¬
ford in 1549. In queen Mary’s reign he returned to
Strafburg, and was prefent at the conference of Poiffy.
His fentiments were not the fame with Calvin’s about
Chrift’s prefence in the eucharift. He wrote a great
number of works, and died in 1562.
MARTYROLOGY, in the church of Rome, is a
catalogue or lift of martyrs, including the hiftory of
their lives and fufferings for the fake of religion. The
term comes from f“*pTVj>} «< witnefs,” and “ dico,”
or “ colligo.”
The martyrologies draw their materials from the
kalendars of particular churches, in which the feveral
feftivals dedicated to them are marked ; and which
feem to be derived from the pra&ice of the ancient
Romans, who inferted the names of heroes and great
men in their fafti, or public regifters.
The martyrologies are very numerous, and contain
many ridiculous and even contradiftory narratives ;
which is eafily accounted for, if we confider how many
forged and fpurious accounts of the lives of faints and
martyrs appeared in the firft ages of the church, which
the legendary writers afterwards adopted without ex¬
amining into the truth of them. However, fome good
good critics, of late years, have gone a great way to¬
wards clearing the lives of the faints and martyrs from
the monftrous heap of fi&ion they laboured under. See
the article Legend.
MARVELL (Andrew), an ingenious writer in the
17th century, was bred at Cambridge. He travelled
thro’ the moft polite parts of Europe, and was fecretary
to the embaffy at Conftantinople. His firft appearance
in public bufinefs at home was as affiftant to Mr John
Milton Latin fecretary to the prote&or. A little be¬
fore the reftoration, he was chofen by his native town,
Kingfton upon Hull, to fit in that parliament, which
began atWeftminfter April 25th 1660; and isnecor-
ded as the laft member of parliament who received the
wages or allowance anciently paid to reprefentatives
by their conftituents. He feldom fpoke in parliament,
but he had great influence without doors upon the
members of both houfes; and prince Rupert had al¬
ways the greateft regard for his advice. He made
kimfelf very obnoxious to the government by his ac¬
tions and writings 5 notwithftanding which, king
Charles II. took great delight in his converfation, and
tried all means to win him over to his fide, but in vain;
nothing being ever able to fliake his refolution. There
were many inftances of his firmnefs in refilling the of¬
fers of the court; but he was proof againft all temp¬
tations. The king having one night entertained him,
fent the Lord treafurer Danby the next morning to
find out his lodgings ; which were then up two pair
of flairs in one of the little courts in the Strand. He
was bufy writing, when the treafurer opened the door
abruptly upon him. Surprifed at the fight of fo un-
expeifted a vifitor, Mr Marvell told his Lordfhip,
“ That he believed he had miftaken his way.” Lord
Danby replied, “ Not, now I have found Mr Mar¬
vell i’’ telling him he came from his Majefty, to know
what he could do to ferve him. Coming to a ferious
explanation, he told the Lord-treafurer, that he knew
the nature of courts full well; that whoever is diftin-
guifhed by a prince’s favour, is certainly expe&ed to
vote in his intereft. The Lord Danby told him, thaC
his Majefty had only a juft fenfe of his merits, in re¬
gard to which he only defired to know if there was-
any place at court he could be pleafed with. Thefe
offers, though urged with the greateft earneftnefs, had
no effedl upon him. He told the Lord-treafurer, that
he could not accept of them with honour; for he muft
be either ungrateful to the king in voting againft him,
or falfe to his country in giving into the meafures of
the court. The only favour therefore he had to re-
queft of his Majefty was, that he would efteem him as
dutiful a fubjeft as any he had, and more in his pros¬
per intereft by refufing his offers, than if he had em¬
braced them. The Lord Danby finding no argu¬
ments could prevail, told him, that the king had or¬
dered a thoufand pounds for him, which he hoped he
would receive till he could think what farther to afle
of his Majefty. The laft offer was rejected with the
fame ftedfaftnefs of mind as the firft; though, as fooa
as the Lord-treafurer was gone, he was forced to fend
tp a friend to borrow a guinea. He died, not without
ftrong fufpicions of his being poifoned, in 1678, in
the 58th year of his age. In 1688, the town of King¬
fton upon Hull contributed a fum of money to ereft a
monument over him in the church of St Giles in the
Fields, where he was interred, and an epitaph compo-
fed by an able hand ; but the minifter of that church
forbid both the infeription and monument to be pla¬
ced there. He wrote many ingenious pieces; as, The
Rehearfal tranfprofed; A fhort hiftorical Effay con¬
cerning General Councils, Creeds, and Impofitions in-
matters of Religion, &c.
Marvel 0/Peru, in botany. See Mirabilis.
MARY I. of England, daughter of Henry VIII.
by Catharine of Spain, queen and tyrant of England,
fucceeded her half-brother Edward VI. in 1553. If
(he had been educated in Spain, and an inquifitor had
been her preceptor, ftie could not have imbibed more
ftrongly the bloody principles of Romifh perfecution ;
and to the eternal difgrace of the Englifti prelacy,
though the reformation had taken root in both uni-
verfities, (he found Englifh bifliops ready to carry her
cruel defigns to fubvert it, into effeftual execution.
Upon her acceflkm to the throne, ftie declared, in her
fpeech to the council, that Ihe would not perfecute her
Marvel!,
Mary.
MAR
Proteftant futje&s; but in the following month, ftie
‘prohibited preaching without a fpecial licence: before
the expiration of three months, the Proteftant bilhops
were excluded the houfe of lords, and all the ftatutes
of Edward VL refpe&ing the Proteftant religion were
repealed t and before flie had enjoyed the crown a
year, archbifhop Cranmer, who had faved her life
when her father had refolved to take off her head, and
the bifhops Ridley and Latimer, were condemned for
herefy at Oxford, and afterwards burnt. In 1556, the
perfecution became general; and Proteftants of all
ranks and ages, and of both fexes, fell vi&ims to pa¬
pal fury. It is obfervable, likewife, that the fame
perfidious violation of promifes and treaties prevailed
in the queen’s council, with refpeft to public affairs.
By the treaty of marriage concluded between the queen
and Philip prince of Spain, fon of the famous em¬
peror Charles le Quint, in 1554, it was exprefsly fti-
pulated, that England (hould not be engaged in any
wars with France on account of Spain; yet in (557,
Philip, who had brought immenfe fums of money into
England, procured an offenfive and defenfive alliance
againft France, from the Englifii adminiftration, and
8000 of the queen’s choiceft troops were fent over to
the affiftance of the Spaniards in the Low Countries:
the lofs of Calais to the French was the firft fruit of
this war; and fome affert, that upon this fingle occa-
fion the queen {hewed a ftrong attachment to her na¬
tive country, lamenting this ftroke fo deeply, that it
oceafioned her death ; but it is better authenticated,
that fhe was carried off by an epidemic fever, which
raged fo violently that it did not leave a fufficient num¬
ber of men in health to get in the harveft. She died in
jyjSjin the 43d year of her age, and fixth of her reign.
Mar y Medicis, wife of Henry IV. king of France,
was declared foie regent of the kingdom in 1610, du¬
ring the confternation which the affaffination of that
beloved king had occafioned. By her ambitious in¬
trigues, the nation loft all its influence abroad, and
was torn to pieces at home by contending factions.
After feveral viciffitudes of fortune, ftie was aban-
4oned by her fon Lewis XIII. whofe reign had been
conftantly difturbed by the civil commotions (he had
-oceafloned ; and died in indigence at Bruffels, in 1642,
aged 68. She built the fuperb palace of Luxembourg
at Paris, and embellifhed that city with aquedu&s and
other ornaments.
Mary, queen of Scotland, daughter of James V.
was born in December 1542. Her father dying a
few days after her birth, fhe fcarce exifted before fhe
was hailed queen of Scotland. Violent were the dif-
putes among the nobility, who fhould obtain the guar-
dianfhip of her infant-majefty, and government of the
kingdom. It was however at length adjudged to the
carl of Arran, as the heir-apparent and firft peer of
the realm. Whiift yet in her infancy, Henry VIII.
of England demanded her in marriage for his fon Ed-
M A R
ward ; but her gnardian refufed his confent, and the fa- Mary,
nious battle of Muffelburgh was the confequence. The
Scots being defeated, (he was conveyed by the queen-
mother to the ifle of Inchemahom; where, we are told,
fhe was inftrufled in the Latin, French, Spanifli, and
Italian languages.
At fix years old fhe was fent to France ; where, af¬
ter continuing a few days with the king and queen,
fhe was removed to a monaftery, and was there edu¬
cated with the daughters of the French nobility. In
this feminary file acquired a tafte for poetry, and alfo
became a notable proficient in mufic, dancing, and the
art of fitting gracefully on horfeback: but needle-work
was her favourite amufement, in which fhe particular¬
ly excelled (a). On the 20th of April, 1558, fhe was
married to the young dauphin; who dying in Decem¬
ber 1560, fhe returned, to her native country. She
had not been long in Scotland, before fhe received pro-
pofals of marriage from Charles, archduke of Au-
ftria. Queen Elizabeth of England difapproved the
match ; and recommended Henry Stuart, Lord Daro-
ley, fon to the earl of Lenox. To this nobleman fhe
gave her hand ; and by him fhe had one fon, James I,
of England. They had not been many months mar¬
ried before Darnley was barbaroufly murdered; and,
in three months after, fhe efpoufed the earl of Both-
well, a man of no eftiraation, and who is generally fup-
pofed to have been the murderer of her late hufband-
From that fatal moment her life was a continued fc-
ries of misfortunes: Scotland became a feene of con-
fufion; her fubjefts rebelled; her hufband fled to Den¬
mark; and fhe herfelf was made a prifoner, .and treated
with the utmoft indignity. She found means to efcapc
from the perfecution of her fubjefts, and fled to Eng¬
land for fafety: but fhe was too beautiful to find a
friend in Elizabeth; who, with conftant profeffions of
efteem, after keeping her in confinement during 18
long years, at lafi brought her head to the block.
The fair heroine received her fentence of death with,
great compofure ; wrote her will the day before her
execution; for which, on the fucceeding morn, fhe pre¬
pared with religious folemnity, and perfect refignatioru
She was executed on the 8th of February 1587, in
the 46th year of her age, in the caftle of Fothering-
bay, where fhe had been long confined, and on the firft
of Auguft was interred in the cathedral church at Pe¬
terborough, with great pomp. Twenty-five years af¬
ter, her remains were, by order of her fon king James I.
removed to Henry VII.’s chapel in Weftminfter ab¬
bey, and a magnificent monument eredted to her me¬
mory. See (Hiftoryof) Scotland.
She wrote, 1. Poems on various occafions, in the
Latin, French, and Scotch languages. One of her
poems is. printed among thofe of A. Blackwood; an¬
other in Brantome’s Dames illujires, written on the
death of her firft hufband Francis. 2. Confolation of
her long imprifonment, and royal advice to her fon.
25 H 2 3. A
(a) An impalement of the arms of France and Scotland, embroidered under an imperial crown, on the valence
of the canopy in the prefence-chamber at Whitehall, as faid to be chiefly her performance. Sand/. Gen. HiJL
P-529-
Embroidery probably made a ccmfiderable part of her employment during her tedious imprifonment, the laft al-
moft so years of her life; for one of her hiftorians informs us, that about the year 1579, fhe fent, with other pre-
fents, to her fon, a magnificent ftate-hed, “ one of them oft curious pieces of workmanfliip that that or any age has
■produced, embroidered with gold and li'k, defigned and finifhed all by her own hand.” The principal figures,
29 in number, were emblematical, with Latin mottos, alluding to her unhappy fituation, and the feparate arms of
England, Scotland, and France. See Mackenzie s Lives, vert. iii. p. jjS.
[ 4465 1
MAR [ 4466 ] MAS
Marf. 3. A copy of verfes, in French, fent with a diamond-
^ 21 ring to queen Elizabeth. There is a tranflation of
Mai>Ian . thfc|-e verj'fs among the Latin poems of Sir Thomas
Chaloner. 4. Genuine Letters of Mary queen of
Scots, to James earl of Bothwel; tranflated from the
Fren h, by E. Simrrlonds, 1726. There are, befides,
many other of her epittles to queen Elizabeth, fecretary
Cecil, Mildmaye, &c. which are preferved in the Cot¬
ton, Afhmolean, and other libraries.
Mary II. queen of England, eldeft daughter of
James II. by his firft wife, was born at St James’s in
1662. She was bred up a Protellant, and married to
the illuftrious William Henry of Naflau, then prince
of Orange, afterward king of England, in the 16th
year of her age. She ftaid in Holland with her huf-
band till February 12, 168^, when (he came over, and
was folemnly proclaimed queen of England, &c. She
was an equal (barer with her royal hufband in all the
rights belonging to the crown; but the adminiftra-
tion and execution thereof was lodged folely in the
king. She was a princefs endowed with the high-
eft perfeftions both of body and mind: (lie loved hi-
ftory, as being proper to give her ufeful inftrudions;
and was alfo a good judge as well as a lover of poe¬
try. She ftudied more than could be imagined,
and would have read more than (he did, if the fre¬
quent returns of ill-humours in her eyes had not for¬
ced her to fpare them. She gave her minntes of lei-
fure to archite&ure and gardening; and fince it em¬
ployed many hands, (he faid, (lie hoped it would be
forgiven her. She was the moft gracious of fovereigns
to her fubjedts, and the moft obliging of wives to her
hufband, as well as the moft excellent of miftrefles to
her fervants: (he ordered good books to be laid in the
places of attendance, that perfons might not be idle
while they were in their turns of fervice. She was ex¬
ceeding zealous for a reformation of manners; chari¬
table in the higheft degree, without the leaft oftenta-
tion. This excellent queen died on the 28th of De¬
cember 1695, at Kenfington, of the fmall-pox, in the
33d year of her age. In her the arts loft a protec-
trefs, the unfortunate a mother, and the world a pat¬
tern of every virtue. As to her perfon, (he was tall,
of a majeftic graceful mien, her countenance ferene,
her complexion ruddy, and her features beautiful.
Mary Magdalen’s Day, a feftival of the Romifh
church, obferved on the 22d of July.
MARYGOLD. See Caltha.
Corn Marygold. See Chrysanthemum.
French Marygold. See Tagetes.
MARYLAND, one of the Britifh colonies in North
America. It received that name in honour of Hen¬
rietta Maria the confort of king Charles I. who made
a grant of this country, with very extraordinary
powers, to Lord Baltimore. It lies between 38 and
40 degrees north latitude, and in longitude from 74
to 78 degrees weft from London. It is in length
about 140 miles, but not quite fo much in breadth.
It is bounded on the north by Penfylvania; on the eaft
by the lower counties of the fame colony, and by the
Atlantic ; on the fouth by Chefapeak Bay; on the
weft by the river Potowmack, and the province of Vir¬
ginia. The climate may be well ftyled mild and plea-
fant: for though the winters are cold, they are (hort;
and the heat of their fummers is tempered by cool
breezes from the bay before-mentioned, which is one Maryland
of the fined in the world. The country, except to- II
wards the north, is in general a flat open plain, of a Mafafuero- 1
deep rich foil, and very very fertile. It produces grain
of all forts, rich fruits of different kinds, timber, hemp,
flax, and in the bowel* of the earth there is great plen¬
ty of iron ore. The ftaple of this country is tobaccof,
of which hitherto they have railed immenfe quantities,
though fome fay their lands begin to wear out, which
obliges them to keep great numbers of cattle for the
fake of manure. They likewife export lumber, na¬
val (tores, &c. The fituation of this country and the
nature of its ftaple prevent the building of towns ;
for the plantations lying on the banks of their nume¬
rous navigable rivers, their veffels come up to the plan¬
ters doors, and their tobacco is confequently laden ]
without trouble. Their cuftom-houfes are on the rivers
Pocomocke, Chefter, Patuxint, and the north-fide of
Potomack. They have however one town, Annapo¬
lis, which is the feat of government, and tho’ fmall-
is one of the faired and beft-built in America. The
number of inhabitants exceeds 100,000; of which,
however, three-fifths are negro-flaves; the remain¬
der whites, who live in general much at their eafe.
The patent which had been promifed to Sir George
Calvert of this part of what was then ftyled Virginia
was granted to his fon Csecilius, created lord Balti¬
more, and bears date 20th of June 1632. He fent
over his brother Leonard Calvert, Efq; with 200
gentlemen and perfons of fome property to fettle
there. His fon Charles Calvert was afterwards go¬
vernor for near 20 years, and under their adminiftra-
tion the colony flourifhed exceedingly. They made
themfelves fo acceptable to the Indians at their firft
coming, that they yielded to them half, and as foo«
as their harveft was over their whole town ; and this
good underftanding conftantly fubfifted. By means of
a general toleration of all Chriftians, the number of
inhabitants was much increafed. The government,
before the American revolt, was on much the fame
plan with the reft ; for it behoved the deputy-go¬
vernor, though appointed by the proprietor, to be
approved of by the crown. He had a council and
an affembly, but the laws made therein were not
tranfmitted to England. The culture of tobacco-
made negroes neceffary; this is of a particular kind
called oroonoko, or as fome write it aranokoe, which is
hotter than what is made in Virginia, and lefs accep¬
table here, but fells better in the eaftern and northern
parts of Europe. The inhabitants carry on a confi-
derable trade to Great Britain, as well as to the
fouthern parts of Europe, the French and Britifh Weft
Indies, and the continent of America. They have
alfo fome intercourfe with the coafts of Africa. The
total of their exports, A. D. 1769, amounted to
350,097 1. In A. D. 1770, there were entered in¬
ward (hips 205, (loops 197 ; cleared outwards, (hips
228, (loops 172.
MAS planta, a plant which upon the fame root
produces male flowers only. See Masculus Flos.
MaSAFUERO, an ifland of the South-Sea, ly¬
ing in S. Lat. 33. 45. W. Long. 80. 46- It is very-
high and mountainous, and at a diftance feems to con-
fift of one hill or rock. It is of a triangular form,
and feven or eight leagues in circumference. There is
Inch
MAS
MAS [ 4467 ]
Mafculinf. fuch plenty of fith, that a boat with a few hooks and
‘ lines may very foon catch as many as will ferve 100
people. Here are coal-fifh, cavilliers, cod, hallibut,
and cray-fifh. Captain Carteret’s crew caught a king-
filher that weighed 87 pounds, and was five feet and
an half long. The (harks were here fo ravenous, that,
in taking foundings, one of them fwallowed the lead,
by which they hauled him above water $ but he re¬
gained his liberty, by difgorging his prey. Seals are fo
numerous here, that captain Carteret fays, if many
thoufands were killed in a night, they would not be
miffed next morning. Thefe animals yield excellent
train-oil; and their hearts and plucks are very good
food, having a tafte fomething like thofe of a hog ;
their (kins are covered with a very fine fur. There are
many birds here, and fome very large hawks. Of
the pintado bird one (hip caught 700 in one night.
Commodore Byron landed here with difficulty in 1765,
in order to take in wood and water, of both which he
found plenty. He found alfo great numbers of goats,
whofe fle(h tailed as well as venifon in England.
MASCULINE, fomething belonging to the male,
or the (Longer of the two fexes. See Male.
Masculine, is more ordinarily ufed in grammar
to fignify the firft and worthieft of the genders of
nouns. See Gender.
The mafculine gender is that which belongs to the
male kind, or fomething analogous to it.
Mod fubfiantives are ranged under the heads of
mafculine or feminine.—This, in fome cafes, is done
with a (how of reafon; but in others is merely arbi¬
trary, and for that reafon is found to vary accord¬
ing to the languages and even according to the words
introduced from one language into another.—Thus
the names of trees are generally feminine in Latin,
and mafculine in the French.
Farther, the genders of the fame word are fome-
times varied in the fame language. Thus alvus, ac¬
cording to Prifcian, was anciently mafculine, but is
now become feminine. And navire, a (hip, in French,
was anciently feminine,, but is now mafculine.
Masculine Rhyme, in the French poetry, is that
made with a word which has a drong, open, and ac¬
cented pronunciation ; as all words have, excepting
thofe which have an e feminine in their lad fyllable.
See Rhyme.
For indance, amour and jour, mart and fort, are
mafculine rhymes :—andpere and mere, globe and me-
moire, are feminine. Hence alfoverfes ending with a
mafculine rhyme, art cz\\e& mafculine verfes, and thofe
ending with a feminine rhyme, feminine verfes. See
Verse.
It is now a rule edablifhed among the French poets
never to ufe the above two mafculine or two femi¬
nine verfes fucceffively, except in the loofer kind of
poetry.
Marot was the fird who introduced this mixture of
mafculine and feminine verfes, and Ronfard was the
fird who pra&ifed it with fuccefs. The mafculine
▼erfes (hould always have a fyllable lefs than the femi¬
nine ones.
Masculine Signs.—Adrologers divide the figns
into mafculine and feminine; by reafon of their qua¬
lities, which are either a&ive, and hot, or cold, ac¬
counted mafculine j or pafiive; dry, and moift> which
are feminine. Mafculns
On this principle they call the fun, Jupiter, Sa- i
turn, and Mars, mafculine : and the moon and Venus, a °n‘
feminine. Mercury, they fuppofe, partakes of the
two. Among the figns, Aries, Libra, Gemini, Leo,
Sagittarius, Aquarius, are mafculinc: Cancer, Capri-
cornus, Taurus, Virgo, Scorpio, and Pifces, are
feminine.
MASCULUS flos, a male flower; a flower
which contain* the damina, reckoned by the fexualifls
the male organ of generation, but not the digma or
female organ.
All the plants of the clafs dioecia of Linnseus have
male and female flowers upon different roots: thofe
of the clafs moncecia, bear flowers of different fexes
on the fame root. The plants, therefore, of the for¬
mer are only male or female: thofe of the latter are
androgynous ; that is, contain a mixture of both male
and female flowers.
MASH, a drink given to a horfe, made of half a
peck of ground malt put into a pail, into which as
much fealding hot water is poured as will wet it very
well: when that is done, dir it about, till, by lading,
you find it as fweet as honey; and when it has flood
till it is lukewarm, it is to be given to the horfe.
This liquor is only ufed after a purge, to make it
work the better; or after hard labour, or indead of
drink in the time of any great ficknefs.
MASILLON (John Baptifl) bifliop of Clermont,
and one of the mod eloquent preachers of his time,
was born at Hieres, in Provence, in 1663, and died
in 1742. His fermons and other works are publifhed
in 14 vols 12mo.
MASINISSA, king of a fmall territory in Africa,
at fird an enemy to the Romans, and ally of the Car¬
thaginians: but Scipio having taken his nephew prt-
foner, fent him home, accompanied by an honourable
efcort, and laden with prefents; which gave him fo
high an opinion of the generofity of the Romans, that
he went over to them, and affided them in their con-
quefls in Africa. He was a renowned warrior, and left
44 children, mod of whom became illudrious in
hiflory.
MASON, a perfon employed under the dire&ion
of an architeft, in the railing of a done-building.
The chief bufinefs of a mafon is to make the mor¬
tar ; raife the walls from the foundation to the top,
with the neceffary retreats and perpendiculars ; to form
the vaults, and employ the flo.nes as delivered to him.
When the dones are large, the bufinefs of hewing or
cutting them belongs to the done-cutters, tho’ thefe
are frequently confounded with mafons: the orna¬
ments of fculpture are performed by carvers in flones
or fculptors. The tools or implements principally ufed
by them are the fquare, level, plumb-line, bevel, com-
pafs, hammer, chiffel, mallet, faw, trowel, &c. See
Square, &c.
Befides the common inflruments ufed in the hand,
they have likewife machines for railing of great bur¬
dens, and the conducing of large dones, the principal
of which are the lever, pulley, wheel, crane, &c. See
Lever, &c.
Free and Accepted Masons, a very ancient fociety or
body of men; fo called, either from fome extraordi¬
nary knowledge of jnafonry or building, which they
are
J-
Mafonry.
■Plate
CL XV.
MAS [ 4468 ] MAS
are fuppofed to be matters of, or becaufe tbe firft
founders of the fociety were perfons of that profefllon.
Thefe are now very confiderable, both for number and
chara&er, being found in every country in Europe,
and confiding principally of perfons of merit and con-
fideration. As to antiquity, they lay claim to a ftand-
ing of fome thoufand years. What the end of their
inttitution is, feems ftill in fome meafure a fecret; and
they are faid to be admitted into the fraternity by be¬
ing put in pofleffion of a great number of fecrets, call¬
ed the mafon's ’word, which have been religioufly kept
from age to age, being never divulged.
MASONRY, in general, a branch of architefture,
oonfifting in the art of hewing or fquaring ttones, and
cutting them level or perpendicular, for the ufes of
building : but, in a more limited fenfe, mafonry is
the art ofaflembling and joining (tones together with
mortar.
Hence arife as many different kinds of mafonry, as
there are different forms and manners for laying or
joining (tones. Vitruvius mentions feveral kinds of
mafonry ufed among the ancients: three of hewed
(tone, viz. that in form of a net, that in binding, and
that called the Greek mafonry ; and three of unhewed
(tones, viz. that of an equal courfe, that of an unequal
courfe, and that filled up in the middle ; and the fe-
venth was a compofition of all the reft.
Net-mafonry, called by Vitruvius reticulatwn, from
its refemblance to the mettles of a net, confifts of
(tones fquared in their courfes, and fo difpofed as that
their joints go obliquely ; and their diagonals are the
one perpendicular, and the other level. This is the mod
agreeable mafonry to the eye, but it is very apt to
crack. See n° 1.
Bound mafonry, that in which the (tones were pla¬
ced one over another, like tiles ; the joints of their
feeds being level, and the mounters perpendicular, fo
that the joint that mounts and feparates two {tones,
always falls diredly over the middle of the (tone be¬
low. This is lefs beautiful than the net-work; but
it is more folid and durable. See n° 2.
Greek mafonry, according to Vitruvius, is that
where after we have laid two (tones, each of which
makes a courfe, another is laid at the end, which
makes two courfes, and the fame order is obferved
throughout the building ; this may be called double-
binding, in regard the binding is not only of (tones of
the fame courfe with one another, but likewife of one
courfe with another courfe. See n° 3.
Mafonry by equal courfes, called by the ancients ^/S-
domum, differs in nothing from the bound mafonry,
but only in this, that its (tones are not hewn. See
n°4.
Mafonry by unequal courfes, called pfeudifddomum,
is alfo made of unhewed (tones, and laid in bound
work ; but then they are not of the fame thicknefs,
nor is there any equality obferved excepting in the
feveral courfes, the courfes themfelves being unequal
to each other. Sec n® 5.
Mafonry filled up in the middle, is likewife made
unhewed ttones, and by courfes; but the (tones are
only fet in order as to the courfes, See n° 9. A,
the courfes; B, the parts filled up; C, a coat of
f&jfter.
Compound mafonry is of Vitruvius's propofing, fo M*fs.
called as being formed of all the reft. In this the —
courfes are of hewed (tone ; and the middle being left
void, is filled up with mortar and pebbles thrown ia
together : after this the (tones of one courfe are bound
to thofe of another courfe with cramp-irons fattened
with melted lead. See n° 7. E, the (tones cramp¬
ed ; F, the cramps; G, the middle part filled up 
N° 8. reprefents another fort of compound ma¬
fonry, the middle of which is done, and the edge*
boards.
All the kinds of mafonry now in ufe may be redu¬
ced to thefe five, viz. bound mafonry ; that of brick¬
work, where the bodies and proje&ures of^ the (tones
inclofe fquare fpaces or pannels, &c. fet with bricks;
that de moilon, or fmall work, where the courfes are
equal, well fquared, and their edges or beds ruftica-
ted ; that where the courfes are unequal ; and that
filled up in the middle with little (tones and mortar.
MASS, in mechanics, the matter of any body-
cohering with it, i. e. moving and gravitating along
with it. In which fenfe, mafs is diltinguiftied from
bulk, or volume, which is the expanfion of a body in
length, breadth, and thicknefs.
The mafs of any body is rightly eftimated by its
weight. And the maffes of two bodies of the fame
weight are in a reciprocal ratio of their bulks.
Mass, Mijfa, in the church of Rome, the office or
prayers ufed at the celebration of the eucharift ; or in
other words, confecrating the bread and wine into the
body and blood of Chrift, and offering them fo tran-
fubftantiated as an expiatory facrifice for the quick
and the dead.
As the mafs is in general believed to be a reprefen-
tation of the paffion of our blefied Saviour, fo every
aftion of the prieft, and every particular part of the
fervice, is fuppofed to allude to the particular circum-
ftances of his palfion and death.
Nicod, after Baronins, obferves that the word
comes from the Hebrew mijfach, (oblatum ;) or from
the Latin viijfa, mijforatn; becaufe in the former
times, the catechumens and excommunicated were fent
out of the church, when the deacons faid, Ite, mijfa.
ejl, after fermon and reading of the epiftle and go-
fpd ; they not being allowed to sdfift at the confecra-
tion. Menage derives the word from niijfw, “ dif-
mifting Others from mijfa, “ miffing, fending
becaufe in the mafs, the prayers of men on earth are
fent up to heaven.
The general divifion of mafles confifts in high and
low. The firft is that fung by the chorifters, and cele¬
brated with the affiftance of a deacon and fub-deacon:
low mafles are thofe in which the prayers are barely
rehearfed without finging.
There are a great number of different or occafionat
mafles in the Romifh church, many of which haveoo-
thing peculiar but the name: fuch are the mafles of
the faints; that of St Mary of the fnow, celebrated
on the fifth of Auguft ; that of St Margaret, patronefs
of lying-in women ; that of the featt of St John the
Baptitt, at which are faid three mafles ; that of the
Innocents, at which the gloria in excelfis, and the
hallelujah are omitted, and it being a day of mourn¬
ing, the altar is of a violet-colour. As to ordinary
made*
MAS [ 4469 1 MAS
Wafs maflcs, feme are faid for the dead, and, as is fuppofed,
Ifl- contribute to fetch the foul out of purgatory : at thefe
a 1 u‘ mafles the altar is put in mourning, and the only de¬
corations are a crofs in the middle of fix yellow wax
lights; the drefs of the celebrant, and the very mafs-
book, are black; many parts of the office are omitted,
and the people are difmifled without the benedi&ion.
If the mafs be faid for a perfon diftinguiflied by his
rank or virtues, it is followed with a funeral oration :
they ere<?t a chapelle ardente, that is a reprefentation
of the dsceafed with branches and tapers of yellow wax,
either in the middle of the church or near the de*
ceafed’s tomb, where the pried pronounces a folemn
abfolution of the deceafed. There are likewife pri¬
vate maffes, faid for ftolen or drayed goods or cattle,
for health, for travellers, &c. which go under the
name of votive majfes. There is dill a further didinc-
tion of mafles denominated from the countries in which
they were ufed ; thus the Gothic mafs, or mijfa mofa-
rabum, that ufed among the Goths when they were
maders of Spain, and which is dill kept up at To¬
ledo and Salamanca; the Ambrofian mafs is that com-
pofed by St Ambrofe, and nfed only at Milan, of
which city he was bifhop; the Gallic mafs, ufed by
the ancient Gauls; and the Roman mafs, ufed by al-
mod all the churches in the Romilh communion.
Mass of the Prefanftified, (niijfa prafanttificatorum,)
is a mafs peculiar to the Greek church, in which there
is no confecralion of the elements; but after finging
fome hymns, they receive the bread and wine which
was before confecrated. This mafs is performed all
X.ent, except on Saturdays, Sundays, and the annun¬
ciation. The pried counts upon hrs fingers the days
of the enfuing week on which it is to be celebrated,
and cuts off as many pieces of bread at the altar as
be is to fay mafles ; apd after having confecrated them,
deeps them in wine, and then puts them in a box ;
out of which, upon every oceafion, he takes fome of
it with a fpoon, and putting it on a difh fets it upon
the altar.
MASSA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, with a bifhop’s
fee; feated on a mountain near the fea, in E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 43. 5.
Massa, an ancient, populous, and handfome town
of Italy, and capital of a fmall territory of the fame
name, with the title of a principality, and a drong
eaflle. It is famous for its quarries of fine marble,
and is fituated in E. Long. 14. 23. N. Lat. 40. 40.
MASSACHUSETS colony, the principal fubdi-
vilion of New England, having Hampfhire on the
north, the Atlantic ocean on the ead and fouthr
and Conne&icut and New-York on the wed. It is
about too miles long and 40 broad. See Ne<vi-
England.
MASSALIANS, a fet of enthufiaffs who fprang
up about the year 361, in the reign of the emperor
Condantius, who maintained that men have two fouls,
a eeledial and a diabolical, and that the latter is driven
©ut by prayer.
MASSILIA, (anc. geog.), a town of Gallia Nar-
bonenfis; a colony of Phocaeans, from Piiocasa, a city
of Ionia, and in confederacy with the Romans : uni-
verfally celebrated not only for its port, commerce, and
drength, but efpecially for its politenefs of manners Maffieu
and its learning. It was the fchool for barbarians, who ^
were excited by its means to fuch a fondnefs for Greek a
literature, that even their public and private tranfac-
tions were all executed in that language, according to
Strabo; who adds, “ At this day the nobled Romans
repair thither for fludy, rather than to Athens.” Now
Marfeilles, a city and port-town of Provence. See
Marseilles.
MASSIEU (William), a learned French writer,
member of the academy of belles lettres, and of the
French academy, was born at Caen in Normandy in
i66y, and completed his dudies at Paris, when he
entered amongd the Jefuits; but afterwards left them,
that he might follow his inclination to polite literature
with the greater freedom. In 1710 he was made
Greek profeflbr in the royal college; and enjoyed that
pod till his death, which happened at Paris in 1722.
He wrote, x. Several curious diflertations in the me¬
moirs of the academy of inferiptions. 2. A hidory of
the French poetry, in icmo, &c.
MASSINGER (Philip), an Englifh dramatic
poet, was born at Salifbury about the year 1581, and
was educated at Oxford. He left the univerfity with¬
out taking any degree; and went to London to im¬
prove his poetical genius by polite converfation.
There he wrote many tragedies and comedies, which
were received with vad applaufe ; and were greatly
admired for the oeconomy of the plots, and the purity
of the dyle. He was at the fame time a perfon of
the mod confummate modefly; which rendered him
extremely beloved by the poets of his time, particu¬
larly by Fletcher, Middleton, Rowley, Field, and
Decker, who thought it an honour to write in con-
junftion with him. He was as remarkable for his
abilities as his modedy. He died fuddenly at his
houfe on the Bank-fide in Southwark, near the play-
houfe; and was interred in St Saviour’s church-yard,
in the fame grave with Mr Fletcher the poet.
MASSETER, in anatomy. See there, (Table of
the Mufcles).
MASSIVE, among builders, an epithet given to
whatever is too heavy and folid: thus a maffive co¬
lumn is one too ftrort and thick for the order whofe
capital it bears; and a maflive wall is one whofe open¬
ings or lights are too fmall in proportion.
MASSORA, in matters of literature, a critical
work, containing remarks on the verfes, words, let¬
ters, and vowel-points of the Hebrew text of the Bible;-
a work more laborious than ufeful.
MAST, a long round piece of timber, elevated
perpendicularly upon the keel of a fhip, to which are
attached the yards, the fails, and the rigging. A
maft, with regard to its length, is either formed of
one Angle piece,, which is called a pole-maji, or com-
pofed of feveral pieces joined together, each of which
retains the name of maft feparately. The loweft of thefe
is accordingly named the lower viajl, a, fig. 2. the^j3^...
next in height is the top-maft, b, which is ere&ed at1"'
the head of the former ; and the higheft is the top-gal¬
lant maft, c, which is prolonged from the upper end
of the top-maft. Thus the two laft are no other than
a continuation of the firft upwards.
The lower-maft is fixed in the fhip by an apparatus,
dc-
MAS [ 4470 ] MAS
defcnbed in the articles Hulk and Sheers: the foot,
or heel of it, refts in a block of timber called ihzjlep,
which is fixed upon the kelfon; and the top-mail is at¬
tached to the head of it by the cap and the trejlle-trees.
The latter of thefeare two ftrong bars of limber, fup-
ported by two prominences, which are as flioulders on
the oppofite fides of the maft, a little under its upper
end : athwart thefe bars are fixed the crofj-trees, upon
which the frame of the top is fupported. Between the
lower maft-head and the foremoft of the crofs-trees, a
fquare fpace remains vacant, the fides of which are
bounded by the two trefile-trees. Perpendicularly
above this is the foremoft hole in the cap, whofe after¬
hole is folidly fixed on the head of the lower-maft. The
top maft is erected by a tackle, whofe effort is commu¬
nicated from the head of the lower maft to the foot of
the top-maft; and the upper end of the latter is ac¬
cordingly guided into and conveyed up through the
holes between the treftle-trees and the cap, as above-
mentioned. The machinery by which it is elevated,
or, according to the fea phrafe, fwayed up, is fixed in
the following manner: the top rope d, fig. 3. pafiing
through a block e, which is hooked on one fide of the
cap, and afterwards through a hole, furniftied with a
Iheave or pulleyyi on the lower end of the top-maft,
is again brought upwards on the other fide of the maft,
where it is at length faftened to an eye-bolt in the cap
which is always on the fide oppofite to the top-
ock e. To the lower end of the top-rope is fixed
the top-tackle b, the effort of which being tranfmit-
ted to the top-rope d, and thence to the heel of the
top mafty^ neceffarily lifts the latter upwards, paral¬
lel to the lower-maft. When the top-maft is raifed to
its proper height, fig. 4. the lower end of it be¬
comes firmly wedged in the fquare hole, above-de-
fcribed, between the treftle-trees. A bar of wood,
pr iron, called the fid, is then thruft through a hole
i in the heel of it, acrofs the treftle trees, by which
the whole weight of the top-maft is fupported.
In the fame manner as the top-maft is retained at
the head of the lower-maft, the top-gallant-maft is
eredled, and fixed at the head of the top-maft.
Betides the parts already-mentioned in the conftruc-
tion of mafts, with refpeft to their length, the lower-
mafts of the largeft {hips are compofed of feveral pieces
united into one body. As thefe are generally the moft
fubftantial parts of various trees, a maft, formed by
this affcmblage, is juftly efteemed much ftronger than
one confifting of any fingle trunk, whofe internal fo-
lidity may be very uncertain. The feveral pieces are
formed and joined together, as reprefented in the fec-
tion of a lower maft of this fort, fig. 5. where a is
the fhaft, or principal piece into which the reft are fix¬
ed, with their fides or faces clofe to each other. The
whole is fecnred by feveral ftrong hoops of iron, driven
on the outfide of the maft, where they remain at pro¬
per diftances.
The principal articles to be confidered in equip¬
ping a fhip with mafts are, J ft, the number; 2d, their
fituation in the veffel; and 3d, their height above the
water.
The mafts being ufed to extend the fails by means
of their yards, it is evident, that if their number were
multiplied beyond what is neceffary, the yards muft
he extremely fhort, that they may not entangle each
other in working the fhip, and by confequence their Maft.
fails will be very narrow, and receive a fmall portion ———-
of wind. If, on the contrary, there is not a fufficient
number of mafts in the veflel, the yards will be too
large and heavy, fo as not to be managed without dif¬
ficulty. There is a mean between thefe extremes,
which experience and the general pra&ice of the fea
have determined ; by which it appears, that in large
fhips every advantage of failing is retained by three
mafts and a bowfprit.
The moft advantageous pofition of the mafts is un¬
doubtedly that from whence there refults an equilibri¬
um between the refiftance of the water on the body of
the fhip on one part, and of the direflion of their
effort on the other. By every other pofition this equili¬
brium is deftroyed, and the greateft effort of the mafts
will operate to turn the fhip horizontally about its di-
reftion ; a circumftance which retards her velocity. It
is counterbalanced indeed by the helm ; but the fame
inconvenience ftill continues; for the force of the wind,
having the refiflance of the helm to overcome, is not
entirely employed to.pufh the veffel forward. The
axis of the refiftance of the water fhould then be pre-
vionfiy determined, to difcover the place of the main-
rnajl, in order to fufpend the efforts of the water equal¬
ly, and place the other mafts fo as that their particu¬
lar dire&ion will coincide with that of the main maft.
The whole of this would be capable of a folution if the
figure of the veffel were regular, becaufe the point,
about which the refiftance of the water would be in
equilibrio, might be difcovered by calculation.
But when the real figure of the fhip is confidered,
thefe flattering ideas will inftantly vanifh. This obfer-
vation induced M. Saverien to employ a mechanical
method to difcover the axis of refiftance of the water,
which he apprehended might be ufed with fuccefs in
the manner following:
When the veffel is lanched, before the places of the
mafts are determined, extend a rope A B, fig. 6. from
the head to the ftern. To the extremities A and B
attach two other ropes, AD, BC, and apply to the
other ends of thefe ropes two mechanical powers, to
draw the fhip according to the direction BC, parallel
to itfelf. The whole being thus difpofed, let a move-
able tube Z, fixed upon the rope A B, have another
rope ZR attached to it, whofe other end communi¬
cates with a mechanical power R, equal to the two
powers D and C. This laft being applied to the fame
veffd, in fuch manner as to take off the effefts. of the
two others by Aiding upon the rope AB, fo as to dif¬
cover fome point Z, by the parallelifm of the ropes
AD BC feebly extended with the rope ZR; the line
ZR will be the axis of the equilibrium of the water’s
refiftance, and by confequence the main-maft fhould
be planted in the point Z;
The figures E, E, E, are three windlaffes on the
fhore, by which this experiment is applied.
With regard to the fituation of the other mafts, it is
neceffary, in the fame manner, to difcover two points;
fo that the direction of the two mechanical powers ope¬
rating, will be parallel to the axis of refiftance RZ al¬
ready found.
Theexaff height of the mafts, in proportion to the
form and fize of the fhip, remains yet a problem to be
determined. The more the mails are elevated above
the
Mafftf.
•Mart,
■Mailer.
MAS [ 4471 ] MAS
the centre of gravity, the greater will be the furface
of fail which they are enabled to prefent to the wind ;
fo far an additional height feems to have been advan¬
tageous. But this advantage is diminifhed by the cir¬
cular movement of the maft, which operates to make
the veflel ftoop to its effort; and this inclination is
increafed in proportion to the additional height of
the maft, an inconvenience which it is necelfary to
guafd againft. Thus what is gained upon one hand is
loft upon the other. To reconcile thefe differences, it
is certain, that the height of the maft ought to be de¬
termined by the inclination of the veffel, and that the
point of her greateft inclination fhould be the term of
this height above the centre of gravity. See the ar¬
ticle Trim.
With regard to the general praftice of determining
the height of the mafts, according to the different rates
of the (hips in the royal navy, the reader is referred to
the article Sail.
In order to feeure the mafts, and counterbalance the
ftrain they receive from the effort of the fails imprefs-
ed by the wind, and the agitation of the (hip at fea,
they are fuftained by feveral ftrong ropes, extended
from their upper ends to the outli4e veffel, called
florouds, as reprefented in fig. 4. They are further
fupported by other ropes, ftretched from their heads
towards the fore-part of the veffel.
The maft, which is placed at the middle of the
fhip’s length, is called the ipain-majl; that which is
placed in the forepart, the fore-maft ; and that which
is towards towards the ftern, is termed the mizen-viaji.
N. B. Mizen is applied to this maft by all the na¬
tions of Europe, except the French, who alone call
the fore-maft mifaine.
MASTER (magister), in general, is a title of
authority, and applied to perfons in various charadters.
It is alfo ufed as a compellation of refpedl.
Master of the firft degree taken up i*n all
foreign univerfities, but the fecond in thofe of Eng¬
land ; candidates not being admitted to it in that coun¬
try till they have ftudied in the univerfity feven years.
Master of a Ship of War, an officer appointed
fey the commifiioners of the navy to take charge of the
navigating and conducting a (hip from port to port,
under the diredtion of the captain. The management
and difpofition of the fails, the working of the (hip
into her ftation in the order of battle, and the direc¬
tion of her movements in the time of adtion and in the
other circumftances of danger, are alfo more particu¬
larly under his infpedtion. It is likewife his duty to
examine the provifions, and accordingly to admit none
into the (hip but fuch as are found, fweet, and whole-
fome. He is moreover charged with theflowage, or dil-
pofition of thefe materials in the (hip’s hold ; and to
enable him the better to perform thefe fervices, he is
allowed feveral afliftants, who are properly termed
mates and quarter maflers. See thefe articles.
Master of a Merchant-Ship, the commanding of¬
ficer, who is appointed by the merchants to manage
the navigation and every thing relating to her cargo,
voyage, tailors, &c.
Attendant, an officer in the royal dock¬
yards, appointed to haften and affift at the fitting
•out or difmantling, removing or feeuring veffels of
V cl. VI. 2
war, &c. at the port where he refides. He is parti¬
cularly to obferve that his majefty’s (hips are fecure-
ly moored; and for this purpofe he is expedted fre¬
quently to review the moorings which are funk in the
harbour, and obferve that they are kept in proper re¬
pair to be always ready when occalion requires. It is
alfo his duty to vifit all the (hips in ordinary, and fee
that they are frequently cleaned and kept in order;
and to attend at the general mufters in the dock¬
yards, taking care that all the officers, artificers, and
labourers, regiftered in the navy-books, are prefent at
their duty.
Master at Arms, an officer appointed to teach the
officers and crew of a (hip of war the exercife of fmall
arms ; to confine and plant centinels over the prifon-
ers, and fuperintend whatever relates to them during
their confinement. He is alfo to obferve, that the fire
and lights be all extinguilhed as foon as the evening
gun is fired, except thofe which are permitted by pro¬
per authority or under the infpedlion of centinels. It
is alfo his duty to attend the gangway when any boats
arrive aboard, and fearch them carefully, together
with their rowers, that no fpirituous liquors may be
conveyed into the (hip, unlefs by permiffion of the
commanding-officer. In thefe feveral duties he is af-
fifted with proper attendants, called his corporals; who
alfo relieve the centinels, and one another, at certain
periods.
Master of the Horfe, a great officer of the crown,
who orders all matters relating to the king’s (tables,
races, breed of horfes ; and commands the equerries
and all the other officers and tradefmen employed in
the king’s (tables. His coaches, horfes, and atten¬
dants, are the king’s, and bear the king’s arms and li¬
very.
Master of the Revels, an officer who orders alt
things relating to the performance of plays, ma(ks,
balls, &c. at court.
Master of the Rolls, a patent-officer for life, who
has the cuftody of the rolls of parliament and pa¬
tents which pafs the great feai, and of the records
of chancery, as alfo commiffions, deeds, recognizan¬
ces ; which, being made of rolls of parchment, gave
rife to the name.
In abfence of the chamberlain, he fits as judge in
the court of chancery : at other times he hears caufes
in the rolls chapel, and makes orders; but all hearings
before him are appealable to the chancellor.
Master of the Wardrobe, an officer under the lord-
chamberlain, who has the care of the royal robes, as
well as the wearing apparel, collar, george, and gar¬
ter, &c. He has alfo the charge of all former kings
and queens robes remaining in the tower, all hang¬
ings, bedding, &c. for the king’s houfe, the charge
and delivery of velvet and fcarlet allowed for liveries.
He has under him a clerk of the robes, wardrobe-
keeper, a yeoman, &c.
Master and Servant; a relation founded incon¬
venience, whereby a man is diredled to call in the af-
fiftance of others, where his own (kill and labour will
not be fufficient to anfwer the cares incumfient upon
him. For the feveral forts of fervants, and how that
charadter is created or deftroyed, fee the article Ser¬
vant. In the prefent article we (hall confider, firft,
25 I the
M'fter.
Vadfi.
&m,vent.
MAS [ 4472 1 MAS
the effeft of this relation with regard to the parties
‘themfelves; and fecondly, its effe&s with regard to
others.
t. The manner in,which this relation afh-£s either
the matter or fervant. And, firft, by hiring and fer-
vice for a year, or apprenticefhip under indentures, a
perfon gains a fettlcment in that parilh wherein he laft
ferved 40 days. In the next place, perfons {erring
{even years as apprentices to any trade have an ex-
clulive right to exercife that trade in any part of Eng¬
land. This law, with regard to the exclufive part of
it, has by turns been looked upon as a hard law, or
as a beneficial one, according to the prevailing hu¬
mour of the times: which has occafioned a great va¬
riety of refolutions in the courts of law concerning it;
and attempts have been frequently made for its re¬
peal, tho’ hitherto without fuccefs. At common law
every man might ufe what trade he pleafed; but this
ftatute reftrains that liberty to fuch as have ferved as
apprentices: the adverfaries to which provifion fay,
that all reftriflions (which tend to introduce monopo¬
lies) are pernicious to trade ; the advocates for it al¬
lege, that unfkilfulnefs in trades is equally detrimen¬
tal to the public, as monopolies. This reafon indeed
only extends to fuch trades, in the exercife whereof
fleill is required : but another of their arguments goes
much farther; viz. that apprenticefliips are ufeful to
the commonwealth, by employing of youth, and learn¬
ing them to be early induftrious ; but that no one
would be induced to undergo a feven years fervitude,
if others, tho’ equally Ikilful, were allowed the fame
advantages without having undergone the fame difci-
pline: and in this there feems to be much reafon.
However, the refolutions of the courts have in gene¬
ral rather confined than extended the reftriftion. No
trades are held to be within the ftatute, but fuch as
were in being at the making of it: for trading in a
country village, apprenticelhips are not requifite, and
following the trade feven years is fufficient without any
binding; for the ftatute only fays, the perfon muft
ferve as an apprentice, and does not require an aftual
apprenticefhip to have exifted.
A mafter may by law correA his apprentice for ne¬
gligence or other mifbehaviour, fo it be done with
moderation : though, if the mafter or matter’s wife
beats any other fervant of full age, it is good caufe of
departure. .But if any fervant, workman, or labourer,
alfaults his matter or dame, he fhall fuffer one year’s
imprifonment, and other open corporal punifhment,
not extending to life or limb.
By ftrvice all fervants and labourers, except appren¬
tices, become entitled to their wages: according to
agreement, if menial fervants ; or according to the ap¬
pointment of the fheriff or feffions, if labourers or fer¬
vants in hufbandry: for the ftatutes for regulation
of wages extend to fuch fervants only ; it being im-
poffible for any magiftrate to be a judge of the em¬
ployment of menial fervants, or ofcourfe to affefs their
wages.
2. Let us now fee how ftrangers may be affeA-
ed by this relation of mafter and fervant; or how a
mafter may behave towards others on behalf of his
fervant, and what a fervant may do on behalf of his
mafter.
And, firft, the mafter may maintain, that is, abet
and affift, his fervant in any aAion at law againft a
ftranger: whereas, in general, it is an offence againft'
public juftice to encourage fuits and animofities, by
helping to bear the expence of them, and is called in
law maintenance. A matter alfo may bring an aAion
againft any man for beating or maiming his fervant:
but in fuch cafe he muft affign, as a fpecial reafon for
fo doing, his own damage by the lofs of his fervice;
and this lofs muft be proved upon the trial. A mafter
likewife may jnftify an aflault in defence of his fervant,
and a fervant in defence of his mafter: the matter, be-
caufe he has an intereft in his fervant, not to be de¬
prived of his fervice; the fervant, becaufe it is part of
his duty, for which he receives his wages, to ftand by
and defend his mafter. Alfo if any perfon do hire or
retain my fervant, being in my fervice, for which the
fervant departeth from me and goeth to ferve the other,
I may have an aAion for damages againft both the
new matter, and the fervant, or either of them: but if
the new mafter did not know that he is my fervant,
noaAiohlies; unlefs he afterwards refufe to reftore
him upon information and demand. The reafon and
foundation upon which ail this doArine is built, feem
to be the property that every man has in the fervice of
his domeftics ; acquired by the contraA of hiring, and
purchafed by giving them wages.
As for thofe things which a fervant may do on be¬
half of his mafter, they feem all to proceed upon thi*
principle, that the mafter is anfwerable for the aA of
his fervant, if done by his command, either exprefsly
given or implied: namqui facit per alium, facet per ft.
Therefore, if the fervant commit a trefpafs by the
command or encouragement of his mafter, the mafter
fhall be guilty of it: not that the fervant is excufed*
for he is only to obey his mafter in matters that are
honeft and lawful. If an innkeeper’s fervants rob his
guefts, the mafter is bound to reftitution; for as there
is a confidence repofed in him, that he will take care
to provide honeft fervants, his negligence is a kind of
implied confent to the robbery; nam, qui non prohibet,
cum prohibere pofit, jubet. So likewife if the drawer
at a tavern fells a man bad wine, whereby his health is
injured, he may bring an aAion againft the mafter;
for although the mafter did not exprefsly order the
fervant to fell it to that perfon in particular, yet his
permitting him to draw and fell it at all is impliedly &
general command.
In the fame manner, whatever a fervant is permitted
to do in the ufual courfe of his bufinefs, is equivalent
to a general command. If I pay money to a banker’s
fervant, the banker is anfwerable for it: if I pay it
to a clergyman’s or a phyfician’s fervant, whofe ufual
bufinefs it is not to receive money for his mafter, and
he imbezzles it, I muft pay it over again. If a fteward
lets a leafe of a farm, without the owner’s knowledge,
the owner muft ftand to the bargain ; for this is the
fteward’s bufinefs. A wife, a friend, a relation, that
ufe to tranfaA bufinefs for a man, are quoad hoc his fer¬
vants ; and the principal muft anfwer for their con-
duA : for the law implies, that they aft under a ge¬
neral command ; and without fuch a doArine as this
no mutual intercourfe between man and man could fub-
fift with any tolerable convenience. If I ufually deal
with a tradefman by myfelf, or conftantly pay him
ready money, I am not anfwerable for what my fer-
Maftetv
MAS [ 4473 ] MAT
Mafkr, vant takes up upon truft ; for here is bo implied order
Efaftication to tjie tradefman to truft; my fervant: but if I ufually
" fend him upon truft, or fometimes on truft and fome-
times with ready money, I am anfwerable for all he
takes up ; for the tradefman cannot pofiibly diftinguilh
when he comes by my order, and when upon his own
authority.
If a fervant, laftly, by his negligence does any da¬
mage to a ftranger, the mafter (hall anfwer for his ne¬
glect : if a fmith’s fervant lames a horfe while he is
flioeing him, an aftion lies againft the mafter, and not
againft the fervant. But in thefe cafes the damage
muft be done while he is a&ually employed in the
mailer’s fervice ; otherwife the fervant (hall anfwer for
his own mifbehaviour. Upon this principle, by the
common law, if a fervant kept his mailer’s fire negli¬
gently, fo that his neighbour’s houfe was burned down
thereby, an a&ion lay againft the mafter ; becaufe this
negligence happened in his fervice : otherwife, if the
fervant, going along the ftreet with a torch, by ne¬
gligence fets fire to a houfe ; for there he is not in his
mafter’s immediate fervice, and muft himfelf anfwer
the damage perfonally. But now the common law is,
in the former cafe, altered by llatute 6 Ann. c. 3.
which ordains, that no adiion {hall be maintained a-
gainft any in whofe houfe or chamber any fire (hall
accidentally begin ; for their own lofs is fufficient pu-
nifliraent for their own or their fervant’s careleffnefs.
But if fuch fire happens through negligence of any
fervant {whofe lofs is commonly very little), fuch fer¬
vant (hall forfeit tool, to be diftributed among the
fufferers ; and, in default of payment, {hall be com¬
mitted to fome workhoufe, and there kept to hard la¬
bour for 18 months. A mafter is, laftly, chargeable
if any of his family layeth or cafteth any thing out of
his houfe into the ftreet or common highway, to the
damage of any individual, or the common nufance of
his majefty’s liege people : for the mafter hath the fu-
perintendance of all his houfehold. And this alfo
agrees with the civil law ; which holds, that the pater
familias, in this and fimilar cafes, ob alterius culpam
tenetur, five fervi, ftve liberi.
We may obferve, that in all the cafes here put, the
mafter may be frequently a lofer by the truft repofed
in his fervant, but never can be a gainer: he may
frequently be anfwerable for his fervant’s mifbehaviour,
but never can (helter himfelf from puni(hment by lay¬
ing the blame on his agent. The reafon of this isftill
uniform and the fame j that the wrong done by the
lervant is looked upon in law as the wrong of the
mafter himfelf; and it is a (landing maxim, that no
man {hall be allowed to make any advantage of his own
wrong.
Master-Wort-, in botany. See Imperatoria.
MASTERS of Chancery, in ordinary, of which
there are 12, the mafter of the rolls being chief, are
ufually chofen out of the barrifters of the common law,
and (it in chancery, or at the rolls, as afliftants to the
lord-chancellor or mafter of the rolls.
MASTICATION, the a&ion of chewing, or
of agitating the folid parts of our food between the
teeth, by the motion of the jaws, the tongue, and the
lips, whereby it is broken into fmall pieces, impreg¬
nated with faliva, and fo fitted for deglutition and a
saore eafy digeftion. See Anatomy, n° 368,
2
MASTICH, a kind of refin exfuding from the/<*«-
tree; and brought from Chio, in fmall yellowilh
tranfparent grains or tears, of an agreeable fmell,
efpecially when heated or fet on fire. This refin is
recommended in old coughs, dyfenteries, hEcmoptoes,
weaknefs of the (tomach, and in general in all debi¬
lities and laxity of the fibres. Geoffrey dire&s an
aqueous decodlion of it to be ufed for thefe purpofes:
but water extracts little or nothing from this refin.
RcAified fpirit almoft entirely diffolves it, and the folu-
tion is very warm and pungent. Maftich is to be
chofen in drops, clear, well-fcented, and brittle.
We meet with a kind of cement fometimes kept in
the (hops under the name of maJUch. It is compofed
of this gum, and feveral other ingredients, and ia
formed into cakes for ufe. This is intended for the
fervice of lapidaries, to fill up cracks in ftones, &c.
but is by no means to be ufed for any medicinal pur¬
pofes.
MAST1GADOUR, or slabbering-bit, in the
manege, a fnaifle of iron, all fmooth, and of a piece,
guarded with paternofters, and compofed of three halfs
of great rings, made into demi-ovals, of unequal big-
nefs ; the leffer being inclofed within the greater, which
ought to be about half a foot high.
MASULAPATAN, a populous town of Afia in
the Eaft Indies, and on the coaft of Coromandel, in
the dominions of the Great Mogul. It carried on a
great trade, and moft nations in Europe had fadlories
here; but the Englifh have now left it, and even the
Dutch themfelves have not above a dozen people here
to carry on the chintz trade. The inhabitants ’are
Gentoos, who will not feed on any thing that has life;
and they had a famous manufafture of chintz, which
is greatly decayed fince the Englilh left off buying.
The Great Mogul has a cuftom-houfe here; and the
adjacent countries abound in corn, tobacco, and tim¬
ber for building. It is feated on the weft fide of the
Bay of Bengal, 200 miles north of fort St George.
W. Long. 81. 25. N. Lat. 16. 30.
MATACA, or Mantaca, a commodious bay in
America, on the north coaft of the ifland of Cuba.
Here the galleons ufually come to take in frefh water
in their return to Spain. It is 35 miles from the Ha-
vannah. W. Long. 83. 6. N. Lat. 25. o.
MATAMAN, a country of Africa, bounded by
Benguela on the north, by Monomotopa on the eaft,
by Cafraria on the fouth, and by the Atlantic Ocean
on the weft. There is no town in it, and the inhabi¬
tants live in miferable huts, it being a defart country,
and but little vifited by the Europeans.
MATAN, or Mactan, an ifland of Afia in the
Eaft-Indian fea, and one of the Philippines. The
inhabitants have thrown off the yoke of Spain ;
and it was here that Magellan was killed in April
1521.
Cape MATAPAN, the moft fouthern promontory
of the Morea, between the gulph of Coran and that
of Colo-China.
MATARAM, a large town of Afia, formerly the
capital of an empire of that name in the ifland of Ja¬
va. It is ftrong by fituation, and is feated in a very
fertile, pleafant, and populous country, furrounded
with mountains. E. Long. in. 25. S. Lat. 7. 55.
MATARG, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, remark-
25 I 2 able
MafticK
n
Mr taro.
MAT [ 4474 ] MAT
Wtatcti, able for its glafs-works ; feated on the coafl of the Me-
Matching. dlterranean, 15 miles north-call of Barcelona, and
35 fouth-well of Gironne. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat.
41. 30.
MATCH, a kind of rope flightly twilled, and
prepared to retain fire for the ufes of artillery, mines,
fire works, &c.
It is made of hempen-tow, fpun on the wheel like
cord, but very flack ; and is compofed of three twills,
which are afterwards again covered with tow, fo that
the twills do not appear : laftly, it is boiled in the lees
of old wines. This, when once lighted at the end,
burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going
out, till the whole be confumed : the hardell and driell
match is generally the bell.
/V/f-Match See Quick-Match.
MATCHING, in the wine-trade, the preparing
veflels to preferve wints and other liquors, without
their growing four or vapid. Tiie method of doing it,
is as follows: Melt brimllone in an iron ladle, and
when thoroughly melted, dip into it flips of coarfe li¬
nen-cloth; take thefe out, and let them cool: this the
wine-coopers cMamatcb. Take one of thefe matches,
fet one end of it on fire, and put it into the bung-
hole of a calk; Hop it loofely, and thus fuffer the match
to burn nearly out: then drive in the bung tight, and
fet the calk alide for an hour or two. At the end of
this time examine the calk, and you will find that the
fulphur has communicated a violent pungent and fuf-
focating fcent to the calk, with a confiderable degree
of acidity, which is the gas and acid fpirit of the ful¬
phur. The calk may after this be filled with a fmall
wine which has fcarce done its fermentation ; and
bunging it down tight, it will be kept good, and will
foon clarify: this is a common and very ufeful method;
for many poor wines could fcarce be kept potable even
a few months without It. Mate,
MATE of a'Shv <^War, an officer under the di- Matera«
reftion of the mailer, by whofe choice he is generally
appointed, to alfill him in the feveral branches of his
duty. Accordingly, he is to be particularly attentive
to the navigation in his watch, &c. to keep the log
regularly, and examine the line, and glaffesby which
the fhip’scourfe is meafurcd, and to adjull the fails to
the wind in the fore-part of the fhip. He is to have
a diligent attention to the cables, feeing that they are
well coiled and kept clean when laid in the tier, and
fufficiemly ferved when employed to ride the (hip. Fi¬
nally he is to fuperintend, and alfilt at the llowage of
the hold, taking efpecial care that all the ballall and
provilions are properly flowed therein.
Mate of a Merchant Ship, the officer who com¬
mands in the abfence of the mailer thereof, and (hares
the duty with him at fea ; being charged with every
thing that regards the internal management of the Ihip,
the direfling her courfe, and the government of her
crew.
The number of mates allowed to (hips of war and
merchantmen is always in proportion to the fize of the
velfel. Thus a firft-rate man of war has fix mates, and
an Eaft-Indiaman the fame number; a frigate of iq
guns, and a fmall merchant (hip, but only one mate in
each; and the intermediate (hips have a greater or
fmaller number, according to their feveral fizes, or to
the fervices on which they are employed.
Dura and Pia Mater, the names given by anato-
mifts to the two membranes which furround the brain.
See Anatomy, n° 394, 395.
MATERA, a confiderable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with
a bilhop’s fee, feated on the river Canapro. E. Long.
16. 43. N. Lat. 40. 51.
MATERIA MEDIC A,
Of Claffifi- A General name for every fubftance ufed in me-
cation. -cX dicine, and by fome extended even to every ar-
“ tide ufed as food or drink.
Thus the materia medica becomes exceedingly ex-
tenfive: however, before we enter upon any particular
difcuffion of the fubjefl, it appears proper to give fome
general idea of medicines and their operation.
A medicine, properly fo called, is a fubftance which,
when applied to the living human body, makes fuch an
alteration in it as either to prevent the approach of dif-
eafe, or to remedy a morbid Hate when already prefent.
Such fubllances as may be ufed for thefe purpofes
without any great preparation are called fimple medi¬
cines, or fimple s; and with thefe the writers on mate¬
ria medica are chiefly converfant. In treatifes writ¬
ten profefiedly on this fubjedl, it is common to give
a particular defcription of each article, the chara&e-
riftic marks by which it may be dillinguilhed from all
other fubftances, and the methods by which an adul¬
teration or an imperfedlion may be difcovered in it,
together with the dofe in which it can fafely be gi¬
ven: but as all thefe particulars are taken notice of in
different parts of this work, it is only neceffary here to
mention the general claffification, and enumerate the
names of the various fubftances ufed in medicine, af¬
ter giving, as hath been already promifed, a brief and Of Claffifi*
general account of their mode of operation. catl0n'
Concerning the manner in which medicines aft, phy-
ficians have greatly differed, and each has followed his
own particular theory. The followers of Boerhaave
have fuppofed their aftion to be direftly upon the folids
and fluids; while thofe who build their theories on the
hypothefis of Hoffman have afferted, that all medicines
aft immediately upon the nervous fyftem, and from
thence only in a fecondary manner are their effefts dif-
fufed over the folids and fluids. To difeufs this que-
ilion is not our bufinefs at prefent: neither indeed is
it a matter of great confequence whether it be difeuf-
fed or not; feeing all parties mull own, that certain ef¬
fefts follow the ufe of certain particular fubllances, whe¬
ther thefe fubllances aft firlt upon the nervous fyftem
or upon the folids and fluids.
From their operations on the human body medi¬
cines are moll ufually divided into claffes. Some are
found to have the property of rendering the folid parts
of the body more lax than before, and are therefore
called relaxing medicines : Others there are which
have an effeft direftly contrary, and are therefore call¬
ed indurating medicines : A third kind are found to
excite inflajnmation in the part to which they are
applied,
Introd. MATERIA MEDIC A. 4475
Of Ciaili applied, and are therefore called inflammatory medi-
fication. cines: And, laftly, a fourth kind are found remarkably
' either to increafe or diminilh the vigour of the body,
or what is called the tone of the folids; and have
therefore got the name of tonics if they increafe, and
fedatives if they diminifh, this tone.
Some medicines are fuppofed neither remarkably to
increafe nor diminifh the tone of the folids; but to
perform their office either by correfting fome morbid
matter in the body, or by evacuating it : in the for¬
mer cafe they are called alterants^ in the latter evacu~
ants.
Thefe are the general divifions or clafies into which
medicines are commonly divided ; but when we begin
more particularly to confider their virtues, a great
many inferior divifions arife.—Of the relaxing me¬
dicines, fome, when externally applied, are fuppofed
only to foften the part; and in that cafe are called
emollients ; while others, which have a power of con¬
verting the humours ftagnating in any inflamed part,
into pus, are called maturants, or fuppuratives. Se¬
dative medicines, externally applied, are fometimes
called paregorics: when taken internally, if they take
off a fpafmthen exifting in the body, they are called an-
tifpafmodics ; if they mitigate pain, anodynes; if they
produce a quiet fleep, hypnotics; or if they produce
a very deep and unnatural fleep, together with a re¬
markable ftupefadlion of the fenfes, they are then call¬
ed narcotics.
Tonic medicines obtain the name of corroboratives,
analeptics, or nervine medicines, when they flightly
increafe the contradlile power of the folids ; but of
a/tringents, if they do this in a great degree, efpecially
if at the fame time that they indurate the folids they
alfo coagulate the fluids. Some of thefe medicines
have received names from their fuppofed virtue of pro¬
moting the growth of the flefh, confolidating wounds,
and flopping fluxes of blood : but it is now difcover-
ed that no medicines whatever are endowed with any
fuch powers; and therefore the divifions into farco-
tics traumatics, or vulneraries, &c. are feldom ufed.
— If aftringent medicines are ufed with an intention
to drive, by the conftri&ion which they occafion, any
kind of matter from the furface towards the internal
parts of the body, they are called repellents ; but if
they infenfiby expel any kind of ftagnating matter from
the parts where it is contained, they are then called
difcutients; and \2ifi\y,J}imulants, or attraflives, if they
bring a greater flux of humours to the part to which
they are applied.
As to medicines of the inflammatory kind, they
are divided into vejicatories or blifters, which by their
application raife watery bladders on the fkin ; and
cathercetics, efcharotics, or corrojives, if they eat into
and dettroy the fubftauce of the foil'd parts themfelves.
Another fubdivifion has been added, viz. that of r«-
befaflive medicines, or fuch as only induce a rednefs
on the part to which they are applied ; but thefe be¬
long to the veficatories, and what proves only rube-
fattive to one will frequently blifter another.
The alterants are divided into abforbents, fuch as by
their alkaline quality neutralife and deftroy any acid
matter which may be in the ftomach ; and antifeptics,
or thofe which correft any putrid matter in it; coa¬
gulants when they thicken the humours, and refold
vents if they thin them ; heating medicines when they Of Claffi-
increafe the velocity of the blood, and refrigerating ^oall°11-
if they diminilh it.
The evacuating medicines are divided according to
the nature of the humour they evacuate. Thus, if
they evacuate the contents of the ftomach by vomiting,
they are called emetics ; if they induce purging, they
are called cathartics ; if they only evacuate the imme¬
diate contents of the inteftines, they are named ecco-
protics ; or if a moderate evacuation is produced, with¬
out licknefs or pain, they are called laxatives.—The
medicines which gently promote the expulfion of hu¬
mours through the pores of the fkin, are called dia¬
phoretics. If they do this in great quantity and with
violence, they are called fudorifics. Such as excite
urine, are called diuretics. Such as produce their
evacuation by the glands of the palate, mouth, and
falival dufts, are called falivating medicines; thofe
which promote the evacuation of mucus from the
throat, are called apopklegmatics ; while thofe which
evacuate by the nofe, are called ptarmics, errhines,
Jlernutatories ; and thofe which promote the menftrual
flux, emmenagogties.—To the order of evacuants alfo
fome reduce thofe medicines which expel any unnatural
bodies, as worms, ftones, and flatus. Thofe which
deftroy worms are called anthelmintics ; thofe which
difiblve the ftone in the bladder, lithontriptics; and fuch
as expel flatus, carminatives.
According to thefe divifions Mr Vogel clafles the
articles of hisMateria Medica; but Dr Lews choofes to
arrange them according to the natural qualities of
the fubftances themfelvcs, and not their effe&s on the
human body.
1. Writers on the matera medica (he obferves) have
taken great pains in arranging the various articles of
which it is compofed, into different divifions and fub-
divifions, according to their real or reputed medicinal
powers.
2. It has been imagined, that the whole materia
medica is reducible under the three diftin&ions of al¬
teratives, evacuants, and refloratives ; the firft compre¬
hending all that has any power to alter the conflitu-
tion, without fenfibly increafing or diminilhing any of
the natural evacuations; the fecond, whatever vifibly
promotes thofe difcharges; and the third, all that
contributes to lefft n them, and make the increafe great¬
er than the wafte. Thefe divifions being too gene¬
ral, they are broken into fubdivifions ; and thefe again
are further divided into different clafies, under more re-
ftrained denominations, as cardiac, carminative, hy-
fteric, ftomachie, &c.
3. Specious as this plan may appear to be, he
imagines the execution of it, to any ufeful purpofe,
would require a far more extenfive knowledge of the
nature and operation of medicines, than has yet been
attained to. A juft and ufeful method of fimples is
fcarcely to be expedted, while thofe properties on
which the method is founded are imperfedtly known,
and in many articles only conjectural.
4. In all the arguments that have been hitherto con¬
trived upon this plan, there appears a ftriking incon¬
gruity among the feveral articles of which even the
ultimate fubdivifions are compofed ; fubftances ex¬
tremely diffimilar being claffed together, as cantharides
and tea, tobacco and bran, hemlock and cowflips,
fcurvy-
4476
Of Ar¬
rangement,
MATERIA MEDIC A. Art. I.
feurvy-grafs and raifins, arum root and liquorice, 8. In this article, inftead of attempting a medicinal Acids,
wormwood and parfneps, cinnamon and nettles, raf- diftribution of the iimples, which we apprehend not 10'™''"''—“
berries and chalk, artichokes and alum, cloves and be prti&icable to any good purpofe, and which, as ht-
coffee, muftard-feed and black cherries, &c. Nor are therto executed, feems°more likely to miflead the read-
thefe incongruities to be laid always to the charge of er than to promote true knowledge, we fhall take them
the authors, the nature of the fyftem itfelf, rendering in the order of the alphabet; and even in this order,
them often unavoidable; for the particular effedt which we fhall fddom perhaps find fubllances more diffimilar
entitles a medicine to a particular clafs, may be pro- come together, than thofe which have been joined into
duced by fubltances very diflimilar, and even oppofite, one clafs by fome of the fyftematic writers. It may
in their general powers : thus the alvine excretions are be proper, however, to premife fome general obferva-
reftrained by ftarch, wax, tormentil-root, opium; a- tions on certain claffes of medicines in Cartheufer’s
mong the capital diuretics are cantharides, nitre, fait, manner, and thus to preferve the lefs exceptionable
fixt alkaline falts, fquills. It Ibould feem, that the parts of his plan, with fome amendments,
method of arrangement cannot be a juft one which
requires fubftances fo difeordant to be ranked toge- Art. I. Acids.
then, and which further requires each of thefe fub¬
ftances to be ranked over again, in other claffes, along [native; as forrel, wood-forrel, juice
with other fubftances to which they are equally dif- ^ r rr . 7, \ ° oranges, barberries,
cordantt 1 H } Clafs I. Vegetable { and other fruits.
| produced by fermentation; as Vinc¬
is gar and tartar.
Clafs 2. Mineral; the acids of vitriol, nitre, and com¬
mon fait.
9. The medical effefts of acids, duly diluted and
cordant.
5. There is alfo a material impcrfeilion in this
fcheme, even in the primary divifions. Steel and its
preparations aft, in different circumftances, both as
evacuants and reftoratives. Mercury and antimony
afford, in their different preparations, both evacuants
and alteratives ; and there are many other drugs which given in proper dofes, are, to cool, quench thirft, cor-
are fometimes ufed as alteratives, and fometimes as re& a tendency to putrefaftion, and allay inordinate
evacuants: indeed, all evacuants, in diminiftied dofes, motions of the blood. By thefe qualities, in hot bi-
feem to a<5l merely as alteratives. It fhould feem l‘ous temperaments and inflammatory diforders, they
therefore, that “ the diviflon of the whole materia me- frequently reftrain immoderate ha5morrhages, and pro-
dica into alteratives, evacuants, and reftoratives,” is a mote the natural fecretions ; in fome kinds of fever,
dtvifion not founded in nature, even if there was no they excite a copious diaphorefis, where the warm me-
objeftion to the vague meaning of the appellations dicines, called alexipharmic, tend rather to prevent this
themfelves. falutary difeharge.
6. Cartheufer has divided the materia medica on a IO' Vegetable acids, particularly the native juices
plan which appears more rational. Inftead of the certain plants and fruits, have fome degree of a fa-
operations of medicines in the human body, which are ponaceous quality; by means of which they attenuate
precarious, complicated, and greatly diverfified ac- or diffolve vifeid phlegm and deterge the veffels, and
cording to the dofe, the preparation, and the circum- thus prove ferviceable in fundry chronical diforders.
fiances of the patient, he takes for the bafis of his ar- Inveterate feurvies have fometimes yielded to their
rangement their more Ample, obvious, and conftant continued ufe, efpecially when given in conjun&ion
properties, as bitternefs, fweetnefs, aftringency, aci- with medicines of the acrid or pungent kind: experi-
dity, &c. Having cohfidered the nature of bitter- Jpnce has fhown, that the acrid antifcorbutics have much
nefs, for inftance, in general, he examines what ef- better effefts when thus managed than when exhibited
fefts medicines poffeffed of this property are capable by themfelves; hence in the fucci fcorbutici of our dif-
of producing in the body, and in what circumftances penfatory, Seville orange juice is ufefully joined to that
they may be expe&ed to be ferviceable, and then pro- °f cochlearia and najlurtium.
ceeds to an account of the particular bitters. U. The mineral acids inftantly coagulate blood:
7. This method is of real ufe, but its ufe is limited the vegetable dilute it, even when infpiffated or thick-
to a fmall part of the materia medica. There are many ened by heat ; in which ftate, watery liquors will not
of the medicinal fimples, in which we can diftinguifh mingle with it. Hence in fome fevers, where water
no prevailing qualities of this kind ; there are many, runs off by the kidneys almoft as pale and iniipid as it
in which different qualities are blended together; and was drank, vegetable acids render the urine of the due
many which, though fimilar in thefe kinds of quali- colour and quality. The mineral acids (the fpirit of
ties, are very difiimilar in their operations in the hu- nitre in particular) combined with vinous fpirits, have a
^ian body : thus though gentian and aloes agree in like effed.
having a bitter tafte, and fugar and manna in being 12. Acids are prejudicial in cold, pale, phlegmatic
fweet, their medicinal virtues are refpeftively very dif- habits, where the veffels are lax, the circulation lan-
ferent. Accordingly, the author is obliged in fome guid, bile deficient, and the power of digeftion weak,
cafes to depart from his general plan, and found the In thefe cafes, an acid is often generated in the fto-
divifion on the medicinal effe&s: he makes one clafs mach, from milk and moil vegetable foods; which,
of purgatives and emetics, and another of vaporofe whilft it continues in the firft paffages, occafions un-
inebriants and narcotics : this laft clafs confifts of to- eafmefs about the ftomach, flatulencies, fometimes
bacco, elder-flowers, faffron, opium, and poppy-feeds, griping pain* of the bowels, and vomitings,
fubftances certainly very difeordant in all their qualities
Ihat relate to medicinal intentions.
Art,
tMrt. II.
MATERIA
- Art. II. Insipid Earths capable of absorb¬
ing Acids.
Oyfler-fliells,
Crabs claws and eyes fo called,
Coral, red and white,
Pearls,
Bezoar,
Chalk,
Some marles,
Lime-ftones,
Marbles,
Spars.
13. The virtues of thefe fubftances are, to abforb or
deftroy acidities in the firlt paffages, and confequently
to remove fuch diforders as proceed from that canfe.
The cordial, alexipharmic, antifebrile, and other like
virtues attributed to thefe medicines, appear to have
little foundation ; or at beft, are only fecondary ones.
When united with the acid, they form a neutral faline
compound, pofleffing fome degree of an aperient and
detergent quality, though too inconfiderable to be in
general regarded.
14. The abforbent earths were all ftrangers to me¬
dicine in the earlier times; and their ufe does not feem
to have been eftablifhed before the laft century ; when
fome practitioners, from an opinion that mod kinds of
difeafes proceeded from a preternatural acid, introdu¬
ced a great variety of antacid bodies, both of the
earthy and faline kind, and very liberally exhibited
them on almoft every occafion.
15. It is certain, that in children, and adults of a
weak conftitution, and whofe food is chiefly of the
vegetable acefcent kind, fundry diforders are occafion-
ed by acidities ; thefe readily difcover themfelves by
four eruCtations, the pale colour of the face, and in
children by the four fmell and green colour of the al-
vine fasces, which are fometimes fo manifeflly acid as
to raife a ftrong effervefcence with alkaline falls. In
thefe cafes, and thefe only, the ufe of abforbent earths
is indicated.
16. If there are really no acid juices in the ven¬
tricle, thefe earths are apt to concrete with the mu¬
cous matter ufually lodged there, into hard indiffoluble
mafles; which have fometimes been thrown up by vo¬
mit, or found in the ftomach upon diffeClion. Hence
indigeftion, lofs of appetite, naufea, vomiting, ob-
ftruCiions of the bowels, and other diforders. Some¬
times the ftomach and inteftines have been found lined
with a cruft, as it were, of thefe earthy bodies, which
muft not only have prevented the feparation of the ga-
ftric liquor, but likewife have clofed the orifices of the
la&eal veffels, foas to.obftruft the paffage of thechyle
into the mafs of blood.
17. Some fuppofe the earthy powders capable (with¬
out the concurrence of any acid) of palling the lac-
teals along with the chyle ; and allege, in fupport of
this opinion, that, when triturated with water, they are
in part taken up and carried with it through a filter
of paper ; the filtrated liquor leaving, upon evapora¬
tion, a portion of whitilh earthy matter. This expe¬
riment (allowing the confequencc to be juftly drawn
from it) is itfelf erroneous : the refiduum proceeds
from the earth naturally contained in the water, not
from that employed in the experiment; for if pure
diftiiled water be made ufe of, it will leave no refi¬
duum, though long triturated, or digefted with the
earth.
18. All thefe bodies, particularly thofe of the animal
M E D I C A. 4477
kind, contain, befides their purely alkaline earth, a Abforbentf.'
portion of glutinous matter. An inftance of this we
have in crabs-eyes, which if macerated in the weaker
acids, or in the ftronger fufficiently diluted with water,
the earthy part will be diflblved, and the animal-glue
remain in form of a foft tranfparent mucilage. The
glutinous fubftance increafes their tendency to con¬
crete in the ftomach ; and thence thofe which contain
leaft thereof ftiould be preferred to the others. The
mineral earths contain the leaft of this kind of matter,
and fome of them are very eafy of folution; chalk, for
inftance ; which may therefore be given with greater
fafety than the animal-abforbents. Thefe fubftances,
divefted of their conglutinating matter by means of
fire, are reduced into acrimonious calces or limes, and
thus become medicines of a different clafs.
19. The teeth, bones, hoofs, and horns of animals
confift of the fame principles with the animal-abforbents
above-mentioned, but combined in different propor¬
tions : the quantity of gelatinous matter is fo large,
as to defend the earthy part from the adlion of weak
acids; whilft the earth, in its turn, prote&s the glu¬
ten from being eafily diffolved by watery liquors.
Hence thefe bodies in their crude ftate, though re¬
commended aspoffeffing fingular virtues, are not found
to have any virtue at all.
20. Experiments have been made for determining
the degree of folubility, or comparative ftrength of
thefe earths; the principal of which are arranged in
the two following tables, one taken from Langius,
and the other from Homberg.
Table of the quantity of Acid defrayed by different
Abforb ents.
f Some kinds of Limeftones f ,<5o'l
{ Oyfter fhells
Chalk
1 Shells of Garden-fnails
1 Calcined Cray-filh
Pearls
• Tooth of the Sea-horfe
Ten grains j Volatile Salts
Fixt Salts
Coral, red and white
Crabs-eyes
Egg-(hells
Mother of. Pearl
Crabf-claws
Jaw-bone of the Pike fiih
Table of the quantity of Abforbent Earths foluble
in Acids.
I Pearls
. . 1 Oyftcr-fhells
S7fi grams of j Hart(1-orn
SP’f't of bait i CoraI
diflolved of oriental Bezoar
I Occidental Bezoar
J Quick Lime
L Slacked Lime
f Crabs-eyes
Mother of Pearl
Pearls
Oyfter-lhells
S7S grains of j Hartlhorn
Spirit of Nitre J Coral
diffolved of I Oriental Bezoar
I Occidental Bezoar
Drops of
Spirit of
Salt.
J Qnick Lime
. k Slacked Lime
24. Thefe
4478
Indifioluble 24. Thefe experiments do not fufficiently afcertain
Earths, p0;nt intended by them: in the firft fett, the
quantity of acid is too vague and indetermined ; in
the fecond, we are not told whether the acid was
perfedtly faturated; and in both, the acids made ufe
ef were fo very different from any that can be fup-
pofed ever to exift in the human body, that little can
be concluded from them with regard to the medical
effects of thefc abforbents. Trial thould have been
made with the mild vegetable acids, as the juices of
certain fruits, four fermented liquors, or rather with
four milk. Neverthelefs thefe tables, though not fo
perfeft as could be wilhed, have their ufe in the hands
of fuch as can make proper allowances.
Art. III. Earths not dissoluble in Acids,
or other liquors.
Thefe may be ranged in two claffes.
Clafs 1. Hard cryjlalline earths: as the ruby, garnet,
emerald, fapphire, hyacinth, and other precious
ftones ; cryftal, flint, &c.
25. These kinds of fubftances were introduced into
medicine, and many fabulous virtues attributed to them
by the fuperftition of the earlier ages. Some of them
are ftill preferred in foreign pharmacopoeias, but at
length very juftly expunged from ours, notwithftand-
ing what fome late writers of repute fpeak of their me¬
dical virtue. Thefe indiffoluble hard bodies are not
capable of producing any other effeft, than by their ri¬
gid angularparticles (which, though levigated with the
utmoft care, the microfcope ftill difcovers in them)
to offend or wound the inteftines. In levigation, they
wear off fo much from the hardeft marble inftruments,
as will equal or exceed their own weight: from this
circumftance we may account for their having fome-
times appeared to aft as abforbents. Some of thefe
ftones, expofed to a vehement fire, become in fome
meafure friable ; but neverthelefs remain indiffoluble.
Moft of the coloured ones by this treatment lofe their
colour; and in this ftate, prove nearly of the fame qua¬
lity with common cryftal: fuch are, the fapphire, eme¬
rald, amethyft, and cornelian. Others melt into a
blackifh vitreous matter, from which a portion of iron
is obtainable by proper fluxes; as the hyacinth and
garnet. Geoffrey concludes from hence, that thefe
ftones really poffefs fome medical virtues, depending
upon their metallic part; but the quantity of metallic
matter, fufficient to give them a confiderable tinft, is
fo exceedingly fmall, and fo inclofed in a ftony matter
not at all foluble by any of the known menftrua, as
fcarce to admit of any poflibility of its afting in the
human body.
Clafs 2. Softer earths; the talky, gypfeous, and ar¬
gillaceous.
26. The talcs and gypfums have rarely been ufed
as medicines. Some of the former, from their unc¬
tuous foftnefs and filver hue, ftand recommended ex¬
ternally as cofmetics; and fome of the latter, on little
better foundation, internally as aftringents. But they
have long been defervedly rejefted by the judicious
praftitioners. They feem to poffefs the ill qualities of
the alkaline earths, (concreting with the mucus of the
ftomach, &c.) without any of their good ones.
Art. IV.
27. Several of the clays, boles, and terra figillatae, Glutinoi
were highly celebrated by the ancients as aftringentsSubftanGe
and alexipharmics, and fome of them ftill continue in
efteem; though it is certain they have no great claim
to the virtues that have been attributed to them. Their
real effefts are, to give a greater degree of confiftency
to the fluids in the firft paffages, and in fome meafure
defend the folids from their acrimony.
28. Moft of thefe bodies contain, befides the tena¬
cious indiffoluble earth, which is their principal cha-
rafteriftic, (1.) A portion of an earth foluble in acids,
fimilar to thofe of the firft feftion. (2.) Of acid, fe-
parable by d'ftillation in a ftrong fire: this acid is al¬
ways of the fame nature with that obtained from vi¬
triol, fulphur, and alum. (3.) The coloured ones con¬
tain likewife fmall quantities of iron, reducible, by in¬
flammable fluxes, into its metallic form. In confequencc
of the firft of thefe ingredients, thefe earths may be
looked upon in fome meafure as abforbent: the acid 1
appears to be united with a part of the abforbent
earth into a faline compound, approaching to an alu¬
minous nature; whence they have fome degree of aftrin-
gency: whether they receive any peculiar virtue from
the iron, is greatly to be doubted; fince it is in a very
crude ftate, and in quantity extremely fmall.
29. Thefe earths unite with water into a turbid li¬
quor, flippery and fmooth to the touch, and remain
for fome time fufpended; the fand, grit, or other
groffer matters, which are often found naturally min¬
gled with them, fubfiding. They may be freed by
means of acids from their alkaline earth ; by coftion
in water, from their faline matter; and the coloured
ones from their iron by digeftion in aqua regis, the
only menftruum we are acquainted with that will ex-
traft the ferrugineous matter of argillaceous and bolar
earths. This purified, they have all nearly the fame
appearance and qualities. Expofed to a ftrong fire,
they lofe their foft glutinous quality, and are reduced
into hard maffes, indiffoluble as at firft.
Art. IV. Glutinous vegetable and animal
fubjlances.
Clafs 1. Vegetable.
Pure gums: Vegetables abounding
Tragacanth, with mucilage:
Seneca, Orchis root,
The gums of cherry, plum, Althaea root,
and other European trees. Quince-feeds, &c.
30. Gums and mucilages are glutinous vegetable
produftions, of no particular tafte or fmell, foluble in
water, but not in vinous fpirits or in oils. They
differ from one another, only in degree of tenacity :
the more tenacious are called gums ; thofe which are
lefs fo, mucilages. The firft naturally exude from cer¬
tain trees and Ihrubs ; the latter are extrafted by art.
Almoft all vegetable fubftances contain fome portion
of thefe, which, after the refinous part has been ex-
tra&ed by fpirit, may be feparated from the remain¬
ing matter by means of water.
31. The general virtues of thefe kinds of fubftances
are, to thicken the fluids, and defend the folids from
them when grown fharp or corrofive. Hence their
ufe in a thin acrimonious ftate of the juices, and
where the natural mucus of the inteftines is abraded.
Clafi
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Art. V. &c. MATERIA
trnfluous
Subltances. Clafs 2. Animal.
32. Most anlmal-fubftances (the fat excepted) con¬
tain a vifcous matter, in many refpe&s fimilar to the
foregoing, and capable of being extra&ed by ftrong
coftion in water.
33. Animal glues and gellies have the general qua¬
lities of the vegetable gums and mucilages; with this
difference, that the former are more nutrimental, and
apt to run into a putrid date. Confidered as the fub-
je&s of chemiftry, the difference betwixt them is very
great: thofe of the animal kind are changed by fire
into a volatile alkaline fait, and a fetid oil; the vege¬
table into an acid liquor, and a very fmall portion of
oily matter, confiderably lefs fetid than the former.
Art. V. Soft unctuous Subjlances.
Clafs 1. Irfipid vegetable oils ; and fulftances abound¬
ing nvitb them, as almonds, and the kernels of mod
fruits ; linfeed, and the medullary part of fundry
other feeds.
Clafs. 2. Animal fats; as fpermaceti.
34. Unctuous vegetables unite with water, by
trituration, into a milky liquor ; and give out their oil
upon expreffion.—Thefe kinds of oils and animal-
fats diffolve not in any mendruum except alkaline ones j
which change their quality, and reduce them into a
foap, diffoluble in water, but more perfeftly in vinous
fpirits: from this compound, the oil may, by a fkil-
ful addition of acids, be recovered in a purer date than
before, and rendered foluble, like effential oils,.in fpi-
rit of wine.
35'. The medical virtues pf thefe fubdances are, to
obtund acrimonious humours, and to foften and relax
the folids: hence their ufe internally, in tickling
coughs, heat of urine, pains, and inflammations; and
externally in tenfion and rigidity of particular parts.
The milky folutions, commonly called ctnulfons, tho*
much lefs emollient than the oils themfelves or animal-
fats, have this advantage, that they may be given in
acute or inflammatory didcmpers, without danger of
the ill confequences which the others might fometimes
produce : fats and oils, kept in a degree of heat no
greater than that of the human body, foon become
rancid and acrimonious; whild emulfions tend rather
to grow four.
Art. VI. Astringents.
Galls,
Tormentil-root,
Bidort root,
Balaudines,
Terra Japonica,
Acacia, &c.
36. Astringent fubdances are didinguiflied by a
rough audere tade; and changing folutions of iron,
efpecially thofe made in the vitriolic acid, of a dark
purple or black colour.
37. Adringents yield their virtues by infufion both
to water and vinous fpirits, generally in greated per-
fedlion to the former. Oils extract nothing from
them; nor do they give over any of their virtue ih di-
ftillation : neyerthelefs their adringency is confider¬
ably abated by evaporating decoftions of them to the
confidence of an extrad, and totally dedroyed by long
keeping.
Voim VI. 1
M E D I C A. 4479
38. The medical effeds of thefe kinds of fubdan- Aftringents
ces are, to condringe the fibres, and incraflate or
lightly thicken the juices. Their more experienced 1_
ufe is in diforders proceeding from a debility or flac¬
cid date of the folids ; in hemorrhages, from a thin-
hefs of the blood, laxity or rupture of the veflels; in
preternatural difcharges of other kinds, after the of¬
fending matter has been duly correded or evacuated ;
and in external relaxations.
39. In fome cafes, they produce the effeds of ape¬
rients ; the veflels, condringed and drengthened by
them, being enabled to protrude the circulating juices
with greater force.
40. A good deal of caution is requifite in the ufe
of thefe medicines, efpecially thofe of the more pow¬
erful kind. In plethoric habits, inveterate obdruc-
tions, critical evacuations, and in all kinds of fluxes in
general before the morbific matter has been expelled,
or where .there is any dridure or fpafmodic contrac¬
tion of the vdfels, adringents prove eminently hurt¬
ful. Where critical dyfenteries or diarrhoeas are re¬
drained by dyptics, the acrimonious matter, now con¬
fined in the intedines, corrodes or inflames them; and
fometimes occafions a gangrene of the parts.
Art. VII. Sweets.
Sugar,. Raifins,
Honey, Liquorice, &c.
41. The vegetable fweets are a very numerous
tribe ; almofl every plant that has been examined, dif-
covering in feme of its parts a faccharine juice. The
bottoms of flowers, and mod kinds of feeds and
grain when they begin to vegetate, are remarkably
fweet.
42. Vegetable fweets are extraded both by water
and vinous fpirits, mod readily by the fird, but in
greated perfedion by the latter. Nothing of their
tade arifes in didillation with either of thefe liquors :
neverthelefs, by long boiling with water they become
fomewhat lefs agreeable ; but are not much in¬
jured by being treated in the fame manner with redi-
fied fpirit.
43. The purer fweets, as fugar, promote the union
of diddled oils with watery liquors, and prevent the
feparation of the butyraceous part from milk : from
this quality, they are fuppofed to unite the unduous
part of the food with the animal juices. Hence fome
have concluded, that they increafe fat: others, that
they have a contrary effed, by preventing the repara¬
tion of the unduous matter which forms the fat from
the blood: and others, that they render the juices
thicker and more fluggidi, retard the circulation and
cuticular excretion, and thus bring on a variety of dif¬
orders. But fweets have not been found to produce
any of thefe effeds in any remarkable degree : com¬
mon experience (hows, that their moderate, and even
liberal, ufe is at lead innocent; that they reconcile,
not only to the palate, but to the domach alfo, fub¬
dances of themfelve^ difgudful to both ; and thus ren¬
der falutary what would otherwife be injurious to the
body.
44. The unifluous and mucilaginous fweets, as the
impure fugars, liquorice, &c. have a confiderable de¬
gree of emollient and lubricating virtue.—Thofe ac-
25 K companied
4476 MATERIA
■Acids, &c. cotnpanled with a manifeft acid, as in the juices of
mod fweet fruits, are remarkably relaxing ; and if
taken immoderately, occafion diarrhoea and dyfente-
ries, which fometimes have proved fatal.
Art. VIII. A grids.
45. Acrids are fubftances of a penetrating pun¬
gency. Applied to the Ikin, they inflame or exulce-
rate it: chewed, they occafion a copious difcharge of
faliva : and fnuffed up the nofe, they provoke fneez-
ing.
46. Thefe fubdances, confidered as the fubje&s of
pharmacy, may be divided into three claffes,
'1. In didillation with wa¬
ter: as horfe-radifh, mu-
ftard, fcurvy.-grafs, &c.
2. By infufion only: as the
Yielding their acrimony ^ greater celandine, pyre-
I thrum, &c.
I 3. Neither to infufion, nor
| didillation : as arum and
dracunculus.
47. The general effe&s of acrid medicines are, to
flimulate the veflels, and diflblve tenacious juices. In
cold leucophlegmatic habits, flagnations of the fluids,
and where the contradfile power of the folids is weak,
they prove powerful expedorants, deobflruents, diu¬
retics, and emmenagogues; and if the patient is kept
warm, fudorifics. In hot bilious conftitutions, pletho¬
ric habits, inflammatory didempers, where there is al¬
ready a degree of irritation, where the juices are too
thin and acrimonious, or the vifcera unfound, thefe
ftimulating medicines prove highly prejudicial, and
never fail to aggravate the difeafe.
48. Certain acrid fubdances have been lately re¬
commended in dry convtilfive adhmas: of tbe efficacy
of the fquill in particular, for the cure of this diforder,
feveral indances are related in the Commercium Litera-
tium of Norimberg for the years 1 737 and 1739- Car-
theufer thinks, that not the adhma itfelf, but a parti¬
cular effed of it, was removed by this medicine. He
obferves, that in all adhmas the free circulation of
the b\ood through the pulmonary veffels is impeded ;
and hence, during every paroxyfm, the lungs are in a
kind of cedematous date: that if this oedema, beco¬
ming habitual’, remains after the fit is over, it is either
perpetually occafionihg frefh ones, or gives rife to a
dropfy of the bread: that acrid medicines, by remo¬
ving the oedema, Temove what was originally an effed
of the adhma, and in time a. caufe of its aggravation.
M E D 1 c A.
at all, by water. The aromatic matter of feme fub- Bitters, &-c,
jeds, as of lemon-peel, rifes wholly in didillation both  
with fpirit and water; that of others, as cinnamon,
rifes wholly with'water, but fcarcely at all with fpirit;
while that of others, as pepper, is in part left behind
after the didillation of water itfelf from the fpice.
50. With regard to the general virtues of aroma¬
tics, they warm the domach, and by degrees the
whole habit; raife the pulfe, and quicken the circula¬
tion. In cold languid cafes, phlegmatic habits, and a
weak flaccid ftate of the folids, they fupport the vis
vitae, and promote the falutary fecretions. In hot bi¬
lious temperaments, plethoric habits, inflammatory in-
difpofitions, drynefs and dridures of the fibres, they
are generally hurtful.
Art. X. Bitters.
Gentian root, Lefler centaury,
Hops, Carduus, &c.
51. Bitters for the mod part yield their virtue
both to watery and fpirituous menfirua; fome more
perfedly to one, and others to the other. None
of the fubdances of this clafs give over any thing
confiderable of their tade in didillation, either to
water or to fpirit; their bitternefs remaining entire,
and frequently improved, in the extrads. Such as
are accompanied with flavour, as wormwood, may by
thisprocefs be reduced into fimple flavourlefs bitters.
52. Thefe fubdances participate of the virtues of
adringents and aromatics. Their general effeds are,
to condringe the fibres of the ftomach and intedines,
to warm the habit, attenuate the bile and juices in the
fird paflages, and promote the natural evacuations, par¬
ticularly of fweat and urine. In weaknefs of the flomach,
lofs of appetite, indigedion, and the like diforders;
proceeding from a laxity of the folids, or cold fluggifh
indifpofition of tbe juices, thefe kinds of medicines
do good fervice. Where the fibres are already too
tenfe and rigid, where there is any immoderate heat
or inflammation, bitters very fenfibly increafe the dif-
temper; and, if their ufe is continued, communicate
it to the kidneys: hence tbe urine becomes high-co¬
loured, fmall in quantity, and at length fupprefled; a
dropfy foon fucceeding. If the kidneys were before .
fo lax as to remain now uninjured, yet the other vif¬
cera become gradually more and more rigid, and a
tabes is at length brought on.
53. Bitter fubftances deftroy infers, and prevent
putrefa&ion. Hence they are recommended as an¬
thelmintic, and externally as antifeptics.
Art. XI. Emetics Cathartics-
Art. IX. Aromatics.
49. Aromatics are fubftances of a warm pungent
tafte, and a more or lefs fragrant fmell. Some of the
fpices are purely aromatic, as cnbebs, pepper, cloves;
fome fubftanres have a fweetnefs mixed with the aro¬
matic matter, as angelica root, anifeed, fennel feed ;
fome an aftringency, as cinnamon; fome a ftrong mu¬
cilage, as cafia lignea ;. fome a bitternefs, as orange-
peel. The aromatic matter itfelf, contained in differ¬
ent fubjefts, differs alfo not a little in its pharmaceutic
properties. It is extraded from all by re&ified fpirit
of wine j, from fome in great part, from others fcarcely
Hellebore, Colocynth,
Julip, Scammony,
Ipecacoanha, Gamboge, &c.
j'4. These fubftances confift of a refinous part, iir
which the purgative or emetic quality refides : and a
gummy faline one, which ads chiefly as a diuretic.
The firft is extraded or diffolved by vinous fpirits;
the latter by water. Nothing arifes in diftillation from
either.
55. The acrid refins, exhibited by themfelves, te-
nacioufly adhere to the coats of the inteftines, by
their flimuiating power irritate and inflame them, and
thus produce fundty violent diforders. Hoffman re¬
lates*
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA
lates, that he has fometimes obferved convulfions, and
a paralyfis of both fides, from their ufe.
56. Thefe inconveniencies may be avoided, by
previoufly triturating them with fubftances capable of
dividing their tenacious texture, and preventing their
adhefion: by this means, they become mild and fafe,
operate without difturbance, and at the fame time
more effgdtually anfwer the purpofes intended by
them.
57. Some have endeavoured to correft the ill qua¬
lity of the refinous purgatives, by the addition of
acids and aromatic oils. Acids weaken their power,
but have no other effefl. than what a diminution of the
dofe would equally aafwer. The pungent efiential
oils may ferve to warm the ftomach, make the me¬
dicine fit eafier, and thus prevent the naufea, which
fometimes happens; but as foon as the refin begins
to exert itfelf in the inteftines, thefe oils, inftea'd of
correfting, increafe its virulence; being themfelves
apt to occafion the inconveniencies which they are
here intended to prevent, an irritation and inflama-
tion of the bowels. Alkaline falts or foaps have a
better effedf ; as they difpofe the refin to folution, and
promote its operation.
M E D I C A.
58. The medicines of this clafs feem to a£l by
liquefying the juices, and ftimulating the coats of the
ftomach and inteftines* If the irritation is ftrong
and fudden, their aftion is quick and upwards: if
flower, downwards. Cathartics given in a liquid
form, or in very fenfible habits, often prove emetic ;
and emetics, where mucus abounds, cathartic. They
operate more violently in robuft conftitutions, than
in thofe of a contrary temperament; the vtflels being
in the former more tenfe and rigid, and confequently
lefs capable of bearing an equal degree of irritation.
59. The addion of thefe medicines is extended be¬
yond the primte vise : This appears evident from the
increafe of the pulfe which always accompanies their
operation; and from the common obfervation of chil¬
dren being purged by the milk, if the nurfe ha*
taken a cathartic. Some of them, particularly helle¬
bore, are faid to purge, if only applied externally
in iflue.—Purgatives, even of the more powerful kind,
exhibited in fuitable fmall dofes, in conjunddion with
the milder aperients, may be introduced into the
habit, fo as to prove notable deobftruents, diuretics,
and diaphoretics, without adding fenlibly by ftooL
A CATALOGUE of the SIMPLES ufed in the MATERIA MEDICA, exhibiting at one vie-w their
TECHNICAL NAMES, ENGLISH NAMES, PARTS USED IN MEDICINE, VIRTUES, and the
different preparations from them—The particular methods of making the Preparations
and all Compound Medicines are Jho-wn under the article Pharmacy.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
Abies ruber, (Pi-
nus abies, Lin.)
Abrotanum faemina
(Santolin, chamee-
cypar. Lin.)
Abrotanum mas,
(Artemifia abro-
- tanum, Lin.)
Abfinthium Roma-
num {Artemifia
ponU Lin.yl
Abflnthium vulgare
{Artemifia ab¬
finthium, Lin.)
Acacia Germanica
inofa,
(Mi-
mofa niloticafiJm.)
Acetofa, (Rumex
etcetof. Lin.)
Acetofella (Oxalis
acetofel. Lin.)
Acetum.
Aconitum (Aconit.
napcll. Lin.)
Adianthum verum
{Adianth. capill.
Ven. Lin.)
Aer dephlogifticus.
Acacia vera
ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
The fir-tree. The wood, tops,
and cones.
Lavender cotton. The leaves.
Southernwood. The leaves.
Roman wormwood. The leaves and tops.
Common worm- The leaves,
wood.
The floe. Infpiflated juice.
Diuretic and dia¬
phoretic.
Stimulant, deter¬
gent, and anthel¬
mintic.
Stimulant, deter¬
gent, aperient,
and fudorific.
Stomachic.
Stomachic.
A decoddion.
Decoddion.
Decoddion.
An oil, extradd of con-
j ferve, and feveral diftilled
]> waters. They alfo enter
j the common fomentation
J and green oil.
Aftringent.
Acacia.
Sorrel.
Wood forrel.
Vinegar.
Wolf’s-bane.
Maiden-hair.
Dephlogifticaied
air.
Infpiffated juice.
Juice.
The leaves.
The leaves.
The leaves.
Aftringent.
Aftringent and an- An eflential fait for taking ouf*
tifcorbutic. fpots in clothes.
Aftringent and an- A conferve.
tifcorbutic.
Cordial and refri- A diftifled fpirit.
gerant.
Narcotic.
Attenuating and a- Decoddion.
perient.
Suppofed to be an-
tifeptic and cor¬
roborative.
Ads
4483
Lift of
Simples.
25 K z
4482
Lift of
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES.
Aer mephiticus.
Aer nitrofus.
^Es. See Cuprum.
Agaricus, {Boletus
pinilaricis, Lin.)
Agaricus querci-
Agrimonia, {Agri~
?nonia E up a tor.
Lin.)
Albumen ovi.
Alchemilla, {jllche-
milla vulg. Lin.)
Alkekengi, {Phy-
falis, Lin.)
Alliaria, {Eryft-
mum, Lin.)
MATERIA M E D I C A.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Fixed air.
Nitrous air.
Brafs. See Copper.
Agaric.
Agaric of the oak,
touchwood and
fpunk.
Agrimony.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
White of an egg.
Ladies-mantle.
Winter-cherry.
Sauce-alone, or
Jack-by-the-
hedge.
Garlic.
Allium, {Allium
fativum, Lin.)
Aloes, Lin.) Aloes.
Alfine, {Al/tne med. Chickweed.
Lin.)
Althsea. Marfhmallow.
Alumen. Alum.
The leaves.
The fruit.
The leaves.
The roots.
Infpiifated juice.
The root.
The whole.
Ambragrifea.
Ammi vulgaris.
Amomum verum.
Amomum vulgare,
{Sifon, Lin.)
Amygdala, {Am.
com. Lin.)
Amylum.
Anacardium occi-
dentale.
Anacardium ori-
entale {Avicen.
officinalis, Lin.)
Anagallis.
Ambergrife.
Biihop’s weed.
True amomum.
Ballard ftone-par-
fley.
Sweet and bitter al¬
monds.
Starch.
Calhew-tree.
Malacca bean.
Pimpernel.
Ananas,{Bromelia, The pine-apple.
Lin.)
Anchufa. Alkanet.
Anethum^ Dill.
Angelica. Angelica.
Anguillas hepar. Eel’s liver.
The whole.
The leaves.
The feeds.
The feeds.
The nuts.
The nuts.
The fruit.
The root.
An aqueous extrad, but novv
much difufed.
Antifeptic.
Very antifeptic.
Cathartic.
Styptic.
Attenuant and to¬
nic.
Difcutient.
Aftringent.
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
Sudorific and anti¬
feptic.
Stimulant, attenu- A fyrup and oxymel.
ant, and'diuretic.
Cathartic. Ingredient in feveral tin&ures
and pills.
Refrigerant.
Emollient. . A fyrup and ointment.
Strongly aftringent A (lyptic powder, ftyptic wa¬
ter, whey, &c.
A tindure or effence.
An ingredient in the theriaca.
An ingredient in, the theriaca.
Exprelfed oil and emulfion.
The roots, leaves,
and feeds.
The feed.
Anifum, {Anif. Anife.
pimpemell. Lin.)
Anthora, {Aconit. Wholefome wolfs- The roots.
author. Lin.) bane.
Antimonium. Antimony-
A high cordial.
Stimulant.
Aromatic.
Carminative and
diuretic.
Relaxing.
Aftringent.
Corrofive.
Tonic and cordial, A confe&ion.
but very doubt¬
ful.
Sudorific and Ner- Extradl, or infpiffated juice,
vine.
Refrigerant,
Only ufed for its
colour.
Carminative. Diftilled oil, water, and fpi-
rituous extract.
Aromatic. Several, compound waters.
Diuretic and tonic,
( Boerhaave.)
Aromatic and to- A,n effential oil, a fpirituoua
nic. compound water, &c.
Cathartic and an¬
thelmintic, but
uncertain.
Diaphoretic, ca- A number of chemical prepa-
thartic, emetic, or rations. See Chemistry,
cauftic. n° 211, 250, 449,-459.
Mineral, and Re-
gulus of Antimony.
Aparine,
Lift of
Simple?.
Lift of
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES.
Aparine, (Gallium
aparine, Lin.)
Apis.
Apium, (Apium
graveoL Lin.)
Aqua ferrata.
Aqua marina.
Aquae minerales.
Aquae fulphureae.
Argentina, (Po-
tentill. argentine
Lin.)
Argentum vivum. Quickfilver.
Ariftolochia longa, Birthwort.
rotunda, et te¬
nuis.
Armeniaca, (Pru- The plum-tree.
mis Armeniac.
Lin.)
Arfenicum. Arfenic.
Artemifia, (Arte- Mugwort.
mifta vulg. Lin.)
Arum. Wake-robin.
Afarum. Afarabacca.
MATERIA
ENGLISH NAMES. PARTS USED ,N
MEDICINE.
Goofegrafs, or clr- The leaves,
vers.
The bee. The whole infeft
powdered.
Smallage. The roots.
Water in which hot
iron hath been
quenched.
Sea-water.
Mineral waters.
Sulphureous wa¬
ters.
Silverweed. The leaves.
Afparagus.
Afperula.
Afphodelus.
Afparagus.
Woodruff.
The roots.
The fruit.
The leaves.
The root.
The roots and
leaves.
The root.
The flowers.
s The roots.
The leaves.
The
gram.
Afphodel, orking’
fpear.
Atriplex, (Cheno- Stinking orach.
nopod. vulvar.
Lin.)
Avena. Oats.
Aura ele&rica. Ele&ricity.
Aurantiacurflaven- Curaflbw oranges, The fruit.
fia. or apples.
Aurantium,(C//r«/ The orange.
aurant. Lin.)
Auricula Judse, Jews-ears.
( Tr smell, verruc.
Lin.)
Auripigmentum. Orpiment.
Auxungia viperina. Viper’s fat.
Balauftia, (Ptfw/Vrf Balauftine, or dou- The flowers.
granat. Lin.) ble-flowered po¬
megranate tree.
Balfamita, (Tana- Coftmary. The leaves.
cetum balfami-
num, Lin.)
M E D I C A.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Aperient.
Diuretic.
Carminative.
Tonic.
Cathartic and alte¬
rative.
Tonic and altera¬
tive.
Alterative.
Corroborant.
A moft powerful al- Several chemical preparations j
terant. fee Chemistry, n° 154,
207, 251, 256, 417, 421.
An ingredient in feveral o-
ther officinal preparations.
Attenuating and
flimulant.
The leaves, fruit,
and flowers.
The whole.
Refrigerant.
Corrofive.
Antifpafmodic.
Stimulant.
Errhine, cathartic,
and emetic.
Suppofed diuretic,
but uncertain.
Attenuant and ape¬
rient.
Emollient and fup-
purative.
Antifpafmodic.
Emollient.
A violent flimulant.
Stomachic.
Cordial, ftomachic,
and refrigerant.
Purgative, or aftrin-
gent; uncertain.
Corrofive, but lefs
fo than arfenic.
Emollient.
Attringent. Ingredient in a powder.
Aromatic.
A compound powder.
A compound powder.
A fpin'tuous tin&ure, decoc¬
tion, or conferve, recom¬
mended by Tournefort and*
others.
Deco&ion.
Ingredients in feveral floma-
chic tin&ures.
An efiential oil, a diftilled wa¬
ter, and a conferve.
4483
Lift of
Simples.
Balfamum
4484
Lilt of
Simples.
MATERIA M E D I C A.
TECHNICALMAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Balfamum Cana- Balfam of Canada,
denfe.
Balfamum Copay- Balfam of Copivi.
Balfamum Gilea- Opobalfam, orbalm
denfe. of Gilead.
Balfamum Peruvia- Balfam of Peru,
num.
Balfamum Toluta- Balfam of Tolu.
PARTS USED IN
MEBICINE.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Diuretic and tonic.
Lift of
Simples.
The roots and
feeds.
The bark and fruit.
Bardana major, Burdock.
(Jlrftium lappa,
Lin.)
Bechen album,
(Centaurea be¬
chen, Lin.)
Bechen rubrum,
(Statics Union.
Lin.)
Belladona,(^/ro/i/5. Deadly night-
belladon. Lin.) fhade.
Beilis minor, Common daify.
peren. Lin.
Berberis, {Berber. Barberry.
vulgar. Lin.)
Beta, {Bet. vulg. The beet.
Lin.)
Betonica. Betony.
Bezoar. Bezoar-ftone.
Bilis animalis. The gall or bile of
animals.
Biftorta, {Polygon. Biftort or fnake- The roots.
bijlort. Lin.) wort.
Bolus Armena. Armenian bole.
Bolus Gallica. French bole.
Bonus Henricus, Englilh mercury, The leaves.
{Chenopod. bon. all-good, orgood
Hen. Lin.) Henry.
Borax. Tincar, or borax. The whole.
Diuretic and tonic.
Said to bea mod ex¬
traordinary vul¬
nerary.
A fine warm aro¬
matic.
Aromatic and cor¬
roborant.
Aperient, diuretic,
and fudorific.
An empyreumatic oil, and an
ingredient in fome tinc¬
tures.
An ingredient in many tinc¬
tures, and fome ointments.
An ingredient in feveral tinc¬
tures, elixirs, and a kind of
peiftoral pills.
Decoftion.
Stimulant.
Narcotic.
Attenuant.
Aftringent.
Cathartic and er-
rhine.
Corroborant.
Many virtues falfe-
ly afcribed to it;
now found to be
only an abforb-
ent.
Cathartic.
Powerfully aftrin-
gent.
Allringent.
An extradl of the juice.
A jelly.
An ingredient in a powder.
Branca urfina, {A- Bear’s-breech.
canth. moll. Lin.)
Braflica, {Brajfica, Cabbage.
olerac. Lin.)
Bryonia alba. White briony.
The root-
The leaves.
The root.
The leaves.
Bucabunga, {Ve- Brooklime.
rank a bucabunp.
Lin.)
Burfa paftoris. Shepherd’s purfe. The leaves,
{Thlatft burfa,
An ingredient in feveral pow¬
ders.
Adringent and An ingredient in fome pow-
flightly abforb- ders.
Laxative.
Diuretic and em- An ingredient in apowder, and
menagogue. a fait prepared from it. See
Chemistry, n°265—272.
Emollient.
Refrigerant and
laxative
Difcutient and vio¬
lently cathartic.
Attenuant and an-
tifcorbutic.
Adringent.butvery
doubtful.
Cacao
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Lift of
Simples.
TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The fruit.
The leaves.
~ Cacao, (Tbeobroma Chocolate tree.
cacao, Lin.)
Calamintha, (Me- Calamint.
liffa calamintha,
Lin.)
Calamus aromati- Sweet-fcented flag. The roots,
cus, (Acor. ver.
Lin.)
Calendula. Garden marigold. The flowers.
Quicklime.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Chocolate.
Camphor, (Laur. Camphire tree.
camphor. Lin.)
The concreted ef-
fential oil.
Canella alba.
Cannabis.
Cantharides.
White cinnamon. The bark,
or canella alba.
Hemp. The feeds.
Spanilh-flies.
Caparis, (Capar. Caper-bufli.
fpinof. Lin.)
Woodbind, or ho-
neyfuckle.
Cardamine.
Greater cardassom.
Lefler cardamom.
Mother-wort.
Blefied-thiftle.
Carline-thiftle.
Baftard faffron.
Caraway.
The bark of the
root, and flower-
buds.
The leaves and
flowers.
The flowers.
The feeds.
The feeds.
Caprifolium, (Leo-
niceracaprif. Lin.)
Cardamines, (Car¬
damine pratenf.
Cardamomum ma-
jus, ( Anwm. car-
dam. Lin.)
Cardamomum mi¬
nus, ( rwr-
dam. Lin.)
Cardiaca, (Cardiac,
leonur. Lin.)
Carduusbencdi&us,
(Centaur, bene¬
dict. Lin.)
Carlina, (Carlin,
acaul. Lin.)
Carthamus, (Gar¬
th am. tinfl. Lin.)
Carum, (Carum
carvi, Lin.)
Caryophyllata, Avens, or herb
(Geum urban. benet.
Lin.)
Caryophyllus aro- The clove-tree,
maticus.
Caryophyllus ru- Clove July-flowers. The flowers,
ber, (Diantk.ca-
ryophill. Lin.)
Cafcarilia, (Croton. Cafcarilla. The bark,
cafcar. Lin.)
Analeptic.
Aromatic and fti-
lant.
Aromatic and fto-
machic.
Attenuating and fu-
dorific, but very
doubtful.
A violent corrofive, A medicated water,
and powerful al¬
terant and ab-
forbent.
Refrigerant and di- Afolution in re&ified fpirit, in
aphoretic. exprefled and eflential oils.
Ingredient in many other
compolitions.
Aromatic and fti- An ingredient in feveral tinc-
mulating. tures.
Aperient and re- Deco&ions and infufionS:
frigerant, but
doubtful.
Violently ftimula- A fpirituous tin&ure.
ting and vefica-
tory.
Aperient and flo- Pickled,
machic.
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
Antifpafmodic.
Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
1
The leaves.
The leaves and
feed.
The root.
The feeds.
The feeds.
The root.
The flower-cups.
Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
Antifpafmodic.
Stomachic.
Diaphoretic.
Cathartic.
Aromatic.
Aromatic.
Strongly aromatic.
Aromatic.
j A fpirituous water and
t tinfture. Ingredient alfo
f in feveral officinal com-
| pofitions.
An ingredient in a ftonjachic
tindture.
An eflential oil, a fpirituons
water. Ingredient alfo in
many officinal compofitionsk
An eflential oil.
An effential oil. Ingredient
alfo in many officinal com-
pofitions.
A fyrup.
Aromatic and fti- Infuflons-
mulant.
Caflia
44S9
Lift of
Simples.
4486
Lift of
Simples, j
technical NAMES.
Caffia fiftularis.
Caffialignea, (Lati-
rus cajfia, Lin.)
Caffumunar.
Caftoreum, {CaJJor
fiber, Lin.)
Catapntia major,
vel palmaChrifti,
( Ricinus commun.
Lin.)
Cataputia minor,
vel tithymalus,
Cz\er\,(/4pittm gra-
veolens, Lin.)
Centaureum minus,
(Gentian, cen¬
taur. Lin.)
Cepa, (Allium cepa,
Lin.)
Cera alba.
Cera flava.
Cerafus, (Prunus
cerafus, Lin.)
Ceteraeh, (AJplen.
ceteracb, Lin.)
Chamaedrys, (7V«-
criurn chamadr.
Lin.)
Chamxmelum,
(Anthemis noli-
Us, Lin.)
Chamxpithys,
(Teucrium cha-
mas pit. Lin.)
Chciri, feu Leuco-
jum luteum,
( Cheirantb. chci¬
ri, Lin.)
Chelae cancrorum.
Chelidoniummajus.
Chelidonium minus,
{Ranunc. ficar.
Lin.)
China, (Smilax
China, Lin.)
Cicer, (Cicer arie-
tin, Lin.)
Cichorium^C/c^/-.
intyb. Lin.)
Cicuta major, (Cj*
nium maculat.
Lin.)
MATERIA MEDIC A.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Caflia.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The fruit.
VIRTUES.
Purgative.
Caffia. The bark. Aromatic.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
An ingredient in two electua¬
ries.
Caffumar. The root.
Caftor.
Palma Chvifti. The feeds.
Stomachic and car¬
minative.
Nervine and anti-
fpafmodic.
Purgative.
A Ample water; a fpirituous
water ; a tinfture. In¬
gredient in many officinal
compofitions.
An expreffed oil.
Broad - leaved The juice,
fpurge, or cata¬
putia.
Celery. The leaves.
LefTer centaury. The tops.
Violently inflara- Infpiflated juice,
matory.
Laxative.
Stomachic. Ingredient in fome tin&urcs
and infufions.
The onion. The roots.
White wax.
Yellow wax.
The cherry-tree. The fruit.
Attenuating and *
diuretic.
Emollient. Ingredient in many plafters
and ointments.
Emollient. Ingredient in almoft all oint¬
ments.
Refrigerant.
Spleenwort. The leaves.
Diuretic.
Germander. The leaves and tops Sudorific and diu-
with the feed. retie.
Camomile. The flowers.
Ground-pine. The leaves.
Stomachic, carmi- An effential oil, a Ample vea-
native, and enaol- ter, and extract,
lient.
Aperient.
Wallflower. The flower.
Aperient, cordial,
and attenuant.
Crab’s claws. Abforbent. Levigated.
Common celandine. The leaves and Inflammatory,
roots.
Pilewort. The leaves and root. Emollient.
China. The root.
Red ch ices, of chick The feeds,
peas.
Wild fuccory. The roots and
leaves.
Hemlock. The leaves.
Diaphoretic and di¬
uretic.
Lithontriptio and
diuretic, but very
doubtful.
Laxative and anti-
fcorbutic.
Refolvent and alte¬
rant.
^T.ift of |
Cinnamomurci
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
technical names.
"Cinnamomum,
(Laurus cinnam.
Lin.)
Clematis.
Coccinella, ( Coccus
cacii, Lin.)
Cocculus Indicus,
V (Mcnifperm. co-
cul. Lin.)
Cochlearia.
Coffea.
Colchicum, (Col-
chic. autumnal.
Lin.) _
Colocynthis, (Ca-
cum. colocynth.
Lin.)
Columbo.
ENGLISH NAMES.
The cinnamon tree.
Virgin’s bower.
Cochineal.
Indian berry.
Scurvy-grafs.
The coffee-tree.
Meadow faffron.
Coloquintida, or
bitter-apple.
Columbo.
Confolida major, Comfrey.
( Symphyt. officin.
Lin.)
Contrayerva, (Z)er- Contrayerva.
Jlenia, Lin.)
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The bark.
The root.
The fruit.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Aromatic and cor- An effential oil, a fimple and"
roborant. fpirituous diftilled water,
and an ingredient in a great
number of compofition*.
Pugative.
Sudorific, butchief-
ly ufed for co¬
louring.
Narcotic.
The leaves.
The fruit.
The root.
Stimulating and A conferve and fpirit. An in-
attenuant. gredient in fome other offi¬
cinal preparations.
Stomachic and cor- A deco&ion.
roborant.
Powerfully diure- A fyrup and oxymel.
tic.
The medullary part Violently cathartic. An ingredient in fome cathar-
of the dried fruit. tic pills and extracts.
The root.
The root.
The root.
A moft excellent
antifeptic and
ftomachic.
Emollient.
A vinous tin&ure.
Aromatic and dia- Gives name to a powder, and
phoretic. is an ingredient in the the-
riaca.
Corallina, {Sertu- Coralline.
lari a, Lin.)
Corallium rubrum. Red coral.
Coriandrum, (Cori- Coriander. The feeds.
andr.fativ. Lin.)
Cornu cervi. Hartlhorn.
Cornu cervi calci- Calcined or burnt
natum. hartlhorn.
Coitus,(Co/?. Arab. Coitus. The root.
Lin.)
Cotula foetida. May-weed, or wild The leaves,
chamomile.
Craffula. Orpine. The leaves.
Creta alba. White-chalk.
Crithmum. Samphire. The leaves.
Crocus.
Cubebae, [Piper,
Lin.)
Cucumis hortenfis.
Cucumis agreltis.
Cucurbita.
Vox.. VI-
Saffron.
Cubebs.
The garden cucum¬
ber.
Wild cucumber.
The gourd and
pompion.
The chives, or
flelhy capilla-
ments growing
at the end of
the flower.
The fruit.
The feeds.
The fruit.
The feeds.
Abforbent.
Abforbent.
Carminative and An ingredient in feveral offi-
Itomachic. cinal compofitions.
Emollient and nu- Shavings, a jelly, a volatile al-
tritious. kaline fait and fpirit, and
an empyrcumatic oil.
Abforbent. *
Attenuant and diu¬
retic.
Antifpafmodic.
Emollient and a-
ftringent.
Abforbent.
Aperient, Itoma¬
chic, and diu¬
retic.
Aromatic and cor- A fpirituous tindture ; a vi-
dial. noustinfture; a fyrup; and
an ingredient in many offi¬
cinal compofitions.
Aromatic and Hi- An ingredient in feveral offi-
mulant. cinal compofitidns.
Refrigerant.
Violently cathartic. The juice infpiffated.
Refrigerating. An expreffed oil.
25 L Cuprum.
4487
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
VIRTUES.
Lift of PARTS USED IN
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES. MEDICINE
CuprdTus. The cyprefs. The fruit.
Cuprum.
The cyprefs.
Copper.
A llrong aftrin-
gent.
A violent emetic,
diuretic, and al¬
terative.
Curcuma,(£«ra<w. Tumeric.
long. Lin.)
Cydonia.
Cyminum.
Cynogloffum
The root. Aromatic, aperi¬
ent, and emme-
nagoguc.
The quince. The fruit and feeds. Stomachic and cor¬
roborative.
Cumin. The feeds. Aromatic and anti-
fpafmodic.
Hound’s tongue. The root.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Calcined, and producing falls
by combination with feve-
ral acids, and with volatile
alkali. See Chemistry,
n° 142,200,278,298,332.
A fyrup and jelly of the fruit,
and mucilage of the feeds.
An effential oil, and an ingre¬
dient in fome officinal com*
pofitions.
Cynofbatum, [Rofa The wild briar,
canin. Lin.) dog-rofe, or ers.
hip-tree.
Cyperus longa. Long cyperus. The root.
Narcotic, but
doubtful.
The fruit and flow- Refrigerant andan- A ditlilled water and conferve.
ers. tifcorbutic.
Dadlylus, (P^aTz/'x The date-tree. The fruit.
dailyli/. Lin.)
Daucus Creticus, Candy carrot. The feeds.
(Atbamant. Cre-
tenf. Lin.)
Daucus fativus, The carrot. The roots.
(Daucus carota,
Lin.)
Daucus filveftris. Wild carrot. The feeds.
Dens leonis,(Z«>«- Dandelion. The root and herb.
tod. tar ax. Lin.)
Didlamnus Creti- Dittany of Crete. The leaves,
cus, {Diflamn.
origan. Lin.)
Digitalis, Fox-glove. The leaves.
Aromatic and car¬
minative.
Emollient and
flightly aftrin-
gent.
Aromatic. Ingredient in mithridate and
theriaca.
Powerfully antifep- A poultice from them for can*
tic. cers, and a marmalade.
Aromatic.
Attenuant, but
doubtful.
Aromatic.
Doronicum Ger-
manicum,(^r«/-
ca 7?iontan. Lin.)
Dulcamara, (Solan,
dulcamar. Lin.)
Ebulus, (Satnbuc.
ebul. Lin.)
Elatine, (Veronica
officinal. Lin.)
Eleutheria. See
Cascarilla.
Endivia, (Cichor.
endiv. Lin.)
Erigerum.
Eruca.
Eryngium, (Eryng.
mar it ini. Lin.)
Ery fi mum, (Eryfmi,
officinal. Lin.)
Eupatorium cana-
binuro.
German leopards- The leaves and
bane. roots.
Bitter, fweet, or The herb and root,
woody night-
fhade.
Dwarf-elder, or The root, bark,
Danewort. leaves, and fruit.
Fluellin, or female The leaves,
fpeedwell.
Emetic and cathar¬
tic.
Violently emetic
and cathartic.
Diaphoretic, atte¬
nuant, and ca¬
thartic.
Strongly cathartic.
Diuretic and atte¬
nuant.
An efiential oil; and ingre¬
dient in feveral officinal
powders.
A rob from the berries.
Gives name to one of the offi¬
cinal honeys.
Endive.
Groundfel.
Rocket.
Eryngo, or fea-
holly.
Hedge-muftard.
The leaves and
roots.
The leaves.
The feeds.
The root.
The leaves.
Hemp-agrimony, The leaves,
water-agrimony,
or water-hemp.
Aperient and refri¬
gerant.
Emetic.
Stimulant.
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
Attenuant and diu¬
retic.
Attenuant and cor¬
roborant.
Lift of |
Simples. ,
j
Faba
MATERIA M E D I C A.
Samples TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAM:
PARTS USED
MEDICINE
Faba Indica, feu St Ignatius’s bean. The feeds.
Saudi Ignatii.
Faba vicia. The garden-bean. The feeds and flow- Nutritive and cof-
ers. metic.
Fagopyrum, [Po- Snakeweed. The feeds.
lyg/fagopyr.
VIRTUES.
Antifpafmodic.
Refrigerant.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Lin.)
Farina tritici vel
Bran.
Iron.
Difcutient.
Corroborative and
alterant.
Fa:x vini rqbri. Lees of red wine.
A diftilled water from the
flowers.
Infufions in wine ; the metal
reduced to a calx by ruft,
or by fire, and fome falls
produced from it by combi¬
nations with different acids.
See Chemistry, n® 146,
242—245, 279, 299.
Ficus, (.Ficus carte.
Lin.)
Filipendula, (Spi-
rxa filipend.
Lin.)
Filix mas,(Polypod.
Filix, Lin.)
Flores cerevifiae.
Foenum Graecum,
( Frigonell. fan.
grtec. Lin.)
Fceniculum dulce et
vulgare, (Aneth.
focnic. Lin.)
Foeniculum aquati-
cum, Pharmac.
Rof. (P he Hand,
aquat. Lin.)
Formica, (Formica
rufa, Lin.)
Fragaria, (Fragar.
vefc. Lin.)
The fig-tree.
Common dropwort.
Yeaft.
Fenugreek.
The fruit.
The root.
The leaves and root.
The feed.
Sweet and common
fennel.
The feeds, roots,
and leaves.
The leaves and
feeds.
Difcutient and re¬
pellent.
Emollient and fup-
purative.
Aftringentand cor¬
roborant.
Anthelmintic and
deobftruent.
Inflammatory.
Emollient.
Aromatic, ftimu- An eflential oil.
lant, and carmi¬
native.
Corroborant.
The whole infeft. Stimulant.
An oil and acid fpirit.
The ftrawberry
bufh.
Black alder.
White or baflard
Frarigula, (Ainu.
nigr. Lin.)
Fraxinella, (Die-
tamnus alius, dittany.
Lin.)
Fraxinus,'(FVvrx/tf. The afh-tree.
excelftor, Lin.)
Fuligo ligni fplen- Shining woodfoot.
dens.
The leaves and
fruit.
The bark.
The root.
The bark and feeds.
Aftringent, corro¬
borant, and refri¬
gerant. •
Violently cathartic,
Diaphoretic.
Fumaria.
Fumitory.
Aftringent and fti-
mulant.
Antifpafmodic.
Stimulating and at-
tenuant.
A fpirituous tin&ure.
Fungus melitenfis,
Pharmac. Raff.
( Cynomor. coc-
cin. Lin.)
Galanga minor, Galangal. The root.
(Marant. ga-
lang. Lin.)
Galega. Goat’s rue. The herb.
Gall#.’^ Galls.
Stomachic.
Diaphoretic, but
very doubtful.
Aftringent.
25 L 2
4489
Lin of
Simples.
Gallium
449°
I,ift of
Simples.
MATERIA M E D I C A.
and feeds.
The root.
Common gentian. The root.
Herb Robert.
Ginfeng.
TECHNICAL NAM ES, ENGLISH NAMES.
Gallium luteum,
[Gall. vcr. Liu.)
Genifta, ( Gtnifl.
tinttor. Lin.)
Gentiana alba,
( Laferpitium la-
tifol. Lin.)
Gentiana, [Gen¬
tian. lut. Lin.)
Geranium Rober-
tianum.
Ginfeng, [Panax
quinquefol. Lin.)
Gladiolum lu¬
teum, [Iris pfeu-
dacorus, Lin.)
Glycyrrhiza, [Gly-
cyr. glair. Lin.)
Giamen caninum, Quick-grafs.
( Triticum repens,
Lin.)
Grana paradifi,
(Antomum, Lin.)
Granatum^Patf/ca
granatuni, Lin.)
Gratiola.
PARTS USED I
MEDICINE.
Yellow ladies bed- The tops,
ftraw, or cheefe-
rennet.
BroOm.
VIRTUES.
Aftringent.
The leaves, flowers, Diuretic and ca-
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM, simple!
The leaves.
The root.
Yellow water-flag, The roots,
baftard acorns, or
water flower-de-
luce.
Liquorice. The root.
thartic.
Stomachic and Hi- A fpirituous tin&ure, and as
mulant. ingredient in many officinal
compofitions.
Aftringent, but
very doubtful.
Stimulant and cor¬
roborant.
Strongly cathartic.
Emollient and pec- An extract and powder. An
toral. ingredient in many officinal
compolitions.
Aperient.
Guajacum.
Grains of paradife.
The pomegranate.
Hedge-hy flop,
Lignum-vitae, or
guajacum.
The feeds. Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
The fruit and bark. Refrigerant and
aftringent.
The leaves and
root.
The wood and
bark.
Gummi arabicum. Gum-arabic.
Gum. ammoniacum Gum ammoniac.
Gum. afafoetida. Afafeetida.
Gum. bdellium.
Gum. benzoin.
Gum. elemh
Gum. galbanum.
Gum. gambogia.
Gum. kino.
Gum. labdanum.
Gum. laricis,
(Pharm. Rof.)
Gum. lacca.
Gum. maftic.
Gum. myrrha.
Bdellium.
Benzoin.
Elemi-
Galbanum.
Gamboge.
Kino.
Labdanum.
Gum lac:
Mallich.
Myrrh.
Emetic and cathar¬
tic.
Aperient, ftimu-
lant, and corro¬
borative.
Aftringent andmu-
eilaginous.
Aperient, antifpaf-
modic, and emol¬
lient.
A powerful anti-
fpafmodic.
Sudorific, diuretic,
and emollient.
Cofmetic.
Aromatic.
Antifpafmodic.
Emetic and cathar¬
tic.
Aftringent.
Stomachic.
An extraft, two tindVures,-
and a gummy refin. An
ingredient in many officinal
preparations.
An ingredient in a great num¬
ber of officinal compofii-
tions.
A folutioa. An ingredient in
feveral pe&oral compofi¬
tions.
An ingredient in very many
officinal compofitions.
An ingredient in feveral ano¬
dyne compofitions.
An efiential oil, and gives
name to ointment.
An ingredient in many anti-
hyfteric medicines.
Gives name to a certain kind
of pills.
An ingredient in the ftoma-
chic pills and plafters.
Aftringent. A tinfture.
Corroborant.
Antifpafmodic and A tin&ure, and an ingredient
corroborant. in many officinal compofi¬
tions.
Gum
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Olibanum.
Opoponax.
Storax.
Liquid ftorax.
Frankincenfe.
Gum tragacanth,
commonly gum-
dragon.
Blood-ftone.
Ivy.
Ground-ivy.
Elecampane.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The leaves, berries,
and refin.
The leaves.
The root.
The root.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
Gum. olibanum.
Gum. opoponax.
Gum. fanguis dra-
conis.
Gum. Senegal.
Gum. ftyrax cala-
mit.
Gum. ftyrax liquida
Gum. thus.
Gum. tragacanth.
Hasmatites.
Hedera arborea,
( Hederahelix.Uin.)
Hedera terreftris,
( Glechem. hederac.
Lin.)
Heicnium.
Helleborafter,
Pharmac. Brunf-
nvic. (Helleberur
fxtid. Lin.)
Helleborus albus,
(Veratrum alb.
Lin.)
Helleborus niger.
Helleborus niger,
Pharmac. Rojf.
(Adonis vernal.
Lin.)
Hepatica nobilis,
( Anemone hepatic.
Lin.)
Hermoda&ylus,
(Iris tuberofdy
Lin.)
Herniaria, (Her-
niar. glab. Lin.)
Hippocaftanum,
Ph. Rof (JEfcul.
hippocajl. Lin.J
Hinmdinaria, (Af-
clep. vincetox.
Lin.)
Hordeum, (Hard.
dijlich. Lin.)
Horminum, (Salv.
hormin. Lin.)
Hydrolapathum,
(Rumex aquat.
Lin.)
Hyofciamus, (Hy-
afciam. nig. Lin.)
White hellebore.
Black hellebore.
Hermoda&yl.
Rupture-wort.
Barley.
Garden clary.
Great water-dock.
The root.
The root.
The root.
The root.
The leaves.
The bark.
The leaves and
feeds.
The leaves and
roots.
The common wild The leaves,
or black hea-bane.
Noble liver-wort. The leaves.
Swallow-wort, or The root,
tame-poifon.
VIRTUE*. [PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Aftringent, but un- An ingredient in fome pow-
certain. ders, and other officinal
compofitions.
Attenuant and fti- An ingredient in fome officinal
mulant. compofitions.
Aftringent. An ingredient in fome ftyptic
and balfamic medicines.
Aftringent and mu¬
cilaginous.
Stimulant and cor- An ingredient in fome tinc-
roborant. tures and pills.
Ingredient in a mercurial
plafter.
Suppofed corrobo- An ingredient in the theriaca,,
rativc. and fome plafters.
Aftringent and cor¬
roborant.
Aftringent and cor¬
roborative.
Diaphoretic.
Aperient and cor¬
roborant.
Aperient and pec- An ingredient in feveral offi-
toral. cinal compofitions.
Moft violently erne- A tinfture and honey,
tic and errhine.
A powerful altera- A tin&ure and extratt.
rative and emme-
nagogue.
Corroborant.
Purgative, but
doubtful.
Aftringent.
Sudorific, diuretic,
andemmenagogue. v
Refrigerant. A deco&ion.
Corroborative.
Alterant and laxa¬
tive.
Narcotic*
4491
Lift of
Simples.
Hypericum,
4492
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA M E D I C A.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
Hypericum, {Hy-
peric. perforat.
Lin.)
Hypociftis, (Cyti-
fits hypociji. Lin.)
HyfTopus, (Hyffop.
officinal. Lin.)
Jalappa, (Convolv.
jalap. Lin.)
Japonica terra.
Imperatoria, (Im-
per. ojlrut. Lin.)
Ipecacoanha, ( Vie-
la ipecac. Lin.)
Iris Florentina.
Iris noftras, [Iris
german. Lin.)
Juglans, {Jug.reg.)
Jujuba, (Rhamnus
zizyph. Lin.)
Juncus odoratus.
Juniperus, (jfunip.
commuri. Lin.)
ENGLISH NAMES.
St John's-wort.
Hypociftis.
' Hyfibp.
Jalap.
Japan earth.
Mafter-wort.
Ipecacuanha.
Florentine orris.
Flower-de-luce.
The walnut-tree.
Jujubes.
Sweet-rufh, or ca-
mePs-hay.
Juniper.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE,
The leaves, flowers;
and feeds.
The leaves.
The root.
The root.
The root.
The root.
The root.
The fruit.
The fruit.
The herb.
The berries,
and refin.
VIRTUES.
Diuretic, fudorific,
and alterant.
Aftringent.
Aromatic.
Cathartic.
Aftringent.
Aromatic.
Emetic and cathar¬
tic.
Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
The fame with the
former.
The kernel emol¬
lient, the fhell
aftringent.
Emollient and bal-
famic.
Aromatic.
1, Carminative and
ftomachic.
Kali, (Salfol. Lin.) Glafs-wort.-
Kermes, (Coccus Kermes.
querc. Hie. Lin.)
Lac. Milk.
La&uca, (Laftuca Lettuce.
tiv. Lin.)
Lamium album. White archangel,
or dead-nettle.
Lavendula, (La- Greater, or broad-
vend. fpic. Lin.) leaved lavender.
Aftringent and cor¬
roborant.
Analeptic and cor¬
roborant.
The juice. Suppofed narcotic.
The leaves and Suppofed corrobo-
flowers. rant.
The flowers. An excellent cor¬
dial and aroma¬
tic.
Laurus, (Laur. no-
bilis. Lin.)
Lazuli lapis.
Lentifcus, ( Pijlacia
lentife.
Lepidium, (Lepid.
latifol. Lin.)
Levifticum, (Li-
gujl. levift. Lin.)
Lichen cinereus ter-
reftris, (Lichen,
canin. Lin.)
The bay tree.
The lentife or ma-
ftich tree.
Common broad dit-
tander, pepper-
wort, or poor
man’s pepper.
Lovage.
A fh-coloured
ground liver¬
wort.
The leaves and ber¬
ries.
The wood.
The leaves.
The root and feed.
The whole.
Carminative and
antifpafmodic.
A ftrong emetic.
Aftringent.
Antifcorbutic and
diuretic.
Aromatic.
Recommended by
Dr Mead as a
fpecific againft
the bite of a mad
dog, but without
foundation.
preparations from them,
Gives name to a coloured
oil.
Juice infpiflated.
A diftilled water.
An extraft, a Ample tin&ure,
a compound tindiure, a refln,
and powder.
A tindiure, troches, and con-
fedtion; and an ingredient
in feveral officinal compo-
fltions.
A vinous tindlure, and a pow¬
der.
An ingredient in feveral pec¬
toral medicines.
An ingredient in theriaca.
An efiential oil, and fpirituous
water. Ingredient in a
great number of officinal
compofitions.
An alkaline fait.
A confedtion.
A faccharine fait.
An efiential oil, a Ample and
compound fpirit, and a
conferve. An ingredient in
fome officinal preparations.
An exprefied oil.
Ingredients in fome compound
waters.
Principal ingredient in the
pulvis antilyjfus.
Lignum
iLin of
ISimples.
TECHNICALNAMES. ENGUH NAMES.
Lignum campe- Logwood,
chenfe, {Ha-
mutox. canipech.
Lin.)
Lignum rhodium, Rofe-wood.
( Genift-canarien.
Lin.)
Lilium album, White lily.
( Ccnval. maial.
Lin.)
Limon, [Citrus li- The lemon-tree.
men. Lin.)
Linaria, [Jntir- Toad-flax.
rbin. linar. Lin.)
MATERIA MEDIC A.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The wood. Aftringent.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
An extraft.
An eflential oil.
Lingua cervina,
{Afplen. fcolo-
pend. Lin.)
Linum catharti-
cum.
Linum vulgare,
(Z,/«. ufitatijf.
Liquida ambra.
Lithofpermum,
{Lithofperm. of-
fichu Lin.)
Lobelia, Pharmac.
Ref [Label. Ji-
phi lit. Lin.)
Lumbrici et limaces
terre fires.
Lupinus, [Lupin,
alb. Lin.)
Lupulus, [Humul.
I up. Lin.)
Lycoperdon, [Ly
coperd. bovijl.
Lin.)
Lycopodium, Pha.
Rof [Lycopod.
clavat. Lin.)
Macis. See Nux
Mofchaia.
Majorana, (Origan,
major an. Lin.)
Malabathrum.
Malva, [Mah. ro-
tundifol. Lin.)
Malus.
Mandragora, [A-
trep. mandraa.
Lin.)
Manna, [Fraxin.
crn. Lin.)
Marrubium,). Afar*
rub. vulg. Lin.)
Hart’s tongue.
Purging flax, or
mill-mountain.
Flax.
Sweet gum, or flo-
rax tree.
Cromwell.
Earth-worms and
fnails.
White lupines.
The root and flow- Emollient and an-
ers. tifpafmodic.
The fruit. Aromatic, antifeor- .
butic,and cordial.
The leaves. Diuretic and ca¬
thartic, but
doubtful.
The leaves. Aperient.
The leaves. Cathartic.
The feed. Emollient.
The refinous juice. Cordial.
The feeds. Refolvent.
An exprefTed oil.
The feeds.
Aperient and ana¬
leptic.
Anthelmintic.
Hops.
Puff-ball, or dully
mufhroom.
Sweet marjoram.
Indian leaf.
The mallow.
The apple-tree.
The mandrake.
The manna afh.
White horehound.
The leaves and flow- Aromatic and er-
ers. rhine.
Aromatic.
The leaves and
flowers.
The fruit.
The concreted
juice.
Emollient.
Refrigerant and
laxative.
Narcotic.
Stomachic and ape-
rienf.
Deco&ion in milk.
The loofe leafy Diureticand ftoma-
heads which chic,
grow upon the
tops of the ftalks.
The whole. Styptic.
An eflential oil.
An ingredient in mithridate
and theriaca.
A conferve of the flowers.
Gives name to an officinal lo*
hoch, and enters feveral o-
ther compofltions.
An ingredient in theriaca.
4493
Lilt of
Simples.
Marum
4494
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA MEDIC A,
technical’names.
Marum Syriacum,
(Teucrium mar.
Lin.)
Matricaria, [Ma-
tricar. tarthen.
Lin.)
Mechoacanna,
[Convoh. me-
cboan. Lin.)
Mel.
Melo, (Cucumis
meio, Lin.)
Mentha crifpa,
( Pbar mac. Rojf.)
Mentha vulgaris,
( Menth. vivid-
Lin.)
Mentha piperitis.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Syrian herb ma-
ftich.
Feverfew.
White jalap.
Honey.
Balm.
The melon.
Danilh or German
curled mint.
Spearmint.
Pepper-mint.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The leaves.
The leaves and
flowers.
The root.
The leaves and
flowers.
The leaves.
The feeds.
The herb.
The herb.
The herb.
VIRTUES.
Aromatic and er-
rhine.
Aperient and an-
tifpafmodic.
Cathartic.
Aperient anddeter-
gent.
Emollient and car¬
minative.
Aromatic.
Refrigerant and
emollient.
Aromatic and cor¬
dial.
Aromatic and cor¬
dial.
Aromatic and cor¬
dial.
Melilotus, (Tr'tfol. Melilot.
melt lot. Lin.)
Melifla, (Melijf.
officin. Lin.)
Mercurialis, (Mer-
cur. annua, Lin.)
Meum, (Mthufa
meum, Lin.)
Mezereon.
Millefolium, [A-
chil. millefol.
Lin.)
Millefolium nobile,
Pbar mac. Rojf.
{Achill, nob.
Lin.)
Millepedae.
French mercury.
Spignel.
Mezereon, or
fpurge olive.
Millefoil, or yar¬
row.
Wood-lice, hog-
lice, or flaters.
The leaves.
The root.
The root,bark, and
berries.
The leaves and
flowers.
Emollient and laxa¬
tive.
Aromatic and car¬
minative.
Violently cathartic.
Mildly aftringent
and aromatic.
Diuretic.
Minium. See
Plumbum.
Morfus diaboli,
( Scabiof. fuccif.
Lin.)
Morns nigra.
Mofchus.
Mungos, (Pharm.
Brunf. et Rojf.)
Myrobolani.
Mufcus Iflandicus,
feu Catharticus,
Pharm. Rojf. et.
Brunf. {Lichen,
ifland. Lin.)
Devil’s bit. The leaves and Diaphoretic,
roots.
The mulberry-1
Muflc.
Myrobalans*
;. The fruit and 1
of the roots.
The fruit.
Refrigerant, aftrin¬
gent, and anthel¬
mintic.
Diaphoretic and
antifpafmodie.
Purgative.
PEREPARATIONS PROM THEM.
An ingredient in fome cepha¬
lic fnuffs.
/
Gives name to a plafter.
An infufion, and Ample wa¬
ter.
A diftilled water, eflential oil,
and eflence. An ingredient
in feveral officinal prepara¬
tions.
A diftilled water, effential oil,
and eflence. An ingredient
in feveral officinal prepara¬
tions.
A diftilled water, eflential oil,
and effence. An ingredient
in feveral officinal prepara¬
tions.
A fyrup.
An efleatial oil.
The infeiHs dried and powder¬
ed; an infuflon in wine; al-
fo an ingredient in fome
other officinal preparations.
A fyrup from the juice of the
fruit.
A julep.
Myrrhis,
J f.-A of
Simpies,
MATERIA MEDIC A.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
Myrrhis, (Sijon
Canadenfe, Lin.)
Myrtillus, (Vaccin.
myrtil. Lin.)
Napus, {Rapa na-
pus, Lin.)
Rapa fylveftris,
{BraJJic. nap.
Lin.)
Nardus Celtica,
(Valerian. Celt.
Lin.)
Nardus Indica,
{Andropo'g. nar¬
dus, Lin.)
Nafturtium aquati-
eum, {Sifymb.
najlur. aquat.
Lin.)
Nafturtium hor-
tenfe, {Lepid.
fativ. Lin.)
Nepeta, {Nepet.ca-
tar. Lin.)
Nephriticum lig¬
num, {Guilan-
din. moring.1L\n.')
Nicotiana, {Nico¬
tian, t abac. Lin.)
Nigella, {Nigel,
fativ. Lin.)
Ninfi, (Pharmac.
Brunf. et Rojf.
(Siam, nin/i,
Lin.)
Nit rum, {Nitrum.
nativ. Lin.)
ENGLISH NAMES.
Sweet cicely.
Whortle-berry.
Sweet navew, or
navew gentle.
Rape.
Celtic nard.
Indian nard.
Water crefles.
Garden crefles.
Nep, or catmint.
Nephritic wood.
Tobacco.
Fennel-flower.
Nitre or falt-petre.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The leaves and
feeds.
The leaves and
berries.
The feeds.
The feeds.
The roots.
The roots.
The leaves and
juice.
The leaves and
feeds.
The leaves.
The wood in fub-
ftance.
The leaves.
The feeds.
VIRTUES.
Diuretic.
Aftringent.
Aromatic.
Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
Stomachic and car¬
minative.
Stomachic and car¬
minative.
Aperient and anti-
fcorbutic.
Aperient and anti-
f corbutic, but
much weaker
than the former.
Aromatic and cor¬
dial.
Diuretic, but un¬
certain.
Violently emetic,
cathartic, and
narcotic.
Aperient and diu¬
retic, but uncer¬
tain.
Diaphoretic, diure¬
tic, and refrige¬
rant.
Nummularia, {Ly-
Jimach. nummu¬
lar. Lin.)
Nux mofchata,
{Myrifticafluin.)
Moneywort, or
herb twopence.
The nutmeg-tree.
The leaves.
The fruit, and co¬
vering called
mace.
Antifcorbutic.
An excellent aro¬
matic, cordial,
and ftomachic.
Nux piftachia. The piftachia tree.
{Pijlac. tere¬
binth. Lin.)
Nux vomicay Nux vomica.
{Strychnos nux
vom. Lin.)
Nymphaea alba. White water-lily.
Oehra, {Ochra Yellow ochre.
ferri, Lin.)
Oliva, {Olea Euro- The.olive-tree.
pxa, Lin.)
Vol. vr,' »
The fruit.
The fruit.
The roots and
flowers.
The fruit.
Rmollient and ana¬
leptic.
Ufed only as a poi-
fon for dogs, &c.
Aftringent and cor¬
roborative.
Aftringent, but
very weak.
Emollient.
sj M
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
An ingredient in the theriaca.
An exprefled oil.
Ingredients in the mithridate
and theriaca.
Ingredients in the mithridate
and theriaca.
An ingredient in the fucci
fcorbuticL
An extradl recommended by
Stahl and other German
phyflcians.
An acid fpirit and fixed alka¬
line fait, an aqueous decoc¬
tion or folution, troches.
An ingredient in many o-
ther officinal preparations.
An exprefled oil, falfely call¬
ed oil of mace; an eflential
oil; a Ample water ; a fpi-
rituouswater; an ingredient
in many officinal compofi-
tions.
An exprefled oil ufed in altfioft
all ointments, plafters, &c.
Ononis,
4495
Lift of
Simple*.
4496
Lift of
Simples.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
Ononis, (Onon.
arvenf. Lin.)
Opium, (Papaver
Orientaky Lin.)
Origanum, (Ori¬
gan. vulg. Lin.)
Oryza, (Oryza
fativ. Lin.)
Oftreae, (OJlre.
edul. Lin.)
Oxylapathum,
(Rumex cfcutus,
Lin.)
Oxycoceos, Phar.
Rof.{ Vaccin. oc-
cycoc. Lin.)
Pasonia, (Paon.
officinal. Lin.)
Palma, (Cocos nu-
cifera, Lin.)
Papaver album,
( Papaver fom-
fii/er. Lin.)
Papaver erraticum,
(Papaver rhceas,
Lin.)
Paralyfis, (Primula
elatior. Lin.)
Pareira brava, (Cif-
fampelos pareir.
Lin.)
Parietaria, (Pa-
rietar. officinal.
Lin.)
Paftinaca, (Pajlina.
fativ. Lin.)
Paftinaca fxlveftris.
Pentaphyllum,
(Potentill. rep-
tans, Lin.)
Pechurim faba,
Pharmac. Roffi.
(An fpccies
laur. ? Lin.)
Perficaria urens,
( Perfic. hydropip.
Lin.)
Pevficaria mitis.
Perfica.
Peruvianas cortex,
(Cinchona offic.
Lin.) 1
MATERIA MEDIC A.
ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
Reft-harrow, cam- The root,
mock, Or petty-
whin.
The Afiatic poppy. The infpifiated
juice.
Wild marj'oram. The leaves.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Lift of
Simples. I,
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
A mod excellent Purified by draining, called
anodyne and cor- the Thebaic extra!}} a vi-
nous and fpirituous tin&ure,
czWeA liquid laudanum. Alfo
a capital ingredient in many
officinal preparations.
dial when pro¬
perly applied,
but a very fatal
poifon if taken in
too great quan¬
tity.
Aromatic.
An efiential oil.
Rice.
Oyfters.
Sharp-pointed
dock.
The grain.
The ftiells.
The roots and
leaves.
Emollient and re¬
frigerant.
Abforbent. Levigated.
Alterant and laxa¬
tive.
Male and female
peony.
The palm-tree.
The white poppy.
The roots, flowers,
and feeds.
The kernels of the
fruit.
The heads.
Emollient and an-
tifpafmodic.
Emollient and ano¬
dyne.
Anodyne.
Ingredients in fome anti-epi¬
leptic powders.
An expreffed oil ufed in do-
machic plafters.
A fyrup.
Red poppy, or The flowers,
corn-rofe.
Gowflip. The flowers.
Pareira brava. The root.
Pellitory of the The leaves,
wall.
Valued chiefly for
the colour they
communicate.
Corroborant and
antifpafmodic.
Attenuant, diure¬
tic, and lithon-
triptic.
Emollient and
diuretic.
A fyrup.
A fyrup.
Ingredient in a nephritic de-
coftion.
Garden parfnep.
Wild parfnep.
Cinquefoil.
The roots and
feeds.
The feeds.
The root.
Emollient and aro¬
matic.
Aromatic.
Aftringent.
Bitter arfmart,
lake-weed, or
water-pepper.
Spotted arfmart.
The peach-tree.
The quinquina, or
Jefuit’s-bark
tree.
The leaves. Diuretic and deter-
tergent when ex¬
ternally applied;
The leaves, Antifeptic and a-
ftringent.
The leaves, flowers. Laxative, anthel-
and fruit. mintic, and re¬
frigerant.
The bark* A m°ft excellent An extra&,arefin, a fpirituous
corroborative, tinfture, a compound tinc¬
ture, a tin&ure in volatile
fpirit; alfo an ingredient in
the ftomachic tin&ure.
Petafites,
lift of
Simples. TECHNICALNAMES,
Petafites, (Tujfilag,
pstafit. Lin.)
Petrolium.
Petroleum Barba-
denfe.
Petrofelinum, {A-
piuni petrofelin.
Lin.)
Peucedanum, ( Peu-
cedan. officinal.
Lin.)
Pimpinella fapgui-
forba, (Sangui-
forba officinalis,
Lin.)
Pimpinella faxi-
fraga.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Butterbur.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The roots.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Common parfley.
Aromatic, aperi¬
ent, and deob-
ftruent.
Anodyne and cor-
roborgtive when
applied external-
}v-
Difcutient, fudori-
fic, and corrobo¬
rative.
The roots, leaves, Aperient and fome- The feeds an ingredient in a*
and feeds. what aromatic. elcduary. ^
Hog’s-fennel, or The root,
fulphur-wort.
Burnet. The leaves.
Aperient, ftimula-
ting, and er-
rhine.
Aftringent.
Burnet faxifrage. The root, leaves, Diaphoretic, diu-
Pinus fylveftris. The pine tree.
and feeds.
The kernels of its
fruit or cones,
and refin.
Piper album.
Piper longum.
Piper nigrum.
Piper Jamaicenfe.
Piper Indicum,
( Capficum annu-
um, Lin.)
Pix liquida.
White pepper.
Long pepper.
Black pepper.
Jamaica pepper,
pimento, or
all-fpice.
Guinea pepper.
retie, and anti-
fcorbutic.
The kernels emol¬
lient; for the re-
fin, fee Terebin-
thina.
Highly aromatic
and llimulant.
Pix arida.
Dry, or (lone
pitch.
Pix Burgundica. Burgundy pitch,
j
Plantago latifolia, Common broad- The leaves.
( Plantago major, leaved plantane.
Plumbum, [Plum- Lead.
butn nativuni,
Lin.)
Polium montanum, Poley-mountain. The tops,
( Polium teucrium,
Lin.)
Polygala amara. The root.
Pbarm. Raff.
{Polyg. amar.
A Ample diftilled water, ani'
an eifential oil.
A powder called Cayenne pep¬
per.
Attenuant and fti- An infufion in water, and an
mulating. ingredient in a kind of pec¬
toral pills.
r
A warm adhefive J Ingredients in feveral pla-
refinous fub- ^ fters, ointments, and ce=
fiance. j rates.
* . I
Aftringent.
Aftringent and re- Several chemical preparations.'
frigerating, but See Chemistry, n° 401 —
very dangerous. 405. A tin&ure and ex-
trad, or folution in vege-
table acids; alfo an in¬
gredient in feveral oint¬
ments, &c.
Aromatic. Ingredient in the Mithridatc
and theriaca.
PolypodiuiBj
4497
Lift of
Simples;
4498
Lift of
Simples.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Polypodium, [Po- Polypody.
lypod. vulgar.
Populus nigra. Black poplar.
Porrum, {Allium The leek.
porrum, Lin.)
Portulaca, (Portu- Purflane.
lac. olerac. Lin.)
Primula veris. Primrofe.
Prunella, (Prunell. Self-heal.
vulg. Lin.)
Pruna brignolenfia. Brignole plums, or
prunelloes.
Pruna Gallica. French, or com-
mon prunes, f
Pruna Damafcena. Damafcenplums, T
or damfons. 3
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The root.
VIRTUES.
Laxative.
preparations from them.
The buds.
The root.
The feeds.
Aromatic. Ufed only in an ointment, but
capable of being applied to
better purpofcs. {Lewis.)
A ftimulatfng diu¬
retic.
Refrigerant.
The herb and root. Aromatic and fto- An infufion anddiftilledfpirit.
machic.
The leaves. Attenuant and de¬
tergent.
Gently laxative.
Pruna Silveftria.
See Acacia.
Pfyllium, {Plan- Fleawort. The feeds.
tago pfyll. Lin.)
Ptarmica, {Achil. Sneezewort, or ba- The root.
ptarmic. Lin.) Hard pellitory.
Pulegium, {Menth. Pennyroyal. The leaves.
puleg. Lin.)
Pulmonaria macu- Spotted hmg-wort, The leaves
lofa, {Pulmon. or fage of Jeru-
officinal. Lin.) falem.
Pulfatilla nigricans, The herb,
Pharmac. Rojf.
{Anemone pra-
tenf. Lin.)
Pyrethrum, {An- Pellitory of Spain. The root.
themis pyrethr.
Lin.)
Quaflia, The root.
mar. Lin.)
Quercus, {^uercus Oak tree. The bark.
robur, Lin.)
Quercus marina,t
Pharm. Rojf.
{Fucus veficulo-
fus, Lin.)
Raphanus ruftica- Horfe-radifh. The root,
nus, {Raphanus
fativus Lin.)
Rapa.
Rhabarbarum,
(Rheum palmat.
Lin.)
The turnip.
Rhubarbs
The roots and
feeds.
The root.
Rhaponticum, Rhapontic. The roots.
(Rbseum rhapon.
Liu.)
Ribes nigrum. The black-currant The fruit,
bufh.
Ribres rubrum. The red-currant The fruit*
bulb.
Emollient and laxa¬
tive.
Errhine and ftimu-
lating.
A warm aromatic. A fimple water, a fpirituous
water, an eflential oil; and
an ingredient in fome other
officinal compofitions.
Said to be aperient
and analeptic.
An extra# and diftilled waters
Promotes the falival
dux.
An excellent ftoma- An extra#.
chic and tonic.
Strongly aftringenU
Stimulating and at- A compound water,
tenuant.
Aperient, and
(lightly aromatic.
Cathartic and fto- Toafted; a watery infufion 5.
machic. vinous and fpirituous tinc¬
tures ; and an ingredient
in feveral officinal compoli-
tions.
Laxative.
Refrigerant and de-
Di»r'
Rhododendron
Lift ot
Simplest
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Lift of
Simples.
TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
~ Rhododendron,
Pharm. Raff.
(Rhodod. chryfan-
tbum, Lin.)
Rofa damafcena.
Rofa rubra.
Damafk rofe.
The red rofe.
Rofmarinushorten- Rofemary.
fis, {Rofm. officinal.
Lin.)
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The herb.
The flower.
The flower.
The tops and
flowers.
PREPARATIONS EROMTHEM.
Rubia tinftorum. Madder.
Rubus ar&icus,
Pharm. Roffi.
Rubus idatus. The rafp-berry
bufh.
Rubus niger, [Ru- The bramble.
bus fruticof. Lin.)
Rufcus, [Rufc. acu- Butcher’s-broom,
leat. Lin.) Or knee-holly.
Ruta, {Rut’ gra- Broad-leaved rue.
veot. Lin.)
The leaves and
feeds.
Sabadilla, Pharm.
RojJ. { An fpecks
veratr. ? Lin,)
Sabina, {Junip. Savin.
fabin. Lin.)
The feeds.
The leaves or tops.
Saccharum album. White fugar. T
Saccharum can- Sugar-candy. C
dum. j
Sagapenum. Gumfagapenum,
Sal alkali vegeta- Vegetable alkaline
bile. fait, or pearl-
afhes.
Sal alkali minerale. Mineral alkali, fait
of Soda, or bafis
of fea-falt.
Sal catharticus a- Epfom fait,
marus.
Sal commune. Common fait.
Salicaria, Pharm. Purple loofe-ftrife. The herb.
Roff. (Lythrum
Salicar. Lin.)
Salix, f.W/xyra- The crack-willow. The bark.
gilts, Lin.)
Salvia, (Salvia Common fage. The leaves.
’ al. Lin.)
The leaves.
The leaves, bark,
flowers, and ber¬
ries.
Aromatic and gent- A diftilled water and fyrup.
ly laxative.
Aftringent andcor- A conferve, honey, tin&ure,
roborative. troches, vinegar, and fyrup.
An ingredient in feveral
officinal compofitions.
A fine aromatic and An effential oil; a diftilled
cordial. fpirit called Hungary 'water.
An ingredient in many cor¬
dial and antifpafmodic me¬
dicines.
Aperient and de¬
tergent.
Refrigerant. A fyrup.
Aftringent.
Aperient.
Powerfully ftimu- An extraft, an eflential oil,
lating, attenua- diftilled water, and con-
ting, and deter- ferve.
gent.
A ftimulating ape- An eflential oil; diftilled wa-
rient. ter ; watery extract; and
an ingredient in feveral offi¬
cinal compofitions.
Emollient&laxative
Aperient and de- An ingredient in feveral anti-
obftruent. fpafmodic medicines.
Aperient, diuretic, The bafis of a great number
and cauftic. of neutral falts.
Ditto.
Cathartic.
Ditto.
Magnefia.
Salvia fylveftris. Wood fage.
Sambucus, {Sam- Common black¬
er. niger, Lin.) berried alder.
In fmall dofes fti-
mulant, in large
ones cathartic.
Aftringent.
Corroborant.
Moderately ftimu- Infufiens.
lating and aftrin-
gent.
Ditto.
Cathartic, aroma¬
tic, and aperient.
A rob for internal ufe from
the berries, and an oint¬
ment and oil from the flow¬
ers and bark; the flowers are
alfo ingredients in fome
compound waters.
Sanguis
4499
Lift of
Simples.
4500
Lift of
Simjjle.'.
TECHNlCAtNAMES.
Sanguis draconis.
Sanicula, (Sanicul.
Ear opee a, Lin.)
Santalum citrinum,
(Santal.alb. Lin. )
Santalum rubrum.
Santonicum.
Sapo durus.
Sopa mollis.
Sapo niger.
Saponaria, (Sapo-
liar, officinal.
Lin.)
Sarcocolla.
Sarfaparilla, (Smi-
lax.farfap. Lin.)
Safiafras, (Laurus
faffafrast Lin.)
Satureia, [Satureia
hortenf Lin.)
Satyriummas, {Or¬
chis bifol. Lin.)
Saxifraga alba,
( Saxifrag. gra-
nulat. Lin.)
Saxifraga vulgaris.
Scabiofa, (Scabiof.
arvenf. Lin.)
Scammonium.
Scilla, (Scill. ma-
ritim. Lin.)
Scordium, (Teucr.
fcordiuvi, Lin.)
Jjcorzonera, (Scor-
zoti. humilis,
Lin.)
Scrophularia,
( Scrophular.
r.odcf. Lin.)
Scbeften, (Cordia
myxa. Lin.)
Sedum majus, (Se-
dumalbum, Lin.)
S^a, (Caffia fena,
" Liu.)
MATERIA M E D I C A.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Dragon’s-blood.
Sanicle.
Yellow fanders.
PARTS USED i
MEDICINE.
The leaves.
The wood.
Worm-feed.
Hard Spanifh foap. ")
I
Common foft foap. ^
I
Black foap. J
Soapwort or bruife- The herb and root,
wort.
Aftringent.
Suppofed to be cor¬
roborant.
Greatly recom¬
mended by Hoff¬
man as a reftora-
tive.
Ufed only for its
colour.
Anthelmintic.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
An ingredient in fome offici¬
nal compofitions.
Gum farcocoll.
Sarfaparilla.
Saffafras.
Summer favoury.
Orchis.
White-flowered
faxifrage.
Meadow faxifrage.
Scabious.
The root.
The root.
The leaves.
The root.
The roots and
leaves.
The leaves and
feeds.
The leaves.
Scammony,
The fquill, or fea-
onion.
Water germander.
Viper’s grafs.
Fig-wort.
Sebeften plum.
Greater houfeleek. The leaves.
Sena. The leaves.
The root.
The leaves.
The root.
The leaves and
root.
Refolvent and fti-
mulating.
Aperient, corobo-
rant, and fudo-
rific.
Suppofed a vulne¬
rary.
Alterant, and dia¬
phoretic.
Alterant, aperient,
and corroborant.
A very pungent
warm aromatic.
Coagulant and cor¬
roborative.
^ Suppofed to be
! aperient, diure-
! tic, and lithon-
f triptic, but
without juft
^ foundation.
Aperient, fudori-
fic, and expe&o-
rant.
Strongly cathartic.
Powerfully diuretic,
ftimulant, and ex-
pe&orant.
Deobftruent, diure¬
tic, and fudorific,
but doubtful.
Cordial and ftimu¬
lant, but doubt¬
ful.
Suppofed corrobo¬
rant, but doubt¬
ful.
Emollient.
Refrigerant.
Cathartic.
The firft gives mame to a
plafter, liniment, balfam,
and pills; the fecond is an
ingredient in the milder
cauftic ; and the third is
an anodyne plafter.
Infufions and extraft.
An eflential oil; an ingredi¬
ent in fome officinal pre¬
parations.
Salep fuppofed to be a pre¬
paration from a root of thi*
kind (Lewis).
Gives name to a powder, and
is an ingredient in fome
officinal preparations.
A fyrup, vinegar, oxymel,
pills ; the root dried, ba¬
ked, and made into troches.
An ingredient in mithridate,
theriaca, and feveral other
preparations.
Spiritubtis tinfturcs, com¬
pound powders, and a fy¬
rup.
!
Seneka,
MATERIA MEDIC A.
nples. TECHNICAI NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Seneka, ( Poly gal. Seneka.
fenek. Lin.)
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The root.
Serpentaria Virgi- Virginian fnake- The root,
niana, {Arijiolo- weed.
chia ferpentar.
Lin.)
Serpyllum, {Thy. Mother of thyme. The herb.
onus ferpil. Lin.)
Sefelis vulgaris, Common hartwort. The feeds.
( Tordyl. oflidn,
Lin.)
Sefelis mafiilien- Italian hartwort. The feeds.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Cathartic, diapho¬
retic, diuretic,
and fometimes
emetic.
A warm diaphore- A fpirituous tin&ure; a corn-
tic and diuretic. pound decoftion ; and an
ingredient in a number of
tinftures.
Aromatic.
Agreeable aroma¬
tics, but neglec¬
ted. Lewis.
4501
Lift of
Simples.
Sigillum Salomo- Solomon’s feal. The root,
nis, {Cinv all aria
Polygon. Lin.)
Simarouba. Simarouba bark,
Sinapi, (Sinapis Muftard. The feeds.
nigra, Lin.)
Solanum, [Solan. Nightihade. The leaves,
nigr. Lin)
Spermaceti. Spermaceti.
Spina eervina. Buckthorn. The berries.
[Rham. catbart.
Lin.
Spirkus vinofi. Vinous Spirits.
Spongia, [Spongia Sponge.
officinal. Lin.)
Stannum, [Stan. Tin.
chryjlallin. Lin.)
Staphifagria, [Del-. Stavefacre. The feeds.
pbin. Jlaphifagr.
Lin.)
Stoechas, [Laven- Arabian ftoechas, The flowers.
dul. Jloechas, or French laven-
Lin.) der.
Stramonium, [Da- Thorn-apple. The herb.
tur. Jlramon.
Lin.)
Suber, [§>uerc. The cork-tree. The bark.
fub. Lin.)
Succinum, (Succin. Amber.
eleftric. Lin.)
Sulphur. Sulphur, or brim-
llone.
Sumach, [Rhus
coriaria, Lin.)
Tacamahac.
Common fumach.
Gum tacamahac.
The leaves and
feeds.
Probably emollient*
Aftringent.
Strongly pungent An expreffed oil.
and ftimulant.
Powerfully evacu-
ant.
A mild emollient. Gives name to a lohpeh.
Strongly cathartic. A fyrup.
Cordial and ftimu- Ufed as menftruums for tinc-
J30*’* tures, &c. in almoft every
Tt. , preparation of that kind,
Ufed as a tent for Burnt,
dilating ulcers,
&c.
Anthelmintic. Powdered.
A violent cathartic
taken internally.
Its external ap¬
plication de-
flroys lice and
other infe&s.
Aromatic. An ingredient in mithridate
and theriaca.
Narcotic. An extraft.
Aftringent.
Aftringent and cor- A tinflure, balfam, effential
roborant. oil, and an ingredient in fe-
veral officinal preparations.
Laxative, diapho- Solutions in different kinds of
retie, and alte- oils, called balfanis, and
ranL an ingredient in fome oint¬
ments.
Aftringent.
Difcutient, emolli- An Ingredient in feveral pla-
ent, and fupptl- fters.
rative.
Tamarindus,
4502 _ MAT
Lift of
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Tamarindus, {Ta¬
marind. Indica,
Lin.)
Tamarifcus, [Ta-
marix Gallic a,
Lin.)
Tanacetum, (Ta-
nacet. vulgar.
Lin.)
Thapfus barbatus,
( Verbafc. thap¬
fus. Lin.)
Tartarum.
Tamarinds.
The tamarifk-tree.
Tanfy.
Greafc white mul¬
lein.
Tartar.
Terebinthina Chia.
Terebinthina Ve-
neta.
Terebinthina Ar-
gentoratenfis.
Terebinthina com¬
munis.
Thea bohea et vi-
viridis.
Thlafpi, [Thlafp.
arvenf. Lin.)
Thymus citratus.
Thymus vulgaris.
Tilia, (Tilia Eu¬
rope a, Lin.)
Tithymalus.
Tormentilla, [Tor-
tnentill. creel.
Lin.)
Trifolium paludo-
fum, [Menyan¬
ther trifoliata.
Lin.)
Triticum.
Turpethum, {Con-
volv. turpeth.
Lin.)
Tuffilago, [Tujfi-
lag. far far. Lin.)
Valeriana fylveftris,
( Valer. officin.
Lin.)
Veronica mas, [Ve¬
rm. efficin. Lin.)
Chian, or Cyprus
turpentine.
Venice turpentine.
Strafburgh turpen¬
tine.
Common turpen¬
tine.
Bohea and green
tea.
Treacle, or mithri-
date muftard.
Lemon thyme.
Common thyme.
The lime, or linden
tree.
The fpurge.
Tormentil, orfept-
foil.
Marlh trefoil, or
buck bean.
Wheat.
Turbith.
Coltsfoot.
Wild valerian.
Male fpeedwell.
E R I A MEDIC A.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The fruit.
VIRTUES.
Refrigerant and
laxative.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Ingredients in fome laxative
eledtuaries.
The leaves and Aftringent.
bark.
The leaves, flowers,
and feeds.
The leaves and
flowers.
Stimulating, anti-
fpafmodic, and
anthelmintic.
Analeptic.
A fpirituous extrad from the
flowers.
The leaves.
The feeds.
The leaves.
The leaves.
The flowers.
Refrigerant and ca- Purified from its earthy parts,
thartic. and called cream of tartar,
the bafis of fome ufeful pur¬
ging falls. An alkali is al-
fo prepared from it by fire.
1
{ Warm ftimula-
ting diuretics
j and aperients.
Ufed chiefly in ex- An eflential oil. (The refi-
ternal applica- duum forms the refwa alba
tions. et nigra, or white and black
rofin of the fliops, ufed in
almolt every ointment.
Cordial, diuretic. An infufion.
and diaphoretic.
Aromatic and fti- Ingredient in theriaca.
mulant.
An agreeable aro- A diftilled water and eflential
matic. oil.
An agreeable aro- A diftilled water and eflential
matic. oil.
Antifpafmodic.
The juice of the Moft violent and
root. inflammatory ca¬
thartics.
The root. Aftringent. An ingredient in feveral offi¬
cinal compofitions.
The leaves. Laxative and alte¬
rant.
The grain and Nutritive and glu- Starch.
flour. tinous.
The root. Violently cathartic. An extraft.
The leaves and
flowers.
The root.
The leaves.
Emollient and mu- An ingredient in pe&oral de-
cilaginous. codtions.
Antifpafmodic. A tindture in proof fpirit, and
in volatile fpirit; alfo an in.
gredient in feveral cephalic
and anti-epileptic medi¬
cines.
Aperient. Infufiohs.
Lift of-'
Simples.^
Vinuntr
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Simples. TECHSICAl'nAMES. EKGtISH NAMES.
"" Vinum. Wine.
Viola, (F/o/a
odorat. Lin.)
Viper a, [Coluber
viper. Lin.)
Vitis vinifera.
The Gngle March
violet.
The viper.
Th vine.
Winteranus cortex, Winter's bark.
[Winteran. aro-
mat. Lin.)
Urtica. The nettle.
Uva urfi, [Arbutus
uv. urf. Lin.)
Zedoarias(A^w^/^- Zedoary.
ria rotund. Lin.)
Zincutn. Zinc.
Zinziber, [Amom. Ginger.
xinzib. Lin.)
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The flowers.
VIRTUES. PEREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Cordial and corro- A menftruum for a great num-
borant. ber of medicinalTubftances.
Laxative. A fyrup.
The flelh and fat.
The leaves, fap,
flowers, and
fruit.
Reftorative and A vinous tindure; an ingre-
emollient. dient in theriaca.
Aftringent, diure* Wine. The dried fruit or
tic, aromatic, and raifins are ingredients in
pe&oral. fome pe&oral and ftomachic
medicines.
Aromatic.
The herti.
The leaves.
The root.
The root.
Refrigerant and
diuretic.
Aftringent and li-
thontriptic.
Stomachic and cor- An extrad with proof-fpirit.
roborant. Alfo an ingredient in fomc
cordial medicines.
Suppofed to be a The metal reduced to a calx
good antiepilep- by fire. Calamine and tutty
tic. are a kind of qres of this
metal. Thefe laft are the
bafis of two officinal oint¬
ments. A fait produced
by its combination with the
vitriolic acid. See Chemi¬
stry, n° 157.
Aromatic. A fyrup. Alfo an ingredient
in many officinal compofi-
tions.
N. B. To moft of the articles taken from the Pharmacopoeia Rojfica (lately publifhed at Peterfburg,) no vir¬
tues are annexed in the above lift, becaufe none are mentioned in the original.
MAT
MAT
MATHEMATICS, the fcience of quantity ; or
a fcience that confiders magnitudes either as compu¬
table, or meafurable.
The word in its original, fignifies difciplinet
orJcience in the general; and feems to have been ap¬
plied to the dodrine of quantity, either by way of
eminence, or becaufe, this having the ftart of all other
fciences, the reft took their common name therefrom.
See Science.
For the origin of the mathematics, Jofephus dates
it before the flood, and makes the fons of Seth obfer-
vers of the courfe and order of the heavenly bodies : he
adds, that to perpetuate their difeoveries, and fecure
them from the injuries either of a deluge or a conflagra¬
tion, they had them engraven on two pillars, the one
of ftone, the other of brick ; the former of which he
fays was (landing in Syria in his days. See Astro¬
nomy.
The firft whacultivated mathematics after the flood,
were the Affyrians and Chaldeans; from whom, the
fame Jofephus adds, they were carried by Abraham to
the Egyptians; who proved fuch notable proficients,
that Ariftotle makes no fcruple to fix the firft rife of
mathematics among them. From Egypt, 584 years
Vol. VI. 1
before Chrift, they pafied into Greece through the
hands of Thales; who having learned geometry of the
Egyptian priefts, taught it in his own country. Af¬
ter Thales, comes Pythagoras ; who, among other
mathematical arts, paid a particular regard to arith¬
metic ; fetching the greateft part of his philofophy
from numbers : he was the firft, as Laertius tells us,
who abftraded geometry from matter; and to him we
owe the doftrine of incommenfurable magnitude, and
the five regular bodies, befides the firft principles of
mufic and aftronomy. Pythagoras was fucceeded by
Anaxagoras, Oenopides, Brifo, Antipho, and Hip¬
pocrates of Scio ; who all applied themfelves particu¬
larly to the quadrature of the circle, the duplicaturc
of the cube, &c. but the laft with moft fuccefs: this
laft is alfo mentioned by Proclus, as the firft who com¬
piled elements of mathematics.
Democritus excelled in mathematics as well asphy-
fics ; though none of his works in either kind are ex¬
tant, the deftru&ion of which fome authors lay at
Ariftotle’s door. The next in order is Plato, who not
only improved geometry, but introduced it into phy-
fics, and fo laid the foundation of a folid philofophy.
Out of his fchool proceeded a crowd of mathemati-
*5 N cians
4503
Lift of
Simples.
Mathema-
MAT [ 4504 ] MAT
Mathema-clans. Proclus mentions 13 of note; among whom
was Leodamus, who improved the analyfis firft invent¬
ed by Plato; Theastetus, who wrote elements; and
Archytas, who has the credit of being the firft who
applied Mathematics to ufe in life. Thefe were
fucceeded by Neocles and Theon, the laft of whom
contributed to the elements. Eudoxus excelled in
arithmetic and geometry, and was the firft founder
of a fyftem of aftronomy. Menechmus invented the
conic-fe&ions, and Theudius and Hermotimus impro¬
ved the elements.
For Ariftotle, his works are fo ftored w'ith mathe¬
matics, that Blancanus compiled a whole book of
them : out of his fchool came Eudemus and Theo-
phraftus; the firft of whom wrote of numbers, geo¬
metry, and invifible lines ; the latter, a mathematical
luftory. To Arifteus, Ifidorus, and Hypficles, we
owe the books of folids ; which, with the other books
of elements, were improved, colle&ed, and metho-
difed by Euclid, who died 284 years before Chrift.
An hundred years after Euclid, came Eratofthenes
and Archimedes. Cotemporary with the latter was
Conon, a geometrician and aftronomer. Soon after
came Apollonius Pergaeus; whofe conics are ftill ex¬
tant. To him are likewife afcribed the 14th and 15th
books of Euclid, which are faid to have been contrac¬
ted by Hypficles. Hipparchus and Menelaus wrote on
the fubtenfes in a circle, the latter alfo on fpherical
triangles : Theodofius’s three books of fphericks are
ftill extant. And all thefe, Menelaus excepted, lived
before Chrift.
A. D. 70. Ptolemy of Alexandria was born ; the
prince of aftronomers, and no mean geometrician: he
was fucceeded by the philofopher Plutarch, of whom
we have ftill extant fome mathematical problems. Af¬
ter him came Eutocius, who commented on Archi¬
medes, and occafionally mentions the inventions of
Philo, Diodes, Nicomedes, Sporus, and Heron, on
the duplicature of the cube. To Ctefebes of Alexan¬
dria, we owe our pumps ; and Geminus, who came
foon after, is preferred by Proclus to Euclid himfelf.
Diophantus*of Alexandria was a great mafter of
numbers, and the firft inventor of algebra: among
others of the ancients, Nicomachus is celebrated for
his arithmetical, geometrical, and mufical works ; Se-
renus, for his books on the fe&ion of the cylinder;
Proclus, for his comments on Euclid ; and Theon has
the credit, among fome, of being author of the books
of elements afcribed to Euclid. The laft to be named
among the ancients, is Pappus of Alexandria, who
flouriflied A. D. 400, and is celebrated for his books
of mathematical colleftions ftill extant.
Mathematics are commonly diftinguilhed into pure
and fpeculative, which confider quantity abftra&edly;
and mixed, which treat of magnitude as fubfifting in
material bodies, and confequently are interwoven every
where with phyfical confiderations.
Mixed mathematics are very comprehenfive; fince to
them may be referred aftronomy, optics, geography,
hydroftatics, mechanics, fortification, navigation, &c.
See the articles Astronomy, Optics, &c.
Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, that
they occafion no difputes among wrangling difputants,
as in other branches of knowledge ; and the reafon is,
becaufc the definitions of the terms are premifed, and
every body that reads a propofition has the fame idea Mathemai
of every part of it. Hence it is eafy to put an end to 5
all mathematical controverfies, by Ihowing, either that ]
our adverfary has not ftuck to his definitions, or has 
not laid down true premifles, or elfe that he has drawn
falfe conclufions from true principles; and in cafe we
are able to do neither of thefe, we muft acknowledge
the truth of what he has proved.
It is true, that in mixed mathematics, where we
reafon mathematically upon phyfical fubjefts, we can¬
not give fuch juft definitions as the geometricians: we
muft therefore reft content with defcriptions; and they
will be of the fame ufe as definitions, provided we are
confiftent with ourfelves, and always mean the fame
thing by thofe terms we have once explained.
Dr Barrow gives a moft elegant defcription of the
excellence and ufefulnefs of mathematical knowledge,
in his inaugural oration, upon being appointed pro-
feflbr of mathematics at Cambridge.
The mathematics, he obferves, effeftually exercife,
not vainly delude, nor vexatioufly torment, ftudious
minds with obfcure fubtilties ; but plainly demonftrate
every thing within their reach, draw certain conclu¬
fions, inftrufl by profitable rules, and unfold pleafant
queftions. Thefe difciplines likewife enure and corro¬
borate the mind toa conftant diligence in ftudy ; they
wholly deliver us from a credulous fimplicity, moft
ftrongly fortify us againft the vanity of fcepticifm, ef-
feftually reftrain us from a ralh prefumption, moft ea-
fily incline us to a due aflent, and perftftly fubjeft us
to the government ©f right reafon. While the mind is
abftrafted and elevated from fenfible matter, diftin&ly
views pure forms, conceives the beauty of ideas, and
inveftigates the harmony of proportions ; the manners
themfelves are fenfibly corredled and improved, the af-
fedions compofed and reftified, the fancy calmed and
fettled, and the underftanding railed and excited to
more divine contemplations.
MATHEMATICAL, any thing belonging to the
fcience of mathematics.
Mathematical Injiruments, fuch inftruments as
are ufually employed by mathematicians, as compaffes,
fcales, quadrants, &c.
Machine for dividing Mathematical Injiruments.
See Ramsden’/ Machine.
MATHER (Dr Cotton), an eminent American
divine, born at Bofton in New England in the year
1663. He was educated in Harward college, and in
1684 became minifter of Bofton ; in the diligent dif-
charge of which office he fpent his life, and promoted
feveral excellent focietiesfor the public good: particu¬
larly one for fuppreffing diforders, one for reforming
manners, and a fociety of peace-makers, whofe pro-
fefled bufinefs it was to compofe differences and prevent
lawfuits. His reputation was not confined to his own
country : for in 1710, the univerfity of Glafgow fent
him a diploma for the degree of de&or in divinity ^
and, in 1714, the Royal Society of London chofe
him one of their fellows. He died in 1728; and is
faid to have publiflied in his life-time 382 pieces, in¬
cluding Angle fermons. effays, &c. yet feveral were of
a larger fize, among which was Magnolia Chrijli A-
mericana, or an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of New-Eng¬
land, from its firft planting in 1620, to 1698, folio.
Eut the moft remarkable of all his works was that in
which
MAT [ 4Sos ] MAT
iJ| Matrafs which, like Glanville, he defended the do&rine of
1 witchcraft. We ihall content ourfelves with giving
atrQn• the title at large, which is as follows: “ The won¬
ders of the invifible world ; being an account of the
trials of fcveral witches lately executed in New Eng¬
land, and of feveral remarkable curiofities therein oc¬
curring. Together with, i. Obfervations on the
nature, the number, and the operations of the devils.
2. A fliort narrative of a late outrage committed by a
knot of witches in Swedeland ; very much refembling,
and fo far explaining, that under which New-England
has laboured. 3. Some counfels dire&ing a due im¬
provement of the terrible things lately done by the un-
ufual and amazing range of evil fpirits in New-Eng-
land. 4. A brief difeourfe upon the temptations
which are the more ordinary devices of Satan. By Cot¬
ton Mather; publifhed by the fpecial command of his
excellency the governor of the province of Maflachu-
fet’s Bay in New England.” Printed firft at Bofton in
New-England, and reprinted at London in 1736,410.
MATRASS, Cucurbit, or Bolt-head, among
chemifts. See Chemistry, n° 80.
MATRICARIA, Feverfew ; a genus of the po-
lygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia
elafs of plants. There are five fpecies, but the only
remarkable one is the parthenium or common feverfew.
This hath very fibrous cluftering roots, crowned with
numerous compound leaves ; upright (talks branching
on every fide two or three feet high; garniflied with
compound plain leaves of feven oval folioles, cut into
many parts ; and all the branches terminated by many
compound radiated white flowers having a yellow difle.
There are varieties with double flowers, with femi-
double flowers, with double fiftular flowers, with a
fiftular dife and plain radius, with (hort-rayed flowers,
with raylefs flowers, with raylefs fulphur-coloured
heads, and with finely curled leaves.—All thefe varie¬
ties flower abundantly in June, each flower being
compofed of numerous hermaphrodite and female flo¬
rets ; the former compofe the dife, the latter the
radius or border, and which, in the double and fiftu-
lous kinds, are very ornamental in gardens, but of a
difagreeable odour; and are all fucceeded by plenty
of feed in autumn, by which they are eafily propagated,
as well as by parting the roots and cuttings.
Medical ufes. This plant has received a mod
extraordinary character in hyfteric and other affeflions
of the nerves, as well as for being a carminative, or
warm (Hmulating bitter. Dr Lewis, however, thinks
it inferior to camomile ; with which he fays it agrees
in all its fenfible qualities, only being fomewhat
weaker.
MATRICULA, a regifter kept of the admiflion
of officers and perfons entered into any body or fo-
ciety, whereof a lift is made.
MATRIMONY. See Marriage.
MATRIX, or Uterus. See Anat. n° 372.
MATRON, an elderly married woman.
Jury of Matrons. When a widow feigns herfelf
with child in order to exclude the next heir, and a
fuppofititious birth is fufpe&ed to be intended, then,
upon the writ de ventre infpiciendo, a jury of women
is to be impanelled to try the queftion whether the
woman is with child or not. So, if a woman is
convufled of a capital offence, and, being condemned
to fuffer death, pleads in (lay of execution, that (he Matronalfa
is pregnant, a jury of matrons is impanelled to in- ''
quire into the truth of the allegation ; and, if they Matt tWw
find it true, the convict is refpited till after her de¬
livery.
MATRONALIA, a feftival of the ancient Ro¬
man matrons, from whom it had its name. It was
celebrated on the kalends of March in honour of the
od Mars; and was to the Roman ladies what the
aturnalia was to their hulbands, for at this time
they ferved their women-flaves at tables and received
prefents from their hulbands.
MATROSSES, are foldiers in the train of artil¬
lery, who are next to the gunners, and affift them in
loading, firing, and fpunging the great guns. They
carry firelocks, and march along with the (lore wag¬
gons, both as a guard, and to give their afiiftance in
cafe a waggon (hould breakdown.
MATT, in a (hip, is a name given to rope-yarn,
junk, &c. beat flat and interwoven ; ufed in order
to preferve the yards from galling or rubbing in
hoifting or lowering them.
MATTER, whatever is extended, and capable of
making refiftance: hence, becaufe all bodies, whe¬
ther folid of fluid, are extended, and do refift, we
conclude that they are material, or made up of mat¬
ter. Sec Mechanics, chap, i,
MATTHEW, or Gofpel of St Matthew, a cano¬
nical book of the New Teftament.
St Matthew wrote his gofpel in Judsea, at the
requeft of thofe he had converted ; and it is thought
he began in the year 41, eight years after Chrift’s
refurreftion. It was written, according to the tefti-
mony of all the ancients, in the Hebrew or Syriac
language ; but the greek verfion, which now paffes
for the original, is as old as the apoftolical times.
St Matthew the Evangelifi's Day, a feftival of the
Chriftian church, obferved on September 21 ft.
St Matthew, the fon of Alpheus, was alfo called
Levi. He was of Jewifh original, as both his names
difeover, and probably a Galilean. Before his call to
the apoftolate, he was a publican or tbll-gatherer to
the Romans: an office of bad repute among the
Jews, on account of the covetoufnefs and exafhon of
thofe who managed it; St Matthew’s office parti¬
cularly confiding in gathering the cuftoms of all
merchandize that came by the fea of Galilee, and the
tribute that paffengers were to pay who went by
water. And here it was that Matthew fat at the re¬
ceipt of cuftom, when our Saviour called him to be a
difciple. It is probable, that, living at Capernaum,
the place of Chrift’s ufual refidence, he might have
fome knowledge of him before he was called. Mat¬
thew immediately expreffed his fatisfa&ion in being
called to this high dignity, by entertaining our Sa¬
viour and his difciples at a great dinner at his own houfe,
whither he invited all his friends, efpecially thofe of hia
own profeffion, hoping, probably, that they might be
influenced by the company and converfation of Chrift.
St Matthew continued with the reft of the apoftles
till after our Lord’s afeenfion. For the firft eight
years afterwards, he preached in Judsea. Then he
betook himfelf to propagating the gofpel among the
Gentiles, and chofe Ethiopia as the feene of his apof¬
tolical miniftry; where it is faid he fuffered martyr-
25 N 2 dom.
MAT [ 4506 ] M A U
Matthew dom, but by what kind of death is altogether uncer-
^ tain. It is pretended, but without any foundation,
aturants. jjyrtacugt king of Ethiopia, defiring to marry
Iphtgenia, the daughter of his brother and predeceffor
./Eglippus, and the apoftle having reprefented to him
that he could not lawfully do it, the enraged prince
ordered his head immediately to be cut off. Baroniu*
tells us, the body of St Matthew was tranfported
from Ethiopia to Bithynia, and from thence was
carried to Salernum in the kingdom of Naples in
the year 954, where it was found in 1080, and where
duke Robert built a church bearing his name.
St Matthew, a town of Spain in the kingdom of
Arragon, feated in a pleafant plain, and in a very
fertile country watered with many fprings. W. Long,
o. 15. N. Lat. 40. 22.
Matthew 0/Paris. See Paris.
Matthew of Wejiminfter, a Benediftine monk and
accomplifhed fcholar, who wrote a hiftory from the
beginning of the world to the end of the reign of Ed¬
ward I. under the title of Flores HiJloriarum\ which
was afterwards continued by other hands. He died
in 1380.
St MATTHIAS, an apoftle, was chofen inftead
of Judas. He preached in Judaea and part of ./Ethi¬
opia, and fuffered martyrdom. See the Atts of the
Apofles, chap. i. There was a Gofpel publifhed
under Matthias’s name, but rejected as fpurious; as
likewife fome traditions, which met with the fame
fate.
St Matthias’/ Days a feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on the 24th of February. St Mat¬
thias was an apoftle of Jefus Chrift, but not of the
number of the twelve chofcn by Chrift himfelf. He
obtained this high honour upon a vacancy made in
the college of the apoftles by the treafon and death
of Judas Ifcariot. The choice fell on Matthias by
lot; his competitor being Jofeph called Barfabas, and
firnamed Matthias was qualified for the apoftle-
lh:p, by having been a conftant attendant upon our
Saviour all the time of his miniftry. He was, probably,
one of the feventy difciples. After our Lord’s refurrec-
tion, he preached the gofpel fir ft in Judaea. After¬
wards it is probable he travelled eaftwards, his refi-
dence being principally near the irruption of the river
Apfarus and the haven Hyffus. The barbarous peo¬
ple treated him with great rudenefs and inhumanity ;
and, after many labours and fufferings in converting
great numbers to Chriftianity, he obtained the crown
of martyrdom; but by what kind of death, is un¬
certain.—They pretend to ftiew the relics of St Mat¬
thias at Rome ; and the famous abbey of St Mat¬
thias near Treves boafts of the fame advantage ; but
doubtlefs both without any foundation. There was a
gofpel afcribed to St Matthias; but it was univerfally
reje&ed as fpurious.
MATTINS, the firft canonical hour, or the firft
part of the daily fervice, in the Romifh church.
MATTHIOLUS (Peter Andrew), an eminent
phyfician in the 16th century, born at Sienna, was well
Ikilled in the Greek and Latin tongues. He wrote
learned commentaries on Diofcorides, and other works
which are efteemed ; and died in 1577.
MATURANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which
promote the fuppuration of tumours.
MAUCAUCO, Macaco, or Maki, in zoology. Maucauco
See Lemur, n° 3. || _ Si
MAVIS, in ornithology, a fpecies of turdus. SeeMaupertui^
Turdus.
MAUBEUGE, a town of the Netherlands in Hai-
nault, with an illuftrious abbey of canoneffes, who
muft be noble both by the father and mother’s fide.
This place was ceded to France in 1678; and fortified
after the manner of Vauban. It is feated on the river
Sambre, in E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 50. 15.
MAUNCH, in heraldry, the figure of an ancient
coat fleeve, borne in many gentlemens efcutcheons.
MAUNDY Thursday, is the Thurfday in Paf-
fion week ; which was called Maundy or Mandate
Thurfday, from the command which our Saviour gave
his apoftles to commemorate him in the Lord’s fupper,
which he this day inftituted ; or from the new com¬
mandment which he gave them to love one another,
after he had wafhed their feet as a token of his love
to them.
MAUPERTUIS (Peter Louis Morceau dc), a ce¬
lebrated French academician, was born at St Malo in
1698 ; and was there privately educated till he arrived
at his 16th year, when he was placed under the cele¬
brated profefibr of philofophy M. le Blond, in the
college of la Marche, at Paris. He foon difeovered a
paffion for mathematical ftudies, and particularly for
geometry. He likewife pra&ifed inftrumental mufic
in his early years with great fuccefs ; but fixed on no
profeffion till he was 20, when he entered into the ar¬
my. He firft ferved in the Grey Mufqueteers; but in
the year 1720, his father purchafedhim a company of
cavalry in the regiment of La Rocheguyon.
He remained but five years in the army, during
which time he purfued his mathematical ftudies with
great vigour ; and it was foon remarked by M. Fre-
ret, and other academicians, that nothing but geo¬
metry could fatisfy his aftive foul and unbounded
third for knowledge. In the year 1723, he was re¬
ceived into the Royal Academy of Sciences, and read
his firft performance, which was a memoir upon the
conftru&ion and'form of mufical inftruments, Novem¬
ber 15. 1724.
During the firft years of his admiffion he did not
wholly confine his attention to mathematics; he dipt
into natural philofophy, and difeovered great know¬
ledge and dexterity in obfervations and experiment#
upon animals.
If the cuftom of travelling into remote climates, like
the fages of antiquity, in order to be initiated into
the learned myfteries of thofe times, had ftill fubfifted,
no one would have conformed to it with greater ea-
gernefs than M. de Maupertuis. His firft gratifica¬
tion of this paffion was to vifit the country which had
given birth to Newton ; and during his refidence at
London he became as zealous an admirer and fol¬
lower of that philofopher as of any one of his own
countrymen.
His next excurfion was to Bafil in Switzerland,
where he formed a friendftiip with the famous John
Bernouilli and his family, which continued to hi#
death.
At his return to Paris, he applied himfelf to his
favourite ftudies with greater zeal than ever:—and
how well he fulfilled the duties of an academician,
may
M A U [ 4507 ] M A U
Mavpemls. may be gathered by running over the memoirs of the
“ academy from the year 1724 to 1736; where it ap¬
pears that he was neither idle, nor occupied by objefts
of fmall importance. The moft fublime queltions in
eometry and the relative fciences received from his
ands that elegance, clearnefs, and precifion,fo remark¬
able in all his writings.
In the year 1736, he was fent by the king of France
to the polar circle, to meafure a degree in order to af-
certain the figure of the earth, accompanied by Meffrs
Clairaut, Camus, Le Monnier, 1’Abbe Outhier, and
Celfius the celebrated profeffor of aftronomy at Up-
fal. This diftin&ion rendered him fo famous, that, at
his return, he was admitted a member of almoft every
academy in Europe.
In the year 1740, he had an invitation from the
king of Pruffia to go to Berlin; which was too flatter¬
ing to be refufed. His rank among men of letters
had not wholly effaced his love for his firft profeflion,
namely, that of arms. He followed his Pruffian ma-
jefty into the field, and was a witnefs of the difpofi-
tions and operations that preceded the battle of Mol-
witz ; but was deprived of the glory of being prefent,
when victory declared in favour of his royal patron,
by a Angular kind of adventure. His horfe, during the
heat of the aftion, running away with him, he fell in¬
to the hands of the enemy, and was at firft but rough¬
ly treated by the Auftrian foldiers, to whom he could
not make himfelf known for want of language; but
being carried prifoner to Vienna, he received fuch ho¬
nours from their imperial majefties as were never effa¬
ced from his memory.
From Vienna, he returned to Berlin ; but as the
reform of the academy which the king of Pruffia then
meditated was not yet mature, he went again to Pa¬
ris, where his affairs called him, and was chofen, in
1742, dire&or of the academy of fciences.
In 1743, he was received into the French acade¬
my. This was the firft inftance of the fame perfon
being a member of both the academies at Paris at the
fame time.
M. de Maupertuis again affumed the foldier at the
fiege of Fribourg, and was pitched upon by marflial
Cogny and the count d’Argenfon to carry the news
to the French king of the furrender of that citadel.
He returned to Berlin in the year 1744, when a mar¬
riage was negotiated and brought about by the good
offices of the queen mother, between our author and
mademoifelle de Borck, a lady of great beauty and
merit, and nearly related to M. de Borck, at that time
minifter of ftate. This determined M. de Maupertuis
to fettle at Berlin, as he was extremely attached to his
new fpoufe, and regarded this alliance as the moft for¬
tunate circumftance of his life.
In the year 1746, he was declared by his Pruffian
majefty prefident of the royal academy of fciences at
Berlin, and foon after by the fame prince was honour¬
ed with the order of Merit,
However, all thefe accumulated honours and advan¬
tages, fo far from leffening his ardour for the fciences,
feemed to furnifti new allurements to' labour and ap¬
plication. Not a day paffed but he produced fume
new projeft or effay for the advancement of know¬
ledge. Nor did he confine himfelf to mathematical
ftudies only : metaphyfics, chemiftry, botany, polite
literature, all (hared his attention, and contributed to Manpertuifj'
his fame. Maurua.
But his conftitution, though naturally robuft, foon
felt the efft&s of this intemperance in his philofophi-
cal purfuits. Indeed his health had been confiderably
impaired before, by the great fatigues of various kinds
in which his a&ive mind had involved him. Though
from the amazing hardftiips he had undergone in his
northern expedition, moft of his future bodily fuffer-
ings may be traced. The intenfe (harpnefs of the air
could only be fupported by means of ftrong liquors;
which helped but to lacerate his lungs, and bring on a
fpitting of blood, which began at leaft 12 years before
he died.
Yet ft ill, after his bodily ftrength was thus impaired,
his mind feemed to enjoy the greateft vigour ; for the
beft of his writings were produced, and moft fublime
ideas developed, during the time of his confinement
by ficknefs, when he was unable to occupy his prefi-
fidial chair at the academy
M. de Maupertuis took feveral journeys to St Ma¬
le, during the laft years of his life, for the recovery of
his health. And though he always received benefit
by breathing his native air, yet ftill, upon his return
to Berlin, his diforder likewife returned with greater
violence.—His laft journey into France was underta¬
ken" in the year 1757 ; when he was obliged, foon after
his arrival there, to quit his favourite retreat at St Ma¬
le, on account of the danger and confufion which that
town was thrown into by the arrival of the Englilh in
its neighbourhood.
From thence he went to Bourdeaux, hoping there
to meet with a neutral (hip to carry him to Hamburgh,
in his way back to Berlin ; but, being difappointed in
that hope, he went to Touloufe, where he remained fe-
ven mouths. He had then thoughts of going to I-
taly, in hopes a milder climate would rettore him to
health ;—but finding himfelf grow worfe, he rather
inclined towards Germany, and went to Neufchatel,
where for three months he enjoyed the converfation of
lord Marlhal, with whom he had formerly been much
conne&ed. At length he arrived at Bafil, O&ober
16. 1758, where he was received by his friend Ber-
nouilli and his family, with the utmoft tendernefs and
affe&ion. He at firft found himfelf much better here
than he had been at Neufchatel : but this amendment
was of (hort duration; for as the winter approached,
his diforder returned, accompanied by new and more
alarming fymptoms. He languiftied here many months,
during which he was attended by M. de la Conda-
mine; and died in 1759.
He wrote in French, 1. The figure of the earth deter¬
mined. 2. The meafure of a degree of the meridian. 3. A
difeourfe on the parallax of the moon. 4. A difeourfe
on the figure of the ftars. 5. The elements of geo¬
graphy. 6. Nautical aftronomy. 7. Elements of aftro¬
nomy. 8. A phyfical differtation on a white inhabi¬
tant of Africa. 9. An effay on cofmography. 10. Re¬
flexions on the origin of languages. 1. An effay on
moral philofophy. 12. A letter on the progrefs of the
fciences. 13. An effay on the formation of bodies.
14. An elogium on M. de Montefquieu. 15. Letters,
and other works.
MAURUA, one of the Society-Iflands in the
South Sea. It is a fmall ifland^. entirely furrounded
with.
M A U [ 4508 ] M A U
Mauritius, with a ridge of rocks, and without any harbour for
/hipping. It is inhabited; and its produdtions are the
fame with thofe of the neighbouring iflands. A high
round hill rifes in the middle of it, which may be feen
at the diltance of ten or twelve leagues.
MAURITIUS, or Maurice, an ifland of Africa,
about yoo miles eaft of Madagafcar. It lies in the
latitude of 20 and 21 degrees fouth; the climate warm,
but very wholfome; the foil ftony. It is encumbered
with high rocks and lofty mountains along the coafts;
but within-land it is tolerably flat and fertile, exceeding¬
ly well watered, abounding with fiih, fowl, and cattle,
plentifully ftored with ebony and other valuable woods,
and, in point of extent, large enough to invite and
fupport a confiderable colony. In the beginning of
the 16th century it was difcovered by the Portuguefe,
who, knowing that Pliny and other ancient writers
had mentioned the ifland of Cerne in thefe feas, took
it for granted that this mull be it; and accordingly
we find it ftiled Cerne, or Sirne, in their maps: but,
notwithftanding this, they did not think fit to fettle
it; and indeed their force was fo fmall, in comparifon
of the vaft dominions they grafped, that it was very
excufable. However, according to their laudable cu-
ftom, they put fome hogs, goats, and other cattle up¬
on it, that in cafe any of their fliips either going to
the Indies, or returning to Portugal, ftiould be obli¬
ged to touch there, they might meet with rcfrefti-
ments. The Dutch, in the fecond voyage they made
to the Eaft-Indies under their admiral James Cornelius
Vanneck, came together with five ihips on the 15th
of September 1568; anchored in a commodious port,
to which they gave the name of Warwick Haven ; and
gave a very good account of the place in their jour¬
nals. Captain Samuel Caftleton, in the Pearl, an
Englifh Eaft-India (hip, arrived there on the 27th of
March 1612 ; and taking it to be an ifland undifcover-
ed before, beftowed upon it the name of England’s-Fo-
rejl, though others of his crew called it Pearl-IJland,
and in the account of their voyage, written by John
Tatton the mafter of the ftiip, celebrated it as a place
very convenient for (hipping, either outward or home¬
ward bound, to refrefh at. This they fometimes ac¬
cordingly did, and brought fome cargoes of ebony and
rich wood from thence, but without fixing any fettle-
ment.
At length, in 1638, the Dutch feated themfelves
here; and it is highly remarkable, that at the very
time they were employed in making their firft fettle-
ment, the French fent a veflel to take poffeffion of it,
who found the Dutch before-hand with them, and re-
fufed the affiftance of an Englifh Indiaman, wooding
and watering in another port of the ifland, who very
frankly offered it, to drive the Dutch from their half-
fettled polls. They continued for fome time in quiet
poffefiion of the places they fortified in this ifland, to
which they gave the name of Mauritius. But having
engaged the French, who were fettled on Madagaf¬
car, to fteal 50 of the natives, and fell them for flaves,
for the improvement of the Dutch fettlements here,
this proved the ruin of both colonies : for the negroes
furprifed and maffacred the French in Madagafcar;
and the flaves in Mauritius fled into the centre of the
ifland ; from whence they fo much and fo inceffantly
molefted thofe who had been formerly their matters,
that they chofe to quit a country where they could no Mauritius,
longer remain in any tolerable degree of fafety. The ‘
Eaft-India company, however, from motives of con-
veniency, and a very imperfeft notion of its value, dif-
approved this meafure, and therefore ordered it to be
refettled; which was accordingly done, and three forts
ere&ed at the principal havens. Things now went on
fomewhat better than they did before ; but they were
ftill very much difturbed by the revolted negroes in
the heart of the ifle, whom they could never fubdue.
One principal ufe that the company made of this
place, was to fend thither flate-prifoners, who, as
they were not men of the beft morals, quickly cor¬
rupted the reft of the inhabitants, and rendered them
fach a race of outrageous fmugglers, the fituation of
the place concurring with their bad difpofitions, that,
after various ineffeftual attempts made to reform
them, orders were at length given to abandon Mauri¬
tius a fecond time, which, after fome delays, were put
in execution in the year 1710.
In this deferted fituation, it was occupied as a dere¬
lift, we cannot precifely fay when, by the old French
Eaft-India company, who beftowed upon it the name
of the IJle of Fratice; by which, amongft their other
poffeflions, it was granted to the prefent perpetual
company of the Indies, who caufed it to be fettled,
and, as if it had been a place of great fignificancy, pro¬
cured an edift for eftablifhing a provincial council
there, dependent upon that in the ifle of Bourbon ;
both which councils, however, were in all refpefts
below the very meaneft corporation in this country,
yet that of the ifle of France was by much the meaner
of the two. In truth, it had coft fo much, and was
confidered in every light worth fo little, that it had
been more than once under deliberation, whether, after
the example of the Dutch, they (hould not leave it
again to its old negro inhabitants; which fooner or
later in all likelihood would have been its fate, if, in
1735, the famous Mr de la Bourdonnaye had not been
fent thither, with the title of governor-general of the
French ifands.
He found this ifle in the word ftate pofiible, thinly
inhabited by a fet of lazy people, who equally hated
induftry and peace, and who were continually flatter¬
ing this man to his face, and belying him wherever
and as far as they durft. He gave himfelf no trouble
about this, having once found the means to make him¬
felf obeyed ; he faw the vaft importance of the ifland;
he conceived that it might be fettled to great advan¬
tage; and, without fo much as expefting the thanks
of thofe for whom he laboured, he began to execute
this great defign. His firft ftep was to bring over
black boys from Madagafcar, whom he carefully
trained up in good principles, and in continual exer-
cife ; by which he rendered them fo good foldiers, that
he very quickly obliged the Marones, or wild negroes,
either to fubmit, or to quit the ifland : he taught the
planters to cultivate their lands to advantage; he, by
an aqueduft, brought frefti water to the fea-fide ; and
whereas they had not fo much as a boat at his coming
thither, he made a very fine dock, where he not only
built (loops and larger veffels, but even a (hip of the
burden of 500 ton. However incredible it may feem,
et it is certainly faft, that in the fpace of five years
e rendered this country a paradife, that had been a
mere
M A U [ 4509 ] M A U
waianritania. mere wlldemefs for 5000 ; and this in fpite of the in-
bitants, and of the company, who being originally
prejudiced by them, behaved ill to him at his return.
He foon made the cardinal de Fleury, however, fen-
fible of the true Hate of things; and compelled the
company to acknowledge, though they did not reward,
his fervices. He afterwards returned into the Indies,
I and perfefted the work he had begun ; and to him it
is owing that the Ifle of France is at prefent one of the
fineft, as it was always one of the molt important and
improveable fpots upon the globe.
MAURITANIA, an ancient kingdom of Africa,
bounded on the weft by the Atlantic Ocean, on the
feuth by Getulia or Libya Interior, and on the north
by the Mediterranean, and comprehending the greater
part of the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco.—Its ancient
limits are not exa&ly mentioned by any hiftorian ;
neither can they now be afcertained by any modern
obfervations, thefe kingdoms being but little known to
Europeans.
I This country was originally inhabited by a peoplecall-
ed Tlfawr/, concerning the etymology of which nameau-
thors are not agreed. It is probable, however, that this
country, or at leaft a great part of it, was firft called
Phut, fince it appears from Pliny, Ptolemy, andStJe-
rom, that a river and territory not far from Mount Atlas
went by that name. From the Jerufalem Targum it
likewife appears, that part of the Mauri may be deem¬
ed the offspring of Lud the fon of Mifraim, fince his
defcendents, mentioned Genefisx. are there called'nbvio>
Mauri or Mauritani, It is certain, that this region,
as well as the others to the eaftward of it, had many
colonies planted in it by the Phoenicians. Procopius
tells us, that in his time two pillars of white ftone
were to be feen there, with the following infcription
in the Phoenician language and chara&er, upon them :
“ We are the Canaanites, that fled from JoJhua the
fon of Nun, that notorious robber.” Ihnu Rachic,
or Ibnu Raquig, an African writer cited by Leo, to¬
gether with Evagrius and Nicephorus Calliftus, affert
the fame thing.
The Mauritanians, according to Ptolemy, were
divided into feveral cantons or tribes. The Metagonita
were feated near the ftraits of Hercules, now thofe
of Gibraltar. The Saccofti, or Cocofti, occupied the
coaft of the Iberian fea. Under thefe two petty na¬
tions the Afa/fee/, Verues, and Verbica or Verviac, were
fettled. The SaUfe, or Salinfx, were fituated lower,
towards the ocean; and, ftill more to the fouth, the
Volubiliani. The Maurenfii and Herpiditani poffeffed
the eaftern part of this country, which was terminated
by ih&Mulucka. The Angaucani, or Jangacaucani,
Nettiberes, Zag^enjU, Baniuba, and Vacuntx, extended
themfelves from the fouthern foot of Ptolemy’s Atlas
Minor to his Atlas Major. Pliny mentions the Ba~
niurx, whom Father Hardouin takes to be Ptolemy’s
Baniubae; and Mela the Atlantes, whom he repre-
fents as poffeffed of the weftern parts of this diftruSL
The earlieft prince of Mauritania mentioned in
hiftory is Neptune ; and next to him were Atlas and
Antaeus his two fons, both famous in the Grecian
fables on account of their wars with Hercules. An¬
taeus, in his contention with that hero, feems to have
behaved with great bravery and refolution. Having
received large reinforcements of Libyan troops, he
cut off great numbers of Hercules’s men. But that Mauritania.
celebrated commander, having at laft intercepted a
ftrong body of Libyans fent to the relief of Antaeus,
ave him a total overthrow, wherein both he and the
eft part of his forces were put to the fword. This
decifive aft ion put Hercules in poffeffion of Libya
and Mauritania, and confequently of the riches of all
thefe kingdoms. Hence came the fable, that Her¬
cules, finding Antaeus, a giant of an enormous fize
with whom he was engaged in Angle combat, to
receive frefh ftrength as often as he touched his mo¬
ther earth when thrown upon her, at laft lifted him
up in the air and fqueezed him to death. Hence
likewife may be deduced the fable intimating that
Hercules took the globe from Atlas upon his own
fhoulders, overcame the dragon that guarded the
orchards of the Hefperides, and made himfelf mafter
of all the golden fruit there. Bochart thinks that the
fable alluded chiefly to naval engagements, wherein
Hercules, for the moft part, was victorious ; though
Antaeus from time to time received fuccours by fea.
But at laft Hercules, comming up with one of his
fquadrons which had a ftrong reinforcement on board,
made himfelf mafter of it, and thus rendered Antceus
incapable for the future of making head againft him.
The fame author likewife infinuates, that the notion of
Antaeus’s gigantic ftature prevailing for fo many cen¬
turies amongft the Tingitanians, pointed out the fize
of the vcffels of which his fleets and fquadrons were
compofed. As for the golden apples fo frequently
mentioned by the old mythologifts, they were the
treafures that fell into Hercules’s hands upon the
defeat of Antaeus ; the Greeks giving the oriental
word bxtt, riches, the fignification affixed to their own
term apples.
With regard to the age in which Atlas and An¬
taeus lived, the moft probable fuppofition feems to be
that of Sir Ifaac Newton. According to that illu-
ftrious author, Ammon the father of Sefac was the
firft king of Libya, or that vaft traft extending from
the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic ocean ; the con-
queft of which country was effefted by Sefac in hi*
father’s life-time. Neptune afterwards excited the
Libyans to a rebellion againft Sefac, and flew him ; and
then invaded Egypt under the command of Atlas or
Antaeus, the fon of Neptune, Sefac’s brother and ad¬
miral. Not long after, Hercules, the general of The-
bais and Ethiopia for the gods or great men of Egypt,
reduced a fecond time the whole continent of Libya,
having overthrown and flain Antaeus near a town in
Thebais, from that event called Ant<ea or Antaopolis;
this, we fay, is the notion advanced by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, who endeavours to prove, that the firft reduftion
of Libya, by Sefac, happened a little above a thou-
fand years before the birth of Chrift, as the laft, by
Hercules, did fome few years after. Now, though
we do not pretend to adopt every particular circum-
ftance of Sir Ifaac Newton’s fyftem, yet we cannot
forbear obferving, that it appears undeniably plain
from feripture, that neither the weftern extremity of
Libya, nor even the other parts of that region, could
poffibly have been fo well peopled before the time of
David or Solomon, as to have fent a numerous army
to invade Egypt. For Egypt and Phoenicia, from
whence the greateft part of the anceftors oi the Li-
M A U [ 4510 ] MAX
Maiuitinla. byans came, and which were much nearer the place
  'from whence the firft difperfion of mankind was
made, could not themfelves have been greatly over-
ftocked with inhabitants any confiderable time before
the reign of Saul. And that fuch an invafion happen¬
ed in the reign of Neptune, or at lead of his fon An¬
imus, has been mod fully evinced by this mod excellent
chronologer.
From the defeat of Antaeus, nothing remark¬
able occurs in the hidory of Mauritania till the
times of the Romans, who at lad brought the whole
kingdom under their jurifdi&ion, for which fee the
article Rome. With regard to the cudoms, &c. of
this people, it would feem, from what Hyginus infi-
nuates, that they fought only with clubs, till one Be-
lus, the fon of Neptune, as that author calls him,
taught them the ufe of the fword. Sir Ifaac Newton
makes this Belus to have been the fame-~perfon with
Sefodrisking of Egypt, who over-ran a great part of
the then known world. 2. All perfons of didinftion
in Mauritania went richly attired, wearing much gold
and filver in their clothes. They took great pains in
cleanfing their teeth, and curled their hair in a curious
and elegant manner. They combed their beards,
which were very long, and always had their nails
pared extremely clofe. When they walked out in any
numbers, they never touched one another, for fear of
difconcerting the curls into which their hair bad been
formed. 3. The Mauritanian infantry, in time of ac¬
tion, ufed fhields made of elephants Heins, being clad
in thofe of lions, leopards, and bears, which they
kept on both night and day. 4. The cavalry of this
nation was armed with broad fliort lances, and carried
targets or bucklers, made likewife of the fkins of wild
beafts. They ufed no faddles. Their horfes were
fmall and fwift, had wooden collars about their necks,
and were fo much under the command of their riders,
that they would follow them like dogs. The habit of
thefe horfemen was not much different from that of
the foot above-mentioned, they conftantly wearing a
large tunic of the fkins of wild beafts. The Phutaei,
of whom the Mauritanians were a branch, were emi¬
nent for their fhields, and the excellent ufe they made
of them, as we learn from Homer, Xenophon, Hero¬
dotus, and fcripture. Nay, Herodotus feems to in¬
timate, that the fhield and helmet came from them to
the Greeks. 5. Notwithftanding the fertility of their
foil, the poorer fort of the Mauritanians never took
care to manure the ground, being ftrangers to the art
of hufbandry ; but roved about the country in a wild
lavage manner, like the ancient Scythians or Arabes
Scenitte. They had tents, or mapalia, fo extremely
fmall, that they could fcarce breathe in them. Their
food was corn, herbage, &c. which they frequently
did eat green, without any manner of preparation ;
being deftitute of wine, oil, and all the elegancies as
well as many neceffaries of life. Their habit was the
fame both in fummerand winter, confifting chiefly of
an old tattered, though thick, garment, and over it a
coarfe rough tunic ; which anfwered probably to that
of their neighbours the Numidians. Moft of them lay
every night upon the bare ground ; though feme of
them ftrewed their garments thereon, not unlike the
prefem African Kabyles and Arabs, who, according
to Dr Shaw, ufe their hykes for a bed and covering in
the night. 6. If the moft approved reading of Ho* Mauritania
race may be admitted, the Mauritanians fhot poifonedMax'nium*
arrows ; which clearly intimates, that they had fome ’
Ikill in the art of preparing poifons, and were excellent
dartmen. This laft obfervation is countenanced by
Herodian and iElian, who entirely come into it, affirm¬
ing them to have been in fuch continual danger of being
devoured by wild beafts, that they durft not ftirout of
their tents or mapalia without their darts. Such
perpetual exercife muft render them exceedingly flcil-
ful in hurling that weapon. 7. The Mauritanians
facrificed human vi&ims to their deities, as the Phoe¬
nicians, Carthaginians, &c. did.
The country people were extremely rude and barba¬
rous ; but thofe inhabiting cities muft undoubtedly
have had at leaft fome fmattering in the literature of the
feveral nations they deduced their origin from. That
the Mauritanians had fome knowledge in naval affairs,
feems probable, not only from the intercourfe they
had with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as well
as the fituation of their country ; but likewife from
Orpheus, or Onomacritus, who aflerts them to have
made a fettlement at the entrance into Colchis, to which
place they came by fea. Magic, forcery, divination,
&c. they appear to have applied themfelves to in very
early times- Cicero and Pliny fay, that Atlas was the
inventor of aftrology and the doftrine of the fphere,
i. e. he firft introduced them into Mauritania. This,
according to Diodorus Siculus, gave rife to the fable
of Atlas’s bearing the heavens upon his fhoulders. The
fame author relates, that Atlas inftru&ed Hercules in
the do&rine of the fphere and aftrology, or rather
aftronomy, who afterwards brought thofe fciences in¬
to Greece.
MAUSOLEUM, a magnificient tomb or funeral
monument. The word is derived from Maufolus
king of Caria, to whom Artemifia his widow erec¬
ted a moft {lately monument, efteemed one of the
wonders of the world, and called it, from his own name,
Maufoleum.
St MAWES, a town of Cornwall in England,
feated on the eaft fide of Falmouth haven, in W. Long.
5. 26 N. Lat. 50. 30. It fends two members to
parliament.
MAXILLA, the Jaw. See Anatomy, n° 19.
—25
MAXIM, an eftablifhed propofition or principle ;
in which fenfe it denotes much the fame with axiom.
MAXIMILIAN I. emperor of Germany, figna-
lized himfelf againft the French while he was king of
the Romans, and after he was emperor entered into
the army of Henry VIII. of England as a volunteer
againft that nation : he was a prote&or of learned
men, and abolifhed an iniquitous tribunal, ftyled Ju¬
dicium oculum Wejlphalia: he compofed fome poems,
and the memoirs of his own life. He died in 1519,
aged 60.
MAXIMUM, in mathematics, denotes the greateft
quantity attainable in any given cafe.
If a quantity conceived to be generated by motion
increafes or decreafes till it arrives at a certain magni¬
tude or pofition, and then, on the contrary, grows
greater or lefler, and it be required to determine the
faid magnitude or pofition, the queftion is called a/ra-
bltm di maximis et minimis.
MAXI-
MAY [ 4511 ] MAY
May. MAXIMUS ^Tyre, a Platonic philofopher, went
to Rome in 146, and acquired fuch reputation there,
that the emperor Marcus Aurelius became his fcholar,
and gave him frequent proofs of his efteem. This phi¬
lofopher is thought to have lived till the reign of the
emperor Commodus. There are ftill extant 41 of his
differtations; a good edition of which was printed by-
Daniel Heinfius, in 1624, in Greek and Latin, with
notes.
Maximus (St.), an abbot and confeffor of the yth
century, was of a noble family of Conftantinople, and
diftinguilhed himfelf by his zeal againft the Monothe¬
lites, for which he was thrown into prifon, and died
there on the 13th of Auguft 1662. He wrote a Com¬
mentary on the books attributed to Dionyfius the A-
reopagjte, and feveral other works, of which an edi¬
tion has been publilhed by father Combefis.
MAY, the fifth month of the year, confiding of
31 days.
May (Ifle of), a fmall ifland at the mouth of the
Frith of Forth in Scotland, about a mile and an half
in circumference, and feven miles from the coad of
Fife, almod oppofite to the rock called the Bafs. i It
formerly belonged to the priory of Pittenweem ; and
was dedicated to St Adrian, fuppofed to have been
martyred in this place by the Danes; and hither, in
times of Popilh fuperdition, barren women ufed to
come and wordiip at his Ihrine, in hopes of being cu¬
red of their derility. Here is a tower and light-
houfe built by Mr Cunningham of Barns, to whom
king Charles I. granted the ifland in fee, with power
to exaft two pence per ton from every Ihip that paflfes,
for the maintenance of a light-houfe. In the middle
of it there is a frelh-water fpring, and a fmall lake.
The foil produces paflurage for 100 fheep and 20
black cattle. On the wed fide the deep rocks render
it inaccefiible; but to the ead there are four landing-
places and good riding. It was here that the French
fquadron, having the chevalier de St George on
board, anchored in the year 1708, when the vigilance
of Sir George Byng obliged him to relinquifli his de-
fign, and bear away for Dunkirk. The (hores all
round the ifland abound with fifli, and the cliffs with
water-fowl.
MAY (Thomas), an eminent Englifli poet and hi-
florian in the 1 yth century, was born of an ancient but
decayed family in Suffex, educated at Cambridge, and
afterwards removed to London, where he contrafteda
friendfliip with feveral eminent perfons, and particu¬
larly with Endymion Porter, Efq; one of the gentle¬
men of the bed-chamber to king Charles I. While he
refided at court he wrote the five plays now extant
underkis name. In 1622, he publilhed a tranflation
of Virgil’s Georgies, with annotations ; and in 1635 a
poem on king Edward III. and a tranflation of Lu¬
can’s Pharfalia, which poem he continued down to the
death of Julius Caefar, both in Latin and Englilh
verfe. Upon the breaking out of the civil wars he ad¬
hered to the parliament; and in 1647, he publilh¬
ed, “ The hiftory of the parliament of England,
which began November the third MDCXL. With
a-lhort and neceffary view of fome precedent years.”
In 1649, he publilhed, Hif!or he parliamenti An-
gl'ue Breviarium, in three parts; which, he after¬
wards tranflated into Englilh. He wrote the Hi-
Vot. Vf. 2
ftory of Henry II. in Englilh verfe. He died in
1652. He went well to reft over-night, after a cheer¬
ful bottle as ufual, and died in his fleep before morn¬
ing : upon which his death was imputed to his tying
his night-cap too clofe under his fat cheeks and chin,
which caufed his fuffocation ; but the facetious An¬
drew Marvel has written a poem of 100 lines, to make
him a martyr of Bacchus, and die by the force of good
wine. He was interred near Camden in Weftminfter-
Abbey; which caufed Dr Fuller to fay, that “ if he
were a biaffed and partial writer, yet he lieth buried
near a good and true hiftorian indeed.” Soon after
the reftoration, his body, with thofe of feveral others,
was dug up, and buried in a pit in St Margaret’s
church-yard; and his monument, which was ere&ed
by the appointment of Parliament, was taken down
and thrown afide.
MAYERNE (Sir Theodore de), baron of Aul-
bone, was the fon of Lewis de Mayerne the celebrated
author of The general hiftory of Spain, and of the
Monarchic arijlo Jemocratique, dedicated to the ftates-
general. He was born in 1573, and had for his god¬
father Theodore Beza. He ftudied phyfic at Mont¬
pelier, and was made phyfician in ordinary to Hen¬
ry IV. who promifed to do great things for him pro¬
vided he would change his religion. James I. of
England invited him over, and made him firft phyfi¬
cian to himfelf and his queen, in which office he fer-
ved the whole royal family to the time of his death in
1655. His works were printed at London in 1700,
and make a large folio, divided into two books; the
firft containing his Conjilia, Epiftolce, Obfervattones;
the fecond his Pharmacopoeia varixque medicamento-
rum formula.
MAYHEM. See Maim.
MAYNE (Jafper), an eminent Englifh poet and
divine in the 17th century, who was bred at Oxford,
and entered into holy orders. While his majefty re¬
fided at Oxford, he was one of the divines appointed
to preach before him. He publiflied in 1647 a
piece intitled, oxaomaxia, or The people’s 'war ex¬
amined according to the principles of reafon and
feripture, by Jafper Mayne. In 1648, he was de¬
prived of his ftudentlhip at Chrift-church, and two
livings he had; but was reftored with the king,
who made him his chaplain, and archdeacon of
Chichefter: all which he held till he died. Dr
Maine was held in very high efteem both for his na¬
tural parts and his acquired accomplifhments. He
was an orthodox preacher, and a man of fevere virtue
and exemplary behaviour; yet of a ready and facetious
wit, and a very Angular turn of humour. From fome
ftories that are related of him, he feems to have borne
fome degree of refemblance in his manner to the cele¬
brated Dr Swift; but, if he did not poffefs thofe very
brilliant parts that diftinguiflied the Dean, he pro¬
bably was lefs fubje<ft to that capricious and thofe un¬
accountable whimfies which at times fo greatly eclip-
fed the abilities of the latter. Yet there is one anec¬
dote related of him, which, although it reflects no
great honour on his memory, as it feems to carry fome
degree of cruelty with it, yet is it a ftrong mark of
his refemblance to the Dean, and a proof that his pro-
penfity for drollery and joke did not quit him even in
his lateft moments. The ftory is this; The doctor
25 O had
Mayerne
Mayne.
MAY [ 45
Ma.ynwa- had an old fervant, who had lived with him fome years,
Mayo’ to w^orn he had bequeathed an old trunk, in which
  i— he told him he would find fomethirig that 'would make
him drink after his death. The fervant, full of ex¬
pedition that his mailer, under this familiar expreffion,
had left him fome what that would be a reward for the
affiduity of his pail fervices, as foon as decency would
permit flew to the trunk ; when behold, to his great
difappointment, the boailed legacy proved* to be a red
herring. The dodtor, however, bequeathed many
legacies by will to pious ufes ; particularly fifty pounds
towards the rebuilding of St Paul’s cathedral, and 200
pounds to be diiiributed to the poor of the pariihes of
Caffington and Pyrton near Wattington, of both which
places he had been vicar. In his younger years he had
an attachment to poetry; and wrote two plays, the
latter of which may be feen in the tenth volume of
Dodfley’s colledlion, viz. 1. Amorous war, a tragi-cc-
medy. 2. The city-match, a comedy. He publiihed a
poem upon the naval vidlory by the duke York
over the Dutch, printed in 1665. He aifo tranflated
intoEngliili from the Greek part of Lucian’sDialogues.
MAYNWARING (Arthur), an eminent political
writer in the beginning of the 18th century, ilaid fe-
veral years at Oxford, and then went to Chefhire,
where he lived fome time with his uncle Mr Francis
Cholmondley, a very honell gentlemen, but extreme¬
ly averfe to the government of king William III. to
whom he refufed the oaths. Here he profecuted his
ftudies in polite literature with great vigour; and co¬
ming up to London, applied to the ftudy of the law.
He was hitherto very zealous in anti-revolutional
principles, and wrote feveral pieces in favour of king
James II.; but upon being introduced to the duke of
Somerfet and the earls of Dorfet and Burlington, be¬
gan to entertain very different notions in politics. His
father left him an eftate of near 8001. a-year ; but fo
incumbered, that the interefl-money amounted to al-
moft as much as the revenue. Upon the conclufion
of the peace he went to Paris, where he became ac¬
quainted with Mr Boileau. After his return he was
made one of the commifiioners of the cufloms, in
which poll he diftinguifhed himfelf by his fkill and in-
duftry. He was a member of the kit-cat-club, and
was looked upon as one of the chief fupports of it by
his pleafantry and wit. In the beginning of queen
Anne’s reign, the lord-treafurcr Godolphin engaged
Mr Done to quit the office of auditor of the imprefts,
and made Maynwaring a prefent of a patent for that
office worth about 2000 1. a-year in a time of bufinefs.
He had a confiderable fhare in the Medley, and was au¬
thor of feveral other pieces. The Examiner, his anta-
gonifl in politics, allowed that he wrote with tolerable
fpirit and in a mafterly ftile. Sir Richard Steele de¬
dicated the firfl volume of the Taller to him.
MAYO, one of the Cape de Verd iflands, lying in
the Atlantic Ocean, near 300 miles from Cape Verd
in Africa, about 17 miles in circumference. The foil
in general is very barren, and water fcarce ; however,
they have fome corn, yams, potatoes, and plantains,
with plenty of beeves, goats, and affes. What trees
there are, grow on the fides of the hills, and they
have fome figs and water-melons. The fea round
about the il^ind abounds with lilh. The chief com-
12 ] M A Z
modity is fait, with .which many Englilh fhips are Mayo
loaded' in the fummer time. The principal town is 1!
Pinofa, inhabited by negroes, who fpeak the Portu- Ma33£an»'
guefe language, and are ilout, lully, and flefiry. They
are not above 200 in number, and many of them go
quite naked. W. Long. 21. 25. N. Lat. 15.5.
Mayo, a county of Ireland, in the province of Con¬
naught, 62 miles in length, and 52 in breadth,
bounded on the call and north-eaft by Rofcommon,
by Sligo on the weft, by the fea on the north, and
by Galway on the fouth. The air is moift and cold,
efpecially upon the mountains, where alfo the foil is
poor and coarfe; but in other parts the pafturage is
good, with herds of cattle and deer, Ac. In this
county is a freffi-water lake called Lough majk, about
1 1 miles long, and five broad, abounding with hlh,
particularly falmon. Hereabouts were formerly feat-
ed the Galloglafies, a people defcended from the Scots
of the weftern ides, who ufed to fight in coats of mail
with two-edged battle-axes. The principal town is
alfo called^ALyro, which was formerly a bilhop’s fee;
but the bifhopric has fince been annexed to Tuam.
It is now much decayed, but gives the title of vif-
count to the family of Bourke. W. Long. 9. 39. N.
Lat. 53. 40.
MAYOR, the chief magiftrate of a city or town,
chofen annually out of the aldermen. The word, an¬
ciently wrote meyr, comes from the Britiffi miret, i. e.
cuf'odire, or from the old Englilh maier, viz. potejlas,
and not from the Latin major. King Richard L in
1189, changed the bailiff of London into a mayor,
and from that example king John made the bailiff of
King’s Lynn a mayor anno 1204: Though the fa¬
mous city of Norfolk obtained not this title for its
chief magiftrate till the feventh year of king Hen¬
ry V. anno 1419; fince which there are few towns
of note but have had a mayor appointed for govern¬
ment.
Mayors of corporations arejuftices of peace pro tem¬
pore, and they are mentioned in feveral ftatutes; but
no perfon (hall bear any office of magiftracy concern¬
ing the government of any town, corporation, &c.
who hath not received the facrament according to the
church of England within one year before his elec¬
tion, and who (hall not take the oaths of fupremacy,
3cc.
If any perfon intrudes into the office of mayor, a
quo 'warranto lies againft him, upon which he fhall
not only be oufted, but fined. And no mayor, or
perfon holding an annual office in a corporation for one
year, is to be defied into the fame office for the next;
in this cafe, perfons obftru&ing the choice of a fuccef-
for are fubjedft to 100 1. penalty. Where the mayor
of a corporation is not chofen on the day appointed
by charter, the next office in place (hall the day af¬
ter hold a court and elefl one ; and if there be a de¬
fault or omiffion that way, the eleftors may be com¬
pelled to choofe a mayor, by a writ of mandamus out
of the king’s bench. Mayors, or other magillrates
of a corporation, who fiiall voluntarily abfent them-
felves on the day of eleflion, are liable to be impri-
foned and difqualified from holding any office in the
corporation.
MAZAGAN, a ftrong place of Africa, in the
kingdom
M E A [45
Hazara kingdom of Morocco, and on the frontiers of the pro-
11 vince of Duguela. It was fortified by the Portuguefe,
Mead- anj befieged by the king of Morocco with 200,000
men in 1562, but to no purpofe. It is fituated near
the fea. W. Long'. 7. 45. N. Lat. 33. 5.
MAZARA, an ancient town of Sicily, and capi¬
tal of a confiderable valley of the fame name, which is
very fertile, and watered with feveral rivers. The
town is a biihop’s fee, and has a good harbour ; is
feated on the fta coaft, in E. Long. t2. 39. N. Lat.
57- 42*
MAZARINE (Julius), a famous cardinal and
prime minifter of France, was born at Pifcina in the
province of Abruzzo, in Naples, in 1602. After
having finifhed his ttudies in Italy and Spain, he en¬
tered into the fervice of cardinal Sachetts, and became
well flcilled in politics, and in the interefts of the
princes at war in Italy; by which means he was
enabled to bring affairs to an accommodation, and the
peace of Queiras was fhortly concluded. Cardinal
Richelieu being taken with his condud, did from
thenceforward highly efteem him ; as did alfo cardinal
Antonio, and Lewis XIII. who procured him a car¬
dinal’s hat in 1641. Richlieu made him one of the
executors of his will, and during the minority of
Lewis XIV. he had the charge of affairs. At laft
he became the envy of the nobility, which occafioned
a civil war ; whereupon Mazarine was forced to retire,
a price was fet on his head, and his library fold.
Notwithftanding, he afterwards returned to the court
in more glory than ever; concluded a peace with Spain,
and a marriage treaty betwixt the king and the in¬
fanta. This treaty of peace paffes for the mafter-
piece of cardinal de Mazarine’s politics, and procured
him the French; king’s mo ft intimate confidence: but
at laft his continual application to bufinefs threw him
into a difeafe, of which he died at Vinciennes in
1661Cardinal Mazarine was of a mild and affable
temper. One of his greateft talents was his knowing
mankind, and his being able to adapt himfelf and to
affume a chara&er conformable to the circumftances
of affairs. He poffeffed at one and the fame time the
bifhopric pf Metz, and the abbeys of St Arnauld,
St Clement, and St Vincent, in the fame city ; that of
St Dennis, Clugny, and Viftor, of Marfeilles; of St
Michael at Soiffons, and a great number of others.
He founded Mazarine-college at Paris, which is
alfo called the college of the four nations* There
has been publifhed a colleftian of his letters, the
moft copious edition of which is that of 1745, in 2 vols
duodecimo.
MEAD, an agreeable liquor, made of honey and
water.
There are many receipts for making mead, of
which the following is one of the beft. Take four gal¬
lons of water, and as much honey as will make it bear
an egg; add to this the rhind of three lemons : boil
it, and feum it well as it rifes. Then take it off the
fire, and add the three lemons cut in pieces : pour it
into a clean tub or open veffel, and let it work for
three days : then fetim it well, and pour off the clear
part into a cafk. Let it (land open till it ceafe to
make a hiding noife; then ftop it up clofe, and in
three months time it will be fine and fit for bottling.
-—If you would give it a finer flavour, take cloves,
13 1 M E A
mace, and nutmeg, of each four drams ; beat them Head.
fmall, tie the powder in a piece of cloth, and put it 
into the caflc.
Mead (Dr Richard), a celebrated Englifti Phy-
fieian, was born at Stepney near London, where his
father, the Reverend Mr Matthew Mead, had been
one of the two minifters of that parifh ; but in 1662
was ejected for nonconformity, but continued to
preach at Stepney till his death. As Mr Mead had
a handfome fortune, he beftowed a liberal education
upon 13 children, of whom Richard was the eleventh ;
and for that purpofe kept a private tutor in his houfe,
who taught him the Latin tongue. At 16 years of
age Richard was fent to Utrecht, where he ftudied
three years under the famous Graevius; and then
choofing the profeflion of phyfic, he went to Leyden,
where he attended the ledlures of the famous Pitcairn
on the theory and praAice of medicine, and Her-
mon’s botanical courles. Having alfo fpent three
years in thefe (Indies, he went with his brother and
two other gentlemen to vifit Italy, and at Padua took
his degree of doAor of philofophy and phyfic in
1695. Afterwards he fpent feme time at Naples and
at Rome ; and returning home the next year, fettled
at Stepney, where he married, and pradtifed phyfic
with a fuceefs that laid the foundation of his future
greatnefs.
In 1703, Dr Mead having communicated to the
Royal Society an analyfis of Dr Bonomo’s difeo-
veries relating to the cutaneous worms that generate
the itch, which they inferted in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions; this, with his account of poifons,
procured him a place in the Royal Society, of which
Sir Ifaac Newton was then prefident. The fame year
he was eledled phyfician of St Thomas’s hofpital,
and was alfo employed by the furgeons to read anato¬
mical leAures in their hall, which obliged him to re¬
move into the city. In 1707 his Paduan diploma
for dodor of phyfic was confirmed by the univerfity
of Oxford ; and being patronized by Dr Radcliffe,
on the death of that famous phyfician he fucceeded
him in his houfe at Bloomftmry-fquare, and in the
greateft part of his bufinefs. In 1727 he was made
phyfician to king George II. whom he had alfo ferved
in that capacity while he was prince of Wales; and
he had afterwards the pleafure of feeing his two fons-
in-law, Dr Nichols and Dr Wilmot, his coadjutors
in that eminent ftation.
Dr Mead was not more to be admired for the
qualities of the head than he was to be loved for
thofe of his heart- Though he was himfelf a hearty
whig, yet, uninfluenced by party-principles, he was a
friend to all men of merit, by whatever denomination
they might happen to be diftinguifhed. Thus he was
intimate with Garth, with Arbuthnot,and with Freind;
and long kept up a conftant correfpondence with the
great Boerhaave, who had been his fellow-(Indent at
Leyden: they communicated to each other their ob-
fervations and projeds, and never loved each other the
lefs for being of different fentimeuts. In the mean
time, intent as Dr Mead was on the duties of his
profeffion, he had a greatnefs of mind that extended
itfelf toall kinds of literature, which he fpared neither
pains nor money to promote. He caufed the beauti¬
ful and fpkndid edition of Thuanus’s hiftory to be
25 O 2 publiflted
M E A [ 4514 ] M E A
Maynff, publiflied in 1713, in feven volumes folio: and by
Meadow. jj|s ;nierpofition and affiduity, Mr Sutton’s invention
of drawing foul -*ir from fhips and other clofe places
was carried into txecution, and all the fhips in his
majefty’s navy provided with this ufeful machine. No¬
thing pleafed him more than to call hidden talents in¬
to light; to give encouragement to the greateil pro-
je&s, and to fee them executed under his own eye.
During almoft half a century he was at the head of
his bufinefs, which brought him one year above feven
thoufand pounds, and for feveral years between five
and fix thoufand : Yet clergymen, and in general all
men of learning, tvere welcome to his advice. His
library confitted of 10,000 volnmes, of which his
Latin, Greek, and oriental manufcripts made no in-
confiderable part. He had a gallery for his pi&ures
and antiquities, which colt him great fums. His re¬
putation, not only as a phyfician, but as a fcholar,
was fo univerfally eftablifhed, that he correfponded
with all the principal literati in Europe : even the
king of Naples fent to defire a complete colleftion of
his works; and in return, made him a prefent of the
two firft volumes of Signior Bajardi, which may be
confidered as an introduflion to the colledtion of the
antiquities of Herculaneum. At the fame time that
prince invited him to his palace, that he might have
an opportunity of Ihowing him thofe valuable monu¬
ments of antiquity; and nothing but his great age
prevented his undertaking a journey fo fuited to his
talte. No foreigner of learning ever came to Lon¬
don without being introduced to Dr Mead; and on
thefe occafions his table was always open, and the
magnificence of princes was united with the pleafures
of philofophers. It was principally to him that the
feveral counties of England and our colonies abroad
applied for the choice of their phyficians, and he was
likewife confulted by foreign phyficians from Ruflia,
Pruffia, Denmark, &c. He wrote, befides the above
works, 1. A Treatife on the Scurvy. 2. De variolis
et morbillis dijfertatio. 3. Medica facra: five de
JVIorbis infgnioribus, qui in Bibliis memorantur. Com¬
ment ar ins. 4. Monita et Prcecepta medica. 5. A
Difcourfe concerning peftilential contagion, and the
methods to be ufed to prevent it. The works he
wrote and publilhed in Latin were tranflated into
Englilh, under the doftor’s infpe&ion, by Thomas
Stack, M. D. and F. R. S. This great phyfician,
naturalift, and antiquarian, died on the 16th of Fe¬
bruary 1754.
MEADOW, in its general fignification means
pafture or grafs-land, annually mown for hay : but
it is more particularly applied to lands that are fo low
as to be too moift for cattle to graze upon them in Maea-
winter without fpoiling the fward. Too much, or I!
too little water is almoft equally prejudicial to mea- Mea^ire‘
dows; but the beft land for meadows is a rich foil,
that has a moift bottom, efpecially where a fmall brook
may be brought over it, and where there is fuch a de-
fcent that the water will not lodge: Thefe are better
than thofe by great rivers, where the crops are often
loft. Thofe that may be overflowed at pleafure,
are called 'water-meado'ws ; thefe Ihould never be over¬
flowed till the end of March, except once or twice in
winter, when there are fuch floods as bring down a
great deal of foil from the upper lands; and if the
feafon fllould prove dry, it will be of great fervice
to the grafs if the meadows are overflowed again ;
but then the cattle fhould not be turned in till the
fward is dry enough to bear their weight. Miller re¬
commends the weeding of meadows in April and
O&ober with a fpaddle, and rolling them with a
heavy roller in fpring and autumn.
MEAN, in general, denotes the middle between
two extremes: thus we fay the mean diftance, mean
proportion, &c.
MEASLES, a cutaneous difeafe attended with a
fever, in which there is an appearance of eruptions
that do not tend to a fuppuration. See (the Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
MEASURE, in geometry, denotes any quantity
affumed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of the
other homogeneous or fimilar quantities is exprefled.
Measure, in a legal and commercial fenfe, denotes
a certain quantity of any thing bought, fold, valued,
or the like. Meafures are then various, according to
the various kinds and dimenfions of the things mea-
fured. Hence arife lineal, or longitudinal meafures
for lines or lengths; fquare meafures for areas or fu-
perficies; and folid or cubic meafures for bodies and
their capacities: all which again are very different in
different countries and in different ages, and even
many of them for different commodities. Whence
arife other divifions of ancient and modern meafures,
domeftic and foreign ones, dry meafures, liquid
meafures, &c.
Long Measures, or Measures of Application.
The Englilh ftandard long meafure for commerce, or
that whereby the quantities of things are ordinarily
eftimated in the way of trade, is the yard, containing
three Englilh feet. Its divifions are the foot, fpan,
palm, inch, and barley-corn ; its multiples the pace,
fathom, pole, furlong, and miles. The proportions
thefe feverally bear to each other, are expreffed in the
following table.
Englilh
M E A [ 4515 ] M E A
Englifh Measures of Length.
Scripture Measures of Length reduced into Englifh.
Digit - . . .
4 Palm - - * -
96
Span
48
4801:6o
4 Fathom
^.Ezechiel’s reed
i-f Arabian pole
o 0.912
o 3.648
o 10.944
1 9.888
7 3-552
10 11.328
14 7.104
I 20 i igy lolSchoenus, or meafuring line. 145 11.04
400
2000
4000
2000
96000 240
3°
The longer Scripture Measures.
Sab. day’s journey
Eaftern mile
Parafang
48
sja day’s journey
Englilh
Miles. Paces. Feet,
o o 1.824
o 145 4.6
o 729 3.000
I 403 1.000
4 153 3.000
33 J?2 4-oco.
Grecian
MesiSti'E*
Mcafiire.
M E A
[ 45f5 ]
Grecian Measures of Length reduced to Eirglifh.
Da&ylus, digit
Doron, dochme - -
Lichas
9600
76800
Orthodoron
t-rrSpithame
1 #
9 T
960
7680
872^
800
698 X-A 6400
»T It
6 | 5t
600 533^
6800 142661
Pygon
tt
4t
480
3840
Cubit larger
Pace
400
M E A
Englilh.
Paces, feet. dec.
o o 0.7554^
O O 3.0218 l
7-5546 £
8.3101^
O O 9.0656 |r
o i 0.0875
o i 1.5984 4
o i 3.109 4
o i 6.13125
o 6 0-525
o o
o o
xooFurlong 100 4 4.5
32qo!8oo| 8 |Mile 805 5 o
Roman Measures of Length reduced to Englilh.
Digitus tranfverfns
Uncia
Palmus minor
80 | 60
0000 7500
2500
20000
“I-
1»
2t
5
625
5000
Palmipes
14
4
500
4000
lubitus
3t
4164 250
3333412000
000 8
Stadium
[Milliare
Englilh
Paces, feet. dea.
o o 0.7254
o o 0.967
O o 2.901
O O II.604
O I 2.505
O I 5.406
O 2 5.01
o 4 10.02
120 4 4.5
967 o o
Square or Superficial Measures. Englilh fquare
or fuperficial meafures, are railed from the yard of 36
inches multiplied into itfelf, and thus producing 1296
fquare inches in the fquare yard : the divifions of this
are fquare feet and inches; and the multiples, poles,
roods, and acres, as in the following table.
144
1296
3600
39204
:568i6o
Englilh Square Measures.
’eet
9 yards
25 j 24-IPaces
2724; 3°4
IO89O X2IO
6272640 43560 '4840 ) 1743-6 x6o|4!Acre
10.89; Poles
435.6' 40'Rood
Grecian
Weafure.
M E A [45
Grecian fquare meafures were the plethroo* or acre,
by iome faid to contain t444, by others, 10,coo fquare
feet ; and aroura, the half of the plethron. The arou-
ra of the Egyptians was the fquare 100 cubits.
Roman Square-MEAsuRE reduced to Englifh,
The integer was the jugerum or acre, which the Ro¬
mans divided like the libra, or as: thus the jugerum
contained
fqu;
28800
26400
24000
21600
9200
6^00
4400
2COO
9600
7200
4800
24OO
o W
o 3 "O
o-crq ~
Squar<
feet.
250.05
83.85
17.64
5I-42
257.46
9*1'25
25.03
58.82
264.85
198.64
32-43
66.21
Note, A&us major was 14,400 fquare feet, equal to
a femis ; clima, 3600 fquare feet, equal to fefcuncia ;
and aftus minimus equal to a fextans.
Cubical Measures, or Meafures of Capacity for
Liquids.
The Englifh meafures were originally raifed from
troy-weight ; it being enaftedby feveral ftatutes, that
eight pounds troy of wheat, gathered from the middle
of the ear, and well dried, mould weigh a gallon of
wine-meafure, thedivifions and multiples whereof were
to form the other meafures ; at the fame time it was
alfo ordered, that there fhould be but one liquid mea-
furfi in the kingdom : yet cuftom has prevailed, and
there having been introduced a new weight, viz^ the
avoirdupois, we have now a fecond ftandard-gallon ad-
jufted thereto, and therefore exceeding the former in
the proportion of the avoirdupois weight to troy
iveight. From this latter ftandard are raifed two fe¬
veral meafures, the one for ale, the other for beer.
The fealed gallon at Guildhall, which is the flan-
dard for wines, fpirits, oils, &c» is fuppofed to contain
33x cubic-inches; and on this fuppofition the other
17 ] M E A
meafures raifed therefrom, will .contain as in the table Meafure.
underneath: yet, by a£tual experiment, made in 1688,
before the lord-mayor and the commillioners of excife,
this gallon was found to contain only 224 cubic inches:
it was however agreed to continue the common fuppo¬
fed contents of 231 cubic inches; fo that all compu¬
tations ftand on their old footing. Hence as 12 is to
231, fo is 14-I-! to 281! the cubic inches in the ale-
gallon : but in effeA the ale-quart contains cubic
inches, on which principle the ale and beer-gallon will
be 282 cubic inches. The feveral divifions and mul¬
tiples of thefe meafures, and their proportions, are ex¬
hibited in the following tables.
Englilh Measure of Capacity for Liquids.
Wine-Meafure.
lolid inches
28-
Pint
29106
58212
Gallon
Rundlet
336
672
Barrel
14 Tierce
Hogfhead
G
4 '3
Beer-Meafure.
Pints
Firkin
Kilderkin
2 Barrel
4^1 Hog.
_7*|_9
,44|i8
288:36
—
576i72
Firkin
Kilderkin
Barrel
4'2 [Hog.
Jewifh Measures of Capacity for Liquids, reduced to Englilh Wine-meafure.
Caph
5t
16
S2
96
960
L°g
720 180
Hin
Seah
3 Bath, or Epha
60 ^ojiclCoron, or Chomer
2 Solid
Gall. S inches,
o 04 0.177
o of 0.21 r
O 3y O.844
I 2 2.533
3 4 5.067
7 4 15*2
75 5 7-625
Attic
M E A [ 4518 ] M E A
Attic Measures of Capacity for Liquids, reduced to Englifli Wine-meafure.
Gal. Pints, Dec.
Cochliarion »' - - - o
Cheme - - - o
Myftron - - - o
Conche - - o
Cyathos - - o
iOxybaphon - - o
60
30
360
8640 I4320
24
48
288
3456
728
4CotyIe
144
Chous
lajMetretes
0.0356^
0.0712 |
0.089^4
o. 17844
0.356I4
o-535 i
2.X41 4.
4.283
25.698
19.629
Roman Measures of Capacity for Liquids, reduced to Englifh Wine*meafure.
Gal. Pints, Dec.
Ligula - - - o 0^5- o. 11 7tt
4Cyathus - - - o 0.469 f
2304
46080
14
Acetabulum
Quartarius
Hemina
384
768c
192
3840
48
96
1920
Sextarius
6Congius
24 4|lJrna
8 2
6040
Amphora
aoCuleus
o o -|- 0.704^4
004 1-409
004 2-818
o 1 5-636
- ° 7 4-942
3 4 i 5-33
7 x 10.66
>43 3 11-°95
In the modern liquid meafures of foreign nations, it
is to be obferved, that their feveral veflels for wine,
vinegar, &c. have alfo various denominations accord¬
ing to their different fizes and the places wherein
they are ufed. The woeders of Germany, for hold¬
ing Rhenifh and Mofelle wines, are different in their
gauges ; fome containing 14 aumes of Amfterdam-
meafure, and others more or lefs. The aume is reckon¬
ed at Amfterdam for 8 fteckans, or 20 verges, or for
4 of a ton of 2 pipes; or 4 barrels of French or Boqr-
deaux, which 4 at this latter place is called tiercon,
becaufe 3 of them make a pipe or 2 barrels, and 6 the
faid ton. The fteckan is 16 mingles, or 32 pints;
and the verge is, in refpeA of the faid Rhenifh and
Mofelle, and fome other forts of wine, 6 mingles;
but, in meafuring brandy, it confifts of 64 mingles.
The aume is divided into 4 anckers, and the ancker
into 2 fteckans, or 32 mingles. The ancker is taken
fometimes for ^ of a ton, or 4 barrels; on which
footing the Bourdeaux-barrel ought to contain at
Amfterdam (when the cafk is made according to the
juft gauge) 124 fteckans, or 200 mingles wine and
lees; or 12 fteckans, or a 192 mingles racked wine;
fo that the Bourdeaux-ton of wine contains 50 fteckans,
or 800 mingles, wine and lees; and 48 fteckans, or
768 mingles of pure wine. The barrels or poin9ons
of Nantes and other places on the river Loire, con¬
tain only 12 fteckans Amfterdam meafure. The
wine-ton of Rochelle, Cognac, Charente, and the
Ifle of Rhe, differs very little from the ton of
Bour-
Meafaife,
M E A [ 45*9 ] M E A
Bourdeaux, and confequently from the barrels and the Paris plot is pearly equal to the Engliih wine-
"pipes. A ton of wine of Chaloffe, Bayonne, and the quart,
neighbouring places, in reckoned 60 fteckans, and the The butts or pipes from Cadiz, Malaga, Alicant,
barrel 15, Amlterdam-meafure. Benecarlo, Saloe, and Mataro, and from the Canaries,
The muid of Paris contains 150 quarts, or 300 from Liibon, Oporto, and Fayal, are very diffe-
pints, wine and lees; or z8o pints clear wine; of rent in their gauges, though in affreightments they
which mtiids 3 make a ton, and the fractions are are all reckoned two to the ton.
The muid -) f 36 fetiers Vinegar is meafured in the fame manner as wine ;
The fetier j 8 j 4 quarts but the meafures for brandies are different: thefe
The quart L j * pints fpirits from France, Spain, Portugal, &e. are gene-
The pint f 5 ] z chopins rally fhipped in large cades called pipes, butts, and
The chopin 1^1 ^ demi-fetiers pieces, according to the places from whence they are
The detrii-fetier J l 2 poiffons. reported, &c. In France, brandy is fhipped in cades
The muid is alfo compofed of pipes, or poin^ons, called pieces at Bourdeaux, and pipes at Rochelle,
quarteaux, queves, and demiqueves; thofe poinCons Cognac, the ifle of Rhe, and other neighbouring
of Paris and Orleans contain about .15 fteckans Am- places, which contain fome more and fome lefs, even
fterdam-meafure, and ought to weigh with the cade from 60 to 90 Amfterdam-verges or veertels, accord-
666 lb. a little more or lefs. In Provence they reckon ing to the capacity of the veffels, and the places they
by milleroles, and the millerole of Toulon contains 66 come from, which being- reduced into barrels will
Paris pints, or too pints of Amfterdam, nearly; and ftand as follows, viz.
At Rochelle, Cognac, the Ifle of Rhe, and the country of Aunis
At Nants, and feveral places of Bretagne and Anjou —
At Bourdeaux, and differents parts of Guienne — —
At Amfterdam, and other cities of Holland — —
At Hamburgh and Lubeck — — —-
At Embden — r > —
In Provence and Languedoc, brandy is fold by the of 224 cubic inches, 13 being to 1444 38 224 to
quintal, the cades included ; and at Bruges, in Flan- *72^; but by an a£l of parliament made in 1697 it
ders, the verges are called fejiers of 16 flops each, is decreed, that a round bufhel, 18^-inches wide and 8
and the fpirit is fold at fo much per flop. deep, is a legal Winchefter-bufhel. Nowfuch a bufhel
Olive-oil is alfo fhipped in cade* of various fizes, will only hold 2150. 43 cubic inches, confequently
according to the cuftoro of the places where it is cm- the gallon will hold 268. 8 cubic inches, the divifions
barked, and the conveniency of ftowage. In England and multiples whereof are as in the following table.
27 Veertels',j
29 Veertcls |
32 Verges ; >3
30 Veertels f
30 Verges
27 Verges J
it is fold by the ton of 236 gallons; and at Amfter¬
dam by the ton of 717 mingles, or 1434 pints. In
Provence it is fold by milleroles of 66 Paris-pints;
from Spain and Portugal it is brought in pipes, or
butts> of different gauges ; at the firft place it is fold
by roves, whereof 40 go to the butt; and at the lat¬
ter place by almoudas, whereof 26 makes a pipe.
Train-oil is fold in England by the ton, at Anafter-
dam by the barrel.
Mr AS VR Eg of capacity fir things dry. Englifh
dry or corn meafures are railed from the Winchcfter-
gallon, which contains 272^ folid inches, and ought
to bold of pure running water 9 pounds 13 ounces.
This feems to ftand on the foot of the old wine-gallon
Englifh dry or corn-meafure.
Solid inches
33-6
537-6
Gallon
Peck
64
4,Bu(he!s
64 33:8jQuarter.
Scripture Measures of Capacity for things dry, reduced to Englifn Corn-meafure.
Grach al
Cab
3600)180
3t
Seah
3 Epha
Leteeh
jChomer, or coron
303 ~ W
r r 5" 3
o o 0.031
0 0 2 ^ 0.073
005 o'-g1 1,211
i o i 4.036
303 I2.X07
16 o o 26.500
32 O I
18.969
25 P
Meafure.
Mtafure.
M E A [ 4520 ] M E A
Attic Measures of Capacity for things dry, reduced to Englifh Corn meafure.
Cochliarion
Cyathos
180
8640864
Oxybaphon
4 Cotyle
Xeftes
576 J44
Choenix
48|Medimnos
-lit I?
OOO 0.276^
OOO 2.763 i
OOO 4.144 Z
o o o 16.579
OOO 33.158
o o I 15.705 l
406 3.501
Meafuri
Roman Measures of Capacity for things dry, reduced to Englifh Corn-meafure.
Ligula
Cyathus
ix Acetabulum
384 96
768,192
Hemina
Sextarius
Semimodius
[Modius
4
8
64 16
'So*3 “ »
o o OjT 0.01
o o oA- 0.04
000^ 0.06
0 0 8 4- 0.24
o. o 1 048
o 1 o 3.84
100
7.68
In the feveral parts of Europe, fait, which is a
more ftaple and current commodity than any other,
is bought and fold by different meafures, according
to the feveral places of its difpatch ; at Amfterdam it
is fold by the cent of 404 meafures or fcheppels,
which cent is reckoned to be 7 lafts or 14 tons, and
thelaft is to weigh 4poolb. the 7lafts making 28000lb.
called the cent of fait, which alfo contains 208 facks;
though fome of this commodity is much heavier than
others. In the cities of France, fait is fold by the
muid, whofe fize varies according to the different
places of its manufafture and difpatch. At Paris
this meafure is reckoned to contain 12 fetiers, or 48
minots, which minot is alfo divided into other mea¬
fures. The cent of fait from Marans, Brouage, Sude,
and the ifle of Rhe, contain 28 ftricken mnids, and
each muid 24 boifeaux, which yields at Amfterdam
11 x lafts, or 23 tons, more or lefs. In Copenhagen the
faid cent renders only 94 lafts, the laft being reckoned
here equal to 18 tons, and 50 lafts to correfpond with'
52 of Coningfberg, at which place the cent produces
about 10 lafts, or 40,000 lb. At Riga the faid cent
yields the fame meafure as at Coningfberg; and about
64 lafts of Riga make the great cent of Amfterdam.
The faid French cent produces at Dantzick from 1 i-J-
to 12 lafts, of which lafts from 74 to 74 make like-
wife the great cent of Amfterdam. At Stetin in
Pomerania, the French cent yielded 10 lafts, making:
40,000 meafure and weight of the faid place. In
Portugal it is bought by the muid, of which four
make a laft, and leven the cent of Amfterdam. At
Alamat and Ivica it is fold by the modin, which
weighs from 274 to 28oocwt. Englifh.
A TABLE
A TABLE, reprefenting the Conformity which the Long Measures of the princi
kind, by the Sieur Jean Larue Merchant at Lyons, in his Treatife dedicated to
England or London in the Front, as the Sieur Larue has done Paris for the uft
(£/* The ells of Amfterdam, Haerlem, Leyden, the
Hague, Rotterdam, and other cities of Holland, as
well as the ell of Nuremberg, are equal among them-
felves. They are alfo comprehended under the ell of
Amfterdam, as that of Ofnaburgh is under that of
France and England, and the end of Bern and Bafil
under that of Hamburgh, Frankfort, and Leipfic.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
if
s
T
V
w
X
Y
Z
3 Yards of Scotland, England, and Ireland
3 Ells of France and England
D Ells of Holland or Amfterdam
d Ells of Antwerp and Bruflels
3 Ells of Hamburgh, Frankfort, &c.
3 Ells of Breflaw in Silefia
3 Ells of Dantzick - - -
3 Ells of Bergen and Drontheim
3 Ells of Sweden or Stockholm
d Ells of St Gall for linen _ - _
3 Ells of St Gall for cloth
3 Ells of Geneva - - - -
3 Canes of Marfeilles and Montpelier
3 Canes of Touloufe and Upper Languedoc
3 Canes of Genoa of 9 palmos
3 Canes of Rome - - _ -
3 Vares of Caftile and Bifcay
3 Vares of Cadiz and Andalufia
o Vares of Portugal or Lifbon
3 Covedos of Portugal or Lifbon
0 Braffes of Venice _ _ _
0 Brafles of Bergamo, &c.
3 Brafles of Florence, Leghorn, &c.
3 Brafles of Milan -
A
Yards
of Eng¬
land,
Scotl.
and
Irel.
B
Ells of
France
and
Eng¬
land.
100 •
128
75
76 —
62
60 —
66
67
65
87 -
97 —
124
214
I99
245
227
93
91
123
74 —
73
72 . .
65 f 5'
58 4- 45
C
Ells of
Hol¬
land
and
Amfter
dam,
D
Ells of
Ant¬
werp
and
Bruf-
fels.
133
*73
100 -
101
«3
80 -
89 -
90 ■
87
116 -
89
166
286 ■
— 266
327 ■
3°3 '
!2S •
122
— .64 •
too ■
98 ■
95 '
85
78 •
E
Ells of
Hamb.
Frankf.
Leipfic
andCo
logn.
I3I
66
98
too —
82
79 —
87 ;
89 _
86
114
160 ■
205
120 ■
r5I
too ■
96 -
96
164
282
163
323 —
299
123
119
162 —
98
96
93
84
77 —
F
Ells of
Breflaw
n Sile¬
fia.
108
105 -
139
°7
200 ■
343
320 ■
392
363
150 ■
146
96
166
213
125 —
126
104
too
112
°9
145
208
357
333
408
378
x56
1152
205 —
20 —:i25
122
— i 18
106
f 97
N. B. By means of this Table, the reader may pleafe to obferve, that too ells of Paris and of England
By the common rule of three, or proportic
A TABLE, reprefenting the Conformity which the Long Measures of the principal Trading Cities of Europe have with each other, publiihed in 1747, as the moft authentic of its
kind, by the Sieur Jean Larue Merchant at Lyons, in his Treatife dedicated to the Count de Maurepas : with the difference only of tranfpofing one of the Columns, in order to place’
England or London in the Front, as the Sieur Larue has done Paris for the ufe of the French nation more particularly.
(O' The ells of Amfterdam, Haerlem, Leyden, the
Hague, Rotterdam, and other cities of Holland, as
well as the ell of Nuremberg, are equal among them-
felves. They are alfo comprehended under the ell of
Amfterdam, as that of Ofnaburgh is under that of
France and England, and the end of Bern and Bafil
under that of Hamburgh, Frankfort, and Leipfic.
100 Yards of Scotland, England, and Ireland
100 Ells of France and England
100 Ells of Holland or Amfterdam -
too Ells of Antwerp and Bruflels
100 Ells of^ Hamburgh, Frankfort, &c.
100 Ells of Breflaw in Silefia
100 Ells of Dantzick -
100 Ells of Bergen and Drontheim
100 Ells of Sweden or Stockholm
100 Ells of St Gall for linen - - .
100 Ells of St Gall for cloth
100 Ells of Geneva - - > -
100 Canes of Marfeilles and Montpelier
100 Canes of Touloufe and Upper Languedoc
100 Canes of Genoa of 9 palmos
(L 100 Canes of Rome - -
R 100 Vareo-of Caftile and Bifcay
100 Vares of Cadiz and Andalufia
100 Vares of Portugal or Lifbon
100 Covedos of Portugal or Lifbon
100 BrafTes of Venice -
100 Brafles of Bergamo, &c. -
too Brafles of Florence, Leghorn, &c.
100 BrafTes of Milan _ - ' - - J
1
A
Yards
of Eng¬
land,
Scotl.
and
Irel.
B
Ells of
France
and
Eng¬
land.
-100
128
75
76
62
60
66
67
65
87
97
124
214
T99
245
227
93
91
123
74
73
72
6S
58
C I D
Ells of Ells of
Hol¬
land
and
Amfter
dam.
78
100
75
60
48
46
52
52
51
67
52
97
167
156
191
177
73
71
96
58
57
55
r 5°
4- 45
Ant¬
werp
and
Bruf-
fels.
I33
r73
100
101
83
80
89
90
87
116
89
166
286
266
327
3°3
I25
122
164
100
98
95
85
78
E
Ells of'
Hamb.
Frankf.
Leipfic
andCo
logn.
I3I
166
98
100
82
79
87
89^
86
114
88
164
282
163
323
299
123
”9
162
98
96
93
84
77
F
Ells of
Breflaw
in Sile-
(ia.
160
205
120
1-51
too
96
96
108
io5
r39
107
200
343
320
392
363
146
96
120
lI7
114
102
— 93
G
Ells of
Dant-
zick.
166
213
W:
126
104
too
111
112
I09
I45
I 11
208
357
333
408
378
•f|i52
4205
—!l2C
•f|r22
—;i 18
4 106
r 97
H
Ells of
Bergen
and
Dront¬
heim.
*5°
192
112
U4
92
89
IOO
ibi
97
I3°
100
ft
321
300
^7
34o
140
138
184
112
104
106
96
87
I
Ells of
Swe¬
den or
Stock¬
holm.
146
188
110
11 i\
9i
88
98
100
96
127
98
183
3X4
T93
359
333
!37
334
180
110
107
104
94
85
K
Ells of
St Gall
for li¬
nen.
*54
*95
114
116
95
91
102
103
TOO
l33
102
191
327
3°4
374
347
‘43
‘39
187
114
112
108
98
89
L
Ells of
St Gall
for
cloth.
114
147
86
87
71
68
76
77
75
100
Tj 76
— ‘43
^-246
229
281
260
107
i°5
141
86
84
81
— 73
i\ 67
M
Ells of
Gene-
N I O
Canes Canes
of Mar-of Tou-
va.
‘49
‘91
f 12
“3
9‘
89
99
100
98
130
100
‘3°
320
298
366
339
140
‘37
‘83
112
109
106
95
87 i
80
ro2
60
60
5°
48
53
•54
52v
69
53,
100
‘7‘
160
196
181
75
73
94
60
58
57
5‘
46
feilles
and
Mont¬
pelier.
loufe,
Albi,
and
Caflres
46
59
35
35
29
28
3‘
3‘
30
40
3‘
58
100
93
“4
116
43
42
57
35
34
33
3°
27
50
64
37
38
3‘
3°
33
33
32
43
33
62
107
100
122
“3
46
45
61
37
36
35
S2
f’ 29
P
Canes
of Ge¬
noa of
9 pal¬
mos.
Canes
of
Rome.
40
52
3°
3°
25
24
27
27
26
35
27
5°
87
81
100
92
38
37
50
30
29
29
26
R | S
Vares jVares
of Caf- of Ca-
tile jdiz and
and Anda-
Bifcay. lufia.
44
56
33
33
27
26
29
29
28
38
29
55
94
108 —
100 ■
4‘
40
54
33 ’
32
3‘
28
25
‘97 ■
136
80 -
81 -
65
64 -
7‘
72 -
70 -
92
7‘
‘33
228
213
261
242 $
100 ■
97
‘3‘
80 ■
78
76 ■
68
62
109
149
8T
84
68
6S
72
74
7‘
95
73
136
234
218
268
245
102
100
‘34
81
80
78
70
63
T
Vares
of Por¬
tugal
or Lif¬
bon.
81 4
104 4
61 —
61 4
5° T
48 4
54 T
55 —
53 i,
70 4
54 4-
101 4
‘74 .1
162 4
‘99 i
184 4
76 i
74 T
IOO  
6l  
59 1
58 -
52 T
47 4
V
Cove¬
dos of
Portu¬
gal or
Lifbon.
‘33
‘7‘
100
101
83
80
89
90
87
116
89
166
286
266
327
3°3
‘25
122
164
100
98
95
95
78
W
Brafles
of Ve¬
nice.
136
‘74
102
103
85
81
9°
9‘
89
118
9‘
170
29 L
272
333
3°9
127
‘25
167
102
ioo
97
87
79
X I Y
3 WiBrafles
^ E. ijiof Flo.
jf'orq S irence,
S^jLegh.
^and
3
cj O rt
P'orq LuCCa.
104
‘79
105
106
88
84
93
94
92
122
94
172
301
280
344
3‘9
‘3‘
‘79
172
105
103
IOO
95
82
‘54
‘99
116
118
97
93
t!‘°3
4io5
—102
— ‘33
—1‘°4
t‘93
— 333
t309
4:381
—j353
. 4-‘45
—1‘42
r‘9‘
t|“4
—,100
—-Jioo
r 9‘
Z
BrafTes
of
Milan.'
171
219
128
130
107
102
“4
”5
112
‘49
“4
214
3^7
342
420
389
‘59
‘57
I210
128
126
122
109
100
N. B. Bv means of this Table, the reader may pleafe to obferve, that 100 ells of Paris and of England make 1734 °f Holland 5 and in like manner you will find how the meafures of other places in the Table correfpond with each other.
By the common rule of three, or proportion, you will eafily make your computations for any quantity required.
M E A [ 4421 ] ME C
'iVIeafurt, Me AS ORE for Wood. See Cord of P/ood.
Meat. Measure for Horfes, is the hand, which by ftatute
contains four inches.
Measure, among botanifts. In defcribing the parts
of plants, Tournefort introduced a geometrical fcale,
which many of his followers have retained. Theymea-
fured every part of the plant; and the effence of the
defcription confifted in an accurate menfuration of the
whole.
As the parts of plants, however, are liable to va¬
riation in ho circumftance fo much as that of dimen-
fion, Linnasus very rarely admits any other menfura¬
tion than that arifing from the refpedtive length and
breadth of the parts compared together. In cafes that
require a&ual menfuration, the fame author recom¬
mends, in lieu of Tournefort’s artificial fcale, the fol-;
lowing natural fcale of the human body, which he
thinks is much more convenient, and equally accurate.
The fcale in queftion confifts of 1 x degrees, which
are as follows: 1. A hair’s-breadth, or the diameter
of a hair, (capillus.) 2. A line, (//«,?«), the breadth
of the crefcent or white appearance at the root of the
finger, (not thumb), meafured from the (kin towards
the body of the nail; a line is equal to 12 hair¬
breadths, and is the 12th part of a Parifian inch. 3. A
nail, [unguis), the length of a finger-nail; equal to
fix lines, or half a Pariiian inch. 4. A thumb, (/>«/-
ley:),' the length of the firft or outermoft joint of the
thumb; equal to a Parifian inch. 5. A palmus, (j>al-
«««/), the breadth of the palm, exclufiveof the thumb;
equal to three Parifian inches. 6. A fpan, (fpitharna,)
the diftance between the extremity of the thumb and
that of the firft finger when extended; equal to feven
Parifian inches. 7. A great fpan, [dodrans), the di¬
ftance between the extremity of the thumb, and that
of the little finger, when extended ; equal to nine
inches. 8. A foot, [pes,) meafuring from the elbow
to the bafis of the thumb; equal to 12 Parifian inches.
9. A cubit, [cubitus,) from the elbow to the extre¬
mity of the middle finger; equal to 17 inches. 10. An
arm-length, [brackium,) from the arm-pit to the ex¬
tremity of the middle-finger; equal to 24 Parifian
inches, or two feet. 11. A fathom, [orgya,) the mea-
fure of the human ftature; the diftance between the
extremities of the two middle fingers, when the arms
art extended; equal, where greateft, to fix feet.
Measure, or Bar, in mulic. See Time.
MEAT. See Pood, Diet, Drink, &c.
Method of Preferving FleJh-lsIzAT without Spices,
end with very little Salt. Jones, in his Mifcellanea
Curiofa, gives us the following defcription of the
Moorifii Elcholle, which is made of beef, mutton, or
camel’s flefti, but chiefly beef, and which they cut
all in long dices, and let it lie for 24 hours in a
pickle. They then remove it out of thofe jars or tubs
into others with water; and when it has lain a night,
they take it out, and put it on ropes in the fun and air
to dry. When it is thoroughly dried and hard, they
cut it into pieces of two or three inches long, and
throw it into a pan or caldron, which is ready with
boiling oil and fuel fufficient to hold it, where it boils
till it be very clear and red when cut. After this they
take it out, and fet it to drain ; and when all is thus
dong it ftands to cool, and jars are prepared to put it
2
up in, pouring upon it the liquor in which it was fried; Mrai’i
and as foon as it is thoroughly cold, they flop it up
clofe. It will keep two years; will be hard, and the M'ce:i-
hardeft they look upon to be the beft done. This they
difh up cold, fometimes fried with eggs and garlic,
fometimes ftewed, and lemon fqueezed on it. It is very
good any way, either hot or cold.
East MEATH, a county of Ireland, bounded on
the eaft by the ocean and the county of Dublin, on
the weft by Weft-Meath, on the fouth-weft by Kil¬
dare, and on the north and north-eaft by Cavan
and Louth. It is 32 miles long and 25 broad ; con¬
tains 18 baronies; and fends to parliament, befides
two knights of the (hire, 12 members for the bo¬
roughs of Trim, Aboy, Navan, Kells, Duleek, and
Ratoath. This country abounds in corn, pafture, and
herds of cattle; the air and foil being good, and the
inhabitants numerous. Several noble families have al-
fo titles of honour within it. Horns, prodigioully
large, fuppofed to be thofe of the moofe-deer, have
been found not only in this country, but in fev^al
other parts of Ireland. Trim is the county-town.
Weft Meath, a county of Ireland, fo named from
its fituation with regard to the former, by which it is
bounded on the eaft: the Shannon parts it from Rof-
common on the weft ; the king’s county lies on the
fouth of it, and Longford on the north. It is be¬
tween 30 and 40 miles in length, and 20 in breadth ;
containing many nvers, lakes, and bogs. The land,
where it is free from thefe, is abundantly fertile, and
well inhabited. The baronies in this county are 13,
and the members fent to parliament 10; viz. two for
the (hire, and two for each of the boroughs, Mullingar,
Athlone, Fore, and Kilbeggan. Mullingar, by aft of
parliament, is the county-tov/n.
MEATUS auditorius. See Anatomy^0 403, b.
MEAUX, an ancient town of France, in Brie, with
a bifliop’s fee, feated in a place abounding in corn and
cattle, on the river Marne, which divides it into two
parts, and its trade confifts in corn, wool, and cheefe.
E. Long. 2. 58. N. Lat. 48. 58.
MECCA, an ancient and very famous town of Afia,
in Arabia the Happy; feated on a barren fpot, in a
valley furrounded with little hills, about a day’s jour¬
ney from the Red-Sea. It is a place of no ftrength, ha¬
ving neither walls nor gates, and the buildings are
very mean. That which fupports it is the refort of a
great many thoufand pilgrims annually, for the (hops
are fcarcely open all the year befides. The inhabitants
are poor, very thin, lean, and fwarthy. The hills about
the town are very numerous, and all confift of a black-
i(h rock, and fome of them are half a mile in circum¬
ference. On the top of one of them is a cave, where
they pretend Mahomet ufually retired to perform his
devotions, and hither they affirm the greateft part of
the Alcoran was brought him by the angel Gabriel.
The town has plenty of water, and yet little garden-
ftuff; but there are feveral forts of good fruits to be
had, fuch as grapes, melons, water-melons, anjj cu¬
cumbers. There are alfo plenty of (heep brought thi¬
ther to be fold to the pilgrims. It ftands in a very hot
climate; and the inhabitants ufually deep on the tops
of their houfes, for the fake of coolnefs. The temple
of Mecca has 42 doors, and its form refembles the
25 P 2 royal
M E C [ 4422 ] M E C
Mecca, royal exchange in London, but is near ten times as
large. It is open in the middle, and the ground co¬
vered with gravel, except in two or three places that
lead to the Beat-Allah through certain doors, and thefe
are paved with Tnort ftones. There are cloiiiers all
S ound, and in the Tides are little rooms or cells for thofe
that live a monaftic life. The Beat-Allah Hands in
the middle of the temple, and is a fquare ftru&ure, each
fide about 20 paces long and 24 feet high; covered
all oyer from top to bottom with a thick fort of fdk,
and the middle embroidered with letters of gold, each
letter being about two feet in length, and two inches
broad. The door is covered with filver plate, and there
is a curtain before it thick with gold embroidery. This
Beat is the principal objedt of the pilgrims devotion,
and is open but two days in the fpace of fix weeks;
namely, one day for the men, and the next for the wo¬
men. Within there is only two wooden pillars in the
middle to fupport the roof, with a bar of iron faftened
thereto, on which hang three or four filver lamps. The
walls on the infide are marble, and covered with filk,
unlefs when the pilgrims enter. About 12 paces from
the Beat is the fepulchre of Abraham, as they pretend,
and they affirm that he erecied the Beat Allah. The
tomb is handfome enough, and not unlike thofe of
people of fafiiion in England. When they have per¬
formed their devotions here, they repair to a gibel or
hill, which however is not large enough to contain them
all at once, for there are no lefs than 70,000 pilgrims
every year. When certain ceremonies are over, they
then receive the title o$ hadgiet or faints, and the next
morning they move to a place where they fay Abra¬
ham went to offer up his fon Ifaac, which is about two
or three miles from Mecca ; here they pitch their tents,
and then throw feven fmall ftones againft a little fquare
ftone building. This, as they affirm, is performed in
defiance of the devil. Every one then purchafes a
fheep, which is brought for that purpofe, eating fome
of it themfelves, and giving the reft to the poor people
who attend upon that occafion. Indeed thefe are mi-
ferable objefts, and fuch ftarved creatures, that they
feem ready to devour each other. After all, one would
imagine that this was a very fan&ified place; and yet
a renegado who went in pilgrimage thither, jffirmaMfefun!«il,
there is as much debauchery praftifed here as in any ™”'
part of the Turkifh dominions. It is 25 miles from
Jodda,the fea-port town of Mecca, and 220 fouth-eaft
of Medina. E. Long. 40. 55. N. Lat. 2 1. 45.
MECHANICAL, an epithet applied to whatever
relates to mechanics: thus we fay, mechanical powers,
caufes, &c- See the articles Power, Cause, &c.
The mechanical philofophy is the fame with what js
otherwife called corpufcular philofopby. See Corpus¬
cular.
This manner of reafoning is much ufed in medicine;
and, according to Dr Qmpcy, is the refult of a tho¬
rough acquaintance with the ftrudiure of animal bo¬
dies: for confidering an animal body,as a compofition
out of the fame matter from which all other bodies are
formed, and to have all thofe properties which concern
a phyfician’s regard, only by virtue of its peculiar con-
ftruAion ; it naturally leads a perfon to confider the
feveral parts, according to their figures, contexture,
and ufe, either as wheels, pullies, wedges, levers, ferews,
cordjS, canals, ftrainers, &c. For which purpofe, con¬
tinues he, it is frequently found helpful to defign in
diagrams, whatfpever of that kind is under confidera-
tion, as is cuftomary in geometrical demonftrations.
Fqr the application of this do&rine to the human'
body, fee the article Medicine.
Mechanical, in mathematics, denotes a conftruc-
tion of fome problem, by the affiftance of inftruments,
as the duplicature of the cube and quadrature of the
circle, in contradiftinflion to that which is done in an
accurate and geometrical manner.
Mechanical Curve, is a curve, according to Def-
cartes, which cannot be defined by any algebraic equa,*
tion; and fo Hands contradiftinguilhed from algebraic
or geometrical curves.
Leibnitz and others call thefe mechanical curves
tranfcendental; and dilfent from Defcartes, in excluding
them out of geometry. Leibnitz found a new kind of
tranfcendental equations, whereby thefe curves are de¬
fined: but they do not continue conftantly the fame
in all points of the curve, as algebraic ones do. See the
article Transcendental.
MECHANICS.
1 rT',HIS term, in the common acceptation, implies
definition. X no more than the nature of what is called the
mechanical powers, together with the combination of
thefe powers in the conftruftion of machines. But as
the general properties of matter and central forces are
neceffary in order to a thorough knowledge of mecha¬
nics, we have joined all thefe fubje&e together under
the general name of Mechanics.
a Chap. I. Of Matter and its Properties.
Matter, JJy the word matter is here meant every thing that
what‘ has length, breadth, and thicknefs, and refifts the
touch.
Its proper- The inherent properties of matter are folidity, inac-
ues. tivity, mobility, and divifibility.
. 4 The folidity of matter arifes from its having length,
Solidity, breadth, thicknefs; and hence it is, that all bodies are
comprehended under fome ffiape or other, and that
every particular body hinders all others from occupy¬
ing the fame part of fpace which it poflefleth. Thus,
if a piece of wood or metal be fqueezed ever fo hard
between two plates, they cannot be brought into con-
tadl. And even water or air has this property ; for if
a fmall quantity of it be fixed between any other bo¬
dies, they cannot be brought to touch one another.
Dr Prieftley and fome others have indeed denied this
property to matter; and fuppofed, that, if a fufficient
degree of force was applied to two bodies, they might
a&ually exift in the fame place at the fame moment:
but fuch abftrufe fpeculations cannot be of any fervice
in mechanics, the very foundation of which is built on
the oppofite principle, and neceflarily implies the im¬
penetrability or folidity of matter. ^
A fecond property of matter is inaftivity, or paf inactivity.
ftvenefs ; by which it always endeavours to continue in
the Hate that it is in, whether of reft or motion. And
there.
5.Chap. I.
therefore, if one body contains twice or thrice as
much matter as another body does, it will have twice
orthrice as much inactivity; that is, it will require twice
I or thrice.as much force to give it an equal degree of
motion, or to ftop it after it hath been put into fuch a
motion. A great deal of this inactivity, however, we
are aflured, arifes from gravity ; for in thofe cafes
wherein gravity is not oppofed, a very fmall body will
fet a very large one in motion.
But that matter can never put itfelf into motion is
allowed by all men. For they fee that a (tone, lying
on the plain furface of the earth, never removes itfelf
from that place, nor does any one imagine it ever can.
But moft people are apt to believe that all matter has
a propenfity to fall from a ftate of motion into a date
of reft; becaufe they fee, that if a done or a cannon¬
ball be put into ever fo violent a motion, it foon dops:
not confidering that this doppage is caufed, i. By
the gravity or weight of the body, which finks it to the
ground in fpite of the impulfe; and, 2. By the re-
fidance of the air thro’ which it moves, and by which
velocity it is retarded every moment till it falls.
A bowl moves but a fhort way upon a bowling-
green ; becaufe the roughnefs and unevenncfs of the
graffy furface foon creates fn'CUon enough to dop it.
But if the green were perfedly level, and covered with
polifhed glafs, and the bowl were perfedly hard,
xor.nd, and fmooth, it would go a great way farther,
as it would have nothing but the air to refid it: if
then the air were taken away, the bowl would go on
without any friction, and confequently without any
diminution of the velocity it had at fetting out ; and
therefore, if the green were extended quite around the
earth, the bowl would go on, round and round the
earth, for ever.
If the bowl were carried feveral miles above the
earth, and there projected in a horizontal direction,
with fuch a velocity as would make it move more than
a femidiameter of the earth in the time it would take
to fall to the earth by gravity; in that cafe, and if
there were no refiding medium in the way, the bowl
would not fall to the earth at all ; but would continue
to circulate round it, keeping always in the fame trad,
and returning to the fame point from which it was pro¬
jected, with the fame velocity as at fird. In this man¬
ner the moon moves round the earth, altho’ die is as
6 unaCtive and dead as any done upon it.
Mobility. The third property of matter is mobility; for we
find that all matter is capable of being moved, if a fuf-
ficient degree of force be applied to overcome its inac¬
tivity or refidance, or the force of gravity which aCts
? upon all terredrial bodies.
Divifibi- The fourth property of matter is divifebility, of which
lity. there can be no end. For, fince matter can never be
annihilated by cutting or breaking, we can neyer ima¬
gine it to be cut into fuch fmall particles, but that if
one of them is laid on a table, the uppermod fide of
it will be further from the table than the undermod
fide. Moreover, it would be abfurd to fay that the
greated mountain on earth has more halves, quar¬
ters, or tenth parts, than the fmalled particle of mat¬
ter has.
We have mahy furprifing indances of the fmallnefs
to which matter can be divided by art : of which the
two following are very remarkable.
j. If a pound of fUver be fufed with a fingle grain
442 j
ofgold, thegold will be equally diffufed thro’ the whole
filver ; fo that taking one grain from any part of the
m^fs (in which there can be no more than the 5760th
part of a grain of gold) and diffolving it in aqua for-
tis, thegold will fall to the bottom.
2. The gold-beaters can extend a grain of gold in¬
to a leaf containing 50 fquare inches; and this leaf
may be divided into 500000 parts. For an inch in
length can be divided into 100 parts, every one of
which will be vifible to the bare eye: confequently a
fquare inch can be divided into 10000 parts, and 50
fquare inches into 500000. And if one of thefe parts
be viewed with a microfcope that magnifies the dia¬
meter of an objeft only 10 times, it will magnify the
area too times ; and then the 100th part of a 500000th
part of a grain (that is, the 50 millionth part) will be
vifible. Such leaves are commonly ufed in gilding ;
and they are fo very thin, that if 124500 of them were
laid upon one another, and preffed together, they
would not exceed one inch in thicknefs.
Yet all this is nothing in comparifon of the lengths
that nature goes in the divifion of matter. For Mr
Leewenhoek tells us, that there are more animals ip
the milt of a fingle cod filh, than there are men upon
the whole earth : and that, by comparing thefe ani¬
mals in a microfcope with grains of common fand, it
appeared that one fingle grain is bigger than four mil¬
lions of them. Now each animal muft have a heart,
arteries, veins, mufcles, and nerves, otherwife they
could neither live nor move. How inconceivably fmall
then muft the particles of their blood be, to circulate
through the fmalleft ramifications and joinings of their
arteries and veins! It has been found by calculation,
that a particle of their blood muft be as much fmaller
than a globe of the tenth part of an inch in diameter,
as that globe is fmaller than the whole earth 5 and yet,
if thefe particles be compared with the particles of
light, they will be found to exceed them as much in
bulk as mountains do fingle grains of fand. For, the
force of any body ftriking againft an obftacle is di-
reftly in proportion to its quantity of matter multi¬
plied into its velocity : and fince the velocity of the
particles of light is demonftrated to be at lead a mil¬
lion times greater than the velocity of a cannon-ball,
it is plain, that if a million of thefe particles were as
big as a fingle grain of fand, we durft no more open
our eyes to the light, than we durft expofe them to
fand Ihot point-blank from a cannon.
That matter is infinitely divifible, in a mathematical Plate
fenfe, is eafy to be demonftrated. For let AB be theCLX,X*
length of a particle to be divided; and let it be touch- I"
ed at oppofite ends by the parallel lines CD and EF,
which fuppofe to be infinitely extended beyond D and 8
F. Set off the equal divifions BG, GH, H I, &c. T*16
on the line EF, towards the right-hand from B; and
take a point, as at R, any where toward the left-matter0pro,
hand from A, in the line CD: Then, from this point ved.
draw the right lines RG, RH, RI, &c. each of
which will cut off a part from the particle AB. But
after any finite number of fuch lines are drawn, there
will ftill remain a part, as AP, at the top of the par¬
ticle, which can never be cut off: becaufe the lines
DR and EF being parallel, no line can ever be drawn
from the point R to any point of the line EF that
will coincide with the line RD. Therefore the par¬
ticle AB contains more than any finite number of parts..
A
MECHANICS.
44H
9
Attraction.
Cohcfion.
Rej)u!fion>
MECHANICS.
A fifth property of matter Is atlrattion, which feems
rather to be infufed than inherent. Of this there are
four kinds, viz. cohejion, gravitation, magnelifm, and
tie dr i city.
The attradion of cohejion is that by which the fmall
parts of matter are made to ftick and cohere together.
Of this we have feveral inftances, fome of which fol¬
low.
1. If a fmall glafs tube, open at both ends, is dipt
in water, the water will rife up in the tube to a con-
•fiderable height above its level in the bafon ; which
mult be owing to the attradlion of a ring of particles
of the glafs all around in the tube, immediately above
thofe to which the water at any inftant rifes. And
when it has rifen fo high, that the weight of the co¬
lumn balances the attratlion of the tube, it rifes no
higher. This can be noways owing to the prefiure
of the air upon the water in the bafon ; for, as the
tube is open at top, it is full of air above the water,
which will prefs as much upon the water in the tube as
the neighbouring air does upon any column of an
equal diameter in the bafon. Befides, if the fame expe¬
riment be made in an exhaulled receiver of the air-
pump, there will be found no difference.
2. A piece of loaf-fugar will draw up a fluid, and
a fpunge will fuck in water: and on the fame prin¬
ciple fap afcends in trees.
3. If two drops of quickfilver are placed near each
other, they will run together and become one large
drop.
4. If two pieces of lead be fcraped clean, and prefs-
ed together with a twift, they will attract each other
fo ftrongly, as to require a force much greater than
their own weight to feparate them. And this cannot
be owing to the preffure of the air, for the fame thing
will hold in an exhaufted receiver.
5. If two polifhed plates of marble or brafs be put
together, with a little oil between them to fill up the
pores in their furfaces and prevent the lodgment of
any air 5 they will cohere fo ftrongly, even if fufpend-
ed in an exhaufted receiver, that the weight of the
lower plate will not be able to feparate it from the up¬
per one. In putting thefe plates together, the one
fliould be rubbed upon the other, as a joiner docs two
pieces of wood when he glues them.
6. If two pieces of cork, equal in weight, are put
near each other in a bafon of water, they will move
equally faft toward each other with an accelerated mo¬
tion, until they meet: and then, if either of them is
moved, it will draw the other after it. If two corks
of unequal weights are placed near each other, they
will approach with accelerated velocities inverfely pro¬
portionate to their weights : that is, the lighter cork
will move as much fafter than the heavier, as the hea¬
vier exceeds the lighter in weight. This (hews, that
the attraftion of each cork is in direft proportion to
its weight or quantity of matter.
This kind of attra&ion reaches but to a very fmall
diftance ; for if two drops of quickfilver are rolled in
dull, they will not run together, becaufe the particles
of dull keep them out of the fphere of each other’s
attraftion.
- When the fphere of attradion ends, a repulfive force
begins: thus, water repels moft bodies till they are
wet} and hence it is that a fmall needle, if dry, fwims
Chap. 1.
upon water; and flies walk upon it without wetting
their feet.
The repelling force of the particles of a fluid is but
fmall; and therefore, a fluid when divided eafily
unites again. But if glafs, or any other hard fub-
ftance, is broke into fmall parts, they cannot be made
to ftick together again without being firft wetted: the
repulfion being too great to admit of a re-union.
The repelling force between water and oil is fo
great, that we find it almoft impoflible to mix them
in fuch a manner as not to feparate again. If a ball
of light wood is dipt in oil, and then put into wa¬
ter, the water will recede fo as to form a channel of
fome depth all around the ball.
The repulfive force of the particles of air is fo great,
that they can never be brought fo near together by
condenfation as to make them ftick or cohere. Hence
it is, that when the weight of the incumbent atmo-
fphere is taken off from any fmall quantity of air, that
quantity will diffufe itfelf in fuch a manner as to occu¬
py (in comparifon) an infinitely greater portion of
fpace than it did before. n
Attrad 'ion of gravitation is that power by which Giavita-
diftant bodies tend towards one another. Of this wetlon'
have daily inftances in the falling of bodies to the
earth. By this power in the earth it is, that bodies,
on whatever fide, fall in lines perpendicular to its fur-
face ; and confequently, on oppofite fides, they fall in
oppofite dire&ions, towards the centre: and by this
power it is, that bodies on the earth’s furface are kept
to it on all fides, fo that they cannot fall from it. And
as itafts upon all bodies in proportion to their refpec-
tive quantities of matter, without any regard to
their bulks or figures, it accordingly conftitutes their
weight.
As the attra&ion of any large body, this earth, for
inftance, confifts of the united attractions of all its
parts, it thence follows, that if a body defcends from
the furface towards the ceutre of the earth, it would
continually become lighter and lighter, the parts above
attracting it, as well as thofe below; in which cafe it
is demonftrated by mathematicians, that the gravity
would decreafe in the fame proportion with the di¬
ftance from the centre. Thus, let there be a body, piate
as P, placed any where within a concave fphere asCLXYH.
AB ; and let us fuppofe it divided into an infinite *•
number of thin concentric furfaces; the body P will
be attracted equally each way by any one of thefe;
for inttance, the interior circle H I K L M. .Let
there be lines, as ILHK, &c. drawn through any
point of the body P, in fuch a manner as to form the
furface of two limilar figures, fuppofe cones; the dia¬
meters of whofe bafes may be IH, KL, which let us
fuppofe infinitely fmall. Thefe bafes being as the
fquarej of the lines IH, KL, (2 El. 12.) will be di-
reCtly as the fquares of their diftances from P; for the
triangles IPH, KPL, being infinitely fmall, are fi-
milar. But thofe bafes include all the particles of
matter in the interior furface that are oppofite to each
other : the oppofite attractions are therefore in the
fame ratio with thofe bafes; that is, as the fquares of
the diftances KP, PI. But the attraClion is inverfely
as the fquares of the diftances of the attracting bodies;
that is, inverfely as the fquares of the fame diftances
PK,PI: thefe two ratios therefore deftroying each
other.
Chap. I. M E C H 2
other, it is evident, that if the concavity of the fphere
was filled with matter, that alone which lies nearer the
centre than the body can affedl it; the refpe&ive ac¬
tions of all the parts that are more diftant being equal,
and in contrary directions; fince the fame is demon-
ftrable of any of the remaining concentric furfaces.
Let us fee then what effeCt that which lies nearer the
centre than the body will have upon it, which may be
confidered as a fphere on whofe furface the body is
placed. The diftances of each particle of matter from
the body, (taken colleCtively,) will be as the diameter
of the fphere, or as the radius, i. e. as the diftance of
the body from the centre: their aCtion therefore upon
the body will be inverfely as the fquare of that di¬
ftance ; but the quantity of matter will be as the cube
of that diftance, (18 £/. ta.): the attradion therefore
will be inverfely as that proportion. Now, thefe two
ratios being compounded, the attra&ion will be only
as the diftance from the centre.
If two bodies which contain equal quantities of
matter, were placed at ever fo great a diftance from
one another, and then left at liberty in free fpace ; if
there were no other bodies in the univerfe to affeCt
them, they would fall equally fwift towards one ano¬
ther by the power of gravity, with velocities accelera¬
ted as they approached each other; and would meet
in a point which was half way between them at firft.
Or, if two bodies containing unequal quantities of
matter were placed at any diftance, and left in the
fame manner at liberty, they would fall towards one
another with velocities which would be in an inverfe
proportion to their refpeftive quantities of matter ; and
moving fafter and fafter in their mutual approach, would
at laft meet in a point as much nearer to the place
from which the heavier body began to fall, than to the
place from which the lighter body began to fall, as the
quantity of matter in the former exceeded that in the
latter:
All bodies that we know of have gravity or weight.
For, that there is no fuch thing as pofitive levity, even
in fmoke, vapours, and fumes, is demonftrable by ex¬
periments on the air-pump ; which (hews, that altho’
the fmoke of a candle afeends to the top of a tall re¬
ceiver when full of air, yet, upon the air’s being ex-
haufted out of the receiver, the fmoke falls down to
the bottom of it. So, if a piece of wood is immerfed
in a jar of water, the wood will rife to the top of the
water, becaufe it has a lefs degree of weight than its
bulk of water has : but if the jar is emptied of water,
,3 the wood falls to the bottom.
Gravity de- As every particle of matter has its proper gravity,
mon ft rated t,he effeft of the whole muft be in proportion to the
fluamiV 'of number °f the attra&ing particles ; that is, as the
matter in quantity of matter in the whole body. This is de¬
bodies. monftrable by experiments on pendulums; for, if they
are of equal lengths, whatever their weights be, they
vibrate in equal times. Now it is plain, that if one
be double or triple the weight of another, it muft re¬
quire a double or triple power of gravity to make it
move with the fame celerity: juft as it would require
a double or triple force to projeft a bullet of zo or 30
pounds weight with the fame degree of fwiftnefs that
a bullet of 10 pounds would require. Hence it is
evident, that the power or force of gravity is always
proportional to the quantity of matter in bodies, what.
1 N I C S. 4425
ever their bulks or figures are.
Gravity alfo, like all other virtues or emanations it decreafes
which proceed or iffue from a centre, decreafes as the as the fquare
diftance multiplied by itfelf increafes: that is, a body the di¬
al twice the diftance of another attrafts with only a
fourth part of the force ; at thrice the diftance, with
a ninth part; at four times the diftance, with a 16th
part; and fo on. This too is confirmed by comparing
the diftance which the moon falls in a minute from a
right line touching her orbit, with the diftance thro’
which heavy bodies near the earth fall in that time ;■
and alfo by comparing the forces which retain Jupi¬
ter’s moons in their orbits, with their refpe&ive di¬
ftances from Jupiter.
The velocity which bodies near the earth acquire in
defeending freely by the force of gravity, is propor¬
tional to the times of their defeent. For, as the
power of gravity does not confift in a fingle impulfe,
but is always operating in a conftant and uniform
manner, it muft produce equal effefts in equal times;
and confequently in a double or triple time, a double
or triple effedt. And fo, by a&ing uniformly on the
body, muft accelerate its motion proportionably to
the time of its defeent.
To be a little more particular on this fubjedf,let us
fuppofe that a body begins to move with a celerity
conftantly and gradually increafing in fuch a manner
as would carry it through a mile in a minute ; at the
end of this fpace it will have acquired fuch a degree
of celerity as is fufficient to carry it two miles the next
minute, though it fhould then receive no new impulfe
from the caufe by which its motion had been accele¬
rated : but if the fame accelerating caufe continues, it
will carry the body a mile farther; on which account
it will have run through four miles at the end of two
minutes ; and then it will have acquired fuch a degree
of celerity as is fufficient to carry it through a double'
fpace in as much more time, or eight miles in two mi¬
nutes, even though the accelerating force ffiould aft
upon it no more. But this force ftill continuing to
operate in an uniform manner, will again, in an equal
time, produce an equal effeft; and fo, by carrying it
a mile further, caufe it to move through five miles the
third minute: for, the celerity already acquired, and
the celerity ftill acquiring, will have each its complete
effeft. Hence we learn, that if the body fhould move
one mile the firft minute, it would move three the fe-
cond, five the third; feven the fourth,, nine the fifth,-.
and fo on in proportion.
And thus it appears, that the fpaces deferibed, in-
fucceffive equal parts of time, by an uniformly accele--
rated motion, are always as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5,
7, 9, &c. and confequently, the whole fpaces are as
the fquares of the times, or of the iaft acquired velo¬
cities. For the continued addition of the odd num¬
bers yields the fquares of all numbers from unity up¬
wards. Thus, 1 is the firft odd number, and the
fquare of 1 is 1; 3 is the feccnd odd number, and
this added to 1 makes 4, the fquare of 2 ; 5 is the-
third odd number, which added to 4 makes 9, the
fquare of 3 ; and fo on for ever. Since, therefore,-
the times and velocities proceed evenly and conftantiy
as 1, 2, 3, 4, See. but the fpaces deferibed in each
equal time are as I, 3, 5, 7, See. it is evident that the'
fpace deferibed
45«6
The do
fcending
velocity
will give a
qual afcent
Plate
CLXVII.
H- *•
M E G li
In ? minute will fee » » » I =fquare of i
In 2 minutes 1+3— 4 = fquare of a
In 3 minutes 1+3+5:=: 9 = fquare of 3
In 4 minutes 1+3+5+7 = 16 = fquare of 4, &c.
Of this propofition Mr Rowning gives a mathema¬
tical demonftration from the following theorem, viz.
-That the fpace palled over by a body with an uniform
motion, is in a ratio compounded of the time and ve¬
locity. For the longer a body continues to move uni¬
formly, the more fpace it paffes over; and the falter
it moves during any interval of time, the farther it
goes : therefore the fpace is in a ratio compounded
of both; that is, it is had by multiplying the one into
the other.
Hence may be deduced the following corollary,
namely, That the area of a re&angle, one of whole
iides reprefents the celerity with which a body moves,
and the other the time of its motion, will exprefs the
fpace it moves through.
Let now the line AB reprefent the time a body
takes up in falling, and let BC exprefs the celerity ac¬
quired by its fall: farther, let the line AB be divided
into an indefinite number of fmall portions, ci, im, mp,
and let e/J ik, mn, pq, &c. be drawn parallel to the
bafe. Now, as the height from which bodies can be
let fall is fo fmall, in proportion to their difiance from
the centre of the earth, that it cannot fenfibly alter
their gravity, which therefore may be conceived as
lifting conftantly and uniformly upon them during the
whole time of their fall; it follows, that they mult ac¬
quire at every inftant an equal degree of velocity.
Hence, the velocities being as the times in which they
are acquired, it is plain, that the lines ef, ik, mn, pqr
&c. being to each other (4 El. 6.) as the lines he.
At, A?n, Ap, &c. will reprefent the celerities in the
times reprefented by thefe: that is, ef will be as the
velocity of the body in the fmall portion of time ei,
and ik will be as the velocity in the portion of time im;
in like manner pq will be as the velocity in the portion
of time po; which portions of time being taken infi¬
nitely fmall, the velocity of the body may be fuppofed
the fame during any whole portion ; and confequent-
]y the fpace run over in the time ei, with the velocity
ef, may be reprefented by the reftangle if. In like
manner the fpace run over in the time im, with the ce¬
lerity ik, may be reprefented by the reftangle mk; and
that run over with the celerity mr, in the time mp,
by the reftangle and fo of the reft. Therefore
the fpace run over in all thofe times will be reprefent¬
ed by the fum of all the reftangks; that is, by the tri¬
angle ABC; for thofe little triangular deficiencies at
the end of each reftangle would have vanifhed, had
the lines ei, im, mp, &c. been infinitely fhort, as the
times they were fuppofed to reprefent. Now, as the
fpace the body defcribes in the time AB is repre¬
fented by the triangle ABC, for the fame reafon the
fpace pafi'ed over in the time Ao may be reprefented
by the triangle Aor; but thefe triangles being fimilar,
are to each other as the fquares of their homologous
Tides AB, and Ao, (20 El. 6.) that is, the fpaces re¬
prefented by the triangles are to each other as the
fquares of the times reprefented by the fidesQE D.
As heavy bodies are uniformly acceleratedby the
power of gravity in their defcent, it is plain that they
mutt be uniformly retarded by the fame power in their
^ N I C S. Chap, I.
afcent. Therefore, the velocity which a body ac-
quires by falling, is fufficient to carry it up again to
the fame height from whence it fell; allowance being
made for the refifiance of the air, or other medium in
which the body is moved. Thus the body D in roll-
ing down the inclined plane AB, will acquire fuch a jL' 3> ‘
velocity by the time it arrives at B, as will carry it up 0
the inclined plane BC, almoft to C; and would carry
it quite up to C, if the body and plane were perfeftly
fmooth, and the air gave no refiftance. So, if a pen¬
dulum were put into motion in a fpace quite void at
air and all other refiftances, and had no friftion on
the point of fufpenfion, it would move for ever ; for
the velocity it had acquired in falling through the
dcfcending part of the arc, would be ftill fufficient to
carry it equally high in the afcending part thereof.
The centre of gravity is that point of a body in The centre
which the whole force of its gravity or weight is0* gravity,
united. Therefore whatever fupports that point
bears the weight of the whole body: and whilft
it is fupported the body cannot fall, beceufe all
its parts arc in a perfeft equilibrium about that
point.
An imaginary line drawn from the centre of gra¬
vity of any body towards the centre of the earth, is 17
called the line of direflhn. In this line all heavy snd fine cf
bodies defcend, if not obftrufted. dirctuon.
Since the whole weight of a body is united in its
centre of gravity, as that centre afcends or defcends
we muft look upon the whole body to do fo too.
But as it is contrary to the nature of heavy bodies to
afcend of their own accord, or not to defcend when
they are permitted; we may be fure that, unlefs the
centre of gravity be fupported, the whole body will-
tumble or fall. Hence it is, that bodies (land upon
their bafes when the line of direftion falls within the
bafe; for in this cafe the body cannot be made to fall
without firft raifing the centre of gravity higher than
it was before. Thus, the inclining body ABCD,
whofe centre of gravity is E, Hands firmly on its bafe
CDIK, becaufe the line of direftion EF falls within
the bafe. But if a weight, as ABGH, be laid upon
the top of the body, the centre of gravity of the
whole body and weight together is railed up to 11
and then, a& the line of direftion ID falls without the
bafe at D, the centre of gravity I is not fupported,
and the whole body and weight tumble down toge¬
ther.
Hence appears the abfurdity of people’s rifing ha-
ftily in a coach or boat when it is likely to overfet:
for by that means they ralfe the centre of gravity fo
far as to endanger throwing it quite out of the bafe j
which, if they do, they overfet the vehicle efieftuaily;
whereas, had they clapt down to the bottom, they
would have brought the line of direftion, and con-
fequently the centre of gravity, farther within the
bale, and by that means might have faved them-
felves.
The broader the bafe is, and the nearer the line
of direftion is to the middle or centre of it, the more
firmly does the body ftand. On the contrary, the
narrower the bafe, and the nearer the line of direftion
is to the fide of it, the more ealily may the body be
overthrown ; a lefs charge of pofmon being fufficient
to remove the line of direftipn out of the bafe in the
latter
45 2 7
Sjiap. II. M E C H
latter cafe than in the former. And hence it is, that
a fphere is fo eafily rolled upon a horizontal plane ;
and that it is fo difficult, if not impolfible, to make
things which are fharp pointed to ftand upright on
the point. From what hath been faid, it plainly
appears, that if the plane is inclined on which the
heavy body is placed, that body will Hide down upon
the plane whilft the line of direftion falls within the
bafe ; but it will tumble or roll down when the line
‘te falls without the bafe. Thus, the body A will only
.XIX. jown t},e ;nci;nec] plane CD, whilft the body B
’ 4* rolls down upon it.
When the line of dire&ion falls within the bafe of
our feet, we ftand ; and mod firmly when it is in the
middle: but when it is out of that bafe, we immedi¬
ately fall. And it is not only pleafing, but even fur-
prifing, to refleft upon the various and unthought of
methods and poftures which we ufe to retain this po-
fition, or to recover it when it is loft. For this pur-
pofe we bend our body forward when we rife from a
chair, or when we go up ftairs : and for this purpofe
a man leans forward when he carries a burden on his
back, and backward when he carries it on his bread ;
and to the right or left fide as he carries it on the
oppofite fide. A thoufand more inflances might be
added.
The quantity of matter in all bodies is in exaft
proportion to their weight, bulk for bulk. There¬
fore, heavy bodies are as much more denfe or com¬
pact than light bodies of the fame bulk, as they ex-
«S ceed them in weight.
K bodies ah bodies are full of pores, or fpaces void of mat-
rous' ter: and in gold, which is the heavieft of all known
bodies, there is perhaps a greater quantity of fpace
than of matter. For the particles of heat and mag-
netifm find an eafy paffage through the pores of
gold ; and even water itfelf has been forced through
them. Befides, if we confider how eafily the rays of
light pafs through fo folid a body as glafs in all
manner of diredtions, we (hall find reafon to believe
that bodies are much more porous than is generally
*9 imagined.
in of me* bodies are feme way or other affedled by heat ;
r and all metallic bodies are expanded in length,
breadth, and thicknefs, thereby.—The proportion of
the expanfion of feveral metals, according to the beft
experiments, is nearly thus: Iron and glafs as 3,
fteel 4, copper 4|-, brafs 5, tin 6, lead 6-|. An
iron rod 3 feet long is about one 70th part of an
10 inch longer in fummer than in winter,
he pyro- The expanfion of metals by heat is demonftrated
Uer. by the following machine called Pyrometer.
Fio'. j, AA is a flat piece of mahogony, in which are
fixed four brafs ftuds B,C,D,L; and two pins, one
at F and the other at H. On the pin F turns the
crooked index E I, and upon the pin H the ftraight
index G K, againft which a piece of watch-fpring R
bears gently, and fo prefies it towards the beginning
of the fcale MN, over which the point of that index
moves. This fcale is divided into inches and tenth
parts of an inch: the firft inch is marked 1000, the
fecond 2000, and fo on. A bar of metal O is laid
into notches in the top of the ftuds C and D ; one
end of the bar bearing againft the adjufting ferew P,
Von. VI. 2
A N I C S.
and the other end againft the crooked index E I, at
a 20th part of its length from its centre of motion F.
— Now it is plain, that however much the bar O
lengthens, it will move that part of the index EI
againft which it bears juft as far: but the crooked
end of the fame index, near H, being 20 times as far
from the centre of motion F as the point is againft
which the bar bears, it will move 20 times as far as
the bar lengthens. And as this crooked end bears
againft the index G K at only a 20th part of the
whole length G S from its centre of motion H, the
point S will move through 20 times the fpace that
the point of bearing near H does. Hence, as 20
multiplied by 20 produces 400, it is evident that if
the bar lengthens but a 400th part of an inch, the
point S will move a whole inch on the fcale; and as
every inch is divided into 10 equal parts, if the bar
lengthens but the 10th part of the 400th part of an
inch, which is only the 4000th part of an inch, the
point S will move the 10th part of an inch, which is
very perceptible.
To find how much a bar lengthens by heat, firft lay
it cold into the notches of the ftuds, and turn the ad¬
jufting ferew P until the fpring R brings the point S
of the index GK to the beginning of the divifions of
the fcale at M: then, without altering the ferew any
farther, take off the bar, and rub it with a dry woollen
cloth till it feels warm; and then, laying it on where
it was, obferve how far it pufhes the point S upon the
fcale by means of the crooked index El, and the point
S will (hew exaftly how much the bar has lengthened
by the heat of rubbing. As the bar cools, the fpring
R bearing againft the index K G, will caufe its point
S to move gradually back towardsM in the fcale: and
where the bar is quite cold, the index will reft at M,
when it was before the bar was made warm by rub¬
bing. The indexes have fmall rollers under them at I
and K; which, by turning round on the fmooth wood
as the indexes move, make their motions the eafier, by
taking off a great part of the friftion, which would
otherwife be on the pins F and H, and of the points
of the indexes themfelves on the wood. 2r
Befides the univerfal properties above-mentioned, MaSnetlfm'
there are bodies which have properties peculiar to them¬
felves ; fuch as the loadftone, in which the moft re¬
markable are thefe: 1. It attradfs iron and fteel only.
2. It conftantly turns one of its fides to the north and
another to the fouth, when fufpended by a thread that
does not twift. 3. It communicates all its properties
to a piece of fteel when rubbed upon it, without lofing
any itfelf. See Magnetism. 42
Several bodies, particularly amber, glafs, jet, feal- Eleftricity.
ing wax, agate, and almoft all precious (tones, have a
peculiar property of attra&ing and repelling light bo¬
dies when heated by rubbing. This is called eleflrical
attrattion. See Electricity.
Chap. II. Of Central Forces.
We have already mentioned it as a neceffary confe-Motion or
quence arifing from the deadnefs or inadtivity of
ter, that all bodies endeavour to continue in the ftate^^Ao-
they are in, whether of reft or motion. If the body A dies,
were placed in any part of free fpace, where nothing
25 either
4528
MECHANICS.
cither draws or impels it ary way, it would for ever part let the ends of a ftraight wire i be fixed, fo as to
Chap, IL
a that part of fpace, becaufe it could have no
tendency of itfelf to remove any way from thence. If
it receives a fingle impulfe any way, as fuppofe from
A 4-^T> lx . *11    a.. !_ J^XX
move along with it, under the pulley; and let the ball
G be made to Aide eafily on the wire. A thread ?»is
fixed to this ball, and goes over the pulley to I; by
Plate
Cl.XIX.
fig. 6.
A towards B, it will go on in that diredtion; for, of this thread the ball may be drawn up on the wire, pa-
All motion
naturally
reiflilineal.
itfelf it could never fwerve from a right line, nor ftop
its courfe. When it has gone through the fpace AB,
and met with no refiftance, its velocity will be the
fame at B as it was at A : and this velocity, in as
much more time, will carry it through as much more
fpace, from B to C ; and fo on for ever. Therefore,
when we fee a body in motion, we conclude that fome
other fubftance mull have given it that motion; and
when we fee a body fall from motion to reft, we con¬
clude that fome other body or caufe ftopt it.
As all motion is naturally re&ilineal, it appears, that
a bullet projedted by the hand, or ftiot from a cannon,
would for ever continue to move in the fame diredlion
it received at firft, if no other power diverted its courfe.
Therefore, when we fee a body move in a curve of any
kind whatever, we conclude it muft be adfed upon by
rallel to the fide AD, when the part BEFC is pufhed
as far as it will go into the fquare. But, if this part
be drawn out, it will carry the ball along with it, pa¬
rallel to the bottom of the fquare DC. By this means
the ball G may either be drawn perpendicularly up¬
ward by pulling the thread tn, or moved horizontally
along by pulling out the part BEFC, in equal times,
and through equal fpaces; each power adting equally
and feparately upon it. But if, when the ball is at G,
the upper end of the thread be tied to the pin I, in the
corner A of the fixed fquare, and the moveable part
BEFG be drawn out, the ball will then be adted upon
by both the.powers together: for it will be drawn up
by the thread towards the top of the fquare, and at
the fame time carried with its wire k towards the right
hand BC, moving all the while in the diagonal line Ly
two powers at leaft; one putting it in motion, and an- and will be found at g when the Aiding part is drawn
other drawing it off from the redtilineal courfe it would
otherwife have continued to move in: and whenever
that power, which bent the motion of the body from
a ftraight line into a curve, ceafes to adt, the body will
again move on in a ftraight line touching that point of
the curve in which it was when the adlion of that
power ceafed. For example, a pebble moved round in
a Aing ever fo long a time, will Ay off the moment it
is fet at liberty by Aipping one end of the Aing-cord,
and will go on in a line touching the circle it defcri-
out as far as it was before; which then will have cau-
fed the thread to draw up the ball to the top of the
infide of the fquare, juft as high as it was before, when
drawn up fingly by the thread without moving the Ai¬
ding part.
If the adling forces are equal, but at oblique angles
to each other, fo will the fides of the parallelogram be:
and the diagonal run through by the moving body
will be longer or Aiorter, according as the obliquity is
greater or fmaller. Thus, if two equal forces adl con-
bed before; which line would adtually be a ftraight jointly upon the body A, one having a tendency to Fjg ^
one, if the earthVattra&ion did not affedt the pebble
and bring it down to the ground. This ftiews that
the natural tendency of the pebble, when put into mo¬
tion, is to continue moving in a ftraight line, although
by the force that moves the Aing it be made to revolve
in a circle.
s The change of motion produced is in proportion to
_ the force impreffed : for the effedts of natural caufes
move it through the fpace AB in the fame time that
the other has a tendency to move it through an equal
fpace AD; it will defcribe the diagonal AGC in the
fame time that either of the fingle forces would have
caufed it to defcribe either of the fides. If one of the
forces be greater than the other, then one fide of the
parallelogram will be fo much longer than the other.
For, if one force fingly would carry the body through^
’ are always proportionate to the force or power of thofe the fpace AE, in the fame time that the other would1
caufes.
By thefe laws it is eafy to prove, that a body will
defcribe the diagonal of a fquare or parallelogram by
two forces conjoined, in the fame time that it would de¬
fcribe either of the fides by one force fingly. Thus,
fuppofe the body A to reprefent a ftiip at fea; and that
it is drove by the wind, in the right line AB, with
have carried it through the fpace AD, the joint adiiom
of both will carry it in the fame time thro’ the fpace
AHF, which is the diagonal of the oblique parallelo¬
gram ADEF.
If both forces adt upon the body in fuch a manner
as to move it uniformly, the diagonal deferibed will be
a ftraight line; but if one of the forces adts-in fuch a
fuch a force as would carry it uniformly from A to B manner as to make the body move fafter and fafter as'
a minute: then, fuppofe a ftream or current of
ter running in the diredlion AD, with fueh a force as
v'ould carry the ftiip through an equal fpace from A to in redlilineal diredlions, and at the fame time adled up-
it goes forward, then the line deferibed will be a curve.
And this is the cafe of all bodies which are projedled'
D in a minute.’ By thefe two forces, adling together
at right angles to each other, the ftiip will defcribe
the line A EC ’
fig. 8.
by the power of gravity; which has a conftant
dency to accelerate their motions in the diredtion
a minute: which line (becaufe the wherein it adts.
forces are equal and perpendicular to each other) will From the uniform projedlile motion of bodies in The lawsii
be the diagonal of an exadt fquare. To confirm this ftraight lines, and the univerfal power of gravity or0f the pli
law by an experiment, let there be a wooden fquare attradlion, arifes the curvilineal motion of all the hea-netary ni«rr
' " ... . , venly bodies. If the body A be projedled along the*'0115,
ftraight line AFH in open fpace, where it meets with Fig. io.
no refiftance, and is not drawn afide by any power, it
will go on for ever with the fame velocity, and in the
fame diredion. But ifr at the fame moment the pro-
jedile
ABCD fo contrived, as to have the part BEFC made
to draw out or pufti into the fquare at pleafure. To
this part let the pulley H be joined, fo as to turn free¬
ly on an axis, which will be at H when the piece is
puftied in, and at A when it is drawn out. To this
Plate CI/XIX .
Chap. II.
jedtile force I* given it at A, the body S begins to at-
tradt it with a force duly adjufted (a), and perpendi¬
cular to its motion at A, it will then be drawn from
the ftraight line AFH, and forced to revolve about S
MECHANICS. 4529
which the earth would have moved in if it had not
been attended by a moon. For, fuppofing the moon
to defcribe a quarter of her progreflive orbit about
the earth in the time that the earth moves from e
i the circle ATW; in the fame manner, and by the it is plain, that when the earth comes to the
fame law, that a pebble is moved round in a fling. And
if, when the body is in any part of its orbit (as fup-
pofe at K), a fmaller body as L, within the fphere of
attraction of the body K, be projected in the right
line LM, with a force duly adjufted, and perpendicu¬
lar to the line of attra&ion LK; then the fmall body
L, will revolve about the large body K in the orbit
NO, and accompany it in its whole courfe round the
yet larger body S. But then, the body K will no lon¬
ger move in the circle ATW: for that circle will now
he deferibed by the common centre of gravity between
K and L; nay, even the greateft body S will not keep in
the centre, for it will be the common centre of gravity
Between all the three bodies S, K, and L, that will re¬
main immoveable there. So, if we fuppofe S and K
conne&ed by a wire P that has no weight, and K and L
connefted by a wire y that has no weight, the common
centre of gravity of all thefe three bodies will be a
point in the wire P near S ; which point being fup-
ported, the bodies will be all in aquilibrio as they move
round it: Though indeed, ftriAly fpeaking, the com¬
mon centre of gravity of all the three bodies will not
be in the wire P but when thefe bodies are all in a right
line. Here, S may reprefent the fun, K the earth, and
L the moon.
In order to form an idea of the curves deferibed by
two bodies revolving about their common centre of
gravity, whilft they themfelves with a third body are
in motion round the common centre of gravity of all
Pla,e the three; let us firft fuppofe E to be the fun, and e
CLXX. the earth going round him without any moon; and
*• their moving forces regulated as above. In this cafe,
27 whilft the earth goes round the fun in the dotted circle
The curves RTUWX, &c. the fun will go round the circle ABD,
fcef<bodies w^°^c centre C is the common centre of gravity be-
revolving* twee" the hm and earth; the right line /3 <1 reprefenting
about their-the mutual attra&ion between them, by which they
common are as firmly conne&ed as if they were fixed at the two
c en(js an jron kar ftrong enough to hold them. So,
when the earth is at the fun will be at E; when the
earth is at T, the fun will be at F; and when the earth
is at g, the fun will be at G, &c.
Now, let us take in the moon q (at the top of the
figure), and fuppofe the earth to have no progreflive
motion about the fun ; in which cafe, whilft the
moon revolves about the earth in her orbit ^
the earth will revolve in the circle S 13, whofe centre
R is the common centre of gravity of the earth and
moon they being conne&ed by the mutual attraftion
between them in the fame manner as the earth and
fun are.
But the truth is, that whilft the moon revolves
about the earth, the earth is in motion about the fun :
and now, the moon will caufe the earth to defcribe an
irregular curve, and not a true circle, round the fun ;
it being the common centre of gravity of the earth
and moon that will then defcribe the fame circle
gravity.
moon will be found at r; in which time, their com¬
mon centre of gravity will have deferibed the dotted
arc R 1 T, the earth the curve R 5 and the moon
the curve q 14 r. In the time that the moon de-
feribes another quarter of her orbit, the centre of
gravity of the earth and moon will defcribe the dotted
arc T 2 U, and the earth the curve f 6 g, and the
moon the curve r 15 /, and fo on.—And thus, whilft
the moon goes once round the earth in her progreflive
orbit, their common centre of gravity deferibes the
regular portion of a circle R 1 T 2 U 3 V 4 W, the
earth the irregular curve K^/6gq bit, and the
moon the yet more irregular curve q I4r 15 / 16
t \ q u\ and then, the fame kind of tracks over again.
The centre of gravity of the earth and moon is
6000 miles from the earth’s centre towards the moon ;
therefore the circle S 13 which the earth deferibes
round that centre of gravity (in every courfe of the
moon round her orbit) is 12,000 miles in diameter.
Confequently the earth is 12,000 miles nearer the fun
at the time of full moon than at the time of new.
See the Earth at f and at h.
To avoid confufion in fo fmall a figure, we have
fuppofed the moon to go only twice and a half round
the earth, in the time that the earth goes once round
the fun : it being impoffible to take in all the revolu¬
tions which fhe makes in a year, and to give a true
figure of her path, unlefs we fhould make the femi-
diameter of the earth’s orbit at leaft 84 inches ; and
then, the proportional femidiameter of the moon’s or¬
bit would be only a quarter of an inch.
If the moon made any complete number of revolu¬
tions about the earth in the time that the earth makes
one revolution about the fun, the paths of the fun and
moon would return into themfelves at the end of every
year, and fo be the fame over again : but they return
not into themfelves in lefs than 19 years nearly; in
which time the earth makes nearly 19 revolutions a-
bout the fun, and the moon 235 about the earth.
If the planet A be attra&ed towards the fun, with^jat'
fuch a force as would make it fall from A to B, in^ I& *
the time that the projeftileimpulfe would have carried
it from A to F, it will defcribe the arc AG by theA(j(^[)fe
combined a&ion of thefe forces, in the fame time thatprojeftiie
the former would have caufed it to fall from A to B, force ba-
or the latter have carried it from A to F. But, jflances a
the projetftile force had been twice as great, that is,
fuch as would have carried the planet from A to H, gra'vfty?
in the fame time that now, by the fuppofition, it
carries it only from A to F; the fun’s attra&ion muft
then have been four times as ftrong as formerly, to have
kept the planet in the circle ATW; that is, it muft
have been fuch as would have caufed the planet to fall
from A to E, which is four times the diftance of A
from B, in the time that the proje&ile force fingly
would have carried it from A to H, which is only
2 J 0^2 twice
(a) To make the projedile force a juft balance to the gravitating power, fo as to keep the planet moving in a
circle, it muft give fuch a velocity as the planet would acquire by gravity when it had fallen through half the femt-
diameter of that circle.
453°
Plate
Cl.XX.
fig.z.
19
The whirl¬
ing table
defcri bedl
The pro-
penfity of
Ihte it is it
MECHANICS.
twice the diftance of A from F (b). Thus, a double
projeftile force will balance a quadruple power of gravi¬
ty in the fame circle ; as appears plain by the figure,
and (hall foon be confirmed by an experiment.
Th? whirling-table is a machine contrived for Ihew-
 : -r .u- A a „ n 
Chap. II.
board, but, on account of its ina&ivity, it endeavours
to continue in the ftate of reft which it was in before.
— Continue turning, until the board communicates an
equal degree of motion with its own to the ball; and
then turning on, you will perceive that the ball will
ing experiments of this nature. A A is a ftrong remain upon one part of the board, keeping the fame
frame of wood, B a winch or handle fixed on the velocity with it, and having no relative motion upon
s C of the wheel D, round which is the catgut
firing F, which alfo goes round the fmall wheels G
and K, crofting between them and the great wheel
D. On the upper end of the axis of the wheel G,
above the frame, is fixed the round board d, to which
the bearer M S X may be faftened occafionally, and
removed when it is not wanted. On the axis of the
wheel H is fixed the bearer NTZ : and it is eafy to
fee, that when the winch B is turned, the wheels and
bearers are put into a whirling motion.
Each bearer has two wires W X, and Y Z, fixed
and ferewed tight into them at the ends by nuts on
the outfide. And when thefe nuts are uuEcrewed, the
wires may be drawn out in order to change the
balls U and V, which Aide upon the wires by means
of brafs loops fixed into the balls, which keep the balls
up from touching the wood below them. A ftrong
fiik line goes through each ball, and is fixed to it at
any length from the centre of the bearer to its end,
as occafion requires, by a nut-ferew at the top of the
ball; the lhank of the ferew goes into the centre of
the ball, and prefiing the line againft the under fide of
it, as is the cafe with every thing that lies loofe upon
the plane furface of the earth, which, having the mo¬
tion of the earth communicated to it, never endeavours
to remove from that place. But flop the board fud-
denly by the hand, and the ball will go on, and con¬
tinue to revolve upon the board, until the fri&ion
thereof ftops its motion: which ftiews, that matter
being once put into motion, would continue to move
for ever, if it met with no refiftance. In like man¬
ner, if a perfon ftands upright in a boat before it be¬
gins to move, he can ftand firm ; but the moment the
boat fets off, he is in danger of falling towards that
place which the boat departs from : becaufe, as
matter, be has no natural propenfity to move. But
when he acquires the motion of the boat, let it be
ever fo fwift, if it be fmooth and uniform, he will
ftand as upright and firm as if he was on the plain
ftiore ; and if the boat ftrikes againft any obftacle,
be will fall towards that obftacle ; on account of the
propenfity he has, as matter, to keep the motion
which the boat has put him into.
2. Take away this ball,and put a longer cord to it,
the hole that it goes through.—The line goes from which may be put down through the hollow axis of
the ball, and under a fmall pulley fixed in the middle the bearer MX, and wheel G, and fix a weight to the
of the bearer; then up through a focket in the
round plate (fee S and T) in the middle of each
bearer ; then through a flit in the middle of the fquare
top (O and P) of each tower, and going over a fmall
pulley on the top comes down again the fame way,
and is at laft faftened to the upper end of the focket
fixt in the middle of the above-mentioned round plate.
Thefe plates S and T have each four round holes near
their edges for letting them Aide up and down upon
the wires which make the corner of each tower.
The balls and plates being thus connefted each by
its particular line, it is plain that if the balls be drawn
outward, or towards the ends M and N of their re-
fpe&ive bearers, the round plates S and T will be
end of the cord below the machine; which weight, if
left at liberty, will draw the ball from the edge of the
whirling-board to its centre.
Draw off the ball a little from the centre, and turn Bodies mo-
the winch ; then the ball will go round and round with ving in or-
the board, and will gradually fly off farther and far-blts have a
ther from the centre, and raife up the weight below fly
the machine: which Ihows that all bodies revolving in thefe orbits,
circles have a tendency to fly off from thefe circles,
and muft have fome power a&ing upon them from the
centre of motion, to keep them from flying off. Stop
the machine, and the ball will continue to revolve for
fome time upon the board; but as the fri&ion gradu¬
ally ftops its motion, the weight a&ing upon it
drawn up to the top of their refpediive towers O bring it nearer and nearer to the centre in every revo-
and P.
There are feveral brafs weights, fome of two ounces,
fome of three, and fome of four, to be occafionaliy
put within the towers O and P, upon the round plates
S and T: each weight having a round hole in the
middle of it, for going upon the fockets or axis of
the plates ; and is flit from the edge to the hole, for
allowing it to be flipt over the forefaid line which
comes from each ball to its refpeftive plate.
The experiments to be made by this machine are.
lution, until it brings it quite thither. This fliews,
that if the planets met with any refiftance in going
round the fun, its attradive power would bring them
nearer and nearer to it in every revolution, until they
fell into it. 32
3. Take hold of the cord below the machine with Bodies
one hand, and with the other throw the ball upon the!”0^aljo"
round board as it were at right angles to the cord, byh;ts thiil) ;,j
which means it will go round and round upon the large ones,
board. Then obferving with what velocity it moves,
, Take away the bearer M X, and take the ivory pull the cord below the machine, which will bring the
ball a. to which the line or filk cord b is faftened at ball nearer to the centre of the board, and you will fee
ei the other end that the nearer the ball is drawn to the centre,, the fa-
one end ; and having made a loop (
of the cord, put the loop over a pin fixt in the centre
of the board d. Then, turning the winch B to
give the board a whirling motion, you will fee that
the ball does not immediately begin to move with the
fter it will revolve ; as thofe planets which are neareft
the fun revolve fatter than thofe which are more re¬
mote ; and not only go round fooner, becaufe they
deferibe fmaller circles, but even move fatter in every
part
(b) Here the arcs AG, AI, muft be fuppofed to be very fmall; otherwife AE, which is equal to HI, will be more
than quadruple to AB, which is equal to FG.
Chap,
Their cen¬
trifugal
fiiewn.
II.
MECHANICS.
part of their refpe&ive circles. >
4. Take away this ball, and apply the bearer MX,
whofe centre of motion is in its middle at ou, direftly
over the centre of the whirling-board d. Then put
two balls (V and U) of equal weights upon their
bearing wires, and having fixed them at equal diftan-
ces from their refpe&ive centres of motion •to and x
upon their filk cords, by the fcrew-nuts, put equal
weights in the towers O and P. Laftly, put the cat¬
gut firings E and F upon the grooves G and H of the
fmall wheels; which being of equal diameters, will
give equal velocities to the bearers above, when the
winch B is turned : and the balls U and V will fly off
towards M and N, and will raife the weights in the
towers at the fame inftant. This (hews, that when
bodies of equal quantities of matter revolve in equal
circles with equal velocities, their centrifugal forces are
equal.
5. Take away thefe equal balls, and inftead of
them put a ball of fix ounces into the bearer MX, at
a fixth part of the diftance wz from the centre, and put
a ball of one ounce into the oppofite bearer, at the
whole diftance xy, which is equal to *u) z from the
centre of the bearer ; and fix the balls at thefe diftan-
ces on their cords, by the fcrew-nuts at top ; and then
the ball U, which is fix times as heavy as the ball V,
will be at only a fixth part of the diftance from its cen¬
tre of motion ; and confequently will revolve in a circle
of only a fixth part of the circumference of the circle
in which V revolves. Now, let any equal weights be
put into the towers, and the machine be turned by
the winch ; which (as the catgut firing is on equal
wheels below) will caufe the balls to revolve in equal
times; but V will move fix times as fall as U, becaufe
it revolves in a circle of fix times its radius; and both
the weights in the towers will rife at once. This fhews,
that the centrifugal forces of revolving bodies (or their
tendencies to fly off from the circles they defcribe) are
in dire<Sl proportion to their quantities of matter mul¬
tiplied into their refpeftive velocities, or into their di-
ftances from the centres of their refpedlive circles. For,
fuppofing U, which weighs fix ounces, to be two
inches from its centre of motion w, the weight multi¬
plied by the diftance is 12 : and fupppfing V, which
weighs only one ounce, to be 12 inches diflant from
the centre of motion x, the weight once multiplied by
the diftance 12 inches is 12. And as they revolve in
equal times, their velocities are as their diflances from
the centre, namely, as 1 to 6.
If thefe two balls be fixed at equal diftances from
their refpedlive centres of motion, they will move with
equal velocities ; and if the tower O has fix times as
much weight put into it as the tower P has, the balls
will raife their weight exaftly at the fame moment.
This fhews, that'the ball U being fix times as heavy
as the ball V, has fix times as much centrifugal force,.
in deferibing an equal circle with an equal velocity.
9. If bodies of equal weights revolve in equal a double
circles with unequal velocities, their centrifugal forces velocity in
are as the fquares of the velocities. To prove this law by ^ ^am.e
an experiment, let two balls U and V of equal weights
be fixed on their cords at equal diflances from their quadruple
refpedlive centres of motion •w and x ; and then let power of
the catgut firing E be put round the wheel K (whofe gravity'
circumference is only one half of the circumference of
the wheel H or G) and over the pulley s to keep it
tight; and let four times as much weight be put into
the tower P as in the tower O. Then turn the winch
B, and the ball V will revolve twice as fall as the ball
U in a circle of the fame diameter, becaufe they are
equidiftant from the centres of the circles in which they
revolve; and the weights in the towers will both rife
at the fame inftant, which fhews that a double veloci¬
ty in the fame circle will exadlly balance a quadruple
power of attraclion in the centre of the circle. For
the weights in the towers may be confidered as the at-
traftive forces in the centres, afting upon the revol¬
ving balls : which, moving in equal circles, is the fame
thing as if they both moved in one and the fame circle. 3-
7. If bodies of equal weights revolve in unequal Kepler s
circles, in fuch a manner that the fquares of the times
of their going round are as the cubes of their diftan¬
ces from the centres of the circles they defcribe; their
centrifugal forces are inverfely as the fquares of their
diftances from thofe centres. For, the catgut firing
remaining as in the lad experiment, let the diftance of
the ball V from the centre x be made equal to two of
the crofs divifions on its bearer ; and the diftance of
the ball U from the centre w be three and a fixth part;
the balls themfelves being of equal weights, and V
making two revolutions by turning the winch, in the
time that U makesone: fo that if we fuppofe the ball
V to revolve in one moment, the ball U will revolve in
two moments, the fquares of which are one and four:
for the fquare of 1 is only r, and the fquare of 2 is
4 ; therefore the fquare of the period or revolution of
the ball V, is contained four times in the fquare of the
period of the ball U. But the diftance of V is 2, the
cube of which is 8, and the diftance of U is 3^, the
cube of which is 32 very nearly ; in which 8 is con¬
tained four times ; and therefore, the fquares of the
periods of V and U are to one another as the cubes of
their diftances from x and w, which are the centres of
their refpedlive circles. And if the weight in the
tower O be four ounces, equal to the fquare of 2, the
diftance of V from the centre x ; and the weight in
the tower P be 10 ounces, nearly equal to the fquare
of 3^, the diftance of U from ; it will be found,
upon turning the machine by the winch, that the balls
U and V will raife their refpedlive weights at very
nearly the fame inftant of time. Which confirms that
famous propofition of Kepler ( a), viz. that thefquares
(a) This law is of infinite ufe to aftronomers; for if they know the periodical time, that is, the time of the circu¬
lar revolution of two planets, and the diftance of one of them from the centre, they can by this find out the diftance
of the other, which before was not known. For infiance, we know the periodical time of the moon to days,
and the periodical time of the earth to be 365 days. The diftance of the moon from the centre of its motion we alfo
know to be 60 femi-diameters of the earth. Now we defire to know the diftance of the earth from the centre of its
motion, namely, the fun? We know by rule, that the proportion of the fquares of the periodical time*will give the
proportion of the cubes of the diftances. Then we find out the fquares of the periodical times of the two planets.
The periodical time of the moon is ay, and the fquare of that number 7*9; the periodical time of the earth is 365,.
and the fquare 133ai3.. Then we find the diftance of the planet, already known, 6o, and cube it, which makes
216000.
4532
MECHANIC S.
of the periodical times of the planets round the fun are
in proportion to the cubes of their diftances from him;
and that the fun’s attra&ion is inverfely as the fquare
of the diftance from his centre : that is, at twice the
diftance, his attra&ion is four times lefs ; and thrice
the diftance, nine times lefs; at four times the di¬
ftance, fixteen times lefs; and fo on, to the remoteft
part of the fyftem.
8. Take off the catgut firing E from the great
wheel D and the fmall wheel H, and let the firing F
3<s remain upon the wheels D and G. Take away alfo
The abfur- ^e bearer MX from the whirling-board d, and inftead
Cartefiaif1* t^ereo^ Put l^c machine AB fig. 4. upon it, fixing this
vortex. machine to the centre of the board by the pins c and d,
in fuch a manner, that the end e f may rife above the
board to an angle of 30 or 40 degrees. In the upper
fide of this machine there are two glafs tubes a and b,
clofe ftopt at.both ends ; and each tube is about three
quarters full of water. In the tube a is a little quick-
filver, which naturally falls down to the end a in the
water, becaufe it is heavier than its bulk of water ;
and on the tube £ is a final] cork which floats on the
top of the water at<r, becaufe it is lighter; and it is
fmall enough to have liberty to rife or fall in the tube.
While the board b with this machine upon it continues
to reft, the quickfilver lies at the bottom of the tube
a, and the cork floats on the water near the top of
the tube b. But, upon turning the winch, and put¬
ting the machine in motion, the contents of each tube
will fly off towards the uppermoft ends (which arefar-
theft from the centre of motion) the heavieft with the
greateft force. Therefore the quickfilver in the tube
a will fly off quite to the end f, and occupy its bulk
of fpace there, excluding the water from that place,
becaufe it is lighter than quickfilver 5 but the water in
the tube b flying off to its higher end e, will exclude
the cork from that place, and caufe the cork to de-
fcend towards the lowermoft end of the tube, where it
will remain upon the loweft end of the water near b;
for the heavier body having the greater centrifugal
force will therefore poffefs the uppermoft part of the
tube, and the lighter body will keep between the hea¬
vier and the lowcrmoft part.
This demonftrates the abfurdity of the Cartefian
do&rine of the planets moving round the fun in vor¬
texes: for, if the planet be more denfe or heavy than
its bulk of the vortex, it will fly off therein farther
and farther from the fun ; if lefs denfe, it will come
down to the loweft part of the vortex, at the fun: and
the whole vortex itfelf muft be furrounded with fome-
thing like a great wall, otherwife it would fly quite
off, planets and all together. But while gravity exifts,
there is no occafion for fuch vortexes; and when it
ceafes to exift, a done thrown upwards will never re-
turn to the earth again.
If one body 9* If ® body be fo placed on the whirling-board of
moves the machine (fig. 2.) that the centre of gravity of
round ano- t}le body be diredlly over the centre of the board, and
ofYl’eln1 t^ie b°ard be put into ever fo rapid a motion by the
muft move winch B, the body will turn round with the board, but
round their will not remove from the middle of it ; for, as all parts
common
centre of
gravity.
Chap. II.
of the body are in aquililrio round its centre of gravity,
and the centre of gravity is at reft in the centre of mo¬
tion, the centrifugal force of all parts of the body will
be equal at equal diftances from its centre of motion,
and therefore the body will remain in its place. But
if the centre of gravity be placed ever fo little out of
the centre of motion, and the machine be turned fwift-
ly round, the body will fly off towards that fide of the
board on which its centre of gravity lies. Thus,
if the wvire C with its ball B be taken away from the
demi-globe A, and the flat fide efoi this demi- Fig. y.
globe be laid upon the whirling-board of the ma¬
chine, fo that their centres may coincide ; if then the
board be turned ever fo quick by the winch, the demi-
globe will remain where it was placed. But if the
wire C be fcrewed into the demi-globe at d, the whole
becomes one body, whofe centre of gravity is now at
or near d. Let the pin c be fixed in the centre of the
whirling-board, and the deep groove b cut in the flat
fide of the demi-globe be put upon the pin, fo as the
pin may be in the centre of yd, (fee fig. 6. where this
groove is reprefented at b,) and let the whirling-board
be turned by the winch, which will carry the little
ball B with its wire C, and the demi-globe A, all
round the centre-pin ci; and then the centrifugal
force of the little ball B, which weighs only one
ounce, will be fo great, as to draw off the demi-
globe A, which weighs two pounds, until the end of
the groove at e ftrikes againft the pin c, and fo pre¬
vents the demi-globe A from going any farther: other-
wife, the centrifugal force of B would have been great
enough to have carried A quite off the whirling-board.
Which (hews, that if the fun were placed in the very
centre of the orbits of the planets, it could not poffibly
remain there: for the centrifugal forces of the pla¬
nets would carry them quite off, and the fun with
them; efpecially when feveral of them happened to be
in any one quarter of the heavens. For the fun and
planets are as much connected by the mutual attrac¬
tion that fubfifts between them, as the bodies A and
B are by the wire C which is fixed into them both.
And even if ther-e were but one fingle planet in the
whole heavens to go round ever fo large a fun in the
centre of its orbit, its centrifugal force would foon
carry off both itfelf and the fun. For, the greateft
body placed in any part of free fpace could be eafily
moved: becaufe if there were no other body to atti aft
it, it could have no weight or gravity of itfelf; and
confequently, tho’ it could have no tendency of itfelf
to remove from that part of fpace, yet it might be very
eafily moved by any other fubftance. And perhaps it
was this confideration which made the celebrated Ar¬
chimedes fay, that if he had a proper place at fome di¬
ftance from the earth whereon to fix his machinery, he
could move the whole earth.
10. As the centrifugal force of the light: body B
will not allow the heavy body A to remain in the cen¬
tre of motion, even though it be 24 times as heavy as
B ; let us now take the ball A (fig. 7.) which weighs Fig 7.
fix ounces, and conneA it by the wire C with the ball
B, which weighs only one ounce; and let the fork E
hang
416000, Now by a rule in arithmetic, we find out a certain number which will bear the fame proportion to this, that
the fquares 719, and 133225 bear to each other; that proportional number is 39460336, and the cube root of this laft
number, which is 340, will exprefs the diftance of the fun from the earth, which was what we wanted to know, fo
that the earth is diftant from the fun 3400 of its own femi-diameters.
4533
MECHANICS.
Chap. II.
be fixed Into the centre of the whirling-board : then
hang the balls upon the fork by the wire C in fuch a
manner, that they may exaftly balance each other;
which will be when the centre of gravity between
them, in the wire at d, is fupported by the fork. And
this centre of gravity is as much nearer to the centre
of the ball A, than to the centre of the ball B, as A
Plate is heavier than B, allowing for the weight of the wire
CLXX. on each fide 0f tfie fork. This done, let the machine
7' be put into motion by the winch ; and the balls A
and B will go round their common centre of gravity
d, keeping their balance, becaufe either will notallow
the other to fly off with it. For, fuppofing the ball
B to be only one ounce in weight, and the ball A to
be fix ounces ; then, if the wire C were equally heavy
on each fide of the fork, the centre of gravity ^ would
be fix times as far from the centte of the ball B as
from the ball A, and confequently B will revolve with
a velocity fix times as great as A does; which will
give B fix times as much centrifugal force as any Angle
ounce of A has: but then, as B is only one ounce,
and A fix ounces, the whole centrifugal force of A
will exaftly balance the whole centrifugal force of B:
and therefore, each body will detain the other fo as to
make it keep in its circle. This fhews, that the fun
and planets mull all move round the common centre of
gravity of the whole fyftem, in order to preferve that
juft balance which takes place among them. For, the
planets being as unaftive and dead as the above balls,
they could no more have put themfelves into motion
than thefe balls can ; nor have kept in their orbits
without being balanced at firft with the greateft degree
of exaftnefs upon their common centre of gravity, by
the Almighty hand that made them and put them in
motion.
Perhaps it may be here allied, that fince the centre
of gravity between thefe balls muft be fupported by the
fork E in this experiment, What prop it is that fupports
the centre of gravity of the folar fyftem, and confe¬
quently bears the weight of all the bodies in it ; and
by what is the prop itfelf fupported ? The anfwer is
eafy and plain ; for the centre of gravity of our balls
muft be fupported, becaufe they gravitate towards the
earth, and would therefore fall to it: but as the fun
and planets gravitate only towards one another, they
have nothing elfe to fall to, and therefore have nooc-
cafion for any thing to fupport their common centre of
gravity : and if they did not move round that centre,
and confequemly acquire a tendency to fly off from it
by their motions, their mutual attra&ions would foon
bring them together ; and1 fo the whole would become
one mafs in the fun i which would alfo be the cafe if
their velocities round the fun were not quick enough ta
create a centrifugal force equal to the fun’s attradion.
But after all this nice adjuftment, it appears evi¬
dent that the Deity cannot withdraw his regulating
hand from his works, and leave them to be folely go¬
verned by the laws which he has impreffed upon them
at fit;ft. For if he (hould once leave them fo, their order
would in time come to an end; becaufe the planets
muft neceffarily difturb one another’s motions by their
mutual attractions, when feveral of them are in the
fame quarter of the heavens; as is often the cafe: and
then, as they attradl the fun more towards that quar¬
ter than when they are in a manner difperfed equably
around him, if he was not at that time made to de-
fcribe a portion of a larger circle round the common
centre of gravity, the balance would then be imme¬
diately deftroyed; and as it could never reftore itfelf
again, the whole fyftem would begin to fall together,
and would in time unite in a mafs at the fun. Of this
dilturbance we have a very remarkable inftance in the
comet which appeared lately ; and which, in going laft
up before from the fun, went fo near to^ Jupiter, and was
fo affefted by his attraction, as to have tho figure of
its orbit much changed ; and not only fo, but to have
its period altered, and its courfe to be different in the
heavens from what it was laft before.
11. Take away the fork and balls from the whirl-Fig. 8v
ing-board, and place the trough AB thereon, fixing
its centre to the centre of the whirling-board by the
pin H. In this trough are two balls D and E, of un¬
equal weights, conneded by a wire f\ and made to
Aide eafily upon the wire C, ftretched from end to end
of the trough, and made faft by nut-fcrews on theout-
fide of the ends. Let thefe balls be fo placed upon
the wire C, that their common centre of gravity g
may be direCtly over the centre of the whirling-board.
Then, turn the machine by the winch ever fo fwiftly,
and the trough and balls will go round their centre of
gravity, foas neither of them will fly off; becaufe on
account of the equilibrium, each ball detains the other
with an equal force a&ing againft it. But if the ball
E be drawn a little more towards the end of the trough
at A, it will remove the centre of gravity towards
that end from the centre of motion ; and then, upon
turning the machine, the little ball E will fly off, and
llrike with a confiderable force againft the end A, and
draw the great ball B into the middle of the trough.
Or, if the great ball D be drawn towards the end B of
the trough, fo that the centre of gravity may be a
little towards that end from the centre of motion, and
the machine be turned by the winch, the great ball
D will fly off, and ftrike violently againft the end B
of the trough, and will bring the little ball E into the
middle of it. If the trough be not made very ttrong,
the ball D will break through it. ^
12. The reafon why the tides rife at the fame ab-of the
folute time on oppofite Tides of the earth, and confe- tides,
quently in oppofite directions, is made abundantly
plain by a new experiment on the whirling-table.
The caufe of their rifing on the fide next the moon
every one underftands to be owing to the moon’s at¬
traction : but why they fhould rife on the oppofite
fide at the fame time, where there is no moon to at¬
tract them, is perhaps not fo generally underftood.
For it would feem that the moon fttould rather draw
the waters (as it were) clofer to that fide, than raife
them upon it, direCtly contrary to her attractive force.
Let the circle abed reprefent the earth, with its fide Fig 9,
e turned toward the moon, which will then attraft
the waters fo as to raife them from c to£. But the
queftion is, Why fhould they rife as high at that very
time on the oppofite fide, from a to e? In order to
explain this, let there be a plate AB fixed upon one
end of the flat bar DC, with fuch a circle drawn upon Fig. jo,
it abed- (in fig. 9.) to reprefent the round figure
of the earth and fea; and fuch an ellipfis as efgb to
reprefent the fwelling of the tide at e and g, occalioned
by the influence of the moon. Over this plate AB*
let.
4534
■Plate
CLXX.
fig. 10.
Fig. II
M E C H A
let tlie three ivory balls e, f, g, be hung by the filk
lines h, i, k, faftened to the tops of the crooked wires
H, I, K, in fuch a manner, that the ball at e may
hang freely over the fide of the circle e, which is far-
theft from the moon M (at the other end of the bar;)
the ball at f may hang freely over the centre, and the-
ball at g hang over the fide of the circle g, which is
reared the moon. The ball f may reprefent the centre
of the earth, the ball g fome water on the fide next
the moon, and the ball e fome water on the oppofite
fide. On the back of the moon M is fixed the fliort
bar N parallel to the horizon, and there are three
holes in it above the little weights />, q, r. A filk
thread o is tied to the line k clofe above the ball g,
and paffing by one fide of the moon M, goes through
a hole in the bar N, and has the weight p hung to it.
Such another thread n is tied to the line /, clofe above
the ball f, and palling through the centre of the moon
M, and middle of the bar N, has the weight q hung
to it, which is lighter than the weight p. A third
thread m is tied to the line h, clofe above the ball e,
and pafling by the other fide of the moon M, through
the bar N, has the weight r hung to it, which is lighter
than the weight q.
The ufe of thefe three unequal weights is to repre¬
fent the moon’s unequal attraftion at different diftances
from her. With whatever force Ihe attra&s the centre
of the earth, Ihe attra&s the fide next her with a greater
degree of force, and the fide fartheft from her with a
lefs. So, if the weights are left at liberty, they will
draw all the three balls towards the moon with diffe¬
rent degrees of force, and caufe them to make the
appearance (hewn in fig. n.; by which means they
are evidently farther from each other than they would
be if they hung at liberty by the lines h, /, k; be-
caufe the lines would then hang perpendicularly.
This Ihews, that as the moon attra&s the fide of the
earth which is neareft her with a greater degree of
force than Ihe does the centre of the earth, Ihe will
draw the water on thajt fide more than Ihe draws the
centre, and fo caufe it to rife on that fide : and as
llte draws the centre more than Ihe draws the oppofite
fide, the centre will recede farther from the furface of
the water to that oppofite fide, and fo leave it as high
there as (he raifed it on the fide next to her. For, as
the centre will be in the middle between the tops of
the oppofite elevations, they muft of courfe be equally
high on both fides at the fame time.
But upon this fuppofition the earth and moon
would foon come together: and to be fure they
would, if they had not a motion round their common
centre of gravity, to create a degree of centrifugal
force fufficient to balance their mutual attraftion.
This motion they have: for as the moon goes round
her orbit every month at the diftance of 240,000
miles from the earth’s centre, and of 234,000 miles
from the centre ofigravity of the earth and moon, fo
does the earth go round the lame centre of gravity
every month at the diftance of 6000 miles from it;
that is, from it to the centre of the earth. Now as
the earth is (in round numbers) 8000 miles in diame¬
ter, it is plain that its fide next the moon is only 2000
miles from the common centre of gravity of the earth
and moon, its centre 6000 miles diftant therefrom,
and its farther fide from the moon 10,000. There-
N I C S. Chap. II.
fore the centrifugal forces of thefe parts are as 2000,
.6000, and 10,000; that is, the centrifugal force of
any fide of the earth, when it is turned from the
moon, is five times as great as when it is turned to-
wards the moon. And as the moon’s attra&ion (ex-
preffed by the number 6000) at the earth’s centre keeps
the earth from flying out of this monthly circle, it
muft be greater than the centrifugal force of the wa¬
ters on the fide next her; and confequently, her
greater degree of attraftion on that fide is fufficient
to raife them: but as her attra&ion on the oppofite
fides is lefs than the centrifugal force of the water
there, the excefs of this force is fufficient to raife the
water juft as high on the oppofite fide. To prove
this experimentally, let the bar DC with its furniture Fig. 10/
be fixed upon the whirling-board of the machine
(fig. 2.), by pulhing the pin P into the centre of the
board ; which pin is in the centre of gravity of the
whole bar with its three balls e, f, g, and moon M.
Now if the whirling-board and bar be turned llowly
round by the winch, until the ball f hangs over the
centre of the circle, as in fig. 12. the ball g will be
kept towards the moon by the heavieft weight p
(fig. 10.); and the ball e, on account of its greater cen¬
trifugal force, and the leffer weight r, will fly off as
far to the other fide, as in fig. 12. And fo, whilft
the machine is kept turning, the balls e and g will
bang over the ends of the ellipfis lf k. So that the
centrifugal force of the ball e will exceed the moon’s
attraftion juft as much as her attraftion exceeds the
centrifugal force of the ball g, whilft her attraction
juft balances the centrifugal force of the ball f and
makes it keep in its circle. And hence it is evident
that the tides muft rife to equal heights at the fame
time on oppofite fides of the earth. This experiment
was invented by Mr Fergufon.
From the principles thus eftablilhed, it is evident,
that the earth moves round the fun, and not the fun
round the earth : for the centrifugal law will never
allow a great body to move round a fmall one in any
orbit whatever; efpecially when we find, that if a fmall
body moves round a great one, the great one muft
alfo move round the common centre of gravity be¬
tween them two. And it is well known, that the
quantity of matter in the fun is 227,000 times as
great as the quantity of matter in the earthi Now, as
the fun’s diftance from the earth is at leaft 81,000,000
of miles, if we divide that diftance by 227,000, we
(hall have only 357 for the number of miles that the
centre of gravity between the fun and earth is diftant
from the fun’s centre. And as the fun’s femidiameter
is £ of a degree, which, at fo great a diftance as that
of the fun, muft be no lefs than 381,500 miles; if
this be divided by 357, the quotient will be io68y:
which (hews that the common centre of gravity is
within the body of the fun, and k only the 1068^
part of his femidiameter from his centre toward his
furface.
All globular bodies, whofe parts can yield, and
which do not turn on their axes, muft be perfeft
fpheres, becaufe all parts of their furfaces are equally
attracted toward their centres. But all fuch globes
which do turn on their axes will be oblate fpheroids;
that is, their furfaces will be higher, or farther from
the centre, in the equatoreal than in the polar regions.
\fKC17ANieS
Plafe C F-XX
m
4535
Chap.. III.
MECHANICS.
For, as the equatorial parts move quickeft, they muft
have the greatdi centrifugal force; and will therefore
recede fartheft from the axis of motion. Thus, if
Plate two circular hoops AB and CD, made thin and flexi-
CLXXI. ble, and croffing one another at right angles, be
- «• turned round their axis EF by means of the winch
the wheel «, and the pinion o, and the axis be loofe in
the pole or interfe&ion e, the middle parts A, B, C, D
'will fwell out fo as to ftrike againtt the fides of the
frame at F and G, if the pole e, in finking to the pin
£, be not flopped by it from finking farther^ fo that
the whole will appear of an oval figure, the equatorial
diameter being confiderably longer than the polar.
That our earth is of this figure, is demonftrable from
actual meafurement of fame degrees on its furface,
which are found to be longer in the frigid zones than
in the torrid; and the difference is found to be fueh
as proves the earth’s equatorial diameter to be 35
miles longer than its axis.—Since then the earth is
higher at the equator than at the poles, the fea,
which, like all other fluids, naturally runs downwards
(or towards the places which are neareft the earth’s
centre), would run towards the polar regions, and
leave the equatorial parts dry, if the centrifugal force
of the water, which carried it to thofe parts, and fo
raifed them, did not detain and keep it from running
back again towards the poles of the earth.
Chap. III. Of the Mechanical Powers.
The toun we con^^er bodies in motion, and compare them
dation of all together, we may do this either with refpeft to the
^mechanics, quantities of matter they contain, or the velocities
with which they are moved. The heavier any body
is, the greater is the power required either to move it
or to flop its motion: and again, the fwifter it moves,
the greater is its force. So that the whole momentum
or quantity of force of a moving body is the refult of
its quantity of matter multiplied by the velocity with
which it is moved. And when the produfls arifing
from the multiplication of the particular quantities of
matter in any two bodies by their refpe&ive velocities
are equal, the momenta or entire forces are fo too.
Thus, fuppofe a body, which we fliall call to
weigh 40 pounds, and to move at the rate of two
miles in a minute; and another body, which we
Jhall call B, to weigh only four pounds, and to move
20 miles in a minute ; the entire forces with which
thefe two bodies would ftrike againft any obftacle
would be equal to each other, and therefore it would
require equal powers to flop them. For 40 multi¬
plied by 2 gives 80, the force of the body A;
and 20 multiplied by 4 gives 80, the force .of the
body B.
Upon this eafy principle depends the whole of me¬
chanics: and it holds univerfally true, that when two
bodies are fufpended by any machine, fo as to a<9: con¬
trary to each other; if the machine be put into mo¬
tion, and the perpendicular afeent of one body multi¬
plied into its weight be equal to the perpendicular de-
feent of the other body multiplied into its weight,
thefe bodies, how unequal foever in their weights, will
balance one another in all fituations : for, as the whole
afeent of one is performed in the fame time with the
whole defeent of the other, their refpeflive velocities
muft be dire&ly as the fpaces they move through; and
Vot, VI.
the excefs of weight in one body is compenfated by
the excefs of velocity in the other. Upon this prin¬
ciple it is eafy to compute the power of any mechani- 41
cal engine, whether Ample or compound; for it is but Wow to
only inquiring how much fwifter the power moves than
the weight does (/'. e. how much farther in the fameoj any me_
time), and juft fo much is the power increafed by the dianical
help of the engine. engine.
In the theory of this fcience, we fuppofe all planes
perfe&ly even, all bodies perfeflly fmooth, levers to
have no weight, cords to be extremely pliable, ma¬
chines to have no fridtion; and in (hort, all imperfec¬
tions muft be fet afide until the theory be eftabliihed,
and then proper allowances are to be made. ^
The Ample machines, ufually called mechanical paw- The me-
ers, are fix in number, viz. the lever, the wheel andchanic
axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and theP^®rs»
ferew. They are called tnechanical powers, becaufe
they help us to raife weights, move heavy bodies, and
overcome refiftances, which we could not effeft with¬
out them. 43
1. A lever is a bar of iron or wood, one part of The lever,
which being fupported by a prop, all the other parts
turn upon that prop as their centre of motion: and the
velocity of every part or point is diredtly as its di-
ftance from the prop. Therefore, when the weight to
be raifed at one end is to the power applied at the
other to raife it, as the diftance of the power from the
prop is to the diftance of the weight from the prop,
the power and weight will exa&ly balance or counter-
poife each other : and as a common lever has but very
little friftion on its prop, a very little additional power
will be fufficient to raife the weight.
There are font kinds of levers. 1. The common
fort, where the prop is placed between the weight and
the power; but much nearer to the weight than the
power. 2. When the prop is at one end of the lever,
the power at the other, and the weight between them.
3. When the prop is at one end, the weight at the
other, and the power applied between them. 4. The
bended lever, which differs only in form from the firft
fort, but not in property. Thofe of the firft and fe-
cond kind are often ufed in mechanical engines ; but
there are few inftances in which the third fort is ufed.
h. common balance is a lever of the firft kind ; but as
both its ends are at equal diftances from its centre of’rhe ba-
motion, they move with equal velocities; and there- lance,
fore, as it gives no mechanical advantage, it cannot
properly be reckoned among the mechanical powers.
A lever of the firft kind is reprefented by the bar 4y
ABC, fupported by the prop D. Its principal ufe is The firft
to loofen large ftones in the ground, or raife great kin<l°f
weights to fmall heights, in order to have ropes put*6^!*
under them for railing them higher by other machines. °'
The parts AB and BC, on different fides of the prop
D, are called the arms of the lever: the end A of the
fhorter arm AB being applied to the weight intended
to be raifed, or to the refiftance to be overcome; and
the power applied to the end C of the longer arm BC.
In making experiments with this machine, the fhor¬
ter arm AB mult be as much thicker than the longer
arm BC, as will be fufficient to balance it on the prop.
This fuppofed, let P reprefent a power whofe inten-
fity is equal to t ounce, and W a weight whofe in-
tenfity is equal to 12 ounces. Then, if the power be
25 R 12
453*5
M E C H
12 times as far from the prop as the weight is, they
will exa&ly counterpoife; and a fmall addition to the
power P will caufe it to defcend, and raife the weight
W; and the velocity with which the power defcends
will be to the velocity with which the weight rifes, as
12 to i: that is, direftly as their diftances from the
prop; and eonfeqnently, as the fpaces through which
they move. Hence, it is plain, that a man who by his
natural ftrength, without the help of any machine,
could fupport ioo weight, will by the help of this lever
be enabled to fupport 1200. If the weight be lefs,
or the power greater, the prop may be placed fo much
farther from the weight; and then it can be raifed to
a proportionably greater height. For univerfally, if
the intenfity of the weight multiplied into its diftance
from the prop be equal to the intenfity of the power
multiplied into its diltance from the prop, the power
and weight will exa&ly balance each other; and a little
addition to the power will raife the weight. Thus, in
the prefent inftance, the weight W is 12 ounces, and
its diftance from the prop is 1 inch; and 12 multi¬
plied by 1 is 12; the power P is equal to 1 ounce, and
its diftance from the prop is 12 inches, which multi,
plied by 1 is 12 again; and therefore there is an equi¬
librium between them. So, if a power equal to 2
ounces be applied at the diftance of 6 inches from the
prop, it will juft balance the weight W; for 6 multi¬
plied by 2 is 12, as before. And a power equal to 3
ounces placed at 4 inches diftance from the prop would
be the fame; for 3 times 4 is 12 ; and fo on, in pro¬
portion.
4*5 The Jlatera or Roman fleelyard is a lever of this
The ftcel- contrived for finding the weights of different bo-
yar ' dies by one fingle weight placed at different diftances
from the prop or centre of motion D. For, if a fcale
hangs at A, the extremity of the ftiorter arm AB, and is
of fuch a weight as will exactly counterpoife the longer
arm BC ; if this arm be divided into as many equal
parts as it will contain, each equal to AB, the fingle
weight P (which wemay fuppofe tobe 1 pound) will ferve
for weighing any thing as heavy as itfelf, or as many
times heavier as there are divifions in the arm BC, or
any quantity between its own weight and that quan¬
tity. As for example, if P be 1 pound, and placed at the
firft divifion 1 in the arm BC, it will balance 1 pound
in the fcale at A: if it be removed to the fecond di¬
vifion at 2, it will balance 2 pounds in the fcale: if to
the third, 3 pounds ; and fo on to the end of the arm
BC. If each of thefe integral divifions be fubdivided
into as many equal parts as a pound contains ounces,
and the weight P placed at any of thefe fubdivifions,
fo as to counterpoife what is in the fcale, the pounds
and odd ounces therein are by that means afcertained.
To this kind of lever may be reduced feveral forts of
inftruments, fuch as fciffars, pinchers, fnuffers; which
are made of levers a&ing contrary to one another:
their prop or centre of motion being the pin which
keeps them together.
In common pradb'ce, the longer arm of this lever
greatly exceeds the weight of the fhorter; which gains
great advantage, becaufe it adds fo much to the
power.
The Second 'ewer l^e ^econ^ kind has the weight between
hind of the prop and the power. In this, as well as the for-
kver. merj the advantage gained is as the diftance of the
A N I C S. Chap. III.
power from the prop to the diftance of the weight from
the prop: for the refpeftive velocities of the power and
weight are in that proportion ; and they will balance
each other when the intenfity of the power multiplied
by its diftance from the prop is equal to the intenfity
of the weight multiplied by its diftance from the prop.
Thus, if AB be a lever on which the weight W of 6 Plate
ounces hangs at the diftance of 1 inch from the prop cLXXr.
G, and a power P equal to the weight of 1 ounce 3*
hangs at the end B, 6 inches from the prop, by the
cord CD going over the fixed pulley E, the power will
juft fupport the weight: and a fmall addition to the
power will raife the weight 1 inch for every 6 inches
that the power defcends.
This lever fhews the reafon why two men carrying
a burden upon a ftick between them, bear unequal
fhares of the burden in the inverfe proportion of their
diftances from it. For it is well known, that the nearer
any of them is to the burden, the greater {hare he
bears of it: and if he goes dire&ly under it, he bears
the whole. So, if one man be at G, and the other at
P, having the pole or ftick AB refting on their ihoul-
ders; if the burden or weight W be placed five times
as near the man at G, as it is to the man at P, the for¬
mer will bear five times as much weight as the latter.
This is likewife applicable to the cafe of two horfesof
unequal ftrength, to be fo yoked, as that each horfe
may draw a part proportionable to his ftrength; which
is done by dividing the beam fo, that the point of trac¬
tion may be as much nearer to the ftronger horfe than
to the weaker, as the ftrength of the former exceeds
that of the latter.
To this kind of lever may be reduced oars, rudder®
of fhips, doors turning upon hinges, cutting-knives
which are fixed at the'point of the blade, and the like.
If in this lever we fuppofe the power and weight to 48
change places, fo that the power may be between the The third
kind: in which, that there may be a balance between evcr*
the power and the weight, the intenfity of the power
muft exceed the intenfity of the weight juft as much
as the diftance of the weight from the prop exceeds the
diftance of the power from it. Thus, let E be the Fig. 4*
prop of the lever AB, and W a weight of I pound,
placed three times as far from the prop, as the power
P ads at F, by the cord C going over the fixed pul¬
ley D; in this cafe, the power muft be equal to three
pounds, in order to fupport the weight.
To this fort of lever are generally referred the bones
of a man’s arm : for when we lift a weight by the hand,
the mufcle that exerts its force-to raife that weight, is
fixed to the bone about one tenth part as far below the
elbow as the hand is. And the elbow being the centre
round which the lower part of the arm turns, the muf¬
cle muft therefore exert a force ten times as great as
the weight that is raifed.
As this kind of lever is a difadvantage to the mo¬
ving power, it is never ufed but in cafes of neccffity;
fuch as that of a ladder, which, being fixed at one end,
is by the ftrength of a man’s arms reared agaiuft a
wall. And in clock-work, where all the wheels may
be reckoned levers of this kind, becaufe the power that
moves every wheel, except the firft, ads upon it near
the centre of motion by means of a fmall pinion,
and the refiftance it has to overcome ads againft the
teeth
Chap. in. M E C H
teeth round its circumference.
49 The fourth kind of lever differs nothing from the
The fourth firft, but in^being bended for the fake of convenience,
kmd °f ABC is a lever of this fort, bended at C, which is its
Plate Pr0P> or centre of motion. P is a power a&ing upon
CJ.XXI. the longer arm AC at F, by means of the cord F)E
?: fig-S- going over the pully G; and W is a weight of refift-
ance adting upon the end B of the fhorter arm BC.
If the power be to the weight, as BC is to CF, they
are /« aquilibrio. Thus, fuppofe W to be 5 pounds
adfing at the dirtance of one foot from the centre of
motion C, and P to be 1 pound afting at F, five feet
from the centre C, the power and weight will juft ba¬
lance each other. A hammer drawing a nail is a lever
of this fort.
JO 2. The fecond mechanical power is the ’wheel and
The wheel axle, in which the power is applied to the circumfe-
and axle, rence of the wheel, and the weight is raifed by a rope
which coils about the axle as the wheel is turned round.
Here it is plain that the velocity of the power muft be
to the velocity of the weight, as the circumference of
the wheel is to the circumference of the axle: and con-
fequently, the power and weight will balance each
other, when the intenfity of the power is to the inten-
fity of the weight as the circumference of the axle is
- Fig. 6. t0 t^ie circumference of the wheel. Let AB be a
wheel, CD its axle, and fuppofe the circumference of
the wheel to be 8 times as great as the circumference
of the axle; then, a power P equal to 1 pound hang¬
ing by the cord I, which goes round the wheel, will
balance a weight W of 8 pounds hanging by the rope
K, which goes round the axle. And as the fri&ion on
the pivots or gudgeons of the axle is but fmall, a fmall
addition to the power will caufe it to defcend, and
raife the weight: bnt the weight will rife with only an
eighth part of the velocity wherewith the power de-
fcends, and confequently through no more than an
eighth part of an equal fpace, in the fame time. If
the wheel be pulled round by the handles S, S, the
power will be increafed in proportion to their length.
And by this means, any weight may be raifed as high
as the operator pleafes.
To this fort of engine belong all cranes for raifing
great weights; and in this cafe, the wheel may have
cogs all round it inftead of handles, and a fmall lantern
or trundle may be made to work in the cogs, and be
turned by a winch; which will make the power of the
engine to exceed the power of the man who works it,
as much as the number of revolutions of the winch ex¬
ceed thofe of the axle D, when multiplied by the ex-
cefs of the length of the winch above the length of the
femidiameter of the axle, qdded to the femidiameter or
half thickntfs of the rope K, by which the weight is
drawn up. Thus, fuppofe the diameter of the rope
and axle taken together to be 12 inches, and confe-
<jiuently half their diameters to be 6 inches; fo that
the weight W will hang at 6 inches perpendicular di-
ftance from below the centre of the axle. Now, let us
fuppofe the wheel AB, which is fixt on the axle, to
have 80 cogs, and to be turned by means of a winch
6 inches long, fixt on the axis of a trundle of 8 ftaves
or rounds, working in the cogs of the wheel. Here it
is plain, that the winch and trundle would make tore-
volutions for one of the wheel AB, and its axis D, on
which the rope K winds in raifing the weight Wj and
2
A N I C S. 4437
the winch being no longer than the fum of the fcmf-
diameters of the great axle and rope, the trundle could
have no more power on the wheel, than a man could
have by pulling it round by the edge, becaufe the
winch would have no greater velocity than the edge
of the wheel has, which we here fuppofe to be ten times
as great as the velocity of the riling weight: fo that
in this cafe the power gained would be as 10 to 1.
But if the length of the winch be 12 inches, the power
gained will be as 20 to r: if (8 inches (which is long
enough for any man to work by), the power gained
would be as 30 to 1 ; that is, a man could raife 30
times as much by fuch an engine, as he could do by
his natural ftrengtb without it, becaufe the velocity of
the handle of the winch would be 30 times as great as
the velocity of the rifing weight; the abfolute force of
any engine being in proportion of the velocity of the
power to the velocity of the weight raifed by it. But
then, juft as much power or advantage is gained by
the engine, fo much time is loft in working it. In
this fort of machines it is requifite to have a racket-
wheel G on one end of the axle, with a catch H to
fall into its teeth ; which will at any time fupport the
weight, and keep it from defeending, if the workman
fhould, through inadvertency or carelefsnefs, quit his
hold whilft the weight is raifing. And by this means,
the danger is prevented which might otherwife hap¬
pen by the running down of the weight when left at
liberty.
3. The third mechanical power or engine confifts
either of one moveable pulley, ora fyjlem of pulleys ; T[le nyiiey
fome in a block or cafe which is fixed, and others in a
block which is moveable and rifes with the weight.
For though a Angle pulley that only turns on its axis,
and rifes not without the weight, may ferve to change
the dire&ion of the power, yet it can give no mecha¬
nical advantage thereto ; but is only as the beam of a
balance, whofe arms are of equal length and weight.
Thus, if the equal weights W and P hang by the cord j-j
BB upon the pulley A, whofe block b is fixed to the ^ 7
beam HI, they will counterpoife each other, juft in
the fame manner as if the cord were cut in the middle,
and its two ends hung upon the hooks fixed in the
pulley at A and A, equally diftant from its centre.
But if a weight W hangs at the lower end of the
moveable block p of the pulley D, and the cord GF
goes under the pulley, it is plain that the half G of
the cord bears one half of the weight W, and the half
F the other ; for they bear the whole between them.
Therefore, whatever holds the upper end of either rope,
fuftains one half of the weight : and if the cord at F
be drawn up fo as to raife the pulley D to C, the cord
will then be extended to its whole length, all but that
part which goes under the pulley : and confequently,
the power that draws the cord will have moved twice
as far as the pulley D with its weight W rifes; oa
w'hich account, a power whofe intenfity is equal to one
half of the weight will be able to fupport it, becaufe
if the power moves (by means of a fmall addition) its
velocity will be double the velocity of the weight; as
may be feen by putting the cord over the fixed pulley
C (which only changes the direftion of the power,
without giving any advantage to it), and hanging oa
the weight P, which is equal only to one half of the
weight W j in which cafe there will be an equilibrium,
25 R 2 and
453s
and a little addition to P will caufe it to defcend, and
raife W through a fpace equal to one half of that thro*
which P defcends. flence, the advantage gained will
be always equal to twice the number of pulleys in the
moveable or undermoft block. So that, when the up¬
per or fixed block u contains two pulleys, which only
turn on their axes, and the lower or moveable block
U contains two pulleys, which not only turn upon
their axes, but alfo rife with the block and weight;
the advantage gained by this is as 4 to the working
power. Thus, if one end of the rope KMOQ__be
fixed to a hook at I, and the rope pafles over the pul¬
leys N and R, and under the pulleys L and P, and
has a weight T, of one pound, hung to its other end
at T, this weight will balance and fupport a weight
W of four pounds hanging by a hook at the moveable
block U, allowing the faid block as a part of the
weight. And if as much more power be added, as is
fufficient to overcome the fridlion of the pulleys, the
power will defcend with four times as much velocity as
the weight rifes, and confequently thro’ four times as
much fpace.
The two pulleys in the fixed block X, and the two
in the moveable block Y, are in the fame cafe with
thofe latt mentioned ; and thofe in the lower block
give the fame advantage to the power.
As a fyltem of pulleys has no great weight, and
lies in a fmall compafs, it is eafily carried about; and
can be applied, in a great many cafes, for railing
weights, where other engines cannot. But they have
a great deal of fri6lion on three accounts : 1. Becaufe
the diameters of their axes bear a very confiderable
proportion to their own diameters ; 2. Becaufe in
working they are apt to rub againft cme another, or
againft the fidesof the block ; 3. Becaufe of the Itiff-
nefs of the rope that goes over and under them.
54 4. The fourth mechanical power is the inclined
The md'm-plane; and the advantage gained by it is as great as
£d Plaw i18 lenStk exceeds its perpendicular height. Let AB
CLXXI a plane parallel to the horizon, and CD a plane in¬
fig. 8i dined to it; and fuppofe the whole length CD to be
three times as great as the perpendicular height G/'F:
in this cafe, the cylinder E will be fupported upon
the plane CD, and kept from rolling down upon it,
by a power equal to a third part of the weight of the
cylinder. Therefore, a weight may be rolled up this
inclined plane with a third part of the power which
would be fufficient to draw it up by the fide of an up¬
right wall. If the plane was four times as long as
high, a fourth part of the power would be fufficient;
and fo on in proportion. Or, if a pillar was to be
raifed from a floor to the height GF, by means of the
engine ABDC, (which would then ad as a half
wedge, where the refiftance gives way only on one
fide) the engine and pillar would be in aquilibrio when
the power applied at GF was to the weight of the
pillar as GF to GD ; and if the power be increafed,
fo as to overcome the fridion of the engine againft the
floor and pillar, the engine will be driven, and the pil¬
lar raifed : and when the engine has moved its whole
length upon the floor, the pillar will be raifed the
whole height of the engine from G to F,
The force wherewith a rolling body defcends upon
an inclined plane, is to the force of its abfolute gra-
vity, by which it would defcend perpendicularly in a
Chap. Ill,
free fpace, as the height of its plane is to its length.
For, fuppofe the plane AB to be parallel to the ho- fig. ^
rizon, the cylinder C will keep at reft upon any part
of the plane where it is laid. If the plane be fo ele¬
vated, that its perpendicular height D is equal to half .
its length AB, the cylinder will roll down upon the ’S-
plane with a force equal to half its weight ; for it
would require a power (ading in the diredion of
AB) equal to half its weight, to keep it from rolling.
If the plane AB be eleVated, fo as to be perpendicu-
lar to the horizon, the cylinder C will defcend with its lt*
whole force of gravity, becaufe the plane contributes
nothing to its fupport or hindrance ; and therefore, it
would require a power equal to its whole weight to
keep it from defcending.
Let the cylinder C be made to turn upon flender
pivots in the frame D, in which there is a hook e, '£*IS'*
with a line G tied to it : let this line go over the fixed
pulley H, and have its other end tied to the hook in
the weight 1. If the weight of the body I, be to the
weight of the cylinder C, added to that of its frame Dy
as the perpendicular height of the plane LM is to its-
length AB, the weight will juft fupport the cylinder
upon the plane, and a fmall touch of a finger will
either caufe it to afcend or defcend with equal eafe :■
then, if a little addition be made to the weight I, it
will defcend, and draw the cylinder up the plane. In
the time that the cylinder moves from A to B, it will
rife thro’ the whole height of the plane ML ; and the
weight will defcend from H to K, thro’ a fpace equal
to the whole length of the plane AB.
If the plane be made to move upon rollers or fric¬
tion-wheels, and the cylinder he fupported upon it ;
the fame power will draw the plane under the cylinder, •.
which before drew the cylinder up the plane, provided
the pivots of the axes of the friftion-wheels be fmall, F>g- *3-
and the wheels themfelves be pretty large. For, let
the machine ABC (equal in length and height to
ABM, fig. 12,) be provided with four wheels, whereof
two appear at D and E, and the third under C, whilft
the fourth is hid from fight by the horizontal board a.
Let the cylinder F be laid upon the lower end of the
inclined plane CBj and the line G be extended from the
frame of the cylinder, about fix feet parallel to the
plane CB ; and, in that dire&ion, fixed to a hook in
the wall; which will fupport the cylinder, and keep
it from rolling off the plane. Let one end of the line-
H be tied to a hook at C in the machine, and the
other end to a weight K, the fame as drew the cylin¬
der up the plane before. If this line be put over the
fixed pulley I, the weight K will draw the machine
along the horizontal plane J,, and under the cylinder
F : and when the machine has been drawn the whole
length CB, the cylinder will be raifed to dr equal to*
the perpendicular height AB above the horizontal
part at A.
To the inclined plane may be reduced all hatchets,
chiffels, and other edge-tools which are chamfered on¬
ly on one fide.
From the theory of the inclined plane alfo may be
deduced the doftrine of pendulums ; the foundation
of which is as follows. A body acquires the fame ve¬
locity in falling down the oblique fide of a plane that
it would do if it fell freely through the perpendicular
height of it. For, the fquare of the velocity which
MECHANICS:.
Plate CPXXI.
CUp. III. M E C H
Plate a body acquires by falling to Cas the fpace AG is to
^ie fpace as hath been already fliown n° 14; that
s> 3l is, (by 8 £/. 6. and Def. 10. El. 5.) as AG? to AB? ;
confequently the velocity itfelf at G is to the velocity
itfelf at C, as AG to AB : But fince AG is run over
in the fame time as AB, the velocity in G is alfo to
the velocity in B as AG to AB; and confequent¬
ly, fince the velocities both in C and B bear the
lame proportion to that in G, they muft be equal to
each other.
Again : A body takes up the fame time in falling
through the chord of a circle, whether long or Ihort,
that it does in falling perpendicularly thro’ the diame¬
ter of the fame circle. For, feeing a body will fall
from A to G, on the inclined plane ABC, in the fame
time another would fall freely to B provided AGB is a
right angle, in which cafe AG (by 31 jS/. 3.) is a
chord of that circle of which AB is the diameter;
therefore, a body falls thro’ the chord of a circle in
the fame time that it falls thro’ the diameter; for the
fame demonftration will ferve for any other chord.
Hence it follows, that if a pendulum could be made
to vibrate in the chord of a circle inftead of an arch,
all its vibrations would be performed in the fame time
whether they were large or fmall.
This may be illuftrated by conceiving the lad figure
Fig. 4.. inverted (as in fig. 4.) where fuppofing the ball fu-
fpended in fuch a manner as to fwing in the right
line GA inllead of the arch GA, it would always fall
through it in the fame time, however long or ftiort it
was; for the inclination of the line GA to the ho¬
rizontal line BC, is not altered by inverting the fi¬
gure.
From hence we fee the reafon, why the fhorter
arches a pendulum defcribes, the nearer its vibrations
come to an equality, for fmall arches differ lefs from
their chords than large ones. But if the pendulum is
made to vibrate in a curve, which mathematicians call
a cycloid; each fwing will then be performed in the
fame time, whether the pendulum moves through a
larger or lefler fpace. For the nature of this curve is
fuch, that the tendency of a pendulum towards the
lowed point of it is always in proportion to its di¬
dance from thence; and confequently let that didance
be more or lefs, it will always be run over by the pen¬
dulum in the fame time.
Pig. J. Upon the right line AB, let the circle CDE be fo
placed as to touch the line in the point C; then let
this circle roll along upon it from C to H, as a wheel
upon the ground; then will the point C in one revo¬
lution of the circle defcribe the curve CKH, which is
called a cycloid. Now fuppofe two plates of metal bent
into the form HK and KC, and placed in the fituation
LH and LC, in fuch manner, that the points H and
Cmay be applied to L, and the points anfwering toK
be applied to H and C. Tl.^s done, if a pendulum as
LP, in length equal to LH, be made to vibrate be¬
tween the plates or cheeks of the cycloid LC and LH,
it will fwing in the line CKH; and the time of each
vibration, wfhether the pendulum fwings through a
fmall or a great part of the cycloid, will be to the
time a body takes up in falling perpendicularly through
a fpace equal to IK (half the length of the pendulum),
as the circumference of a circle to its diameter, and
confequently it will always be the fame.
A N I C S.
The time of the defcent and afcent of a pendulum,
fuppofing it to vibrate in the chord of a circle, is equal
to the time in which a body falling freely would de-
fcend through eight times the length of the pen¬
dulum.
For the time of the defcent alone upon the chord is
equal to that in which a body would fall through the
diameter of the circle ; that is, twice the length of
the pendulum: but in twice that time (viz. during a
whole vibration) the body would fall four times as
far; that is, through eight times the length of the
pendulum.
The times, that pendulums of different lengths per¬
form their vibrations in, are as the fquare roots of
their lengths.
Dem. Let there be two pendulums A and B of
different lengths, the time the firft vibrates in (fup¬
pofe through a chord) is equal to the time in which a
body would fall freely through DA, the diameter of
the circle ; in like manner the time B vibrates in is
that in which a body would fall through FB. Now
the times in which bodies fall through different fpaces
are as the fquare roots of thofe fpaces, that is, of DA-
and FB, or of their halves CA and CB, i. e. of the
lengths of the pendulums.
The centre of ofcillation, is a point in which if the
whole gravity of a pendulum was colleded, the time
of its vibration would not be altered thereby.
The rule for finding the centre of ofcillation.
If the ball AB be hung by the firing CD, whofe
weight is inconfiderable, the centre of ofcillation is
found thus: fuppofe E the centre of the globe; take
the line K of fuch a length, that it (hall bear the fame
proportion to ED as ED to EC; then EH being
made equal to f of K, the point H ihall be the cen¬
tre of ofcillation.
If the weight of the rod CD be too confiderable to
be negle&ed, divide CD in I, fo that DI may be equal
to -f of CD; and make a line as G, in the fame pro¬
portion to Cl, that the weight of the rod bears to
that of the globe,; then having found H the centre of
ofcillation of the globe, as before, divide IH in L, fo
that IL may bear the fame proportion to LH, as the
line CH bears to the line G; then will L be the centre
of ofcillation of the whole pendulum.
This is the point from whence the length of a pen¬
dulum is meafured, which in our latitude, in a pen¬
dulum that fwings feconds, is 39 inches and two-
tenths.
The fquares of the times in which pendulums, adled
upon by different degrees of gravity, perform their vi¬
brations in, are to each other, inverfely as the gra-
Dem. The fpaces falling bodies defcend through
are as the fquares of the times, when the gravity by
which they are impelled is given; and as the gravity,.
when the time is given (for the fum of the velocities
produced in any time will always be as the generating
forces:) confequently, when neither is given, they are
in a ratio compounded of both; the fquares of the
times are therefore inverfely as .the gravities. \_For
if in 3 quantities a, b, c ; a is as b c, then b :
D—, 1. e. tf a is given, as — or as c inverfely.^ But if
the fquares of the times, in which bodies fall thro’ given
fpaces.,,
4539
Fig. 6: f.
Fig-
Fig. 9.
454°
fpaces, are mverfely as the gravities by which they are
afted upon ; then the fquares of the times, in which
pendulums of equal lengths perform their vibrations,
will be alfo in the fame ratio, on account of the-con-
ftant equality between the time of the vibration of a
pendulum, and of the defcent of a body through eight
times its length.
From whence it follows, that a pendulum will vi¬
brate flower when nearer the equator, than the fame
when nearer the poles ; for the gravity of all bodies is
lefs, the nearer they are to the equator; viz. on ac¬
count of the fpheroidical figure of the earth, and its
rotation about its axis. To which we may add the in-
creafe of the length of the pendulum occafioned by the
heat in thofe parts : (for we find by experiment, that
bodies are enlarged in every dimenfion in proportion to
the degree of heat that is given them ;) for which
reafon the vibrations of the pendulum will alfo be
flower.
S3 5. The fifth mechanical power or engine is the wedge;
The wedge w!)ich may be confidered as two equally inclined planes
CLXXfL -DEF ar)d CEF, joined together at their bafes eEF :
then, DC is the whole thicknefs of the wedge at its
back ABCD, where the power is applied ; EF is the
depth or height of the wedge ; DF the length of one
of its fides, equal to CF the length of the other fide;
and OF is its fharp edge, which is entered into the
wood intended to be fplit by the force of a hammer
or mallet ftriking perpendicularly on its back. Thus,
Fig. *. AB b is a wedge driven into the cleft CDE of the
wood FG.
When the wood does not cleave at any diftance be¬
fore the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between
the power impelling the wedge downward, and the re¬
finance of the wood afting againft the two fides of the
wedge ; if the power be to the refiftance, as half the
thicknefs of the wedge at its back is to the length
of either of its fides; that is, as A « to A £, or B «
to B b. And if the power be increafed, fo as to over¬
come the friclion of the wedge and the refiftance ari-
fing from the cohefion or ftickage of the wood, the
wedge will be drove in, and the wood fplit afunder.
But when the wood cleaves at any diftance before
the wedge (as it generally does), the power impelling
the wedge will not be to the refiftance of the wood,
as half the thicknefs of the wedge is to the length of
one of its fides, but ashalf its thicknefs is to the length of
either fide of the cleft, eftimated from the top or ailing
part of the wedge. For if we fuppofe the wedge to
be lengthened down from b to the bottom of the cleft,
at E, the fame proportion will hold ; namely, that
the power will be to the refiftance, as half the thick¬
nefs of the wedge is to the length of either of its
fides; or, which amounts to the fame thing, as the
whole thicknefs of the wedge is to the length of both
its fides.
In order to prove what is here advanced concerning
the wedge, let us fuppofe the wedge to be divided
length wife into tvvo equal parts; and then it will be¬
come two equally inclined planes; one of which, as
a be, may be made ufe of as a half wedge for ftpara-
Plate ting the moulding c d from the wainfeot AB. It is
CLXXI. evident that when this half wedge has been driven its
I4’ whole length ac between the wainfeot and moulding,
its fide ac will be at ed, and the moulding will be fe-
Chap. III.
parated lofg from the wainfeot. Now, from what has
been already proved of the inclined plane, it appears,
that to have an equilibrium between the power impel¬
ling the half wedge and the refiftance of the mould¬
ing, the former muft be to the latteras a b to a c; that
is, as the thicknefs of the back which receives the
ftroke is to the length of the fide againft which the
moulding adls. Therefore, fince the power upon the
half wedge is to the refiftance againft its fide, as the
half back a b is to the whole fide a c, it is plain,
that the power upon the whole wedge (where the
whole back is double the half back) muft be to the
refiftance againft both its fides, as the thicknefs of
the whole back is to the length "of both the fides, fup-
pofing the wedge at the bottom of the cleft; oras-the
thicknefs of the whole back to the length of both fides
of the cleft, when the wood fplits at any diftance be¬
fore the wedge. For, when the wedge is driven quite
into the wood, and the wood fplits at ever fo fmall a
diftance before its edge, the top of the wedge then be¬
comes the acling part, becaufe the wood does not
touch it any where elfe. And fince the bottom of the
cleft muft be confidered as that part where the whole
ftickage or refiftance is accumulated, it is plain, from
the nature of the lever, that the farther the power adis
from the refiftance, the greater is the advantage.
Some writers have advanced, that the power of the
wedge is to the refiftance to be overcome, as the
thicknefs of the back of the wedge is to the length
only of one of its fides; which feems very ftrange :
for, if we fuppofe A B to be a ftrong inflexible bar pjate
of wood or iron fixed into the ground at C B, and D CLXXif. !
and E to be two blocks of marble lying on the ground %• 3*
on oppofite fides of the bar; it is evident that the
block D may be feparated from the bar to the diftance
d, equal to a b, by driving the inclined plane or half
wedge a.b0 down between them; and the block E
may be feparated to an equal diftance on the other
fide, in like manner, by the half wedge c d0. But
the power impelling each half wedge will be to the
refiftance of the block againft its fide, as the thick¬
nefs of that half wedge is to the length of its ading
fide. Therefore the power to drive both the half
wedges is to both the refiftances, as both the half
backs is to the length of both the ading fides, or as
half the thicknefs of the whole back is to the length
of either fide. And if the bar be taken away, the
blocks put clofe together, and the two half wedges
joined to make one, it will require as mucb force to
drive it down between the blocks, as is equal to the
fum of the feparate powers ading upon the half
wedges when the bar was between them.
To confirm this by an experiment, let two cylin- p;rT
ders, as AB and CD, be drawn towards one another
by lines running over fixed pulleys, and a weight of
40 ounces hanging at the lines belonging to each cy¬
linder: and let a wedge of 40 ounces weight, having
its back juft as thick as either of its fides is long, be
put between the cylinders, which will then ad againft
each fide with a refiftance equal to 40 ounces, whilft
its own weight endeavours to bring it down and lepa-
rate them: And here, the power of the wedge’s gra¬
vity impelling it downward, will be to the refiftance
of both the cylinders againft the wedge, as the thick-
nefs of the wedge is to the length of both its fides;
MECHANICS.
4541
Chap. III. M E C H
for there will then be an equilibrium between the
weight of the wedge and the refiftance of the cylin¬
ders againft it, and it will remain at any height be¬
tween them; requirjng juft as much power to pufh it
upward as to pull it downward. If another wedge of
equal weight and depth with this, and only half as
thick, be put between the cylinders, it will require
twice as much weight to be bung at the ends of the
lines which draw them together, to keep the wedge
from going down between them. That is, a wedge
of 40 ounces, whofe back is only equal to half the
length of one of its fides, will require 80 ounces to
each cylinder, to keep it in an equilibrium between
them: and twice 80 is 160, equal to four times 40.
So that the power will be always to the refiftance,
as the thicknefs of the back of the wedge is to
the length (not of its one lide, but) of both its
fides.
Plate The beft way, though perhaps not the neateft, for
CLXX1I. making a wedge with its appurtenances for fuch ex-
&&• 4- periments is as follows. Let IKLM and LMNO be
two flat pieces of wood, each about 15 inches long,
and three or four in breadth, joined together by a
hinge at LM; and let P be a graduated arch of brafs,
on which the faid pieces of wood may be opened to
any angle not more than 60 degrees, and then fixed at
the given angle by means of the two fcrews a and b.
Then, IKNO will reprefent the back of the wedge
LM, its lharp edge which enters the wood, and the
outfides of the pieces IKLM and LMNO the two
fides of the wedge againft which the wood adls in
cleaving. By means of the faid arch, the wedge may
be opened fo as to adjuft the thicknefs of its back in
any proportion to the length of either of its fides,
but not to exceed that length: and any weight, as p,
may be hung to the wedge upon the hook M; which
weight, together with the weight of the wedge itfelf,
may be coijiidered as the impelling power; which is
all the fame in experiment, whether it be laid upon
the back of the wedge to pufh it down, or hung to
its edge to pull it down. Let AB and CD be two
wmoden cylinders, each about two inches thick, where
they touch the outfides of the wedge ; and let their
ends be made like two round flat plates, to keep the
wedge from flipping off endwife between them. Let
a fmall cord, with a loop on one end of it, go over a
pivot in the end of each cylinder, and the cords S
and T belonging to the cylinder AB go over the
fixed pulleys W and X, and be faftened at their other
ends to the bar wx, on which any weight as X may
be hung at pleafure. In like manner, let- the cords
Q__and R belonging to the cylinder B C go over the
fixed pulleys U and V to the bar u v, on which a
weight Y equal to Z may be hung. Thefe weights,
by drawing the cylinders towards one another, may
be confidered as the refinance of the wood adling
equally againft oppofite fides of the wedge; the cy¬
linders themfelves being fufpended near, and parallel
to each other, by their pivots, in loops on the lines
E, F, G, H ; which lines may be fixed to hooks in
the ceiling of the room. The longer thefe lines are
the better; and they fhould never be lefs than four
feet each. The farther alfo the pulleys WV and
WX are from the cylinders, the truer will the experi-
A N I C S.
ments be: and they may turn upon pins fixed into the
wall.
In this machine, the weights Y and Z, and the
weight p, may be varied at pleafure, fo as to be ad-
jufted in proportion of the length of the wedge’s fides
to the thickuefs of its back; and when they are fo
adjufted, the wedge will be in aquilibrio with the re¬
fiftance of the cylinders.
The wedge is a very great mechanical power, fince
not only wood but even rocks can be fplit by it;
which would be impoffible to effedl by the lever,
wheel and axle, or pulley : for the force of the blow,,
or ftroke, fhakes the cohering parts, and thereby
makes them feparate the more eafily.
6. The lixth and laft mechanical power is the
fcrew; which cannot properly be called a Jimple The fcrew.
chine, becaufe it is never ufed without the application
of a lever or winch to afiilt in turning it: and then it
becomes a compound engine of a very great force ei¬
ther in prefling the parts of bodies clofe together, or
in raifing great weights. It may be conceived to be
made by cutting a piece of paper ABC (fig. 5.)
into the form of an inclined plane or half wedge, and
then coiling it round a cylinder AB (fig. 6.). And
here it is evident, that the winch E muft turn the cy¬
linder once round before the weight of refiftance D
can be moved from one fpiral winding to another, as
from d to c; therefore, as much as the circumference
of a circle described by the handle of the winch is
greater than the interval or diftance beeween the fpi-
rals, fo much is the force of the ferew. Thus, fup-
pofing the diftance between the fpirals to be half an-
inch, and the length of the winch to be 12 inches;
the circle deferibed by the handle of the winch where
the power a&s will be 76 inches nearly, or about 152'
half-inches, and confequently 152 times as great as
the diftance between the fpirals: and therefore a
power at the handle, whofe intenfity is equal to no-
more than a fingle pound, will balance 152 pounds
adling againft the ferew; and as much additional'
force, as is fufficient to overcome the fridtion, will
raife the 152 pounds; and the velocity of the power
will be to the velocity of the weight as 153 to 1.
 Hence it appears, that the longer the winch
be made, and the nearer the fpirals are to one
another, fo much the greater is the force of the
ferew.
A machine for fliewing the force or power of the Fig. r*
ferew may be contrived in the following manner.
Let the wheel C have a ferew a b on its axis, working
in the teeth of the wheel D, which fuppofe to be 48
in number. It is plain, that for every time the wheel
C and ferew ab are turned round by the winch A,,
the wheel D will be moved one tooth by the ferew;
and therefore, in 48 revolutionsr of the winch, the
wheel D will be turned once round. Then, if the
circumference of a circle deferibed by the handle of
the winch be equal to the circumference of a groove e
round the wheel D, the velocity of the handle will be
48 times as great as the velocity of any given point in
the groove. Confequently, if a line G (above num¬
ber 48) goes round the groove e, and has a weight,
of 48 pounds hung to it below the pedeflal EF, a
power equal to one pound at the handle will balance
and-:
4542
M E C H i
and fupport the weight. To prove this by experi¬
ment, let the circumferences of the grooves of the
wheels C and D be equal to one another; and then if
a weight H of One pound be fufpended by a line go¬
ing round the groove of the wheel C, it will balance a
weight of 48 pounds hanging by the line G; and a
fmall addition to the weight H will caufe it to de-
fcend, and fo raife up the other weight.
If the line G, inftead of going round the groove e
of the wheel D, goes round its axle I; the power of
the machine will be as much increafed, as the circum¬
ference of the groove e exceeds the circumference of
the axle : which, fuppofing it to be 6 times, then
one pound at H will balance 6 times 48, or 288
pounds hung to the line on the axle : and hence the
power or advantage of this machine will be as 288
to 1. That is to fay, a man, who by his natural
ftrength could lift an hundred weight, will be able
to raife 288 hundred, or I4-j:8o ton weight, by this
engine.
Plate But the following engine is ftill more powerful,
CLXXII. on account of its having the addition of four pulleys :
and in it we may look upon all the mechanical powers
A combi- as combined together, even if we take in the balance,
nation of For as the axis D of the bar AB is in its middle at C,
all the ^ is plain, that, if equal weights are fufpended upon
H'wers'103 aily tWO ?'nS eclu'^'^ant fr°m t^ie ax*s C, they will
powers. counterpoife each other.—It becomes a lever by
hanging a fmall weight P upon the pin «, and a
weight as much heavier upon cither of the pins b, c,
d, <?, or f, as is in proportion to the pins being fo
mich nearer the axis. The wheel and axle F G is
evident: fo is the fcrew E; which takes in the inclined
plane, and with it the half wedge. Part of a cord
goes round the axle, the reft under the lower pulleys
K, m, over the upper pulleys L, », and then it is
tied to a hook at m in the lower or moveable block,
on which hangs the weight W.
In this machine, if the wheel F has 30 teeth, it
will be turned once round in 30 revolutions of the bar
AB, which is fixed on the axis D of the fcrew E : if
the length of the bar is equal to twice the diameter
of the wheel, the pins a and n at the ends of the bar
will move 60 times as fad as the teeth of the wheel
do : and eonfequently, one ounce at P will balance 60
ounces hung upon a tooth at q in the horizontal dia¬
meter of the wheel. Then, if the diameter of the
wheel F is 10 times as great as the diameter of the
axle G, the wheel will have to times the velocity of
the axle ; and therefore one ounce P at the end of the
lever AC will balance 10 times 60, or 600 ounces hung
to the rope H which goes round the axle. Laftiy, if
four pulleys be added, they will make the velocity of
the lower block K, and weight W, four times lefs
than the velocity of the axle : and this being the laft
power in the machine, which is four times as great as
that gained by the axle, it makes the whole power of
the machine 4 times 600, or 2400. So that a man
who could lift too weight in his arms by his natural
ftrength, would be able to raife 2400 hundred-weight
by this engine.
By one or more of thefe fimple powers, all great
weights are raifed to confiderable heights : but in
them all, the more they diminiih the weight, the
more flow they are iu their operations, and confe-
4 N I C S. Chap. III.
quently the more do they retard the workman’s dif-
patch ; and univerfally the more fimple they are, the
more expeditious. Befides this, their fri&ion or rub-
bing againft each other greatly diminilhes their power.
The friftion in the balance is leaft, it is more in the
lever, increafed in the axle and wheel, yet more in
the pulley, but moft of all in the fcrew. In general,
in combined engines, upon account of this fri&ion,
they will require a third part more of power to move
them, than the theory allows. For this reafon, there¬
fore, it will for ever be impoffible to fulfil the boatl
of Wilkins, who vaunted that he could pull up an oak
by the roots with a fingle horfe-hair; for the force
requifite to work the machine in pulling it up, would
nearly amount to a third part of the force which the
machine exerts. The large capftan and pulley, ufed
in lanching a man of war, would in theory do it
moft effectually. A fimple lever, drawn a proper
length by the imagination, would do it as well ; it
would even fulfil the great boaft of Archimedes, it
would remove the earth itfelf. The learned often
amufe themfelves with fancies like thefe; and it was
for this that Cicero called Archimedes a trifler.—As
the friction of machines, however, forms a very con¬
fiderable refifting power in mechanics, we (hall here
fubjoin thofe methods by which it can belt be com¬
puted.
The do&rine of fri6tion, as afeertained by the lateft J(j
experiments, may be fummed up in the following Fridtion.
manner. 1. When one body infills on another tipon
a horizontal plane, it preffes it with its whole weight;
which being equally re-a6ted on, and confeqnently
the whole effedt of its gravity deftroyed by the plane,
it will be abfolutely free to move in any horizontal di¬
rection by any the leaft power applied" thereto, pro¬
vided both the touching furfaces be perfectly fmooth.
2. But fince we find no fuch thing as perfedl fmooth-
nefs in the furfaces of bodies, but an evident rough-
nefs or unevennefs of the parts in their furface, arifing
from their porofity and peculiar texture, it is eafy to
underftand, that, when two fuch furfaces come together,
the prominent parts of one will, in fome meafure, fall
into the concave parts of the other ; and therefore,
when an horizontal motion is attempted in one, the
fixed prominent parts of the other will give more or
lefs retiftance to the moving furface, by holding and
detaining its parts ; and this is what we call frittion.
3. Now fince any body will require a force propor¬
tional to its weight to draw it over a given obftacle,
it follows, that the fridtion arifing to the moving body
will always be in proportion to its weight only, and
not the quantity of the furface by which it bears
upon the refifting plane or furface. Thus, if a piece
of wood four inches wide and one thick, be laid up¬
on another fixed piece of the fame wood, it will re¬
quire the fame weight to draw it along, whether it be
laid on its broad or narrow fide. 4. For though there
be four times the number of touching particles on the
broad fide (exterisparibus), yet each particle is preffed
with but I of the weight that thofe are on the narrow
fide ; and fince four times the number, multiplied by ^
of the weight, is qual to of the number multiplied by
four times the weight, it is plain the refiftance is equal
in both cafes, and fo requires the fame force to over¬
come it. 5. The reafon why fridtion is proportional
to
4543
Chap. III. M E C H
to the weight of the moving body, Is, becaufe the power
applied to move the body muft raife it over the pro¬
minent parts of the furface on which it is drawn ; and
this motion of the body, as it is not upright, fo it
will not require a power equal to its whole weight;
but being in the nature of the motion on an inclined
plane, it will require only a part of its own weight,
which will vary with the various degrees of fmooth-
nefs and afperity. 6. It is found by experiment,
that a body will be drawn along by nearly -f of its
weight ; and if the furfaces be hard and well polilh-
ed, by lefs than a third part; whereas, if the parts
be foft or ragged, it will require a much greater
weight. Thus alfo the cylinder of wood AB, if
tdate veT fmooth, and laid on two well polifhed fuppor-
CLXVIII. ters C D, (having been firft oiled or greafed) and
fig. 6. then charged with the weight of two pounds in the
two equal balls G H, it wilj require an additional
weight x9 equal to about a third part of the two
pounds, to giv? motion to or overcome the fri&ion
of the faid cylinder. 7. Now this additional weight,
as it caufes a greater weight of the cylinder, will like-
wife increafe the friction ; and therefore require the
addition of another weighty, equal to the third part
of its own weight: for th? fame reafon, the weight
y will require another z, a third part lefs; and fo on
ad infinitum. Hence, fuppofing the friction to be
precifely a third of the weight, the firft weight with
all the additional ones, viz. 2, y, y, •*%-, &c. will be
a feries of numbers in geometrical progrefiion de-
creafing. Now the fum of all thefe terms, except the
firft, is found, by a well-known theorem in arithmetic,
to be equal to one pound. So that if the weight of
the cylinder be inconfiderable, the readieft way to over¬
come the friftion would be to double the power G, or
H, at once. 8. But though we may, at a medium,
allow a third part of the weight with which any Ample
machine is charged, for the friftion arifing from
p- ? thence; yet this is very precarious, and feldom is the
cafe : for if A B C D be a piece of brafs of fix ounces,
and E F G H be alfo a plate of brafs, and both the
furfaces well ground and polifhed, the weight P of
near two ounces will be required to draw along the
body AC alone; but if A C be loaded with 6, 8, or
lolb. then a fixth part of the weight will be fufficient
to draw it along the plane. On the other hand, if
the plane be covered with a linen or woollen cloth,
then a third or half part, and fometimes more, will
be requifite to draw it along on the plane. 9. Yet
notwithftanding the difficulty and uncertainty attend¬
ing the eftimation of the quantity of fri&ion, it is ftill
a moft ufeful and neceflary inquiry, how and by what
means the fri&ion of any machine may be diminifhed.
In order to this, we muft confider fri&ion mechani¬
cally, or as a force ailing againft a power applied to
&£■ 8. overcome it. Thus fuppofe AB an upright ftem
or fhaft, turning freely in the focket B fixed in the
table or plane IKLM ; and AC, D E, two arms
fixed in the faid fhaft, the latter of which, D E, has
three pins going into a focket in the middle of heavy
weights, F, G, or H, in fuch a manner, that when a
power applied at C moves the lever A C, it caufes the
lever D E to protrude or thruft along the weights at
F, G, or H, in a circular manner upon the table.
10. Now fince we fuppofe the weight, all the while it
Vol. VI. 2
A N I C S.
is in motion, is freely and wholly fupported by the
plane, it follows that all the refiftance it can give to
the power applied to C, is only what arifes from its
fri&ion on the plane. What this fri&ion is, will be
found by applying the weight at G, fo that BG be
equal to AC; for then the power applied toC, a&ing
in a tangent to the circle CRS, that ftiall juft move
the weight G, will be equal to its fridl’on. But if
the weight be applied at F, becaufe B F is greater
than AC, the fame power at C, as before, will not
move it, by reafon its force is here increafed by ha-
ving a greater velocity than the power ; as, on the
other hand, if placed at H, a lefs power at C liiall
move it, becaufe of its having there kfs velocity than
the power, as is evident from the properties of the
lever. 11. Hence we underhand, that though the
weight of a machine remains the fame; yet the fric¬
tion may be diminiihed, by contriving that the parts
on which it moves and rubs, (hall have lefs Velocity
than the power which moves it: thus, if the cylinder
AB (fig. 6.) were to move on the two fmall pins or
gudgeons E, F, the fridion would be abated in the
proportion of the diameter of the cylinder to that of
the pins. 12. The fri&ion on thefe gudgeons is ftill
farther diminiftied by caufing them to move on the
circumference of a wheel: thus, let F be the gudgeon
of the cylinder, revolving on the wheel CDE (fig. 9.),
the velocity of the wheel’s circumference will be the
fame with that of the gudgeon ; but the velocity of
the wheel’s axis AB (which is now to be confidered
as the rubbing part) is lefs than that of the wheel, in
proportion as its diameter is lefs than that of the
wheel: for example, if the fridion of the cylinder
moving on its furface be f part of the weight, and
the gudgeon be to the cylinder as 1 : 10, they will
reduce the fridion to part; and if, again, the axis
of the wheel be to the wheel as 1 : 10, the wheel will
reduce the fridion to Part» ar)d if the axis of this
wheel be laid on the perimeter of another wheel, the
fridion will be reduced to a ftill lefler part of the
weight; fo that you may proceed in this manner todf-
minifh the fridion ad infinitum; and wheels applied in
this manner are called friftion-'wheels. 13. Belides
what has been already faid, fomewhat farther is ne-
cefiary to diminifh the fridion of wheel-carriages. It
was before obferved, that fridion arofe chiefly by
lifting the body over the prominent parts of the plane
on which it is moved: now if we can contrive to move
the body along without lifting or fuftaining its weight,
we (hall move it without much fridion; and this may
be done by laying the body on any moveable circular
fubjed, as rollers, wheels, &c,: thus let AB (fig. 10.)
be the fedion of any heavy body, laid on a roller EF,
upon the plane CD, and drawn by the power P; it
is evident, when AB moves, the afperities of its fur¬
face .will lay hold on thofe of the roller, and move it
likewife ; and it is as evident, that when the body AB
is drawn againft the prominent parts of the roller,
they immediately give way, and make no refiftance:
thus the perpendicular diameter a b yields into the
fituation e f, and cd fucceeds in its place. By this
circular motion of the roller, its prominent parts be¬
low do only defcend and move upon or over, and are
not drawn againft, the fixed prominent parts of the
plane, and fo receive n6 refiftance from them. Hence
25 S the
4544
M E C H
the body AB is conveyed along without being lifted
up, in the fame manner as a wheel is moved by a pi¬
nion without any confiderable refiftance.
Chap. IV. Of Man, canfidered as an artificial
Machine.
Machinery Man has been confidered by anatomifts as a fyftem
of the 0f all the artificial machines united in the human
frame0 fabric; they have found the lever, the pulley, the axle
in the wheel, the wedge, and even the fcrew, or at
leaft fomething refembling each of them, in his per-
fon : thus, his arms have been likened to levers; his
head, turning upon its axle; the digaftric mufcle that
afiifts his fwallowing, to a rope running over its pul¬
ley; the glands, as lifting up their fluids in the man¬
ner of an artificial water-fcrew ; and his teeth have
been compared to wedges. But fome have not ftopt
here: they have gone on not only to pleafe themfelves
with the refemblance, but to eftimate the force of man
through all his vital and involuntary motions, fuch as
the running of the blood through his veins, the draw¬
ing his breath, and fuch like, by the inflexible laws of
mechanifm. They have even applied geometrical
rules to meafurc objefts conftantly in change, and
built theories upon proportions they were unable to
difcover. Thus, when Borelli once got the hint of
comparing the mufcles or flefliy parts to cords, he
then readily built this theory, and calculated the hu¬
man force by confidering the thicknefs of the cords,
and the length of the lever. Thus, when another
found the fimilitude between the blood running thro*
its channels, and water fpouting through pipes, he
purfued the fpeculation, till he at laft was taught to
believe that vomits would cure a (pitting of blood,
and bathing in warm water would be a remedy for
the dropfy ; happy, however, had his theory never
been put into pra&ice.
It is as impofiible to determine the mufcular force
of any man by the bare infpeftion or admeafurement
of his muffles, as it is to meafure the fwiftnefs of the
circulation of his fluids by the fpouting of his blood
from a vein. Neither can be done, though Cheyne
has pretended to demonftrate, that if we compare the
mufcular ftrength of two animals, that animal whofe
fluids circulate twice as fwift will be fix times as
ftrong. Freind and Wainright adopted his demon-
flration, for he called it a de7?ionJ}ration; and indeed it
was drawn up with a fufficient degree of mathematical
parade. Martin, however, in a treatife entitled Ji-
milibus animalibus, has demonftrated that Cheyne’s
demonftration was falfe; but it was in order to eita-
blifh another demonftration of his own. He aflerted,
that the force in fimilar animals was as the cube roots
of the fourth powers of the limb put info motion.
The learner will not perhaps underhand the precife
meaning of thefe words ; but it is no matter, for his
demonftration is as falfe as the former.
From the mere dimenfions of the mufcles in two
fimilar animals, it is impofiible to determine their
force. The ftrength of the mufcle is generally more
in proportion to the exercife it has been employed in,
than to its fixe; the legs of a chairman are ftronger ;
the arms of a fmith: in fliort, to ufe the words of a
bully in a Spanifh comedy, who miftook his man and
A N I C S. Chap. IV.
was beaten, we can never know the ftrength of the
mufcles till we experience their effedls.
But, though we cannot determine, with any preci-
fion, of two men which are ftrongeft; yet, in the fame
man, we can compare the force of his mufcles with
rather more precifion : this at leaft can be faid with
great certainty, that thofe mufcles which are inferted
into the bone, neareft to the place where it moves
upon another, overcome the greateft refiftance, and
confequently a6t with the greateft force. But to a
learner this wants explanation.
All our flefh is compofed of mufcles, which (if we
may ufe a vulgar fimilitude) are like red ribbands,
and almoft all have one of their ends fixed into orre
bone, and another of their ends into fome other bone.
Thus, if we feel the great ham-ftring, which is made
up of many mufcles, we (hall find that at one end it is
fixed into the bones of the leg, juft under the knee,
and at the other end it runs upwards, partly to be
fixed in the great bone of the thigh. The mufcles
being thus ftretched from one bone to another, have a
wonderful power of contracting and (hortening them¬
felves at pleafure ; and when we choofe to put them
into aCtion, they fwell in the middle, fomewhat into
the (hape of a nine-pin. As thefe mufcles thus con¬
tract, they muft necefiarily draw the two bones, into
which they are inferted, their own way : the ham-
ftring, when it contracts, for inftance, draws the leg
backward toward the thigh; when we want to make
the limb ftraight, there are mufcles inferted under the
fore-part of the knee, that, contracting, anfwer this
purpofe; while, in the mean time, the ham-ftring
fuffers itfelf to be relaxed, in order to let the oppofing
mufcles take effeCi. This being underftood, it will
follow, that if we confider any one of the bones, the
arm-bone for inftance, as a beam, and the mufcles
that raife it and put it into motion, as the power that
agitates and works the inftrument, the whole will
give us the idea of the third kind of lever, where the
prop is at one end, the weight to be fuftained at the
other, and the ftrength is applied between them both.
Thus, for inftance, if yon ftretch out your arm, the prop
is in the joint of the (houlder, the weight is the hand,
and the railing power is the mufcles, which are fixed
into the arm-bone near the (boulder, and go from
thence to be inferted into the bones of the trunk of
the body. Now the nearer the (houlder thefe mufcles
are inferted into the arm-bone, it is evident that the
longer will be the lever againft which they are to aft,
and confequently the greater will appear the weight
which they are to fuftain. To make this quite plain;
Suppofe a ladder were laid flat on the ground ; and fup-
pofe that a perfon, (landing at one end, take the neareft
round of the ladder in both his hands, and thus, pull¬
ing back, attempt to raife the fartheft end, keeping
the neareft end dill fteady to the ground. Would
not this require immenfe ftrength to effeCi ? Pretty
fimilar is the force that the mufcles of the arm exert
in railing the whole length of the arm, and the weight
of the hand befide. They are inferted into the bone
clofe ta the (houlder, and fupport the whole length
of the arm in the defired direClion. But what is
more, they do not only aCl upon the lever at fo difad-
vantageous a diftance, but alfo they ad upon it in a di¬
rection the moft oblique, and coBfequently at a greater
•difad vantage
4545
Chap. IV. M E C H
difadvantnge (till. Suppofe one attempt to raife the
diftant end of the ladder by pulling the round neareft
him; this, as was faid,will be verydifadvantageous: but
fuppofe yet farther, that he fhould firft lie upon his
back, and then, by drawing the next round to him of
the ladder, he fhould attempt to raife the diftant end;
the force that would be capable of effe&ing this, would
be incredible. Yet in this very manner it is that the
mufcles of the fhoulder aft, in raifing the arm. They
are not only inferted at the greateft diftance from the
weight, but they exert their power the moft obliquely.
The force they exert in keeping the hand and arm
extended is great; the force they exert in keeping it ex¬
tended, while the hand holds a weight of about 20 pounds,
is aftonifhing. Some fay that thefe mufcles, upon
equal terms, would lift a weight 10,000 times greater.
What has been here faid of the mufcles of the arm is
true, in a greater or lefs degree, of all the mufcles in
the body ; fo that this natural machine, thus fafhioned
by the Great Workman, is infinitely more powerful
than any artificial machine that man could form, tho’
it took up four times the fpace.
The mufcles, as we faid, are fupported by bones:
thefe make altogether a fingle pillar or column, which,
though not perfeftly ftraight, but with about five dif¬
ferent curvatures or bendings; yet, when perfeftly ba¬
lanced upon itfelf, will aftually fupport weights that
would furprife the inexperienced. La Hire and De-
faguliers give us feveral accounts of the amazing
weight fome people have fuftained, when they were
able to fix the pillar of their bones direftly beneath it.
The latter tells of a German who {hewed feveral feats
of this kind at London, and who performed before
the king and a part of the royal family. This man,
being placed in a proper fituation, with a belt which
relied upon his head and ftioulders, and which was
fixed below to a cannon of 4000 weight, had the
props which fupported the cannon taken away, and
by fixing the pillar of his bones immoveably againfl;
the weight, fupported it with feeming unconcern.
There are few that have not feen thofe men, who,
catching a horfe by the tail, and placing themfelves
in direft oppofition to the animal’s motion, have thus
flopped the horfe, though whipped by his rider to
proceed. In all fuch cafes, the pillar of the bones is
placed in direft oppofition to the weight; they fup¬
port each other, and are prevented from rubbing or
cracking by elaftic griftles fixed between each bone;
thefe give way a little upon great prefiure, and re-
ftore themfelves almoft inftantly when that is removed.
Befides thefe, there is a vifeous or flimy liquor that is
fquetzed in, as if from a fponge, between every joint,
and keeps thefe griftles fmooth, moift, and pliant.
By means of this fluid all the joints move eafily, and
obey the impulfe of the mufcles with greater difpatch.
This fluid, and the griftles (ox cartilages> as anatomifts
call them,) contribute not a little to the ftrength of
the animal ; they refift the burthen with an elaftic
force, and conform themfelves to the inequality of the
preffure. In old age both are diminiftied, the grifties
become hard, and this liquor (which anatomifts call
theis fqueezed out in lefs quantities. The
man therefore, in old age, becomes more ftiff and more
weak, chiefly upon this account; though partly be-
caufe his mufcles bccoote then alfo more rigid, hard,
\ N I C S.
and lefs flcjhy, as it is ufually called ; as thofe who
have eaten the flefti of old animals know. While we
are at reft, this fluid or fynovia above-mentioned oozes
out between the joints, to fit them for the hour of
aftion ; when in exercife, the ends of the bones prefs
againft their griftles, and thefe are feparated in fome
meafure by the fynovia or fluid: but there is ftill ano¬
ther liquor of an oily nature, which is prefled at the
fame time from a fmall fldhy fponge, placed in every
joint; and this mixing with the fynovia, makes all
fupple and fit for bufinefs. It was faid, that the fynovia
or vifeid liquor oozes out between the joints in the
hour of reft; it is therefore in greateft quantity be¬
tween them in the morning, after we have taken our
reft the preceding night. So great is the quantity
ufually feparated during fleep between the joints of
the back-bone, that fome men are an inch taller in
the morning than at night; and all men are fomewhat
taller, as may be quickly found by any who choofe to
make the experiment upon themfelves.
From what has been faid it appears, that, in carry-
ing large burdens, the whole art confifts in keeping
the column of the body as direftly under the weight
as pofiible, and the body as upright under the weight
as we can. For if the centre of gravity in the burden,
falls without this column, it will go near to fall: in
faft, if the fupporter were an inanimate machine, it
would fall inevitably; but human power, in fome mea¬
fure, catches the centre while yet beginning to de-
feend, and reftores the balance which it had loft the mo¬
ment before. A man balancing under a weight, re-
fembles one of thofe people whom we ufually fee walk¬
ing upon a wire : they totter from fide to fide, for a
moment lofe the centre of gravity; but by throwing
b ward a limb, ordiftorting their bodies, they recover
it again, to the great amufement of every fpeftator.
It is thus that he who carries a weight is obliged to
a6t; on whatever part of his body the weight is pla¬
ced, he balances it by throwing as much of his column
beneath the load as he can. Could the weight be laid
and evenly balanced upon him, handing in his natural
pofture, he could, as we obferved before, fupport an
incredible burden ; and though he could not move un¬
der what he could thus fupport, yet he could carry a
much greater load than if the burden were laid in
any other manner. The weight a man could fupport,
when thus evenly laid upon his flioulders, would break
the back of the ftrongeft horfe in the world. The rea-
fon is obvious. In a man, the whole column of bones
fupports the weight direftly ; in an horfe, the weight
is laid upon the column croflwife. The porters of
Conftantinople are known to carry each a weight of
900 pounds; they lean upon a ftaff while loaded, and
are unloaded in the fame manner. The porters of
Marfeilles in France are found to carry yet more ;
their manner is this: four of them carry the burden
between them, each having a fort of hood that cover*
the temples and head down to the ftioulders; to this
are faftened the cords that fupport the frame or bier,
on which the weight is laid. By this contrivance
the whole column of the bones afts direftly againfl:
the load, and an immenfe weight is thus fuftained.
"We now therefore at length fee the reafon why two
men carrying a load between them, can fuftain a grea¬
ter weight than what either cou’d feparately carry, if
S 3 it
4546
it were divided into two equal parts. The reafon is,
that two men can bear the load each more upright,
and with the column of their bones more oppofed
againft it.
As man bears a weight the better the more upright
he ftands againft it, it muft follow necefiarily, that the
more bendings he makes in fupporting weights, the
lefs will be his power. There are three principal
bendings in the human column ; the firft at the hams,
the fecond at the hips, and the third along the back¬
bone, which refembles the ofier in pliancy, though it
be ftronger than the oak. A man of ordinary ftature
and ftrength, upon an average, has been computed to
weigh 160 pounds ; he can fupport, as we faid before,
an immenfe weight if his column a&s diredtly againft
it; if he bends a little at the hams, fuch a man may
raife from the ground about 170 pounds, provided the
weights are placed to the greateft advantage. If he
bends at the hips and back, he will lift 30 pounds lefs.
If a weight be placed upon his head, and he be put
between the rounds of a ladder placed horizontally and
breaft-high, he can lift 30 pounds by the ftrength of
the mufcles of his fhoulders and neck alone.
From this we fee, that human flrength is not the
fourth part as great when the body is bent, as when
it is upright. From this alfo we fee, that if a man
draws a load after him, as in that cafe all his mufcles
aft in an oblique direftion, he can exert but very little
force, when compared to other animals. Defagulier
pretends to fay, that an horfe can draw as much, up¬
on an average, as five Englifh workmen. The French
writers fay, Dr Barthes in particular, that an horfe
can draw as much as fix Frenchmen, or feven Dutch¬
men ; but if the load were to be placed upon the fhoul¬
ders, two men will be found to be as flrong as an
horfe. A London porter fhould carry 300 weight at
the rate of three miles an hour; two chairmen carry
150 pounds each, and walk at the rate of four miles
an hour: Whereas a travelling horfe feldom carries
above 200 weight; and a day’s journey with fuch a
load, would be apt to difqualify him from travelling
the day following.
Man’s greateft force, therefore, is direftly upward ;
if he draws a load, he muft aft at a difadvantage. A
man, however, when obliged to draw a load, a rolling
ftone for inftance, hath two methods of doing this.
He may either turn his back to the ftone, and pufli-
ing the frame with his breaft, thus go onward, while
the ftone rolls after ; or he may turn his face to the
ftone, and go backward, drawing the ftone with him.
This laft method may be the mod inconvenient, but it
gives the workman much the greateft fhare of power,
and that for two reafons. In the firft place, by incli¬
ning farther back, he can give a greater column of his
body to the draught; and in the next place, a greater
number of his mufcles come into aftion ; particularly
the two great deltoid mufcles of the arms, the force of
which is very great. It is for this reafon that men
who row a boat, more ufually draw the oar to them,
than pufh it from them.
Chap. V. Of Wheel-Carriages.
Of wheel- By what we have feen of man confidered as a ma-
caiTidgcs. cbine, it is eafy to obferve that his frame is not adapt¬
ed to drawing carriages; while, on the contrary, in
Chap. V,
that of an animal upon all fours, the column of whofe
bodies, and the fituation of whofe mufcles, aft almoft
direftly upon bodies placed behind them, they are
perfeftly fitted by nature for this kind, of fervice.
Horfes are ufually employed in the draught in Britain;
mules, oxen, fheep, and other animals, are fometimes
ufed in other parts of the world. It might incur ri¬
dicule if we pretended to inform the learner that each
of thefe will draw a weight or carriage in proportion as
they are ftrong. But notwithftanding this is general¬
ly the cafe, yet we are going to mention what will
feem a paradox ; namely, that two horfes may be
found, one ftronger than the other, and alfo better
{killed in the draught, yet the weaker {hall draw a
weight with the very fame carriage the ftronger one
could not remove! This will be effefted, if the weakeft
horfe be the heavieft ; if he exceeds his antagonift
more in weight than he is exceeded in ftrength. It
is known, that ^he weight re-afts or pulls back
the horfe, as much as the horfe afts upon the
weight to pull it forward. Now the horfe has
two fources of power in drawing the weight a-
long : his ftrength, which gives him velocity ; and his
weight, which added gives force; and it is evident
that the horfe which hath both in the greateft pro¬
portion, will draw the heavieft weights. Ifweftiould
imagine both horfes railing an equal weight from a
deep pit, and this weight ftill increafed, fo as to over¬
come their ftrength, it is plain that the lighted horfe
would fooneft be drawn in. We have feveral inftances
in ordinary praftice, of the great benefit of increaling
the horfe’s weight to promote his draught: for, in
many places, horfes employed in turning a mill have a
fmall load laid upon their backs, which, though it
takes away fomething from their velocity, adds to
their weight, and confequently increafes their force.
But fuppofing the ftrength, fkill, and weight, of
two horfes to be the fame, all the difference then in
their drawing the fame weights, will arife from the
commodioufnefs of the machine in which they draw.
If the load they are to drag after them be breaft-high,
they can draw it with much greater eafe than if it lay
along the ground. They can, for inftance, draw
much greater draughts, if the weights are laid upon a
fledge as high as the horfe’s (boulders, than if the fame
weights were laid upon a low fledge on the ground-
For, in the firft cafe, the column of their bodies afts*
direftly againft the weight; in the latter, it afts ob¬
liquely ; and we have fhewn before, that the more di¬
reftly this column can aft, the greater is its force. E-
ven in either going up-hill or down-hill, the fledge
breaft-high is more commodious than that laid low-
For if the low fledge is dragged up an hill, it is plain,
that it will be then lower, with refpeft to the horfes,
than it was before, and confequently they will be
obliged to draw it more obliquely upwards than when
they drew it along the plain. If, on the contrary, the
low fledge is drawn down an hill, it will then be
higher with refpeft to the horfes than when on the
plain, and therefore their power of drawing it will be
greater ; but, in going down an hill, its own gravity
confpires with the draught, and will alfo help the load
to defcend, fo that the horfes in this cafe are permitted
to exert their greateft power where there is the lead
neceffity ; they cau draw the low fledge down-hill
with
MECHANICS,
4547
. V. M E C H i
with all their power, when, by the natural defcend-
ing of the load, they are not permitted to exert it.
This dodtrine, however, fimple as it is, is different
from what is ufually taught by merchanitts upon this
fubjedf.
Sledges were probably the firft machines ufed in
carrying loads; we find them thus employed in Ho¬
mer, we mean in the original, in conveying wood for
the funeral pile of Patroclus. There are fome coun¬
tries alfo that preferve their ufe to this day. However,
men early began to find how much more eafily a ma¬
chine could be drawn upon a rough road, that run
upon wheels, than one that thus went with a Aiding
motion. And indeed, if all furfaces were fmooth and
even, bodies could be drawn with as much eafe upon a
fledge as upon wheels ; and in Holland, Lapland, and
other countries, they ufe fledges upon the fmooth fur-
face of the jce; for as every furface upon which we
travel is ufually rough, wheels have been made ufe
of, which rub lefs againft the inequalities than fledges
would do. In faft, wheels would not eurn at all up¬
on ice, if it were perfectly fmooth, for the caufe of
the wheels turning upon a common road is the obftacles
it continually meets. For if we fuppofe the wheels to
be lifted from the ground, and carried along in the
air, the wheels in this cafe would not turn at all, for
there would be nothing to put any part into motion
rather than another ; in the fame manner, if they were
carried along upon pcrfe&ly fmooth ice, they would
meet nothing to give a beginning to the circulatory
motion, and all their parts would reft equally alike.
But if we fuppofe the wheel drawn along a common
road, then the parts will receive unequal obftru&ions,
for it meets with obftacles that retard it at bottom :
therefore the upper part of the wheel, which is not re¬
tarded, will move more fwiftly than the lower part,
which is; but this it cannot do, unlefs the wheel
moves round. And thus it is that the obftaclcs in
the rough road caufe this circulatory motion in the
wheel.
This rotation of the wheels about their axle very
much diminifhes that fri&ion which always attends
the weight’s being drawn along upon a fledge ; and
this in fo great a proportion, that, according to Hel-
fham, a carriage drawn by four wheels, will be drawn
with five times as fmall an effort as one that Aides up¬
on the fame furface in a’fledge. Still more to dimi-
nifti the fri&ion in wheel-carriages, an expedient hath
been found out, whereby the axle, contrary to what
is ufual in moft carriages, is made to turn round, and
its gudgeons or ends, inftead of prefling againft the
boxes as in common wheels, are made to bear on the
circumference of moveable wheels; fo that by this
contrivance, a number of parts are made to roll one
over the other, which Aided before: fuch wheels,
from their thus diminilhing the fridlion, are called
frittion-’viheds.
The ftrudlure of 'wheel-carriages is generally fo well
known, that it would be needlefs to defcribe them.
And therefore we (hall otdy point out fome inconve-
niencies attending the common method of placing the
wheels and loading the waggons,; and make an obfer-
vation or two upon the advantages of the ufe of broad
wheels.
In coaches, and all other four-wheeled carriages,
^ N I C S.
the fore-wheels are made of a lefs fize than the hind
ones; both on account of turning ftiort, and to avoid
cutting the braces: otherwife, the carriage would go
much eafierif the fore-wheels were as high as the hind
ones; and the higher the better, becaufe their motion
would be fo much the flower on their axles, and con-
fcquently the fridlion proportionably taken off. But
carriers and coachmen give another reafon for making
the fore-wheels much lower than the hind-wheels ;
namely, that when they are fo, the hind-wheels help
to puih on the fore ones: which is too unphilofophical
and abfurd to deferve a refutation; and yet, for their
fatisfadlion, we ftiall flievv by experiment that it has no
exiftence but in their own imaginations.
It is plain that the fmall wheels muft turn as much
oftener round than the great ones, as their circumfe¬
rences are lefs.. And therefore, when the carriage is
loaded equally heavy on both axles, the fore-axle muft
endure as much more fridlion, and confequently wear out
as much fooner than the hind-axle, as the fore-wheels
are lefs than the hind-ones. But the great misfortune
is, that all the carriers to a man do obftinately perfift,
againft the cleared reafon and demonftration, in put¬
ting the heavier part of the load upon the fore-axle of
the waggon ; which not only makes the fridlion great-
eft where it ought to be lead, but alfo prefleth the
fore-wheels deeper into the ground than the hind-
wheels, notwithftanding the fore-wheel^being lefs than
the hind ones, are with fo much the greater difficulty
drawn out of a hole or over an obftacle, even fuppo-
fing the weights on their axles were equal. For the
difficulty, with equal weights, will be as the depth of
the hole or height of the obftacle is to the femidiame- piJfe
ter of the wheel. Thus, if we fuppofe the fmall wheel CLXXIIf.'
D of the waggon AB to fall into a hole of the depth 4-
EF, which is equal to the femidiameter of the wheel,
and the waggon to be drawn horizontally along; it is.
evident, that the point E of the fmall wheel will be
drawn diredlly againft the top of the holer and there¬
for, all the power of horfes and men will not be able
to draw it out, unlefs the ground gives way before it.
Whereas, if the hind-wheel C falls into fuch a hole, it
finks not near fo deep in proportion to its femidiame¬
ter; and therefore the point G of the large wheel wfll
not be drawn diredlly, but obliquely, againft the top
of the hole; and fo will be eafily got-out of it. Add
to this, that fince a fmall wheel will often fink to the
bottom of a hole, in which a great wheel will go but
a very little way, the fmall wheels ought in all reafon
to be loaded with lefs weight than the great ones: and
then the heavier part of the load would be lefs jolted
upward and downward, and the horfes tired fo much,
the lefs, as their draught raifed the load to Ids-
heights.
It is true, that when the waggon-road is- much up¬
hill, there may be danger in loading the hind part
much heavier than the fore part; for then the weight
would overhang the hind-axle, efpecially if the load be
high, and endanger tilting up the fore-wheels from the
ground. In this cafe, the fafeft way would be to load
it equally heavy on both axles; and then as much-
more of the weight would be thrown upon the hind-
axle than upon the fore one, as the ground rifes from
a level below the carriage. But as this ftldom hap¬
pens, and when it does a fmall temporary weight 1. id
upurt
4543 M E C H
upon the pole between the horfes would overbalance
the danger, and this weight might be thrown into the
waggon when it comes to level ground; it is ftrange
that an advantage fo plain and obvious as would arife
from loading the hind-wheels heavieft, ihould not be
laid hold-of, by complying with this method.
To confirm thefe reafonings by experiment, let a
fmall model of a waggon be made, with its fore-wheels
24- inches in diameter, and its hind-wheels 44-; the
whole model weighing aboiit 20 ounces. Let this little
carriage be loaded any how with weights, and have a
fmall cord tied to each of its ends, equally high from
the ground it refts upon; and let it be drawn along a
horizontal board, firil by a weight in a fcale hung to
the cord at the fore-part; the cord going over a pul¬
ley at the end of the board to facilitate the draught,
and the weight juft fufficient to draw it along. Then
turn the carriage, and hang the fcale and weight to
the hind-cord, and it will be found to move along with
the fame velocity as at firft: which (hews, that the
power required to draw the carriage is all the fame,
whether the great or fmall wheels are foremoft ; and
therefore the great wheels do not help in the leaft to
pufli on the fmall wheels in the road.
Hang the fcale to the fore-cord, and place the fore-
wheels (which are the fmall ones) in two holes, cut
three eight parts of an inch deep in the board ; then
put a weight of 32 ounces into the carriage over the
fore-axle, and an equal weight over the hind-one: this
done, put 44 ounces into the fcale, which will be juft
fufficient to draw out the fore-wheels: but if this
weight be taken out of the fcale, and one of 16 ounces
put into its place, if the hind-wheels are placed in the
holes,the 16 ounce weight will draw them out; which
is little more than a third part of what was neceflary
to draw out the fore-wheels. This fhews, that the lar¬
ger the wheels are, the lefs power will draw the car¬
riage, efpecially on rough ground.
Put 64 ounces over the axle of the hind-wheels, and
32 over the axle of the fore-ones, in the carriage; and
place the fore-wheels in the holes: then put 38 ounces
into the fcale, which will juft draw out the fore-wheels;
and when the hind-ones come to the hole, they will
find but very little refiftance, becaufe they fink but a
liitle way into it.
But fhift the weights in the carriage, by putting the
32 ounces upon the hind-axle, and the 64 ounces up¬
on the fore-one; and place the fore-wheels in the
holes; then, if 76 ounces be put into the fcale, it will
be found no more than fufficient to draw out thefe
wheels ; which is double the power required to draw
them out when the lighter part of the load was put
upon them: which is a plain demonftration of the ab-
furdity of putting the heavieft part of the load in the
fore-part of the waggon.
Every one knows what an outcry was made by the
generality, if not the whole body of the carriers, a-
gainft the broad-wheel ait ; and how hard it was to
perfuade them to comply with it, even though the go¬
vernment allowed them to draw with more horfes, and
carry greater loads than ufual. Their principal ob-
jeftion was, that as a broad wheel muft touch the
ground in a great many more points than a narrow
wheel, the friition muft of courfe be juft fo much the
greater; and confequently, there muft be fo many more
A N I C S. Chap. V.
horfes than ufual, to draw the waggon. It is believed
that the majority of people were of the fame opinion;
not confidering, that if the whole weight of the waggon
and load in it bears upon a great many points, each
fuftains a proportionably lefs degree of weight and
fridtion, than when it bears only upon a few points;
fo that what is wanting in one, is made up in the
other; and therefore wilj be juft equal under equal de¬
grees of weight, as may be ffiewn by the following
plain and eafy experiment.
Let one end of a piece of packthread be faftened
to a brick, and the other end to a common fcale for
holding weights: then, having laid the brick edgewife
on a table, and let the fcale hang under the edge of
the table, put as much weight into the fcale as will
juft draw the brick along the table. Then taking back
the brick to its former place, lay it flat on the table,
and leave it to be afted upon by the fame weight in
the fcale as before, which will draw it along with the
fame eafe as when it lay upon its edge. In the former
cafe, the brick may be confidered as a narrow wheel
on the ground ; and in the latter, as a broad wheel.
And fince the brick is drawn along with equal eafe,
whether its broad fide or narrow edge touches the table,
it fhews that a broad wheel might be drawn along the
ground with the fame eafe as a narrow one, (fuppofing
them equally heavy), even though they fhould#drag,
and not roll, as they go along.
As narrow wheels are always finking into the
ground, efpecially when the heavieft part of the load
lies upon them, they muft be confidered as going con-
ftantly up-hill, even on level ground ; and their edges
muft fuftain a great deal of friftion by rubbing againft
the ruts made by them. But both thefe inconvenien-
cies are avoided by broad wheels ; which, infttad of
cutting and ploughing up the roads, roll them fmooth,
and harden them; as experience teftifies in places where
they have been ufed, efpecially either on wettifh or
fandy ground: though, after all, it muft be confefied,
that they will not do in ftiff clayey crofs-roads ; be¬
caufe they would foon gather up as much clay as would
be almoft equal to the weight of an ordinary load.
If the wheels are always to go upon fmooth and le¬
vel ground, the beft way would be to make the fpokes
perpendicular to the naves; that is, to Hand at tight
angles to the axles; becaufe they would then bear the
weight of the load perpendicularly, which is the flro^g-
eft way for wood. But becaufe the ground is gene¬
rally uneven, one wheel often falls into a cavity or rut
when the other does not, and then it bears.much
more of the weight than the other does: in which
cafe, concave or difhing wheels are beft; becaufe when
one falls into a rut, and the other keeps upon high
ground, the fpokes become perpendicular in the rut,
and therefore have the greateft ftrength when the ob¬
liquity of the load throws moft of its weight upon
them; whilft thofe on the high ground have lefs weight
to bear, and therefore need not be at their full ftrength.
So that the ufual way of making the wheels concave
is by much the beft.
The axles of the wheels ought to be perfe&ly
ftraight, that the rims of the wheels may be parallel
to each other; for then they will move eafieft, becaufe
they will be at liberty to go on ftraight forwards. But,
in the ufual way of pradice, the axles are bent down¬
ward
jchap. V. M E C H
ward at their ends; which brings the fides of the wheels
next the ground nearer to one another than their op-
pofite or higher fides are: and this not only makes the
wheels to drag fidewife as they go along, and gives
the load a much greater power of crufhing them than
when they are parallel to each other, but alfo endan¬
gers the over-turning of the carriage when any wheel
''at* falls into a hole or rut; or when the carriage goes in
U.LXXIII. a roacj has one ]0wer than the other, as along
5‘ the fide of a hill. Thus (in the hind-view of a wag¬
gon or cart) let AE and BF be the great wheels pa¬
rallel to each other, on their ftraight axle K, and HCI
•the carriage loaded with heavy goods from C to G.
Then, as the carriage goes on in the oblique road A^B,
the centre of gravity of the whole machine and load
will be at C ; and the line of direftion C</D falling
within the wheel BF, the carriage will not overfet.
\ Fig. 6. But if the wheels be inclined to each other on the
ground, as AE and BF are, and the machine be load¬
ed as before, from C to G, the line of direftion C</D
falls without the wheel BF, and the whole machine
tumbles over. When it is loaded with heavy goods
Fig. j. (fuch as lead or iron) which lie low, it may travel fafe-
ly upon an, oblique road fo long as the centre of gra¬
vity is at C, and the line of dire&ion Cd falls within
the wheels; but if it be loaded high with lighter goods
Fig. 7. (fuch as wool-packs) from C to L, the centre of gra¬
vity is raifed from C to K, which throws the line of
direction K4 without the lowed edge of the wheel BF,
and then the load overfets the waggon.
If there be fome advantage from fmall fore-wheels,
on account of the carriage turning more eafily and
fhort than it can be made to do when they are large;
there is at lead as great a difadvantage attending them,
which is, that as their axle is below the level of the
horfes breads, the horfes not only have the loaded car¬
riage to draw along, but alfo part of its weight to
bear; which tires them fooner, and makes them grow
much differ in their hams, than they would be if they
drew on a level with the fore-axle : and for this rea-
fon we find coach-horfes foon become unfit for riding.
So that on all accounts it is plain, that the fore-wheels
of all carriages ought to be fo high as to have their
axles even with the bread of the horfes; which would
not only give the horfes a fair draught, but likewife
caufe the machine to be drawn by a lefs degree of
6° power.
A carriage jg 0f wheels, fome people have contrived
to go with- .J . , , . r * .
out any o- carnages to go without hories, or any other moving
ther force power than what was given by the paffengers, by the
than what wind, &c. One of thefe is reprefented by ABCD.
frorrTthe* ^ *s move^ ^y the footman behind it; and the fore-
pa(fingers, wheels, which ad as a rudder, are guided by the per-
Plate fon who fits in the carriage (a).
CL.XXIV. Between the hind-wheels is placed a box* in which
**2 *' is concealed the machinery that moves the carriage.
AA, (fig. 2.) is a fmall axis fixed into the box. B is
a pulley, over which runs a rcpe, whofe two ends are
fafiened to the ends of the two leavers or treddfes CD,
whofe other ends are fixed in fuch manner in the piece
E, which is joined to the box, that they can eafily
move up and down. F, F, are two fiat pieces of iron
that are joined to the treddles, and take the teeth of
A N I C S. 4549
the two wheels H,H, which are fixed on the fame axis
with the hind-wheels of the carriage, I, I.
It is evident, that when the footman behind preffes
down one of the treddles, fuppofe C, with his foot, lie
mud bring down one of the pieces of iron F, and con-
fequently turn the wheel H that is next to it; and at
the fame time, by means of the rope that goes over the
pulley, he mud raife the other treddle D, together
with its piece F, which being thrud down will turn
the other wheel H; and fo alternately: and as the
great wheels are fixed on the fame axis, they mud ne-
ceffarily move at the fame time.
It is eafy to conceive, that if the ends of the treddles
next E, indead of being placed behind the carriage,
were turned the oppofite way, fo as to come under (he
feet of the perfon who fits in it, he might move it with
equal, or even greater facility, than the footman, as it
would then be charged with the weight of one perfon
only.
A machine of this kind will afford a falutary recrea¬
tion in a garden or park, or on any plain ground; but
in a rough or deep road mud be attended with more
pain than pleafure. 6l
Another contrivance for being carried without To fail as
draught, is by means of a failing chariot, or boat fixed with a
on four wheels, as AB ; which is driven before the’jS
wind by the fails CD, and guided by the rudder E. ^ water.
In a chariot of this kind, the wheels Ihould be farther Fig. 3.
afunder, and the axle-trees longer, than in other car¬
riages, to prevent overturning.
A machine of this fort was condrufted in the laft
century by Stephinus, at Scheveling in Holland, and
is celebrated by many writers. Its velocity with a
drong wind is faid to be fo great, that it would carry
eight or ten perfons from Schevding to Put ten, which
are 42 Englifh miles didant, in two hours.
Carriages of this kind are faid to be frequent fry
China; and in any wide, level country, mud be,
fometimes, both pleafant and profitable. The great
inconvenience attending this machine is, that it can
only go in the diredlion the wind blows, and even not
then unlefs it blow drong ; fo that, after you have got
fome way on your journey, if the wind (hould fail, or
change, you mud either proceed on foot, or go back.
Some remedy for this inconvenience will be found in
the next contrivance. The Hollanders have, or had,
fmall veffels, fomething of this kind, that carry one or
two perfons on the ice, having a fledge at bottom
indead of wheels; and being made in the form of a
boat, if the ice break the paffengers are fecured from
drowning. _ gl
To fail againd the wind : Let ABCD be the body To fail by
of a failing chariot; M the mad, to which are fixed lan^ aSa’u^:
the wings or fails EFGH; the two fird of which, EF,1,16 wind*
are here fuppofed to be expanded by the wind ; R is
the rudder by which it is guided. Therefore, the wind
driving the fails round, with the mad M, and the cog¬
wheel K, take the teeth, placed perpendicular to the
fides of the two fore-wheels of the carriage, and con-
fequently keep it in continual motion.
The body of this machine dioud not be large, nor
placed very high,, not only to prevent overturning,
but that its motion may not be thereby impeded ; for
the-
(a) This machine was invented by M. Richard, a phyfician of Rochelle, and was exhibited at Paris in the lad-cen¬
tury. It is deferibed by M. Ozanarn in his Recreations Mathematiques.
4550
MECHANIC S.
Chap. VI.
the velocity will be in proportion to the force of the
wind on the fails, to that on the body of the machine/
Therefore, if they be both equal, it will (land ftiil; or
if the force on the body be greateft, it will go back¬
wards ; uulefs there be a contrivance to lock the
wheels. The upper part of the machine next A, may
be made to take off when the wind is contrary, and
there may be another fet of fails placed between the
two hind-wheels, which will confiderably increafe its
velocity. But after all, for general ufe, a common
carriage muft be preferable: for this cannot be expec¬
ted to go up a moderate afcent without great difficul¬
ty; nor down a declivity, when there is a ftrong wind,
without danger ; and even on level ground, if the road
be in any degree rough, its progrefs muft be very
flow, attended both with difficulty an_d danger. In
an open country, however, where there is a large
traft of level and fmooth ground, and frequent ftrong
winds, a machine of this fort will certainly be very
convenient; and in moft countries, when made of a
fmall fize, may beufeful to young people, by affording
6 them a pleafant and healthful exercife.
Tlie unin- A carriage the body of which is incapable of be-
vertibte car- ing overturned may be made as follows. The bo-
mge. dy mu{l confift of a regular hollow globe, as AB,
CLXXIY a,: t^ie b°ttom of which is to be an immoveable
fig. S' ' weight, and which muft be proportioned to the
number of perfons or the load the machine is in¬
tended to carry. Round the globe muft go two
horizontal iron circles D, E, and two others F, G,
that are perpendicular to the former. All thefe
circles muft be made exa&ly to fit the globe, that it
may move freely in every direftion. The two hori¬
zontal circles are to be joined on each fide by a per¬
pendicular bar, one of which is expreffed in the figure
by HI. All thefe irons fhould be lined with leather,
to prevent unneceffary friclion. The body of the car¬
riage may be either of leather or hard wood; but the
latter will be moft elegible, as lead liable to wear.
The wheel on each fide is to be faftened to the per¬
pendicular bar by means of a handle K, that keeps it
Heady.
Now, the body of this machine moving freely in
the iron circles every way, the centre of gravity will
always lie at C ; therefore, in whatever pofition the
wheels are, or even if they overturn, the body of the
carriage will conftantly remain in the fame perpendi¬
cular diredtion.
At L is placed a pin, round which is a hollow move-
able cylinder: this pin moves up and down in the
groove MN, that it may not impede the perpendicular
motion of the circles, at the fame time that it prevents
the body of the machine from turning round in a ho¬
rizontal direftion. O is one of the windows, P the
door, and QR the ffiafts to this machine.
When a^carriage of this fort is intended for a Angle
perfon, or a light weight, it may be hung on fwivels,
in the fame manner as the rolling lamp or the fea-com-
pafs, which will make its horizontal motion ftiil more
regular: and when it is defigned to carry feveral per¬
fons, by adding another perpendicular bar on each lide,
between the two horizontal circles, it may be pWed
on four wheels. The body of this machine (hould be
frequently oiled or greafed, not only to prevent any
diiagreeable noife that may arife from its rubbing
againft the circles, but to prevent unneceffary wear in
the feveral parts.
This carriage is not intended for fmooth roads, or a
regular pavement; there certainly, thofe of the com¬
mon conftruftion are much preferable; nor Ihould a
carriage totally free from irregular motion be fought
after by thofe who are in perfect health: but there are
many perfons, fubjedl to different diforders, who by
being obliged to travel over rough roads in the com¬
mon carriages, fuffer tortures of which the healthful
have no idea ; to all thefe, therefore, and to every
one who is forced to travel through dangerous roads,
a carriage of this fort muft doubtlefs be highly de-
firable.
As this defign may appear to fome perfons, on a
fuperficial view, impra&ieable, we (hall here infert an
account of a fimilar carriage, which we have taken
from the firft volume of the abridgment of the Philo-
fophical Tranfatlions, by Lowthorp. There is not,
however, any defcription of the manner in which that
machine was conftrudted. The account is as follows :
“ A new fort of calafli defcribed by Sir R. B. This
calafhgoeson two wheels; carries one perfon ; is light
enough. Though it hangs not on braces, yet it is ea-
fier than the common coach. A common coach will
overturn if one wheel go on a fuperficies a foot and a
half higher than the other ; but this will admit of the
difference of three feet and one-third in height of the
fuperficies, without danger of overturning. We chofe
all the irregnlar banks, and fides of ditches, to run
over; and I have this day feen it, at five feveral times,
turn over and over, and the horfe not at all difordered.
If the horfe (hould be in the leaft unruly, with the
help of one pin you difengage him from the calaffi
without any inconvenience (a contrivance of this fort
may he eajtly added to the foregoing defignd) I myfelf
have been once overturned, and knew it not till I
looked up and faw the wheel flat over my head : and
if a man went with his eyes (hut, he would imagine
himfelf in the moft fmooth way, though at the fame
time there be three feet difference in the height of the
ground of each wheel.”
Chap. VI. Of Mills and Cranes.
In a common Ireaf-mill, where the fall of water
may be about ten feet, AA is the great wheel, which mil!,
is generally about 17 or 18 feet in diameter, reckoned
from the outermoft edge of any float-bard at «to that I
of its oppofite float at h- To this wheel the water is ^ 9’
conveyed thro’ a channel; and by falling upon the
wheel, turns it round.
On the axis BB of this wheel, and within the mill-
houfe, is a wheel D, about 8 or 9 feet diameter, ha¬
ving 61 cogs, which turn a trundle E containing ten
upright ftaves or rounds; and when thefe are the
number of cogs and rounds, the trundle will make 6TI-g-
revolutions for one revolution of the wheel.
The trundle is fixed upon a ftrong iron axis called
the fpindle, the lower end of which turns in a brafs
foot, fixed at F, in the horizontal beam ST called the
bridge-tree ; and the upper part of the fpindle turns in
a wooden bu(h fixed into the nether-mil!ftone which
lies upon beams in the floor YY. The top part of
the fpindle above the bu(h is fquare, and goes in¬
to a fquare hole in a ftrong iron crofs abed (fee
455i
Chap. VI. ' M E C H
fig. io.) called the rynd; under which, and clofe to
the bu(h, is a round piece of thick leather upon the
fpindle, which it turns round at the fame time that it
does the rynd.
The rynd is let into grooves in the under furface of
the running millftone G (fig. 9.), and fo turns it round
in the fame time that the trundle E is turned round
by the cog-wheel D. This miilftone has a large
hole quite through its middle, called the eye of the
Jlone, through which the middle part of the rynd
and upper end of the fpindle may be feen ; whilft: the
four ends of the rynd lie hid below the ftonc in their
grooves.
The end T of the bridge-tree TS (which fupports
the upper miilftone G upon the fpindle) is fixed into a
hole in the wall; and the end S is let into a beam
QR called the brayer, whofe end R remains fixed in a
mortife ; and its other end QJiangs by a ftrong iron-
rod P, which goes through the floor YY, and has a
fcrew.nut on its top at O ; by the turning of which
nut, the end Q^of the brayer is raifed or depreffed at
pleafure, and confequently the bridge-tree TS and
upper millftone. By this means, the upper mill-
ftone may be fet as clofe to the under one, or raifed
as high from it, as the miller pleafes. The nearer
the millftones are to one another, the finer they grind
the corn ; and the more remote from one another, the
coarfer.
The upper millftone G is inclofed in a round box
H, which does not touch it any where; and is about
an inch diftant from its edge all around. On the top
of this box ftands a frame for holding the hopper k k,
to which is hung the fhoe, I, by two lines faftened to
the hind-part of it, fixed upon hooks in the hopper,
and by one end of the crook-ftring K faftened to the
fore-part of it at /, the other end being twifted round
the pin L. As the pin is turned one way, the firing
draws up the fhoe clofer to the hopper, and fo leflens
the aperture between them ; and as the pin is turned
the other way, it lets down the fhoe, and enlarges the
aperture.
If the fhoe be drawn up quite to the hopper, no
corn can fall from the hopper into the mill: if it be
let a little down, fome will fall ; and the quantity
will be more or lefs, according as the fhoe is more or
lefs let down. For the hopper is open at bottom,
and there is a hole in the bottom of the fhoe, not di-
re&ly under the bottom of the hopper, but forwarder
towards the end i, over the middle of the eye of the
millftone.
There is a fquare hole in the top of the fpindle, in
which is put the feeder e (fig. xo.) This feeder (as
the fpindle turns round) jogs the fhoe three times in
each revolution, and fo caufes the corn to run con-
ftantly down from the hopper, through the fhoe, into
the eye of the millftone, where it falls upon the top
of the rynd, and is, by the motion of the rynd and
the leather under it, thrown below the upper ftone,
and ground between it and the lower one. The vio¬
lent motion of the ftone creates a centrifugal force in
the corn going round with it, by which means it gets
farther and farther from the centre, as in a fpiral, in
* every revolution until it be thrown quite out ; and,
being then ground, it falls thro’ a fpout M, called the
mill-eye, into the trough N.
Vox.. VI. 2
A N I C S.
When the mill is fed too faft, the corn bears up the
ftone, and is ground too coarfe ; and befides, it clogs
the mill fo as to make it go too flow. When the mill
is too flowly fed, it goes too faft, and the ilones by
their attrition are apt to ftrike fire againft one another:
Both which inconveniencies are avoided by turning
the pin L backwards or forwards, which draw's up or
lets down the fhoe, and fo regulates the feeding as the
miller fees convenient.
The heavier the running millftone is, and the great¬
er the quantity of water that falls upon the wheel, fo
much the fafter will the mill bear to be fed, and con¬
fequently fo much the more it will grind. And on the
contrary, the lighter the ftone, and the lefs the quan¬
tity of water, fo much flower muft the feeding be.
But when the ftone is confiderably wore, and become
light, the mill muft be fed flowly at any rate ; other-
wife the ftonc will be too much borne up by the corn
under it, which will make the meal coarfe.
The quantity of power required to turn a heavy
millftone is but a very little more than what is fuffi-
cient to turn a light one: for as it is fupported upon
the fpindle by the bridge-tree ST, and the end of the
fpindle that turns in the brafs foot therein being but
fmall, the odds arifing from the weight is but very in-
confiderable in its action againft the power or force
of the water. And befides, a heavy ftone has the fame
advantage as a heavy fly ; namely, that it regulates
the motion much better than a light one.
In order to cut and grind the corn, both the upper
and under millftones have channels or furrows cut into
them, proceeding obliquely from the centre towards
the circumference. And thefe furrows are each cut
perpendicularly on one fide and obliquely on the other
into the ftone, which gives each furrow a fliarp edge,
and in the two ftones they come as it were againll
one another like the edges of a pair of feiflars; and fo
cut the corn, to make it grind the eafier when it falls
upon the places between the furrows. Thefe are cut
the fame way in both ftones when they lie upon their
backs, which makes them run crofs-ways to each other
when the upper ftone is inverted by turning its furrow¬
ed furface towards that of the lower. For, if the fur¬
rows of both ftones lay the fame way, a great deal of
the corn would be driven onward in the lower furrows,
and fo come out from between the ftones without ever
being cut.
When the furrows become blunt and fhallow by
wearing, the running ftone muft be taken up, and
both ftones new dreffed with a ehifel and hammer. Ami
every time the ftone is taken up, there muft be fome
tallow put round the fpindle upon the bulb, which will
foon be melted by the heat the fpindle acquires from
its turning and rubbing againft the bufh, and fo will
get in betwixt them : otherwife the bufli would take
fire in a very little time.
The bufh muft embrace the fpindle quite clofe, to
prevent any fhake in the motion; which would make
fome parts of the ftones grate and fire againft each
other, whilft other parts of them would be too far
afunder, and by that means fpoil the meal in grind-
ing.
Whenever the fpindle wears the bufli fo as to begin
to fhake in it, the ftone muft be taken up, and a cbi-
fel drove into feveral parts of the bulb j and when it
25 T is
455 2
is taken out, wooden wedges muft be driven into the
holes j by which means the bufh will be made to em¬
brace the fpindle clofe all around it again. In doing
this, great care mnft be taken to drive equal wedges
into the bufh on oppofite fides of the fpindle ; other-
wife it will be thrown out of the perpendicular, and fo
hinder the upper done from being fet parallel to the
under one, which is abfolutely neceflary for making
good work. When any accident of this kind hap-
pens, the perpendicular pofition of the fpindle mud be
reftored by adjufting the bridge-tree ST by proper
wedges put between it and the brayer QR.
It often happens, that the rynd is a little wrenched
in laying down the upper done upon it; or is made to
fink a little lower upon one fide of the fpindle than
on the other : and this will caufe one edge of the up¬
per done to drag all around upon the other, whild the
oppofite edge will not touch. But this is eafily fet to
rights, by raifing the done a little with a lever, and
putting bits of paper, cards, or thin chips, betwixt the
rynd and the done.
The diameter of the upper done is generally about
fix feet, the lower done about an inch more : and the
upper done when new contains about 224- cubic feet,
which weighs fomewhat more than 1900 pounds. A
done of this diameter ought never to go more than 60
times round in a minute} for if it turns fader, it will
heat the meal.
The grinding furface of the under done is a little
convex from the edge to the centre, and that of the
upper (lone a little more concave : fo that they are far-
thed from one another in the middle, and come gra¬
dually nearer towards the edges. By this means, the
corn at its fird entrance between the dones is only
bruifed; but as it goes farther on towards the circum¬
ference or edge, it is cut fmaller and fmaller ; and at
lad finely ground jud before it comes out from between
them.
The water-wheel mnd not be too large, for if it be,
its motion will be too flow ; nor too little, for then it
will want power. And for a mill to be in perfettion,
the floats of the wheel ought to move with a third
part of the velocity of the water, and the done to turn
round once in a fecond of time.
Such a mill as this, with a fall of water about 7^
feet, will require about 32 hoglheads every minute to
turn the wheel with a third part of the velocity with
which the water falls; and to overcome the refidance
arifing from the friftion of the geers and attrition of
the ftones in grinding the corn.
The greater fall the water has, the lefs quantity of
it will ferve to turn the mill. The water is kept up in
the mill-dam, and let out by a duice called the pcn-
Jiock, when the mill is to go. When the penltock is
drawn up by means of a lever, it opens a paffage thro’
which the water flows to the wheel: and when the
mill is to be dopt, the penltock is let down, which
dops the water from falling upon the wheel.
A lefs quantity of water will turn an overfhot-mill
(where the wheel has buckets indead of float-boards),
than a bread-mill, where the fall of the water feldom
exceeds half the height A £ of the wheel. So that,
where there is but a fmall quantity of water, and a fall
great enough for the wheel to lie under it, the bucket
(or overfliot) wheel is always uftd. But where there
Chap. VI,
is a large body of water, with a little fall, the bread
or float-board wheel mud take place. Where the wa¬
ter runs only upon a little declivity, it can aft but
flowly upon the under part of the wheel at b ; in which
cafe, the motion of the wheel will be very flow : and
therefore, the floats ought to be very long, tho’ not
high, that a large body of water may aft upon them ;
fo that what is wanting in velocity may be made up in
power : and then the cog-wheel may have a greater
number of cogs in proportion to the rounds in the
trundle, in order to give the milldone a fufficient de¬
gree of velocity.
They who recolleft what has been faid concern¬
ing the acceleration of bodies falling freely by the
power of gravity afting condantly and uniformly up¬
on them, may perhaps alk, Why fliould the motion
of the wheel be equable, and not accelerated, fince the
water afts condantly and uniformly upon it? The
plain anfwer is, that the velocity of the wheel can ne¬
ver be fo great as the velocity of the water that turns
it; for, if it Ihould become fo great, the power of the
water would be quite lod upon the wheel, and then
there would be no proper force to overcome the fric¬
tion of the geers and attrition of the Hones. There¬
fore, the velocity with which the wheel begins to
move, will increafe no longer than till its momen¬
tum or force is balanced by the refidance of the ma¬
chine ; and then the wheel will go on with an equable
motion. \
[If the cog-wheel D be made about 18 inches dia- A hand- i
meter, with 30 cogs, the trundle as fmall in proper-mill,
tion, with 10 daves, and the milldoncs be each about
two feet in diameter, and the whole work be put into
a drong frame of wood, as reprefented in the figure,
the engine will be a hand-mill for grinding earn or (
malt in private families. And then, it may be turned i
by a winch indead of the wheel AA; the milldone
making three revolutions for every one of the winch. j
If a heavy fly be put upon the axle B, near the winch,
it will help to regulate the motion.3
If the cogs of the wheel and rounds of the trundle j
could be put in as exaftly as the teeth are cut in the
wheels and pinions of a clock, then the trundle might !
divide the wheel exaftly : that is to fay, the trundle ;
might make a given number of revolutions for one of
the wheel, without a fraftion. But as any exaft num¬
ber is not neceflary in mill-work, and the cogs and
rounds cannot be fet in fo truly as to make all the in¬
tervals between them equal ; a fltilful mill-wright will \
always give the wheel what he calls a hunting evg;
that is, one more than what will anfwer to an exaft
divifion of the wheel by the trundle. And then, as ]j
every cog comes to the trundle, it will take the next j
daflf or round behind the one which it took in the for¬
mer revolution : and by that means will wear all the
parts of the cogs and rounds which work upon one an¬
other equally, and to equal didances from one another,
in a little time ; and fo make a true uniform mo- 1
tion throughout the whole work. Thus, in the a-
bove water-mill, the trundle has to (laves, and the
wheel 61 cogs.
Sometimes, where there is a fufficient quantity of (1
water, the cog-wheel AA turns a large trundle BE,Plate /
on whofe axis C is fixed the horizontal wheel D, with^L^M|
cogs all round its edge, turning two trundles JE and **' ' I
MECHANICS.
4553
.VI. M E C H
F at the fame time 5 whofe axes or fpindles G and H
turn two millftones I and K, upon the fixed ftones L
and M. And when there is not work for them both,
either may be made to lie quiet, by taking out one of
the ftaves of its trundle, and turning the vacant place
towards the cog-wheel D. And there maybe a wheel
fixed on the upper end of the great upright axle C for
turning a couple of boulting-mills ; and other work for
drawing up the facks, fanning and cleaning the corn,
lharpening of tools, &c.
If, inftead of the cog-wheel AA and trundle BB,
horizontal levers be fixed into the axle C below the
wheel D, then horfes may be put to thefe levers for
turning the mill: which is often done where water
cannot be had for that purpofe.
The working parts of a wind-mill differ very little
from thofe of a water-will : only the former is turned
by the aftion of the wind upon four fails, every one of
which ought (as is generally believed) to make an angle
of 54-f degrees with a plane perpendicular to the axis
on which the arms are fixed for carrying them; it being
demonftrable, that when the fails are fet to fuch an
angle, and the axis turned end-ways toward the wind,
the wind has the greateft power upon the fails. But
this angle anfwers only to the cafe of a vane or fail
juft beginning to move : for, when the vane has a
certain degree of motion, it yields to the wind ; and
then that angle muft be increafed to give the wind its
full effeft.
Again, the increafe of this angle ftiould be different,
according to the different velocities from the axis to
the extremity of the vane. At the axis it fhould be
54y degrees, and thence continually increafe, giving
the vane a twift, and fo caufing all the ribs of the vane
to lie in different planes.
Laftly, thefe ribs ought to decreafe in length from
the axis to the extremity, giving the vane a curvilineal
form ; fo that no part of the force of any one rib be
fpent upon the reft, but all move on independent of
each other. All this is required to give the fails of a
wind-mill their true form : and we fee both the twift
and the diminution of the ribs exemplified in the wings
of birds.
It is almoft incredible to think with what velocity
the tips of the fails move when a&ed upon by a mode¬
rate gale of wind. We have feveral times counted the
number of revolutions made by the fails in 10 or 15
minutes; and from the length of the arms from tip to
tip, have computed, that if a hoop of that diameter
was to run upon the ground with the fame velocity
that it would move if put upon the fail-arms, it would
go upwards of 30 miles in an hour.
As the ends of the fails neareft the axis cannot move
with the fame velocity that the tips or fartheft ends do,
although the wind afts equally ftrong upon them; per¬
haps a better pofition than that of ftretchjng them
along the arms diredly from the centre of motion,
might be to have them fet perpendicularly acrofs the
farther ends of the arms, and there adjufted lengthwife
to the proper angle. For, in that cafe, both ends of
the fails would move with the fame velocity; and be¬
ing farther from the centre of motion, they would have
fo much the more power: and then, there would be
no occafion for having them fo large as they are gene¬
rally madej which would render them lighter, and
A N I C S.
confequently, there would be fo much the lefs friction
on the thick neck of the axle where it turns in the
wall. ^9
h. crane is an engine by which great weights arep|"ane'
raifed to certain heights, or let down to certain depth*.
It confifts of wheels, axles, pulleys, ropes, and a gibfij;. j,
or gibbet. When the i-upe H is hooked to the weight
K, a man turns the winch A, on the axis whereof is
the trundle B, which turns the wheel C, on whofe axis
D is the trundle E which turns the wheel F with its up¬
right axis G, on which the great rope HH winds as
the wheel turns; and going over a pulley, I, at the end
of the arm d of the gib cede, it draws up the heavy
burden K; which being raifed to a proper height, as
from a ftn’p to the quay, is then brought over the quay
by pulling the wheel Z round by the handles z, c,
which turns the gib by means of the half wheel b fixt
on the gib-poft cc, and the ftrong pinion a fixt on the
axis of the wheel Z. This wheel gives the man that
turns it an abfolute command over the gib, fo as to
prevent it from taking any unlucky fwing, fuch as of¬
ten happens when it is only guided by a rope tied to
its arm d; and people are frequently hurt, fometimes
killed, by fuch accidents.
The great rope goes between two upright rollers i
and k, which turn upon gudgeons in the fixed beams
f and g\ and as the gib is turned towards either fide,
the rope bends upon the roller next that fide. Were
it not for thefe rollers, the gib would be quite unma¬
nageable; for the moment it were turned ever fo little
towards any fide, the weight K would begin to de-
feend, becaufe the rope would be (hortened between
the pulley I and axis 6; and fo the gib would be pul¬
led violently to that fide, and either be broken to
pieces, or break every thing that came in its way.
Thefe rollers muft be placed fo that the Tides of them
round which the rope bends may keep the middle of
the bended part dire&ly even with the centre of the hole-
in which the upper gudgeon of the gib, turns in the
beam f. The truer thefe rollers are placed, the eafier
the gib is managed, and the lefs apt to fwing either
way by the force of the weight K.
A ratchet-wheel Qjs fixt upon the axis D, near the
trundle E; and into this wheel falls the catch or click
R. This hinders the machine from running back by
the weight of the burden K, if the man who raifes it
fhould happen to be carelefs, and fo leave off working
at the winch A fooner than he ought to do.
When the burden K is raifed to its proper height
from the fnip, and brought over the quay by turning
the gib about, it is let down gently upon the quay, or
into a cart Handing thereon, in the following manner;
A man takes hold of the rope tt (which goes over the
pulley v, and is tied to a hook at S in the catch R)
and fo difengages the catch from the ratchet-wheel
and then, the man at the winch A turns it backward,
and lets down the weight K. But if the weight pulls
too hard againft this man, another lays hold of the
handle V, and by pulling it downward draws the gripe
U clofe to the wheel Y, which by rubbing hard againft
the gripe hinders the too quick defeent of the weight;
and not only fo, but even flops it at any time if re¬
quired. By this means, heavy goods may be either
raifed or let down at pleafure, without any danger of
hurting the men who work the engine.
25 T z
When
4554
M E C H
When part of the goods are craned up, and the
rope is to be let down for more, the catch R is firft
difengaged from the ratchet-wheel by pulling the
cord t\ then the handle q is turned half round back*
ward, which, by the crank in the pieces, pulls
down the frame b between the guides m and in (in
which it Aides in a groove)' and fo difengages the
trundle B from the wheel C: and then, the heavy hook
fh at the end of the rope H defcends by its own weight,
and turns back the great wheel F with its trundle E
and the wheel C ; and this laft wheel afts like a fly
againft the wheel F and hook 3, and fo hinders it
from going down too. quick; whilft the weight X ke^ps
up the gripe U from rubbing againft the wheel Y, by
means of a cord going from the weight, over the pul¬
ley w to the hook W in the gripe; fo that the gripe
never touches the wheel, unlefs it be pulled down by
the handle V.
When the crane is to be fet at work again for draw-
ing up another burden, the handle q is turned half
round forwards; which, by the crank »«, raifes up the
frame k, and caufes the trundle B to lay hold of the
wheel C; and then, by turning the winch A, the bur¬
den of goods K is drawn up as before.
The crank nn turns pretty ftiff in the mortife near
o, and flops againft the farther end of it when it has
got juft a little beyond the perpendicular; fo that it
can never come back of itfelf: and therefore, the
trundle B can never come away from the wheel C, un¬
til the handle q be turned half round.
The great rope runs upon rollers in the lever LM,
which keep it from bending between the axle at G and
the pulley I. This lever turns upon the. axis N by
means of the weight O, which is juft fufficient to keep
its end L up to the rope; fo that, as the great axle
turns, and the rope coils round it, the lever rifes with
the rope, and prevents the codings from going over
one another.
The power of this crane may be eftimated thusSup-
pofe the trundle B to have 13 ftaves or rounds, and
the wheel C to have 78 fpur-cogs ; the trundle E to
have 14 ftaves, and the wheel F 56 cogs. Then, by
multiplying the ftaves of the trundles, 13 and 14, into
one another, their produdl will be 182; and by mul¬
tiplying the cogs of the wheels, 78 and 56, into one
another, their produdt will be 4368; and dividing 4368
by 182, the quotient will be 24: which fliews, that the
winch A make 24 turns for one turn of the wheel F
and its axle G on which the great rope or chain HIH
xvinds. So that, if the length or radius of the winch
A were only equal to half the diameter of the great
axle G, added to half the thicknefs of the rope H, the
power of the crane would be as 24 to 1: but the ra¬
dius of the winch being double the above length, it
doubles the faid power, and'fo makes it as 48 to 1: in
which cafe, a man may raife 48 times as much weight
by this engine as he could do by his natural ftrength
without it, making proper allowance for the fridtion
of the working parts. Two men may work at once,
by having another winch on the oppofite end of the
axis of the trundle under B ; and fo make the power
ftill double.
If this power be thought greater than what may be
generally wanted, the wheels may be made with fewer
cogs in proportion to the ftaves in the trundles; and
A N I C S. Chap. V3
fo the power may be of whatever degree is judged to
be requifite. But if the weight be fo great as will re¬
quire yet more power to raife it (fuppofe a double
quantity), then the rope H may be put under a move- j
able pulley, as !, and the end of it tied to a hook in ;
the gib ate; which will give a double power to the
machine, and fo raife a double weight hooked to the *
block of the moveable pulley.
When only fmall burdens are fo raifed, this may be
quickly done by men pulhing the axle G round by the i
handfpokes^,^,^; having firft difengaged the trundle
B from the wheel C: and then, this wheel will only
aft as a fly upon the wheel F; and the catch R will
prevent its running back, if the men fliould inadver- !
tently leave off pulhing before the burden be unhook- :
ed from
Laftly> when very heavy burdens are to be raifed,
which might endanger the breaking of the cogs in the j
wheel F; -their force againft thefe cogs may be much -
abated by men pufhing round the handfpokes
whilft the man at A turns the winch.
We have only (hewn the working parts of this crane, ;
without the whole of the beams which fupport them;
knowing that thefe are eafily fuppofed, and that if i
they had been drawn, they would have hid a great deal ]
of the working parts from fight, and alfo confufed the
figure. 1
Another very good crane is made in the following Anotr°
manner. AA is a great wheel turned by men walk- crane. ;
ing within it at H. On the part C, of its axle BC, Idate
the great rope D is wound as the wheel turns; and^XjXXIf
this rope draws up goods in the fame way as the rope 3’
HH does in the above-mentioned crane, the gib-work
here being fuppofed to be of the fame fort. But thefe
cranes are very dangerous to the men in the wheel;
for, if any of the men Ihould chance to fall, the buy-
den will make the wheel run back and throw them all
about within it; which often breaks their limbs, and
fometimes kills them. The late ingenious Mr Pad-
more of Briftol, (whofe contrivance the forementioned
crane is), obferving this dangerous conftruftion, con¬
trived a method for remedying it, by putting cogs all
around the outfide of the wheel, and applying a trundle
E to turn it; which increafes the power as much as
the number of cogs in the wheel is greater than the
number of ftaves in the trundle: and by putting a
ratchet-wheel F on the axis of the trundle, (as in the
above-mentioned crane), with a catch to fall into it,
the great wheel is ftopt from running back by the force
of the weight, even if all the men in it fliould leave off
walking. And by one man working at the winch I,
or two'men at the oppofite winches when needful, the
men in the wheel are much affifted, and much greater
weights are raifed, than could be by men only within
the wheel. Mr Padmore put alfo a gripe-wheel G
upon the axis of the trundle, which being pinched in
the fame manner as defcribed in the former crane,
heavy burdens may be let down without the leaft dan¬
ger. And before this contrivance, the lowering of
goods was always attended with the utmoft danger to
the men in the wheel; as everyone mult be fenfihle of
who has feen fuch engines at work. And it is furpri-
fing that the mailers of wharfs and cranes fliould be fo
regardlefs of the limbs, or even lives of their workmen,
that, excepting the late Sir James Creed of Green-
Mechanics
TLate CISXIV;
. C2^. 6'.
The INHALE'R .
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4555
Chap. VII. MECHANICS.
wich, and fome gentlemen at Briftol, there is fcarce
an inftance of any who has ufed this fafe contrivance.
Chap. VII. Of the Communication of Motion.
Before we proceed to explain the laws by which
bodies communicate their motion from one to another,
it is very neceffary to make a diftin&ion between mo¬
tion and velocity ; which ought to be well obferved,
and is as follows.
By the motion of a body (fometimes called its yuan-
tity of motion, fometimes its momentum) is not to be
underftood the velocity only with which the body
moves ; but the fum of the motion of all its parts ta¬
ken together : confequently the more matter any bo¬
dy contains, the greater will be its motion, though its
velocity remains the fame. Thus, fuppofing two bo¬
dies, one containing ten times the quantity of matter
the other does, moving with equal velocity ; the grea¬
ter body is faid to have ten times the motion, or mo¬
mentum, that the other has: for it is evident, that a
tenth part of the larger has as much as the other
whole body. In fliort, that quality in moving bodies
which philofophers underftand by the term momentum
or motion, is no other than what is vulgarly called
their force, which every one knows to depend on their
quantity of matter, as well as their velocity. This is
that power a moving body has to affe6t another in all
actions that arife from its motion, and is therefore a
fundamental principle in mechanics.
Now, fince this momentum, or force, depends
equally on the quantity of matter a body contains, and
on the velocity with which it moves; the method to
determine how great it is, is to multiply one by the
other. Thus, fuppofe two bodies, the firft having
twice the quantity of matter, and thrice the velocity,
which the other has ; any two numbers, that are to
each other as two to one, will exprefs their quantities
of matter (it being only their relative velocities and
quantities of matter which we need confider) ; and any
two numbers that are as three to one, their velocities:
now multiply the quantity of matter in the firft, viz.
two, by its velocity three, the produft is fix; and mul¬
tiply the quantity of matter in the fecond by its velo¬
city, viz. one, by one, the produft is one ; their rela¬
tive forces therefore or powers will be as fix to one, or
the moment of one is fix times greater than that of the
other. Again, if their quantities of matter had been as
three to eight, and their velocities as two to three,
then would their moments have been as fix to twenty-
four, that is, as one to four.
This being rightly apprehended, what follows, con¬
cerning the laws of the communication of motion by
impulie and the mechanical powers, will be eafily un¬
derftood.
The Communication of Motion.
7, I. In Bodies not Elaftic.
| Non-eiaftic Thofe bodies are faid to be not elaftic, which, when
V bodies. t}iey ftrike againft one another, do not rebound, but
accompany one another after impadt, as if they were
joined. This proceeds from their retaining the im-
prefiion made upon their furfaces, after the impreffing
force ceafes to adt. For all rebounding is occafioned
by a certain fpring in the furfaces of bodies, whereby
thofe parts, which receive the imprefiion made by the
ftroke, immediately fpring back, and.throw off the
impinging body; now, this being wanting in bodies
void of elafticity, there follows no feparation after
impadt.
When one body impinges on another which is at
reft, or moving with lefs velocity the fame way, the
quantity of the motion or momentum in both bodies
taken together remains the fame after impadl as be¬
fore ; for by the third law of nature, the re-adlion of
one being equal to the adtion of the other, what one
gains, the other muft lofe.
Thus, fuppofe two equal bodies, one impinging
with 12 degrees of velocity on the other at reft : the
quantities of matter in the bodies being equal, their
moments and velocities are the fame ; the fum in both
12; this remains the fame after impadt, and is equally
divided between them; they have therefore fix a-piece;
that is, the impinging body communicates half its ve¬
locity, and keeps half.
When two bodies impinge on each other by moving
contrary ways, the quantity of motion they retain af¬
ter impadt is equal to the difference of the motion
they had before : for by the third law of nature, that
which had the lead motion, will deftroy an equal
quantity in the other; after which they will move to¬
gether with the remainder, that is the difference.
Thus for inftance, let there be two equal bodies
moving towards each other, the one with three de¬
grees of velocity, the other with five, the difference
of their moments or velocities will be two; this re¬
mains the fame after impadt, and is equally divided
between them, they have therefore one a-piece: that
is, the body which had five degrees of velocity, lofes
three, or as much as the other had ; communicates half
the remainder, and keeps the other half.
From thefe pofitions it is eafy to reduce a theorem,
that lhall (hew the velocity of bodies after impadt in
all cafes whatever. Let there be two bodies A and B,
the velocity of the firft a, of the other b; then the
moment of A will be expreffed by Aa, and of B by
B£ ; therefore the fum of both will be Aa-\-¥>b; and
Aa—B£ will be the difference when they meet. Now
thefe quantities remain the fame after impadt; but
knowing the quantities of motion and quantities of
matter, we have the velocity by dividing the former
by the latter: therefore—^^--or—^-g- will in all ca¬
fes exprefs the velocity of the bodies after impadt.
II. In Elaftic Bodies.
Bodies perfedtly elaftic are fuch as rebound, afterIhfiic bo-
impadt, with a force equal to that with which they im-dics>
pinge upon one another ; thofe parts of their furfaces,
that receive the impreflion, immediately fpringing
back, and throwing off the impinging bodies with a
force equal to that of impadl.
From hence it follows, that the adtion of elaftic
bodies on each other (that of the fpring being equal
to that of the ftroke) is twice as much as the fame in
bodies void of elafticity. Therefore, when elaftic bo¬
dies impinge on each other, the one lofes and the
other gains twice as much motion as if they had not
been elaftic ; we have therefore an eafy way of de¬
termining the change of motion in elaftic bodies,
knowing firft what it would have been in the fame cir-
cumftances, had the bodies been void of elaftieity.
Thus, if there be two equal and elaftic bodies, the
one;
4556 M E C H
one In motion with 12 degrees of velocity impinging
o« the other at reft, the impinging body will commu¬
nicate twice as much velocity as if it had not been ela-
ftic, that is, 12 degrees, or all it had ; confequently it
will be at reft, and the other will move on with the
whole velocity of the former.
It fometimes happens, that in bodies not elaftic, the
one lofes more than half its velocity, in which cafe,
fuppofing them elaftic, it lofes more than all; that is,
the excefs of what it lofes, above what it has, is ne¬
gative, or in a contrary diredtion. Thus, fuppofe the
circumftances of impaft fuch, that a body, which has
but 12 degrees of velocity, lofes 16 : the overplus four
is to be taken the contrary way; that is, the body will
rebound with four degrees of velocity, v. g. Let it be
required to determine the velocity of a body after im¬
pact againft an immoveable objedl. Let us firft fup¬
pofe the objett and body both void of elafticity : it is
evident the impinging body would be ftopped or lofe
all its motion, and communicate none; if they are
elaftic, it muft lofe twice as much, and confequent¬
ly will rebound with a force equal to that of the ftroke.
It is fufficient if only one of the bodies is elaftic,
provided the other be infinitely hard ; for then the im-
prefiion in the elaftic body will be double of what it
would have been had they both been equally elaftic :
and confequently the force with which they rebound,
will be the fame as if the impreffion had been equally
divided between the two bodies.
There are no bodies, that we know of, either per-
feftly elaftic, or infinitely hard : the nearer there¬
fore any bodies approach to perfection of elafticity, fo
much the nearer do the laws, which they obferve in the
mutual communication of their motion, approach to
thofe we have laid down.
Sir Ifaac Newton made trials with feveral bodies,
and found that the fame degree of elafticity always ap¬
peared in the fame bodies, with whatever force they
were (truck, fo that the elaftic power, in all the bodies
he made trial upon, exerted itfelf in one conftant pro¬
portion to the comprefling force. He found the cele¬
rity with which balls of wool, bound up very com¬
pact, receded from each other, to bear nearly the pro¬
portion of five to nine to the celerity wherewith they
met ; and in fteel, he found nearly the fame propor¬
tion: in cork the elafticity was fomething lefs, but in
glafs much greater; for the celerity, with which balls
of that material feparated after percuffion, he found
to bear the proportion of 15 to 16 to the celerity
wherewith they met.
We have hitherto fuppofed the dire&ion, in which
bodies impinge upon one another, to be perpendicular
to their furfaces: when it is not fo, the force of im -
pad will be lefs, by how much the more that direction
varies from the perpendicular; for it is manifeft, that
a direCt impulfe is the greateft of all others that can
be given with the fame degree of velocity.
The force of oblique percuffion is to that of di-
reft, as the fine of the angle of incidence to the ra¬
dius.
Plnfe Deto. Let there be a plane, as AD, againft
CL.XVII. vvhich let a body impinge in the point D in the direc-
I0' tion BD : which line may be fuppofed to exprefs the
force of direCt impulfe, and may be refolved into two
others BC and BA ; the one parallel, the other per-
A N I C S. Chap. VII.
pendicular to the plane ; but that force which is ex¬
erted in a direction parallel to the plane can no way
affeCt it: the ftroke therefore arifes wholly from
the other force expreffed by the line BA; but this
is to the line BD, as the fine of the angle of inci¬
dence ADB to the radius ; from whence the propofi-
tion is clear.
If the furface of the body to be ftruck is a curve,
then let AD be made a tangent to D the point of in¬
cidence, and the demonftration will be the fame.
This is the cafe when bodies impel one another by
afting upon their furfaces ; but in forces, where the
furfaces of bodies are not concerned, as in attraction,
&c. we muft not confider the relation which the direc¬
tion of the force has to the furface of the body to be
moved, but to the direction in which it is to be mo¬
ved by that force. Here the force of aCtion will be
lefs, by how much the more thefe two directions vary
from each other.
The force of oblique aCtion is to that of direCt, as
the co-fine of the angle comprehended between the di¬
rection of the force, and that wherein a body is to be
moved thereby, to the radius.
Dem. Let FD reprefent a force aCting up-Fig. ix.
on a body as D, and impelling it towards E; but
let DM be the only way in which it is poffible for the
body to move : the force FD may be refolved into two
others FG and FH, or which is equal to GD ; but
it is evident that only the force GD impels it to¬
wards M. Now, FD being the radius, GD is the
co-fine of the angle FDG comprehended between the
two diredions FE and GM ; from whence the propo-
fition is clear.
The meaning in both cafes will be underftood from
the inftance of a (hip under fail. The force by which
the wind aCts upon the fail, will be lefs, by how much
the more the direction of the wind varies from one that
is perpendicular to the furface of the fail : but the
force of the fail, to move the (hip forward, will be
lefs, by how much the more the direction of the (hip’s
courfe varies from that in which (he is impelled by the
fail.
To this we may add the following propofition re¬
lating to oblique forces, viz. that if a body is drawn
or impelled three different ways at the fame time by
as many forces aCting in different directions ; and if
the quantity of thofe forces is fuch, that the body
is kept in its place by them: then will the forces
be to each other, as the feveral fides of a triangle
drawn refpeCtively parallel to the directions in which
they aCt.
Dern. Let the lines AB, AD, AE, repre- tJ
fent the three forces aCting upon the body A in ’
thofe directions, and by that means keeping it at reft
in the point A. Then the forces EA and DA will be
equivalent to BA, otherwife the body would be put
into motion by them. But thefe forces are alfo equi¬
valent to AC, confequently AC may be made ufe of
to exprefs the force AB ; and EC, which is parallel
and equal to AD, may exprefs the force AD, while
AE expreftes its own : but ACE is a triangle whole
fides are all parallel to the given directions; there¬
fore the fides of this triangle will exprefs the re¬
lation of the forces by which the body is kept at
reft. Q^E. D.
Cha?.
MECHANICS.
Chap. VIII.
Chap. VIII. Demonftration of the Effects of the
Mechanical Powers.
Though the effefts of the powers of mechanifm
are apparent to every eye, yet, to give a mathematical
demonftration why thefe effefts muft always take
place, is by no means an eafy matter. The moft
elegant and convincing demonftration of this kind is
that by Dr Hamilton, profeffor of philofophy in the
univerfity of Dublin.— ' The moft noted theorem in
mechanics (fays he) is this, “ When two heavy bo-
“ dies counterpoife each other by means of any ma-
“ chine, and are then made to move together, the
“ quantities of motion with which one defcends and
“ the other afcends perpendicularly will be equal.”
An aequilibrium always accompanying this equality of
motions, bears fu'ch a refemblance to the cafe wherein
two moving bodies flop each other when they meet
together with equal quantities of motion, that many
writers have thought that the caufe of an aequilibrium
in the feveral machines might be immediately affigned,
by faying, that fince one body always lofes as much
motion as it communicates to another, two heavy bo¬
dies countera&ing each other muft continue at reft,
when they are fo circumftanced that one cannot de-
fcend without caufing the other to afcend at the fame
time, and with the fame quantity of motion. For then,
(hould one of them begin to defcend, it mufl, inftantly
lofe its whole motion by communicating it to the
other. This argument, however plaufible it may
feem, I think is by no means fatisfa&ory; for when
we fay that one body communicates its motion to
another, we muft neceflarily fuppofe the motion to
exift firft in the one and then in the other; but in the
prefent cafe, where the two bodies are fo conne&ed
that one cannot pofflbly begin to move before the
other, the defcending body cannot be faid to commu¬
nicate its motion to the other, and thereby make
it afcend : But whatever we fhonld fuppofe caufes
one body to defcend, muft be alfo the immediate
caufe of the other’s afcending ; fince, from the
connexion of the bodies, it muft a£t upon them
both together as if they were really but one. And
therefore, without contradicting the laws of motion,
I might fuppofe the fuperior weight of the heavier
body, which is in itfelf more than able to fuftain
the lighter, would overcome the lighter, and caufe
it to afcend with the fame quantity of motion with
which the heavier defcends; efpecially as both their
motions, taken together, may be lefs than what the
difference of the weights, which is here fuppofed to
be the moving force, would be able to produce in a
body falling freely.
‘ Howevei, as the theorem above-mentioned is a
very elegant one, it ought certainly to be taken notice
of in every treatife of mechanics, and may ferve as a
very good index of an aequilibrium in all machines:
but I do not think that we can from thence, or from
any one general principle, explain the nature and
effe&a of all the mechanic powers in a fatisfaftory
manner; becaufe fome of thefe machines differ very
much from others in their ftru&ures, and the true
reafon of the efficacy of each of them is beft derived
from its particular ftrudure.
2
‘ The fimple mechanic powers are ufually reckoned
fix; the lever, axle and wheel, pulley, wedge, inclined
plane, and fcrew. I fiiall confider thefe machines fe-
parately, and explain the nature and property of each
of them, by ftiewing from its ftru&ure what weight it
will enable any given force to fuftain.
‘ The lever is confidered as an inflexible line, void
of weight, and moveable about a fixed point called its
fulcrum ox prop. The property of the lever, ex-
preffed in the moft general terms, is this : “ When
“ two weights, or any two forces, act againft each
“ other on the arms of a lever, and are in aquilibrio,
“ they will be to each other inverfely as the perpen-
“ dicular or ftiorteft diftances of their lines of direc-
“ tion from the fulcrum.”
‘ This propofition contains two cafes; for the di-
re&ions of the forces may either meet in a point, or be
parallel to each other. Moft writers begin their de¬
monftration of this propofition with the fecond cafe,
which feems to be the fimpleft, and from which the
other may be deduced by the refolution of forces.
Archimedes, in his demonftration, fets out with a
fuppofition, the truth of which may reafonably be
doubted: for he fuppofes, that if a number of equal
weights be fufpended from the arm of a lever, and at
points equidiftant from each other, whether all thefe
points be at the fame fide of the fulcrum, or fome of
them on the oppofite fide, thefe weights will have the
fame force to turn the lever as they would have were
they all united and fufpended from a point which lies
in the middle between all the points of fufpenfion,
and may be confidered as the common centre of gra¬
vity of all the feparate weights. Mr Huygens, in
his Mifcellaneous observations on mechanics, fays,
that fome mathematicians have endeavoured, by al¬
tering the form of this demonftration, to render its-
defeats lefs fenfible; though without fuccefs. He
therefore propofed another proof, which is extremely
tedious and prolix, and alfo depends on a poftulatum,
that, I think, ought not to be granted on this occa-
fion; it is this: “ When two equal bodies are placed
“ on the arms of a lever, that which is furtheft from
“ the fulcrum will prevail and raife the other up.”
Now, this is taking it for granted, in other words,
that a fmall weight placed further from the fulcrum,
will fuftain or raife a greater one. The caufe and reafon
of which fa£k muft be derived from the demonftration
that follows, and therefore this demonftration ought
not to be founded on the fuppofed felf-evidence of
what is partly the thing to be proved.
‘ Sir Ifaac Newton’s demonftration of this propo¬
fition is indeed very concife ; but it depends on this
fuppofition, that when from the fulcrum of a lever
feveral arms or radii iffue out in different direftions,.
all lying in the fame vertical plane, a given weight
will have the fame power to turn the lever from
which-ever arm it hangs, provided the diftance of its
line of diredion from the fulcrum remains the fame.
Now it muff appear difficult to admit this fuppofition,
when we confider that the weight can exert its whole
force to turn the lever only on that arm which is the
ftiorteft, and is parallel to the horizon, and on which
it ads perpendicularly; and that the forces which it
exerts, or with which it ads perpendicularly, on any
one of the oblique arms, muft.be inverfely as the length
4557
4553 M E C H
of that arm, which is evident from the refolution^f
forces.
‘ Mr Maclaurin, in his View of Newton's phito >
phy, after giving ns the methods by which Archimedes
and Newton prove the property of the lever, propofes
one of his own, which, he fays, appears to be the
moft natural one for this purpofe. From equal bo¬
dies, fuftainkig each other at equal diftances from the
fulcrum, he (hews us how to infer that a body of one
pound (for inftance) will fuftain another of two pounds
at half its diftance from the fulcrum; and from thence
that it will fullain one of three pounds at a third part
of its diftance from the fulcrum : and going on thus,
he deduces, by a kind of induction, what the propor¬
tion is in general between two bodies that fuftain
each other on the arms of a lever. But this argu¬
ment, were it otherwife fatisfa&ory, yet as it cannot
be applied when the arms of the lever are incommen-
furable, it cannot conclude generally, and therefore is
imperfeft.
‘ There are fome writers on mechanics, who, from
the compofition of forces, demonftrate that cafe of
the general propofnion relating to the lever, in which
the direftions of the forces are oblique to each other,
and meet in a point: but I do not find that they
have had any other way of proving the fecond cafe,
in which the dire&ions «f the forces are parallel, but
by confidering thefe dire&ions as making an angle
with each other, though an infinitely fmall one, or as
meeting at an infinite diftance ; which way of rea-
foning is not to be admitted in fubje&s of this kind,
where the proof fhould always (hew us, diredtly from
the laws of motion, why the conclufion muft be true,
in fuch manner that we might fee clearly the force
of every ftep from the firft principles down to the
conclufion, which we are prevented from doing when
any fuch arbitrary and inconliftent fuppofition is in¬
troduced.
‘ From thus confidering the various proofs that
have been given of this fundamental propofition in
mechanics, we may fee the reafon why many fubfe-
quent writers have appeared diffatisfied with the for¬
mer demonftrations, and have looked for new ones:
I (hall now propofe two methods of demonftrating it,
merely from the compofition and refolution of forces.
The propofition may be exprefied as follows.
“ When three forces adt upon an inflexible line,
whether ftraight or crooked, and keep it in aqui-
librioy any two of them will be to each other in-
“ verfely as the perpendicular diftances of their lines
“ of dire&ion from that point to which the third force
“ is applied.”
plate ‘ Let the three forces E, G, F, (fig. 2.) aft upon
CI.XVIH. three points A, B,D, in an inflexible line; and firft;
*'ig »• - let the dire&ions of the forces E and F (which aft
on the fame fide of the line) meet in the point C.
Then it is evident that the force, which is com¬
pounded of thefe two, muft add; upon the line A B D
in the dirtftion of a right line that pafleth through
the point C; confequently the force G, which fuftains
this compounded force, muft be equal thereunto, and
muft a£t in a contrary diredlion; therefore the force
G muft aft in the direftion-of the line C B. From
the point B draw B H and B K perpendicular to the
direftions of the forces E and F, and draw B M and
A. N I C'S. Chap. VIII.
and^BN parallel to thefe direftions, forming the pa¬
rallelogram BMCN; then, fince thefe three forces
' are in tequilibrio, they muft be to each other refpec-
tively as the fides and diagonal of this parallelogram
to which their direftions are parallel; therefore E is
to F as CM to C N or M B, that is, (becaufe the
fides of a triangle are as the fines of the oppofite
angles) as the fine of the angle M B C, or its alter¬
nate one B C N, to the fine of the angle B C M; but
making CB the radius, B K is the fine of the former
angle, and B H of the latter; therefore E is to F as
B K to B H; fo that the forces E and F are to each
other inverfely as the perpendicular diftances of their
lines of direftion from the point B, on which the third
force G afts. Now to compare the forces F and G
together: From the point A, on which the third force
afts, draw A B and AL perpendicular to the direc¬
tions of the forces G and F; then, as was faid before,
F is to G as M B is to C B; but M B is to C B as AB
to AL ; becaufe, making CA the radius, AB is the
fine of the angle MCB, and AL is the fine of the
angle MCN, or CMB its fupplement, to two right
ones; therefore the forces F and G are to each other
inverfely as the perpendicular diftances of their lines
of direftion from the point A, ot> which the third
force E afts; and thus the firft cafe of the propofition
is proved, in which the forces aft againft each other in
oblique direftions.
‘ We muft now confider what parts of the forces E
and F aft againft the force G in direftions parallel to
GC; for it is fuch parts only that really oppofe the
force G, and keep it in aquilibrio ; and from thence
we (hall fee what proportion two forces muft have to each
other when they are in (equilibria, and aft in parallel
direftions. Let the three forces aft upon the points
A, B, and D, (fig. 2.); let them be in (equilibria, and Fig. a.
their lines of direftion meet in the point C, as in the
preceding cafe: then if the points A, B, and D, are
not in a right line, draw the line AD meeting BC in
P, and from P draw PN and PM parallel to the di¬
reftions of the forces E and F; through the points A
and D draw lines parallel to BC; and through B draw
a perpendicular to thefe lines, meeting them in H and
K; from the point M draw MO parallel to AD, and
meeting BC in O. Now the three forces E, G, and F,
that are in (equilibria, will be to each other refpeftively
as the fides of the triangle CMP, as in the preceding
cafe ; but the force E, which is denoted by the line
MC, may be refolved into two forces afting in the di¬
reftions MO and OC, the former of thefe only urges
the point A towards D, and the latter afts in direft
oppofition to the force G; in like manner the force F,
which is denoted by the line PM, may be refolved in¬
to two forces afting in the direftions OM and PO,
the former of which only urges the point D towards
A, and the latter afts in direft oppofition to the force
G; now it is evident that the force G, which is de¬
noted by the line PC, is fuftained only by thofe parts
of the forces E and F which aft againft it, in direc¬
tions parallel to BC, and are denoted by the lines OC
and PO, which, taken together, are equal to PC; for
the other parts of the forces E and F which are deno¬
ted by MO, are loft, being equal, and contrary to each
other: if, therefore, inftead of the forces F and E, we
fuppofe two other forces, R and L, to aft on the points
4559
MECHANICS.
Chap. VIII.
D and A, in dire&ions parallel to BC, and to keep
late the force G in aquilibrio, it follows, from what has
LXVIIT, been proved, that R and L taken together will be
l- a* equal to G, and that thefe three forces will be to each
other refpe&ively as the lines PO, OC, and PC; there¬
fore R will be to L. as (PO to OC, that is, as AM to
MC, or as AP to PD, or) HB to BK, confequently
the forces R and L are to each other inverfely as the
perpendicular diftances of their lines of dire&ion from
the point B, to which the third force is applied. Now
to compare the forces R and G together ; fince the
forces R and L may be denoted by BH and BK, and
are both together equal to G, that force will be deno¬
ted by the whole line KH, and therefore R will be to
G as BH to KH; fo that thefe forces are alfo to each
other inverfely as the perpendicular diftances of their
lines of diredion from the line of diredion of the third
force L; and thus the fecond cafe of the propofition
is proved, in which the forces ad"againft each other in
parallel diredions. If the point in the inflexible line, '
to which one of the forces is applied, ihould become a
fixed point, or fulcrum, round which the line may turn,
it is evident that the other two forces will continue in
aquilibrio, as they were before; and therefore the pro¬
perty of the lever, in all cafes, is manifeftly proved by
this propofition.
‘ The centre of gravity of a body is faid to be that
point which being fuftained, or prevented from de¬
fending, the body will continue at reft. From hence
it follows, that when a body hangs freely from a Angle
point and continues at reft, its centre of gravity will lie
perpendicularly under the point of fufpenfion; for in
that fituation only it will be fuftained, and can defend
no lower.
‘ From this property, which agrees likewife to the
common centre of gravity of two bodies joined toge¬
ther by an inflexible right line, and which may then
be confidered as one, I (hall (hew that their centre of
gravity is a point in the line that joins them together,
fo fituated that the diftances of the two bodies from it
are to each other inverfely as their weights. This
theorem concerning the pofition of the common centre
of gravity of two bodies, which is a very noted one in
mechanics, I have never feen demonftrated otherwife
than by inferring it from the general property of the
lever: but I think the method I (hall now propofe of
deducing it direftly from the definition of the centre
of gravity, is the moft concife as well as the mod na¬
tural, and befides it will afford us a very eafy way of
demonftrating the property of the lever.
Fig, 3, ‘ Let the two bodies A and B be joined by an
inflexible right line pafiing through their centres
of gravity, and let them be fufpended from the fixed
point or pin at P, by the threads AP and BP, fo that
they may hang freely in fuch a pofition as their joint
gravity will give them. When thefe bodies continue
at reft, their common centre of gravity muft lie direc-
]y under the point ,of fufpenfion, or in the perpendicu¬
lar line PL, confequently it muft be at the point C,
the interfe&ion of the lines PL and AB; the pofition
of which point, in the line AB, will be determined by
finding out the proportion between the fegments CA
and CB. If the inflexible line was not interpofed be¬
tween thefe bodies, they would move till their threads
coincided with the perpendicular line PL ; fince there-
Vou. VI. 2
for. hey are kept afuhder by this line, they muft urge
i',, h certain forces in oppofite dire&ions; and thefe
urg g forces muft be equal, fince the line on which
they aft continues at reft: and therefore the force with
which each body urges the other in the direftion of
this line, may be denoted by the fame letter U, and
we may denote the weights of the two bodies refpec-
tively by the letters A and B. Now the body A is
afted upon by three forces, viz. by its weight A in
the direftion PC, by the force U with which the
other body urges it in the direftion CA, and by the
reaftion of the pin in the direftion AP; and fince thefe
three forces are in aquilibrio, and keep the body at
reft, they are to each other refpeftively as the fides of
the triangle PCA; therefore A is to U, as PC to CA.
In like manner the body B is urged by three forces,
viz. its weight B in the direftion PC, the urging force
U in the direftion CB, and the reaftion of the pin in
the direftion BP, which forces are to each other as
the fides of the triangle PCB; therefore U is to B, as
CB to PC; and therefore (ex aquo fcrturbate) A is to
B, as CB to CA; confequently the weights of the bo¬
dies A and B are to each other inverfely as their di¬
ftances from the point C, which lies direftly under the
point of fufpenfion, and is therefore their common
centre of gravity.
* When two bodies are connefted by an inflexible
line, and this line is fupported by a prop fo that their
centre of gravity cannot defcend, the bodies muft con¬
tinue to reft, and will be in aquilibrio. Therefore it is
eafy to fee how, from the theorem now demonftrated,
we may prove the property of the lever in that cafe
where the direftions of the forces are parallel ; and
from thence the other cafe, in which the direftions are
oblique to each other, may be deduced by the refolu-
tion of forces, as is ufually done. And this is the fe¬
cond method by which I faid the general property
of the lever might be ftriftly demonftrated.
‘ The lever is the moft Ample of all the mechanic
powers; and to it may be reduced the balance and the
axis in peritrocbio, or axle and wheels Though I do
not confider the balance as a diftinft mechanic power,
becaufe it is evidently no other than a lever fitted for
the particular purpofe of comparing the weights of bo¬
dies, and does not fcrve for railing great weights or
overcoming refiftances as the other machines do.
When a weight is to be raifed by means of an axle
and wheel, it is faftened to a cord that goes round the
axle, and the power which is to raife it is hung to a
cord that goes round the wheel. If then the power
be to the weight as the radius of the axle to the radius
of the wheel, it will juft fupport that weight, as will
eafily appear from what was proved of the lever. For
the axle and wheel may be confidered as a lever, whofe
fulcrum is a line paffing through the centre of the
wheel and middle of the axle, and whofe long and
(hort arms are the radii of the wheel and axle which
are parallel to the horizon, and from whofe extremi¬
ties the cords hang perpendicularly. And thus an axle
and wheel may be looked upon as a kind of perpetual
lever, on whofe arms the power and weight always aft
perpendicularly, though the lever turns round its ful~
crum. And in like manner, when wheels and axles
move each other by means of teetffton their periphe¬
ries, fuch a machine is really a perpetual compound
2j U lever:
4J<5o
Plate
CLXVI1I.
fig- 4-
M E C H i
lever: and, by confidering it as fuch, we may compute
the proportion of any power to the weight it is able
to fullain by the help of fuch an engine. And fince
the radii of two contiguous wheels, whofe teeth are
applied to each other, are as the number of teeth in
each, or inverfely as the number of revolutions which
they make in the fame time ; we may, in the compu¬
tation, inftead of the ratio of thefe radii, put the ratio
of the number of the teeth on each wheel, or the in-
verfe ratio of the number of revolutions they make in
the fame time.
‘ Some writers have thought the nature and effe&s
of the pully might be belt explained by confidering a
fixed pully as a lever of the firft, and a moveable pul-
!y as one of the fecond kind. But the pully cannot
properly be confidered as a lever of any kind; for when
any power fuftains a weight by means of a fyftem of
pullies, that power will fuftain the fame weight if the
pullies be removed, and the ropes be b.ought over the
axles on which the pullies turned. And in this cafe I
believe no one would fay that thefe axles could be con¬
fidered as levers. If the weight was to be railed up,
there would in this cafe be a very great refiflanoe from
the fri&ion of the ropes on the axles; and it is merely to
avoid this refiftance that pullies are ufed, which move
round the axles with but little fri&ion. I think the befl
and mod natural method of explaining the effe&s of the
pulley (that is, of computing the proportion of any
power to the weight it can fuftain by means of any fyftem
of pullies), is by confidering that every moveable pully
hangs by two ropes equally ftretched, which muft bear
equal parts of the weight; and therefore when one and
the fame rope goes round feveral fixed and moveable
pullies, fince all its parts on each fide of the pullies are
equally ftretched, the whole weight muft be divided
equally atnongft all the ropes by which the moveable
pullies hang. And confequently if the power which
atts on one rope be equal to the weight divided by the
number of ropes, that power muft fuftain the weight.
‘ Upon this principle the proportion of the power
to the weight it fuftains by means of any fyftem of
pullies, may be computed in a manner fo eafy and na¬
tural, as muft be obvious to every common capacity.
‘ The proportion which any power bears to the re¬
filling force it is able to fuftain by means of a wedge,
has been laid down differently by different authors as
they happened to confider it in particular cafes. With¬
out examining their feveral opinions, I (hall endeavour
to exprefs this proportion in one general propofition,
which may extend to the feveral cafes in which the
wedge is applied.
‘ Let the aequicrural triangle ABC reprefent a
wedge, r.hofe bafe or back is AC, and fides are the
lines AB and CB, and whofe height is the line BP,
which bife&s the vertical angle ABC, and alfo the
bafe perpendicularly in P. When a power is applied
to the wedge in order to overcome or remove any re¬
filling forces, it afts perpendicularly on the back of the
wedge, and the refilling forces adl on its fides, and
t N I C S. Chap.
they are always fuppofed to a£l in dire£lions that make
equal angles with the fides. When the refilling force*
and the power that a&s on the wedge are in (equili¬
bria, the former will be to the latter, as the height of
the wedge to a line drawn from the middle of the bafe
to one fide, and parallel to the dire&ion in which the
refilling force afts on that fide.
‘ Let E and F reprefent two bodies, or two refill¬
ing forces afting on the fides of the wedge perpendi¬
cularly, and whofe lines of dire&ion EP and FP meet
at the middle point of the bafe, on which the power P
a&s perpendicularly, then will EP and FP be equal:
let the parallelogram ENFP be completed, its diago¬
nals PN and EF will bifeft each other perpendicular¬
ly in H. Now when thefe forces (which adl perpen¬
dicularly on the fides and bafe of the wedge,) are in
(equilibria, they will be to each other as the fides and
diagonal of this parallelogram, that is, the fum of the
refilling forces will be to the power P, as the fides EP
and FP to the diagonal PN, or as one fide EP to half
the diagonal PH, that is (from the fimilarity of the
right-angled triangles BEP, EHP) as BP, the height
of the wedge, to EP the line which is drawn from the
middle of the bafe to the fide AB, and is the diredlion
in which the refilling force adls on that fide.
‘ From the demonftration of this cafe, in which the
refilling forces adl perpendicularly on the fides of the
wedge, it appears that the refiftance is to the power
which fuftains it, as one fide of the wedge AB is to
the half of its breadth AP; becaufe AB is to AP as
BP is to EP.
‘ It appears from hence, that if PN be made to
denote the force with which the power P adls on the
wedge, the lines PE and PF, which are perpendicular
to the fides, will denote the force with which the power
P protrudes the refilling bodies in diredtions perpendi¬
cular to the fides of the wedge.
‘ Let us now fuppofe in the fecond cafe, that the
refilling bodies E and F adl upon the wedge in direc¬
tions parallel to the lines DP and OP, that are equally
inclined to its fides, and meet in the point P. Draw-
the lines EG and FK perpendicular to DP and OP;
then making PN denote the force with which the
power P adls on the wedge, PE and PF will denote
the forces with which it protrudes the refilling bodies
in diredtions perpendicular to the fides of the wedge,
as I obferved before: now each of thefeTorces may be
refolved into two-, denoted refpediively by the lines PG>
and GE, PK and KF, of which GE and KF will be
loft, as they adl in diredlions perpendicular to thofe of
the refilling bodies; and PG and PK will denote the
forces by which the power P oppofes the refilling
bodies, by protruding them in diredlions contrary to
thofe in which they adl on the wedge; therefore, when
the refilling forces are in (equilibria with the power P,
the former muft be fo to the latter, as the fnm of the
lines PG and PK is to PN, or as PG is to PH, that
is, as PB, the height of the wedge, is to PD (a) the
line drawn from the middle,of the bafe to one-fide of
the
(a) [PC is to PH as PB to PD.'] The right-angled triangles PGE and PED are fimilar, having the angle at P
common to both; therefore PG is to PE as PE to PD: fo likewife the right-angled triangles PHE and PF.B are limt-
lar, and therefore PH is to PE as PE to PB: therefore the redtangles PG into PD and PH into PB are equal, each of
them being equual to the fquare of PE; confequently their fides are reciprocally proportional, that is,PG is to PH as
PB to PD.
: Chap. VIII. M E C H
the wedge and parallel to the direftian in which the
refifting force aAs on that fide.
‘ From what has been demonftrated, we may de¬
duce the proportion of the power to the refiftance it
is able to fultain in all the cafes in which the wedge is
applied. Firft, when in cleaving timber the wedge fills
the cleft, then the refiftance of the timber a£ts perpen¬
dicularly on the Tides of the wedge; therefore in this
cafe, when the power which drives the wedge is to the
cohtfive force of the timber as half the bafe to one
fide of the wedge, the power and refiftajice will be in
(equilibria.
Plate « Secondly, wheft the wedge does not exa&ly fill
Cl.XVI . cjeft> wh;ch generally happens, becaufe the wood
4‘ fplits to fome diftance before the wedge : Let ELF
reprefent a cleft into which the wedge ABC is partly
driven ; as the refifting force of the timber muft a£t on
the wedge in directions perpendicular to the Tides of
the cleft, draw the line PD in a direction perpendicu¬
lar to EL the fide of the cleft, and meeting the fide
of the wedge in D; then the power driving the wedge
and the refiftance of the timber when they balance,
will be to each other as the line PD to PB the height
of the wedge.
‘ Thirdly, when a wedge is employed to feparate
two bodies that lie together on an horizontal plane,
for inttance two blocks of ftone; as thefe bodies muft
recede from each other in horizontal direftions, their
refiftance muft aft on the wedge in lines parallel to its
bafe CA; therefore the power which drives the wedge
will balance the retiftance when they are to each other
as PA, half the breadth of the wedge to PB its height;
and then any additional force fufficient to overcome
the refiftance arifing from the friftion of the bodies on
the horizontal plane will feparate them from each other.
? The inclined plane is reckoned by fome writers
among the mechanic powers; and I think with reafon,
as it may be ufed with advantage in raifing weights.
Pig j. ‘ Let the line AB reprefent the length of an in¬
clined plane, AD its height, and the line BD we may
call its bafs. Let the circular body GEF be fuppofed
to reft on the inclined plane, and to be kept from fall¬
ing down it by a firing CS tied to its centre C. Then
the force with which this body ftretchesthe firing will
be to its whole weight, as the fineof ABD, the angle
of elevation, to the fine of the angle which the firing
contains with a line perpendicular to AB the length of
the plane. For let the radius CE be drawn perpen¬
dicular to the horizon, and CF perpendicular to AB,
and from E draw EO parallel to the firing and meet¬
ing CF in O: Then, as the body continues at reft
and is urged by three forces, viz. by its weight in the
direftion CE, by the reafti^n of the plane in the di-
reftion FC, and by the reaftion of the firing in the
direftion EO; the reaftion of the firing, or the force
by which it is ftretched, is to the weight of the body
as EO to CE; that is, as the fine of (the angle ECO,
which is equal to) ABD the angle of elevation, to the
fine of the angle EOC, equal to SCO, the angle which
the firing contains with the line CF perpendicular to
AB, the length of the plane.
“ When therefore the firing is parallel to the
length of-the plane; the force with which it is ftretch¬
ed, or with which the body tends down the inclined
plane, is to its whole weight, as the fine of the angle
A N I C S. 4561
of elevatioir to the radius, or as the heiglit of the plane
to the length. And in the fame manner it may be
fhewn, that when the firing is parallel to BD the bafe
of the plane, the force with which it is ftretched is to
the weight of the body as AD to BD, that is, as the
height of the plane to its bafe. If we fuppofe the
firing which fupports the body CEF, to be fattened
at S; and that a force, by afting on the line AD, ihe
height of the plane, in a direftion parallel to the bale
BD, drives the inclined plane under the body, and by
that means makes it rife in a direftion parallel to AD:
Then, from what was proved in the third cafe of the
wedge, it will appear, that this force muft be to the
weight of the body, as AD to BD, or rather in a pro¬
portion fomewhat greater ; if it makes the plane move
on and the body rife.
‘ From this laft obfervation we may dearly {hew
the nature and force of the ferew; a machine of great
efficacy in raifing weights, or in preffing bodies clofely
together. For if the triangle ABD be turned round
a cylinder whofe periphery is equal to BD, then the
length of the inclined plane BA will rife round the cy¬
linder in a fpiral manner, and form what is called the
thread of the ferew; and we may fuppofe it continued
in the fame manner round the cylinder from one end
to the other; and AD the height of the inclined plane
will be every where the diftance between two contigu¬
ous threads of this ferew, which is called a convex fereru.
And a concave ferew may be formed to fit this exaftly,
if an inclined plane every way like the former be turned
round the infide of a hollow cylinder, whofe periphery
is fomewhat larger than that of the other. Let us now
fuppofe the concave ferew to be fixed, and the convex
one to be fitted into it, and a weight to be laid on the
top of the convex ferew; then, if a power be applied
to the periphery of this convex ferew to turn it round,
at every revolution the weight will be raifed up through
a fpace equal to the diftance between the two conti¬
guous threads, that is, to the line AD the heigiit of
the inclined plane BA ; therefore, fince this power ap¬
plied to the periphery afts in a direftion parallel to
BD, it muft be to the weight it raifes as AD to BD,
or as the diftance between two contiguous threads to
the periphery of the convex ferew, which ditlance be¬
tween two contiguous threads is to be meafured by a
line parallel to the length of the ferew. If we now
fuppofe that a hand-fpike or handle is inferted into
the bottom of the convex ferew, and that the power
which turns the ferew is applied to the extremity of
this handle, which is generally the cafe; then as the
power is removed farther from the axis of motion, its
force will be fo much increafed, and therefore fomuch
may the power itfelf be diminifhed. So that the power
which, afting on the end of a handle, fuftains a weight
by means of a ferew, will be to that weight as the di¬
ftance between two contiguous threads of the ferew, to
the periphery deferibed by the end of the handle. In
this cafe we may confider the machine as compofed of
a ferew and a lever, or, as Sir Ifaac Newton expreffes
it, cuneut a vede impufus.
‘ Of any two or more of thefe fimple machines
combined together, all other machinea, however com¬
plicated, are compoftd. And their powers and man¬
ner of afting may therefore be explained from the
principles here laid down.
25 U 2
MECHOACAN
M E C [ 4562 ] M E C
jVkchoacan, MECHOACATSJ, a province of Mexico, or New
^buri6"* ^Pa'n» 'n America, bounded on the north by Pa-
nuco and Guadalajara, on the eaft by Pannes and
Mexico Proper, on the fouth by the Pacific Ocean,
and on the weft by Guadalajara and the South Sea.
The foil is exceedingly fertile; and the climate fo
wholefome, that the Spaniards imagine it to be pof-
feifed of fome peculiarly reftorative quality; for which
reafon the lick and infirm flock to it from all quarters.
The commodities are fulphur, indigo, farfaparilla, faf-
fafras, cacao, vanelloes, ambergrife, hides, wool, cot¬
ton, filk, fugar, the root mechoacan or white jalap,
and filver. This province formed an independent king¬
dom at the time Mexico was reduced by Cortez. The
fovereign had long been the inveterate enemy of the
Mexicans, and was confidered, next to the republic of
Tlafcala, as the moft formidable barrier againft the
extenfion of the imperial frontier. However, he fub-
mitted to Cortez without ftriking a blow, being inti¬
midated by the wonders he had performed with a hand¬
ful of men; and thus Mechoacan became a province of
the Spanilh empire, and a valuable addition to Mexico.
The country at that time was exceedingly populous,
but the natives are now much thinned; and that ra¬
ther by the luxury and effeminacy introduced by the
Spaniards, than by their tyranny. The capital of the
province is alfo called Mechoacan by the natives, but
Valladolid by the Spaniards.
Mechoacan, or White Jalap. See Convolvulus,
and the Table of the Materia Medica.
MECKLENBURG, a duchy of Germany, con¬
taining thofe of Schwerin and Guftro, is bounded by
Pomerania bn the eaft, by part of the marquifate of
Brandenburg and the duchy of Lunenburg on the
fouth, the Baltic on the north, and Holftein and
Saxe-Lawenburg on the weft. Their greateft length
is about 120 miles, and greateft breadth upwards of
60. With refpeftto the foil, much cannot be faid in
favour of it, as it confifts in general, either of fand,
or large and defolate heaths, interfperfed with moors,
woods, fens, and lakes. It yields very little wheat,
and not a great deal of oats, rye, and barley ; but
breeds a confiderable number of ftieep and cattle, has
plenty of fifh, with ftone-quarries, falt-fprings, alum,
iron, and fome copper. The principal rivers here are
the Elde and Stor, which fall into the Elbe as it
glides along the borders of this country to the fouth-
weft ; the Reckenitz, which difeharges itfelf into the
Baltic ; as do the Peene, the Warno, and the Stope-
nitz. This country has only one harbour on the Bal¬
tic, namely, that of Roftock. In both duchies, ex-
clufive of Roftock, are 45 great and fmall cities, with
three convents, and a great number of manors and
farms, belonging either to the duke, the nobility, or
convents. The peafants are in a ftate of villainage ;
but the nobility enjoy very confiderable privileges.
The dates are compofed of the nobility and towns;
and the diets, which are fummoned annually, are held
alternately at Sternberg and Malehin. The duchy
of Schwerin appoints four provincial counfellors, and
that of Guftro as many ; who rank, according to fe-
niortty, with the duke’s attual privy-counfellors, as
their marlhals do with the colonels. The leffer com¬
mittee reprefents the whole body of the nobility and
commons, by whom the members are chofen freely
and without controul, and no edidt relative to the Mecklei*
whole country can be publifhed without their confent, burg.h>
or in prejudice of their rights. The inhabitants 0fMeconlluI*
this country are moftly Lutherans, under their fuper-
intendants. There are alfo fome Calvinifts and Ro¬
man Catholics. Befides the grammar-fchools in the
towns, there is an univerfity at Roftock. The com¬
modities of the duchy are corn, flax, hemp, hops,
wax, honey, cattle, butter, cheefe, wool, and wood,
a part of which is exported, but hardly any manu-
fadtures.
Of the houfe of Mecklenburg, there are two lines
ftill fubfifting, viz. that of Schwerin and Strelitz. The
latter commenced in duke Adolphus Frederick II.
younger brother of the duke of Schwerin, and grand¬
father of the prefent duke of Strelitz, Adolphus Fre¬
derick IV. who entered on the government in 1752,
and whofe family hath lately received a great addi¬
tional luftre by his Britannic majefty’s taking his fe-
cond After for his confort, and by her owp great me¬
rit and noble deportment in that high ftation. Be¬
fides the duchy of Strelitz, to this duke belong the
principality of Ratzeburg, with the lordfhip of Star-
gard, the ancient commanderies of Miro and Neme-
ro, and a yearly penfion of 9000 dollars out of the
Boitzenburgh toll. The title affumed by both the
dukes is duke of Mecklenburg, prince of Wenden, Schwe¬
rin, and Ratzburg, count of Schwerin and the coun¬
try of Rofock, and lord of Stargard. By the agree¬
ment concluded at Wittftock in 1442, the eleftor of
Brandenburg, on the extinftion of the male-line of the
dukes of Mecklenburg, is entitled to their whole fuc-
ceffion. The duke of Schwerin has two votes both in
the diet of the empire and that of the circle. The
matricular affeffment for the duchies of Schwerin and
Guftro is 4ohorfe and 67 foot, or 748 florins month¬
ly, including what is paid by Sweden for Wifmar, and
the bailiwics of Poll and Neuklofter. To the cham¬
ber of Wetzlar thefe two duchies pay each 243 rix-
dollars, 43 kruitzers. For the government of Meck¬
lenburg, the adminiftration of juftice, and the ma¬
nagement of the revenue, there is the privy council of
regency, the demefne-chamber, the high and provin¬
cial court of juftice, to which appeals lie in moft ca¬
fes, both from the confiftory and the inferior civil
courts, and which are common to both the dukes. As
to the revenues, thofe of the Schwerin line muft be
very confiderable, thofe arifing from the demefne-bai¬
liwics and regalia alone amounting to 300,000 rix-
dollars per annum. There is a tax on land that pro¬
duces no contemptible fum, and that called the prin-
cefs's tax is fixed at 20,000 rix dollars: befides alF
thefe, there are alfo freg-gifts. The whole revenues
of the Strelitz branch «e eftimated at 120,000 rix.-
dollars. Each of thefc princes maintains a body of
troops.
MECONIUM, the excrement contained in the
guts of an infant at its birth. If this matter is not
foon purged off, it occafions gripes, &c. A tea-fpoon-
ful of true caftor oil is an excellent purge in this cafej
but the firft milk from the mother’s breaft is ufually
fufficient if it flows in due time.
Meconium, in pharmacy, the extrad of Britifh
poppies. It has all the virtues of foreign opium, but
in a fomewhat lower degree. See Ojmum, and Table
MED
of the Materia Medica.
MEDAL, a piece of metal in the form of coin,
fuch as was either current mqjey among the ancients,
or (truck on any particular occafion, in order to pre-
ferve to pofterity the portrait of fome great perfon, or
the memory of forte illuftrious a&ion.
Scaliger deriveth the word medal from the Arabic
vietkalia; a fort of coin with a human head upon it.
But the opinion of Voflius is generally received ; viz.
that it comes from metallum, “ metalof which fub-
H;ftory of ftance medals are commonly made.— Some, indeed,
a s' apprehend that none of the ancient pieces we now ftyle
medals, were never current coin, but all (truck on par¬
ticular occafions ; like thofe modern pieces which are
called by that name, to diftinguifh them from common
and current coin. Others are of a contrary opinion,
as Moniieur Patin and Father Joubert, who endea¬
vour to prove, that they had all a regular and fixed
price in payment. But the much greater probability
of the middle opinion hath obtained it the general
vogue : according to which, medals are diftinguifhed
into two forts. Of the firft fort, fome are fuppofed to
have been originally intended, either for mijfilia,
which were fcattered amnng the people on days of
triumph, jubilees, and folemn proceffions, as is ufual
among us at the coronation : or for donativa, of which
prefents were made to princes, or their ambafiadors, or
to others in a way of honorary reward for fome wor¬
thy adtion ; as our Royal Society prefent every year
a gold medal to one of its members who hath diltin-
guifhed himfelf by fome valuable difcovery in natural
philofophy. Others, which are of the mod exquifite
workmanfhip, are fuppofed to be tejlimonia probata
moneta; that is, eflays of the workmanfhip of the
mint-mafters, which were prefented to their princes
and to perfons of the highell quality.
The fecond fort, of which there is the greateft
quantity, are taken to have been originally the cur¬
rent coin of their refpeftive nations, but which thro’
their fcarcity are now laid up in the cabinets of the
. curious.
Ancient medals are often found in the ruins of great
buildings, in Greece, Italy, and other countries;
where they are picked up, chiefly after violent (howers
of rain, when being waflied from the dirt, they are
more eafily difcovered. They are often found in the
earth, by ploughing or digging ; fometimes fingly, as
^having been dropped cafually ; fometimes in urns,
which are filled with them. They are often alfo found
in ancient Roman fepulchres ; for inftance, in the tu¬
muli, or round mounts of earth, about to or 12 feet
high, which are feen by the fides of public roads in
fome parts of England, particularly in Leicefter-
ftiire. Thefe tumuli are the fepulches of Roman of¬
ficers, who were buried there while their legions were
in that country; and are generally found cupped at
the top, by their having been dug for urns and me¬
dals. And for the mod part wherever there have
been towns or encampments of the Romans, many of
their coins are difcovered in the earth by ploughing or
digging; particularly at Silchefter in Hampfhire, (the
ancient Vindomis of the Romans, of which profeffor
Ward has given an account in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, n° 490.) great numbers have been found of
all metals, and of all fizes. One gentleman, in the
MED
neighbourhood is poffeffed of feveral hundreds collec- Medal,
ted from this Roman fettlement, and many of them * ~
exceedingly well preferved. Nay, fo extenfive was the
commerce of the Roman empire in its mod flourithing
date, that there is hardly a country in the world
where its coins hare not been difcovered. Nor need
we except even America, if we may depend on what
Maurinus Siculus relates in his hidory of Spain,
cap. 19. viz. that a brafs medal of the emperor Au-
gudus was found in the gold mines of Brazil, and
lent by the archbifhop of the province to the pope.
As to the sera of the invention of medals, or coins,
fee the articles Coins and Money.
The matter or fubflance of ancient medals is com- Matter,
monly one of the three metals fignified by the three fize, and
A’s, which, on feveral coins, are placed after the name
of the mint-mader ; namely, gold, filver, and copper
or brafs. Some medals, however, are faid to have been
found of iron. Yet it cannot be fuppofed, that, if
there were fuch formerly, many of them can be now
remaining ; becaufe that metal is fo fubjedt to decay
with rud. There are many filver corns to be met with,
debafed below the proper dandard. In the declenfion
of the Roman empire, when there was a fcarcity of the
richer metals, this was fometimes done by authority,
in order to raife money to pay the army ; which at
times occafioned feditions among them. For the like
purpofe, when our king James II. was didrefled for
money during the war in Ireland, he coined copper
(hillings and half-crowns. However, among the Ro¬
mans, this was fometimes done clandedinely, by the
knavery of the mint-maders or coiners ; notwith-
danding it was made a capital crime. Thus Pliny
writes, that when M. Antoninus was triumvir, he mix¬
ed iron with the denarii, whifh (hould have been all
filver. But the mod common mixture in the bafecoin
is that of copper or brafs. We fometimes meet with
old coins little better than lead : and fome tell us, that
Numa damped money of leather ; but no fuch coins
are to be found at this day.
As for the aes, (the fird and mod common metal
ufed in coinage,) it is didinguifhed into three forts*
viz. the red copper, the yellow or brafs, and the pot-
metal, which was copper mixed with tin or lead. Be¬
fore Alex. Severus, mod coins were of the two former
forts ; but after him, almod all are of the lad.
The fecond fort, or yellow, is alfo didinguHhed in¬
to the common brafs, or kettle-metal; and the Corin¬
thian brafs, which is faid by Pliny to be an accidental
mixture of metal at the fack and burning of Corinth
by Mummius the Roman, when the gold, filver, and
brafs datues, and all things made of metal, being
melted and running together into low places, compo-
fed that mixed metal, which is of a much finer colour
than common brafs, and for its beauty hath been-
edeemed little inferior to gold. But fome refiners,
who have ftrictly.examined this metal, can find no gold-
in it t and therefore judly look upon this account tcj>
be fabulous. Whether it was a mixed or Ample me¬
tal, is not now known. If it was mixed, we have
not been able to find fo beautiful a compofition ; if
Ample, probably the mines that produced it have been
long fince exhanded.
There are alfo fome medals compofed of two diffe¬
rent metals,, not by melting them together, but either
h'ST
[ 4563 ]
Modal.
MED [ 4564 ] MED
Medal, by plating over brafs or iron with filver (a fort of
falfe money that had its rife in the triumvirate of Au-
guftus), or by laying a rim of a different metal round
the edge of a medal. Medals of this fort, which are
all of the larger fiee, are called by the antiquarians
contorniati, from which is derived the French word
contour, fignifying the outline that determines and
defines a figure. It cannot be fuppofed thefe were
ever intended for common coin, becaufe the workman-
fhip of them would come to more than they would be
worth in currency. Nor are they fuppofed to be very
ancient: Father Hardouin allows them no higher an¬
tiquity than the 13th century; others date them from
the fifth ; and others make them as ancient as the time
of Nero.
Secondly, The fize of the ancient medals is from
three inches to a quarter of an inch. Thofe of the
larger fize, or volume, as the medalifts exprefs it, fome
of which weigh two ounces and a half, are called me¬
dallions : of which fort fcarcely any are to be met
with in gold, few in filver, but many in copper.
Thefe are not fuppofed to have ever been current coin;
but to be ftruck on fuch particular occafions, and for
fuch purpofes, as our modern medals arc. As to the
fize of other medals, there is almoft an endlefs variety
betwixt the greateft and the lead. However, they are
ranked in three claffes, viz. large, middle, and fmall;
though it is fometimes difficult to affign a particular
medal to its proper clafs. The clafs of a medal is not
fo much determined by its breadth and thicknefs, as
t>y the head that is damped upon it. So that in cafe
one of the fird fize for breadth and fubdance bears a
head no bigger than one of the middle fize, or
Ironze as they call it, it is to be ranked in the middle
clafs.
Thirdly, The ffiape of medals is round, or rather
roundifh ; for the ancients had not the way of making
their money fo perfeftly round as ours. The two fides
or tables of the medal are diltinguilhed into the face
and the reverfe; the face bearing the chief figure,
as the portrait of fome emperor, or other illudrious
perfon : the reverfe, fome emblem, infeription, or
other device, of which we (hall treat further on.
Orders into Medals may be didinguifhed, 1. By the metal of
which me*which they are made. 2. By their different fizes.
be ^7 t^ie nation to which they belonged. 4. By the
guifiied, ages ‘a which they were druck.
The two former didindtions have been already con-
fidered ; and as to the third, we propofe to treat only
of the Greek and Roman medals, and chiefly of the
latter. Here again it will be convenient to didin-
guiih medals into two claffes, viz. thofe of the date,
and thofe of particular cities and colonies : for, be¬
tides the money coined by the date, it appears, that
divers cities and colonies had the privilege of coming;
where it is probable the chief magidrate was the
mint-mader. Father Hardouin has publifhed a large
catalogue of Grecian and Roman medals of this fort,
in a quarto volume, intitled, Numrni antiqui populo-
rum et urbium illuftratij which is a valuable work ;
but it would have been much more entertaining and
ufeful, if he had explained the devices and inferiptions
of all the medals in his catalogue, as he has done of
fome of them. However, this Mr Vaillant has done in
two volumes of the Latin colonies, in which he has
alfo given us cuts of the medals themfelve*.
Among the Roman colonies, fome had jus civita-
tis, that is, the right of Roman citizens; which con¬
fided in a capacity of danding for all offices of date,
and of enjoying all other privileges of the citizens of
Rome. Such a colony was called municipium. Of
this kind was Philippi: therefore the Philippian® call
themfelves Romans, A&s xvi. 21. : While other colo¬
nies, according to Ulpian, had little more than the
name; enjoying only what they call jus Italicum, or
jus Latii; that is, they were free from the tributes
and taxes paid by the provinces, and were capable
of ferving in the Roman legions. The former were
more properly called colonies; the latter, only free cities.
The medals belonging to cities were fo numerous,
that above 200 may dill be colledted of the Greek
cities only. Nay, not only had feveral cities, both a-
mong the Greeks and Romans, the privilege of coin¬
ing money, but generals of armies frequently did it
for the fpeedy payment of their troops. And it (hould
feem by a paffage of Suetonius, in his life of Tiberius,
cap. 49. that this liberty was fometimes granted to
private perfons; for he there fpeaks of Veretes immu-
nitates, et jus tnetallorum et vettigalium pluribus civi-
tatibus it privatis adempta. But may it not admit of
a query, whether the coins thus privately druck were
intended as money for public ufe, or only for fuch
purpofes for which medals among us are often druck
by private hands. And if the latter be the cafe, we
can the better account for the vad variety of devices
and mottos we find upon medals of the fame reign,
and why fo many of them appear without any of thofe
marks of public authority which others have.
qthly, Medals are ranked in different claffes accord¬
ing to the ages when they were ftruck, as the time of
the kings, the confuis, and the emperors.
1. Of the firft fort, viz. medals of the kings, we have
a great many Greek ones ; of which M. Vaillant has
given us a catalogue, with cuts of above 120 of them.
Thofe of the kings of Macedonia yield in nothing to
the moft exquifite workmanfiiip of the Romans. There
are alfo coins ftill extant, of the kings of Pontus, Cap¬
padocia, Bithynia, and many others. But we have
no Roman medals ftruck in the time of their kings;
though many with their portraits upon them. Thefe
were ftruck by their defeendants in after-ages, in ho¬
nour of their royal ancedors, and in order to eternize
the nobility of their own families. Thus we have a
medal of Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome,
which was druck by L. Marcius Philippus, one of his
defeendants, who was conful U. C. 662, about 500
years after the death of Ancus.
2. Confular medals, or thofe that were druck du-
rinw the government of the confuis, from the expulfion
of Tarquin the lad king, to the beginning of the em¬
pire under Julius Cseiar, containing the fpace of 494
years.
The number of Roman medals dill extant, fuppofed
to have been druck in this interval, amount to about
1500; mod of them filver, and of the fmaller fize:
for of this clafs we do not find above 50 or 60 in gold,
and hardly more than 250 in copper ; of which metal
there are indeed fome of all the three fizes.
As the confnlar medals have tranfmitted to us the
names of feveral Roman families, they are called fa-
2 mily-
MED [ 4565 ] MED
Medal, mily-mcdalt. Some have fuppofed thefe names to be
thofe of the confuls, under whofe refpe&ive govern¬
ment the medals are coined. But that does not feem to
have been the cafe : for we have no medals that bear
the name of the firft confuls for more than 200 years.
And as for thofe which bear the name of fuch perfons
as we learn from the Fafti were confuls, yet they do
not feem to have been ftruck in the time of their con-
fullhip ; for we have often the letters Q^or P. after
the name, fignifying quxfier or prater> (which was
an office incompatible with the confulrtiip,) and fome-
times triumvir : thefe names therefore were more pro¬
bably, either the names of the triumviri, who coined
the pieces; or of their illuftrious anceltors, many of
whom had been conful, whofe names and memory
they endeavoured by this means to perpetuate.
The confular medals are reckoned to be the mod
ancient of the Roman coins now extant; and yet thofe
of copper and filver are not fuppofed to be more an¬
cient than the 484th year of Rome, nor thofe of
gold than the year 546. Whatever medals, there¬
fore, are produced of an older date, are looked upon
fpurious.
2. Imperial medals, down from Julius Ciefar, (who
put an end, though not to the name, yet to the power
of the confuls) to the end of the Roman greatuefs,
arc diftinguiffied into thofe of the Higher and Lower
empire : the Higher Empire being reckoned from Ju¬
lius Cacfar to the 30 tyrants inclufively, or at fartheft
to the end of the third century of the Chriftian asra;
the Lower Empire from thence to the end of the
ninth century, none latter being accounted ancient.
Nor are the clafles of modern medals reckoned to be¬
gin till the 15th century. As for thofe that were ftruck
in the intermediate ages betwixt the 9th and the 15th,
they are fo extremely rude and barbarous, that they
deferve no regard. It was not till the 13th century
that the curiofity of medals, either as to the making
or ftudy of them, began to revive; being firft fet on
foot by certain painters, Pifani, Bolduc, and others.
Towards the middle of that age fome medals were
ftruck with confiderable elegance both of defign
and relief; as one of Ferdinand king of Arragon,
anno 1449 ; and another of John emperor of Con-
ftantinople, ten years before. But to return to the
ancient medals.
The gradual declenfion of the Roman tafte and po-
litenefs is in nothing more fenfible than in its coins ;■
which in the time of the Lower Empire, in compari-
fon of what they had been formerly, grow to be very
mean. The bulk and lize is thin andfmall; the relie¬
vo flat and low, and without any thing of that ele¬
gance we fo juftly admire in the device and inferip-
tions of thofe which were ftruck in the time of the Ro¬
man greatnefs. So that after medals came to be re¬
garded and ftudied by the moderns, few perfons
troubled themfelves with colle&ing thofe of the Lower
Empire; until, by being neglected, fome of them are
become fcarce, and. on that account valuable. The
whole number of different imperial medals, ftill extant,
is reckoned by F. Joubert to be about 1000 or 1200
of gold, about 3000 of filver, and 6coo or 7000 of
copper and brafs.
Impreflion The two tables or faces of medals are diftinguifhed
%nd form, into the face and reverfc ; each of which ufualiy bears a
figure and infeription: fometimes, indeed, you have a Medal.
figure without any infeription j and fometimes an in-   
feription without any figure.
The circular infeription near the edge of a medal is
called the legend. That on the face commonly con¬
tains the names, titles, offices, &c. of the perfon whofe
head it bears: That on the reverfe, either fome motto,
referring to the virtues of the perfon to whofe honour
it was ftruck, to fome great aftion which he has per¬
formed, or to the benefits which the public had reaped
by him; or clfe, the legend is the name of fome vir¬
tue, or deity, reprefented by the figure ; or of fome
province, or country, reprefented by fome fymbol or
emblem. Yet this diftintftion betwixt the two legends
does not hold univerfally ; for fometimes we find the
titles occupying both tables, and fometimes the motto.
I have faid the legend is the circular infeription near
the edge of the medal; but this is to be underftood
only in the general : fome legends being placed in a
right line, either above or below the figure; or part
above, and part below; or upon the figure itfelf; and
in feveral other forma, according to the fancy of the
workman. The Latin legends are.all read from the
left to the right; but the legends of fome Greek me¬
dals are wrote the contrary way, from the right to the
left. The letters on the circular legends are commonly
placed with the bottoms inward; but fometimes with
the bottoms toward the edge.
Befides the two legends, there is on many medals a
ftrort infeription under the figure on the reverfe, called
the exergum or exergue, as being *5 “ out of the
work,” from which it is frequently feparated by a line
over it. This exergue contains fometimes the dateof the
coin, expreffing in what confuHhip of the emperor it was
ftruck, as C O S. lit. upon the reverfe of Antoninus.
Sometimes it fignifies the place where it was ftruck,
and to which the coin properly belonged, as S. M. AL.
for Signata mcn^ta Alexandria, upon the reverfe of
Licimus: fometimes the name of a province, the re-
du&ion of which the medal is defigned to celebrate
as Judaa, in the reverfe of Vefpalian. Sometimes
S. C. is put in the exergue; and fometimes other
letters, which the modern medallifts are not able
to explain. Befides the legends and exergue, you
often meet with other letters on the table, or field;
as the S. C. on the Roman medals; L. on Greek
medals, with fome other letter or letters exprtffing
the date. The Roman L being the ancient Greek
A> is here faid to ftand for xvaoSavT®-, a poetical word
for anno.
Let us now attend to the figures we fee on ancient
coins.
1/?. On the face, where we commonly have the
portrait of fome great and illuftrious perfon; ufually,
if not always, in profile. The confular medals have
commonly the heads of fome of their gods ; or of their
ancient kings ; or of Rome,- which is a manly face
wearing a helmet to exprefs her warlike genius, and
winged to denote her fpeedy and extenfive conquefts.
The heads of the Roman kings are for the moft part
dreffed with a diadem: which was nothing more than
a fillet bound round the head, the ends of which, be¬
ing tied in a knot behind, fell down upon the neck.
—This was the proper badge and ornament of kings,
and was never worn by any of the emperors till after-
Co*»-
MED [ 4566 ] MED
Medal. Conftantine, when it was enriched with pearls and
diamonds.
Julius Csefar was the firft among the Romans who
ftruck his own head upon the coin, in which he was
followed by all the fucceeding emperors. The pro¬
per drefs of the imperial head is a crown, for the mod
part of laurel ; the right of wearing which was de¬
creed to Julius Casfar by the fenate, and afterwards
continued to his fucceffors. Befides thefe, feveral
other crowns, of different fafhions, are found on me¬
dals ; fuch as the roftral crown, compofed of the
prows of (hips, which was given upon a naval viftory:
The mural crown, compofed of towers; the reward of
fuch as had taken cities, and alfo the ornament of
thdr tutelar deities: Crowns of rays were beftowed
on princes when they were deified, either before or
after their death ; as being properly the ornament of
the gods : Some have fuppofed the Gentiles took the
hint of thefe radiated crowns from fome tradition of
the fhining of Mofes’s face, which is mentioned,
Exod. liv. 29.; and this phaenomenon they conceived
of as occafioned by beams or rays of light darting
from his head. Indeed this feems to have been likewife
the notion of the Vulgate tranflator, who renders the
word np, cormita; not, furely, imagining that Mofes
was really horned, but that he appeared with rays of
light, like horns, emitted from his head.
The emperor Jultinian was the firft who ufed an
arched crown, furmounted with a crofs ; fuch as is
wore by Chriftian kings at this day. Some heads of
emperors are wholly naked ; there are fuch of Au-
guitus, Nero, Galba, and fome others: Though
irfore commonly a naked head, ftruck in the imperial
ages, is a fign that it is not the head of an emperor,
but of one of his fons, or the prefumptive heir of the
empire.
The heads of the gods are diftinguifhed by their
proper crowns; as a crown of ears of corn is a fymbol
of Ceres; a crown of flowers denotes Flora; a crown
of vine-leaves or ivy is the drefs of Bacchus ; the pe-
tafus, or hat with two wings, belongs to Mercury;
the hat without brims is the mark of Vulcan, &c.
Heads are not only diftinguiftied by their drefs,
but fometimes by certain fymbols attending them ;
as when we fee the IHuhs, or augural ftaff, placed
by the head; which is the fymbol of the pontifex
maximus. But fuch fymbols are more commonly
found on the reverfes, which we (hall treat of here¬
after.
The ancient coins prefent as not only with the
portraits of kings and emperors, and other great men ;
but alfo of queens, and other ladies of high rank,
chiefly the wives of the emperors. This honour of
having their heads (lamped on the coin, was done
them either in their lifetime, or after their death; as
on occafion of their apotheo/is, or confecration, figni-
fied by peacocks on the reverfe. The face of fome
medals is charged with two heads, which are either
fet face to face, as on the medals of Severus and the
emprefs Domna; or back to back, as on the medal
of Julius Casfar and O&avianus (afterwards called
jiuguflus) his adopted fon and fucceffor; ftruck by
the Colonia Nemaufenfis, in honour of Auguftus,
upon his defeating Mark Antony and Cleopatra,
whereby he fubdued all Egypt to the Roman
power, fignified by the device of a crocodile chained Meda
to a palm-tree. Some are (lamped with three
heads, or more, on the face; but thefe are very un¬
common.
We have obferved before, that the titles are gene¬
rally upon the face of the medal; and we now pro¬
ceed to confider them more particularly.
The titular addition to the proper name of the
perfon whofe head the medal bears, ufually confifts,
partly, of mere titles of honour ; fuch as Imperator,
Ctefar, Auguftus, given to all the Roman emperors
after Odlavianus. The title of Augujius was firft de¬
creed to him by the Roman fenate, and was aflumed
by all his fucceffors, as Augujia was by their wives.
Ctefar was originally the "’^sinomen of the firft Roman
emperor C. Julius Caefar; w., h, by a decree of the fe¬
nate, all fucceeding emperors \ re to bear. But when
the Augujlus was conferred upon his immediate fuc-
cefibr, the title Ctefar was given to the fecond perfon of
the empire, as to the prefumptive heir of the crown;
notwithftanding it dill continued to be applied to the
emperor himfelf. Hence we fee the difference be¬
twixt Ccefar ufed fimply, and Catfar with the addition
of Iviperator Augujlus.
Imperator was originally an appellation with which
the foldiers complimented a viftorious general; but it
afterwards came to 'denote the fupreme commander, or
head of the empire. However, when we find a num¬
ber added to Imperatort as IMP. III. or IIII. it fig-
nifies that he had a&ed as general in the army, and
had been faluted Imperator by the foldiers, as many
times as the number expreffes.
In the lower empire, the title Dominus was firft
affumed by Aurelian, and ufed by his fucceffors; on
whofe coins we often fee the legend begin with D. N.
for dominus nojler. Other titles, affixed to proper
names, are a fort of furnames, which the perfon’s vir¬
tues are fuppofed to have gained him: as Pius, a title
firft given to Antoninus ; which Commodus alfo af¬
fumed, and added Felix to it; for which a thoufanj
abufes were paffed upon him. Again, Pater Patti#
was a title firft beftowed on Cicero, for his difcover-
ing and defeating the confpiracy of Catiline ; and was
afterwards affumed by the emperors. Pefcennius
took upan him the furname of Juflus; and Diocle-
fian, thofe of Beatiffimus and Felicijfmus; Trajan had
the titles Optmus and Clemens decreed him by the
fenate. Conftantine called himfelf Maximus ; and
Vi&orinus affedted the title of Inviftus. Other title?,
again, are the names of offices; as Conful, which, in
the time of the emperors, was little, if any thing more
than a mere name: however, the people were fond of
keeping it up, accounting it fome remains or' memento
of their ancient liberty; and therefore the emperors
fubmitted to be chofen confuls by the people. The
number which we often fee added to COS. fignifies
how many times the perfon had been thus defied: yet
it is plain this ele&ion was not always made annually,
as in the time of the proper confuls; for the emperor
Hadrian’s medals have for feveral years together
COS. III. upon them.
Another title of office is Tribunitia Potejlas; which,
in the time of the Roman commonwealth, was the
higheft authority; for the tribunes of the people had
power to annul the decrees of the fenate, and nothing
could
MED [ 4567 ] MED
Mechl. could be concluded without their confent: nay,
they have fometimes called the confuls and di&ators
to account for their conduft before the people.—
This power and title was firft affumed by the em¬
peror Auguftus ; and afterwards, generally, by his
fucceflbrs.
The year of the tribunefhip is commonly exprefled
after the title, as TRIB. POT. X. or XVI. &c.
which yet does not always denote the year of the em¬
peror’s reign: for fometimes, though rarely, this
power was given to another befides the emperor; as
to the prefumptive heir of the empire. Hence it is
that the year of the TRIB. POT. expreffed in
the title, is fometimes a much higher number than
the year of the emperor’s reign. Thus Vefpafian
gave the Tribunitia Poteftas to his fon Titus, two
years after he was made emperor. We therefore fee
on the medals of Titus, TRIB. POT. X. or XV.
though he reigned but three years after his father.
Other examples of the fame kind occur in Marcus
Aurelius, Caracalla, Geta, &c. The office of Ponti-
fex Maximus was alfo conftantly aflumed by the Ro¬
man emperors, and generally exprefled among their
titles, from Auguftus down to Conftantine, by whom
it was refuled. It was afterwards reaffumed by
Julian, but quite laid afide by Gratian ; after whom
TiO emperor has P. M. in his titles. Julius Casfar
affumed the title of Diftalor Perpetuus. Claudius
took upon him the office of Cenfor, and Domitian
made himfelf Cenfor Perpetuus; as appears upon their
coins.
It is to be obferved, that thefe names and titles are
expreffed in different cafes. Sometimes in the nomina¬
tive cafes, as Casfar Auguftus. Sometimes in the ge¬
nitive, as Divi Julii ; which cafe is chiefly ufed in
the Greek medals, as as if (,X4,y or
w/ito-fiLa was underftood ; that is, the image or coin of
Alexander. Sometimes the name is put in the dative
cafe ; as I M P. Nervee, Trajano, Germanico, &c.
It is rarely put in the accufative, in the Latin;
though there is an inftance of that fort in a medal of
Gallienus, infcribed Gallienum Augufum; but it is
more common in the Greek.
The titles are hardly ever wrote at length, but con-
traftedly, by one or more of the initial letters of each
word ; as A U G. for Auguftus; C iE S. for Csefar ;
C vE S S. for Csefares; C O S S. for Confutes; P. P.
for Pater Patrice ; P. F. for Pius Felix, &c. Mr Patin,
in his Hiftoria Numifmatum, hath given us a table of
Roman abreviations ufed on medals; which Mr Evelin,
in his Numifmata, hath fomewhat enlarged. You
have alfo a table of a great number of thefe abrevia¬
tions at the end of Ainfworth’s and Littleton’s Dic¬
tionaries.
Secondly, We proceed to take a view of the re-
verfe of medals, in which the chief erudition of this
fcience lies.
Of thefe there is fuch a vaft: variety, efpecially of
the imperial medals, that one is at a lofs which to Angle
out for a fpecimen of the whole. As for the con-
fnlar medals, which we fhall treat of in the firft place,
the fame reverfe is common to many of them ; as
Caftor and Pollux on horfeback, which is faid to be
the reverfe that was firft in ufe; then of Viftory,- or
one of the gods, or the perfon to whofe honour the
Vox.. VI. 2
medal was (truck, driving a chariot with two or four
horfes, whence the Denarii with thefe reverfes were
diftinguifhed into bigati and quadrigati. The ratis
alfo, or (hip, or perhaps the prow of the fhip, as
the emblem of the naval power, was no uncommon
reverfe on the confular coins; whence the pieces with
this impreffion were called ratiti. Befides thefe, fuch
confular medals as bore on the face the imprefs of
their ancient kings, often preferred on the reverfe the
memory of fome worthy aftion they had performed ;
as that of king Ancus has, on the reverfe, the famous
Aquedu&, with the equeftrian ftatue upon it, by
which the aqua martia was brought nine miles to
Rome, and which was begun by this Ancus. Medals
(truck on the occafion of founding colonies, have
fometimes, on the reverfe, a pried following a yoke
of oxen, and perhaps with a plough, fignifying the
manner in which the boundaries of the colonies were
marked out; or fome fay the oxen are defigned to in¬
timate, that the colony was planted by the common
people, whereas the trophies we fometimes fee on the
reverfes of thefe medals fignify they were planted by
the veteran foldiers.
The reverfes of imperial medals are fo different
and various, according to the humours or fancies of
the princes or mint-mafters by whofe dire&ion they
were ftruck, that one knows not how to range them
into any clafs or order. However, the chief of them
may be reduced to three heads, viz. figures, or per-
fonages; public monuments, or buildings; and in-
feriptions.
1. The figures or perfonages, which we fo com¬
monly fee on the reverfes of medals, are fometimes
of princes; fometimes the fame in miniature, whofe
portrait is more at large on the face: as on the
reverfes of the emperors of the family of Conftantine,
one often fees the emperor (landing with a labarum
in his right hand, and a globe furmounted with a
Viftory in his left. The labarum was the imperial
ftandard, embroidered and fet with precious ftones;
which in the time of the Chriftian emperors, inftead
of an eagle formerly embroidered upon it, had the
monogram of Jefus Chrift ; viz. the two firft letters of
the word expreffed in a cipher thus Some¬
times the emperor appears in the reverfe, difguifed
under the figure of fome god; as on the reverfe of
a Dioclefian, who had affumed the name of Jovius,
he appears in the figure of Jupiter fitting in a chair
with a globe in his hand furmounted with a Victory:
the legend, Jovi, H. U. CC. i. e. Hoc voluerunt con¬
futes. Sometimes the figure on the reverfe, is fome
relation of that on the face; as Auguftus on the re¬
verfe of Julius, and Claudius on the reverfe of his
mother Antonia- We fometimes fee on the reverfe
the figure of fome god, either of him to whofe worfhip
the emperor was more efpecially devoted ; or of him
whofe protection and bleffing was in a peculiar man¬
ner fupplicated for him : as Minerva on the reverfe of
a Domitian ; and on the reverfe of a Mar. Aurelius, the
goddefs Salus, with a patera in her hand, facrificing
to jEfculapius, who was worihipped in the form of a
ferpent. Again, the virtues for which the emperor
was or defired to be celebrated, are not uncommonly
expreffed by the figures on reverfes; as Virtue, or
Courage, on the reverfe of a Domitian, reprefented
z; X by
Medal.
MED
MED [ 4568 ]
Medal, by a bold armed woman with a fpear in her right
 hand and a parazonium' in her left; the legend, Vir-
tuti Augafti. Liberty on the reverfe of a Commodus,
carrying in her right hand the cap of liberty, and in
h,er left the wand called rudis vindifta, which was
laid on the head of a flave when he was made free:
Equity, on the reverfe of a Vefpafian, with a fpear in
her right hand and a balance in her left.
The virtues of the ladies are alfo celebrated on the
reverfes of their medals; as Piety on the reverfe of a
Fauftina, in the habit of a veftal virgin, ftrewing
frankincenfe on an altar; Feecunditas on the reverfe of
another medal of the fame lady: Spes Reipublkce on
the reverfe of Maximiana Faufta, fecond wife of Con-
ftantine the Great ; exprefl'ed by a female figure, with
a helmet on to reprefent the Republic, and two
children at her breads. Mr Addifon has given us a
collection of thefe forts of figures in his firft Series.
Provinces are alfo reprefented by figures and per-
fonages; to fignify either the emperor’s conquefts,
or his care of them : as Judea, on the reverfe of a Ve¬
fpafian, fitting in a melancholy pofture at the bottom
of a pillar adorned with trophies, to fignify her captive
Hate. Dacia, on the reverfe of Hadrianus, fitting
on a rock, holding an eagle in her right hand, and a
branch in her left. Italia, on the reverfe of Com-
modus, with a cornucopia in her right hand, to de¬
note her fruitfulnefs; a crown of towers on her head,
to figure out the many cities that (land upon her ;
a fceptre in her left hand, and fitting on a globe, to
fhevv Ihe is fovereign of nations. See a colle&ion of
thefe fort of figures in Mr Addifon’s third Series.
Sometimes the figure is intended to immortalize
fome worthy aftion of the emperor. As his enriching
the nation, or his care about the public coin, is fig-
nified, on the reverfe of a Domitian, by the goddefs
Moneta, with a cornucopia in her left hand, and a
balance in her right. On reverfes we have not only
' a variety of Angle figures; but fometimes two, three,
or more; as Henos and Virtud on the reverfe of Galba,
in Mr Addifon’s firft Series, medal the fecond. And
on a medal of Trajan’s are feen three kings, and the
emperor crowning them. On one of Hadrian’s there
are eight figures, but without any legend to explain
them ; and on one of Commodus there are ten.
Before we difmifs this head concerning the figures
of medals, it will be proper to take notice of other
animals, often met with on reverfes, which have
alfo their fignification ; as the eagle and the peacock
denote the confecration of princes and princeffes,
when they are admitted into the number of the gods;
the crocodile is the fymbol of Fgypt; a ferpent, of
iEfculapius; Arabia is marked hy a camel ; Spain
by a rabbit, (a creature which abounds in that coun¬
try) ; Mauritania is known by a horfe and fwitch,
fignifying the fwiftnefs of its couriers ; elephants in
trappings are to be feen on the reverfe of an Antoninus
Pius and a Severus, which imports that thefe em¬
perors procured thofe creatures to entertain the peo¬
ple at the public {hews. We have alfo fabulous ani¬
mals and monfters; as the griffon on the reverfe of a
medal of Gallienus ; a centaur on another of the
fame emperor; and a phoenix on fome medals of
Conftantine and his fons ; to denote, what it feems
they hoped for and expe&ed, the perpetuity of the
Empire. Medal.
2. The fecond fort of reverfes are public monu-^ "
merits and buildings; as the temple of Janus fhut,
on the reverfe of a Nero, to fignify the univerfal
peace he gave to the empire; the macellum, (or a
view of the fhambles which he caufed to be built for
the’convenience of the public), on another of the fame
emperor ; the fumptuous bridge which Trajan built
over the Tiber, adorns the reverfe of one of his me¬
dals ; the amphitheatre of Titus, and his naval column,
are to be feen on his. The port, or gate of a city,
which is found on the reverfe of fome medals, with
the legend PROVIDENTIA AUGUSTI, or CJE-
SARIS, is a monument of the emperor’s munificence
and care in providing a magazine of corn for the peo¬
ple in a time of fcarcity. If a ftar appears over the
gate, it denotes Confiantinople. Such a reverfe we
have on the emperor Conftantinus junior, the legend
PROVIDENTIAL CASS.
2. The third fort of reverfes are inferiptions on the
table or field of the medal. Of this fort there are fe-
veral Latin and Greek imperial medals, which have
nothing on the reverfe but S. C. or A. E. for J
inclofed in a crown. Others fet forth great
occurrences, as VICTORIA GERMANICA, IMP.
VI. COS. III. on the reverfe of M. Aurelius. Others
have titles of honour granted to the princes ; as
S. P. QJl. OPTIMO PRINCIPI, on the reverfe of
a Trajan, and alfo of an Antoninus Pius. Other in-
feriptions have refpefl: to public vows, which were
made for the emperor every ten years; or (fometimes
in the lower empire) every five years; which, accord¬
ing to Mr Du Cange, had their rife from Auguitus’s
pretending to be defirous of quitting the empire: but,
at the requeft of the fenate, he twice confented to con¬
tinue the government for ten years longer; upon which
it became a cuftom at every ten yrears, to make public
prayers, facrifices, and games, for the prefervation of
the emperor. Hence we fee on the reverfe of a Con-
ftantius, V0T1S XXX, MULTIS XXXX. import-
ing (probably) not only that he might reign 30 years,
or 10 years more, from the time when the vows were
made; namely, when he had already reigned 20 years;
but that they engaged to make new vows at the expi¬
ration of 30 years, that he might reign 40 years; for
it cannot mean that he had reigned 30 years at the
time when the vows were made, fince he died in the
26th year of his reign. This cuftom lafted until Theo-
dofius; after whom no fuch epocha is to be found.
Befides the reverfes which we have ranged into thefe vaiue atl<j
three clafies, there are many others which canot be re- ufe.
duced to any of them ; fuch as Addifon calls riddles.
For inftance, on the reverfe of an Auguftus, Mercury
in the form of a Terminus, (landing on a thunderbolt;
which was probably intended for a rebus, to exprefs
the fenfe of that emperor’s motto, Fejlina lente. The
Terminus was a figure, without either arms, hands, or
feet; fignifying, fays Polybius, that all quarrels and
contefts about the limits and boundaries were deter¬
mined. Inftrumrents of religion were fymbols of the
Ponti/ex Maximus, and fignified the piety of the prince
on whofe coin they were borne! thus upon a reverfe
of Nerva, we fee the lituus, the fimpulum, the afperfa-
rium, &c. Two hands joining one another, hold¬
ing two ears of corn, and a caduceus betwixt them,
on
MED [ 4^69 ] MED
Medal, on the reverfs of a Titus, import the good harmony
and union between the prince and the public; the
peace arifing from fuch an union, and the plenty which
is the fruit of fuch a peace. See a colledtion of this
fort of reverfes in Addifon’s fecond Series.
The value of medals, in common computation, is
rated not by the metal, or fize, nor merely by their an¬
tiquity, but by their rarity. The metal is of fo little
confideration, that a copper medal is fometimes valued
at a much higher rate than a filver or a gold one: for
inftance, the copper Otho, of the larger fize, called a
Jingular medal, becaufe there is fuppofed to be but one,
or however very few of them in the world, is of ai¬
med ir.edimable value; while a gold one (hall not fell
for above two or three guineas more than its weight:
and if a piece of king Numa’s leather money could
now be found, it would, no doubt, be valued above
any gold one. Such a fingular coin is a diver Greek
medallion of Pcfcennius, which is in the French king’s
cabinet. Hence the medals of thofe emperors who
reigned a (horter time, are generally more valued than
thofe that reigned longer; becaufe there were fewer of
them druck, and they are therefore the rarer. Yet
fometimes an uncommon reverfe fhall give a great value
to a medal, whofe head, with another reverfe, is very
common.
In collefUng of medals great caution is to be ufed
that we are not impofed upon by counterfeits; efpeci-
ally of fuch medals as are fcarce and rare. For that
purpofe we mud attend to the field, and obferve whe¬
ther it is fmooth, and free from marks of the fand
which may commonly be feen on cad medals: to the
letters and figures, which are never fo (harp and clean
in cad medals as in damped ones; to the edges, to ob¬
ferve whether there be any marks of the file, which
has been ufed in a cad medal, efpecially in that part
where the metal ran into the mould. We are to ob¬
ferve again, whether there be any cracks in the edges;
for though the abfence of them be no certain fign of a
counterfeit; yet, when they are found, they are look¬
ed upon as pretty good indications of the medal’s be-
ing genuine. But nothing is more to be regarded
than the colour and varnifh, efpecially of copper me¬
dals; many of which have a certain inimitable varnifh
and politure ; fome green, fome blue, others of a red-
difh brown; which, whether it was given them by art,
or has been contra&ed by age, is not abfolutcly de¬
termined : though the latter feems more probable,
lince all the art of the falfifiers, whether by fal am¬
moniac, vinegar, burning paper upon them, bury¬
ing them in the earth, or any other way, has by no
means equalled it. There is indeed a green varnifh
which is commonly ufed for this purpofe, that is pretty
enough ; but it is too bright and glaring ; fo that a
little experience will enable a perfon to didinguifh it
from the antique.
Secondly, As to the ufe of ancient medals, befides a
thoufand little impertinences, as Addifon calls them,
that are very gratifying to curiofity, fuch as the drefs
of the moft celebrated ladies of antiquity, the flatter¬
ing titles affedied by this and the other emperor, and
the honours he paid to his family and friends; they
ferve efpecially to reprefent.to us the features and li¬
neaments of many illuftrious perfonages. But befides
thefe and many other like matters of mere,, yet very
entertaining curiofity, they are capable of feveral more Medal,
fubftantial ufes ; concerning which the learned Span- '
heim has publifhed a large volume, De Prejlantia et
uftt Numifnmtum Antiquorum: for inftance, they are
of very confiderable fervice in hiftory; forbefides, that
many fafts and events not recorded by any of the an¬
cient hiftorians may be colle&ed from them, they throw
great lighten feveral obfeure pafiages in thofe writers.
And indeed there is hardly any confiderable event in
the Grecian or Roman hiftory, to which fome refe¬
rence may not be found in the coins of thofe nations.
So that a cabinet of medals may be confidtred as in a
manner a body of hiftory ; being converfant with which
will fix hiftorical fads and circumftances upon the me¬
mory with more eafe, as well as give a greater degree
of certainty concerning them than, books alone will or¬
dinarily do.
Chronology receives not a little aid from medals, as
they not only perpetuate the memory of illuftrious ac¬
tions, but often mark the year when they were per¬
formed.
Geography has been greatly beholden to this fcience,
for afeertaining the names of ancient places; the foun¬
ders of cities and colonies ; and fometimes their fitua-
tion, by their neighbourhood of fome noted river,
mountain, &c. exprefled by fome device on a medal.
By the help of medals we difeover what honours and
privileges certain cities were anciently poffeffed of.
For inftance, we learn from them what cities, befides
Rome, had the privilege of Roman citizens. The ho¬
nour of a city’s being is celebrated on many
Grecian medals; which imports that it had a temple
in it, where the folemn facrifices of the whole province
were performed for their prince, and public games were
exhibited to his honour, as often as his permiffion
could be obtained for that purpofe. Hence we fee on
fome medals AiC, TPIC. TETPAKIC, &e. nEincopriN.
for though the word derived from tern-
plum, and x.atia, verro, purgo, doubtlefs imported ori¬
ginally a mean office, namely, that of facrijlan, or fex-
ton; yet in time it came to be a term or title of ho¬
nour, importing not only the celebration of the games
(as we have faid before), but alfb the religious devo¬
tion of a city to fome deity: which fenfe it is ap¬
plied to the city of Ephefus, Afts xix. 35. faid to be
vtaMpov t»c fciKayv; 0(«f AgTtfiitQr, x«i rov btoimvi : and
therefore more properly rendered in that place cul*
tricem in the vulgate, and nxorjhipper in our Englifh
tranflation, than adituam, as in Beza and in fome
others.
We learn alfo from medals, in many cafes, which
was the chief city or metropolis of a province; and in
what fenfe a city is called when it was not the
metropolis, as Philippi is faid to be *pv1» rve T»f
Max.'J'ovjaf roxif, kckuucc, APIs xvi. iz. That Philippi
was a Roman colony, appears from a medal ftruck in
the reign of Claudius, with this legend, COL. AUG.
IVL. PHILIP, that is Colonia Augujia Julia Phi¬
lippi, or Philippenjis. And in what fenfe this city was
irpuin a-oxic, though Tlieffalonica was undoubtedly the
metropolis or chief city of the province, maybe ga¬
thered from the ufe of the word •a-porD, as applied to i’e-
veral other cities on ancient coins: as in the pro-con-
fular Afia, not only Ephefus which was the chief city,
but Smyrna and Pergamus, have the title and
MED [ 4570 ] MED
Medallion, In Bithynla, not only Nicomedia, which was the me-
Mede. tropolis, but Nicea is alfo called Now, Span*
heim /hews, that this title, when thus applied to infe¬
rior cities, refers to the games which feveral cities
joined in fupporting, and of which one was the
In this fenfe Philippi was the *rpuT»-aoxit, (not tvs
but tv's of a particular diftrift of Ma¬
cedonia.
We have not yet mentioned all the arts and fciences
which receive light and aid from medals. Sculpture
and painting have revived, in later ages, along with
this ftudy ; to which thofe arts are greatly indebted
for noble hints and patterns. The fame may be faid
of architefture, which now borrows its fineft ornaments
from the plans and models of ancient temples, ports,
triumphal arches, and other public edifices, preferved
on medals. Mr Addifon has abundantly convinced us
of their ufe to explain numerous pa/fages in the daf¬
fies. By their means the natural philolopher alfo ac¬
quaints himfelf with a great variety of foreign plants
and animals. And the divine not only finds the ufe-
fulnefs of medals, for explaining and illuftrating feveral
texts of Scripture, as we have feen above; but hereby
he informs himfelf of the ancient theology of the Greeks
and Romans: here he fees the gods they worlhipped,
and their attributes expre/Ted in fignificative emblems;
here he fees their altars and adorations, and the in-
ftruments with which they performed their facred rites.
Upon the whole, therefore, though it cannot be de¬
nied that fome perfons have carried the ftndy of medals
to a ridiculous extravagance, yet it by no means de-
ferves to be treated with the contempt it is by others,
or to be wholly negle&ed.
Impreflion ^Medals. See Casting.
MEDALLION, or Medalion, a medal of an ex¬
traordinary fize, fuppofed to be anciently /truck by
the emperors for their friends, and for foreign princes
and amba/Tadors. But, that the fmallnefs of their num¬
ber might not endanger the lofs of the devices they
bore, the Romans generally took care to /lamp the
fubjedt of them upon their ordinary coins.
Medallions, in refpeft of the other coins, were the
fame as modern medals in refpedt of modern money:
they were exempted from all commerce, and had no
other value than what was fet upon them by the fancy
of the owner. Medallions are fo fcarce, that there
cannot be any fet made of them, even though the me¬
tals and fizes fhould be mixed promifcuou/ly.
MEDE (Jofeph), a very learned Engli/h divine of
the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and
foon diftingu/hed himfelf to great advantage; for by
the time he had taken the degree of mailer of arts in
1610, he had made an uncommon progrefs in all aca¬
demical lludies. His firll appearance as a writer was
by an addrefs to Dr Andrews, then bi/hop of Ely, in
a Latin traft De Santtitate Relativa, which was high¬
ly approved of by that prelate, who defired him to be
his domeftic chaplain. This Mr _Mede very civilly re-
fufed; valuing the liberty of his ftudies above any
hopes of preferment, and efteeming that freedom which
he enjoyed in his cell, fo he ufed to call it, as the ha¬
ven of all his wilhes. And indeed thefe thoughts had
po/fe/fed him betimes; for when he was a fchool-boy,
he was fent to by his uncle, Mr Richard Mede, a mer¬
chant, who, being then without children, offered to
adopt him for his fon if he would live with him: but Mede.
he refufed the offer, preferring, as it /hould feem, a
life of ftudy to a life of gain.
He was not chofen fellow of his college till after he
was mafter of arts, and then not without the affiftance
of his friend bi/hop Andrews: for he had been paffed
over at feveral elections, on account of a caufelefs fuf-
picion which Dr Cary, then mafter of the college, af¬
terwards bi/hop of Exeter, had conceived of him, that
“ he looked to much towards Geneva.” Being made
fellow, he became an eminent and faithful tutor. Af¬
ter he had well grounded his pupils in humanity, lo¬
gic, and philofophy, fo that they were able to walk
as it were alone, he ufed to fet every one his daily ta/k;
which he rather chofe, than to confine himfelf and them
to precife hours for le&ures. In the evening they all
came to his chamber; and the firft queftion he put to
each was, Quid dubitas ? “ What doubts have you
met with in your ftudies to-day?” For he fuppofed,
that to doubt nothing and to underftand nothing was
juft the fame thing. This was right, and the beft me¬
thod to make young men exercife their rational powers,
and not acquiefce in what they learn mechanically,
and by rote, with an indolence of fpirit which pre¬
pares them to receive and fwallow implicitly whatever
is offered to them. As to himfelf, he was fo entirely de¬
voted to the ftudy of all excellent knowledge, that he
made even the time he fpent in his amufements fervice-
able to his purpofe. He allowed himfelf little or no
exercife but walking ; and often, in the fields or col-
lege garden, would take occafion to fpeak of the beau¬
ty*- fignatures, virtues, or properties of the plants then
in view: for he was a curious florift, an accurate her-
balift, and thoroughly verfed in the book of nature.
The chief delight he took in company was to difeourfe
with learned friends.
Mr Mede was a curious inquirer into the mod ab-
ftrufe parts of learning, and endeavoured after the
knowledge of thofe things which were moft remote
from the vulgar track. Among other things, he fpent
no fmall pains and time in founding the depths of a-
ftrology, and blotted much paper in calculating the
nativities of his near relations and fellow-ftudents: but
this was in his younger years, and he afterwards dif-
covered the vanity and weaknefs of this fanciful art.
He applied himfelf to the more ufeful ftudy of hiftory
and antiquities; particularly to thofe myfterious fci¬
ences which made the ancient Chaldeans, Egyptians,
and other nations, fo famous; tracing them, as far as
he could have any light to guide him in their oriental
fchemes and figurative expreffions, as likewife in their
hieroglyphics, not forgetting to inquire alfo into the
oneirocritics of the ancients: which he did the rather,
becaufe of that affinity he conceived they might have
with the language of the prophets. He was a curious
and laborious fearcher of antiquities relating to reli¬
gion, ethnic, Jewi/h, Chriftian, and Mahometan: to
which he added other attendants, neceffary for under-
ftanding the more difficult parts of Scripture.
In 1620, he refufed the provoft/hip of Trinity-col¬
lege,'Dublin, into which he had betn ele&ed at the
recommendation of archbilhop U/her, who was his par¬
ticular friend ; as he did alfo when it was offered to
him a fecond time, in 1630. The height of his am¬
bition was, only to have had fome fmall donative fine-
, ' cure
Medea,
Media.
MED [ 4571 ] MED
cure added to his fellowftiip, or to have been thrown
into fome place of quiet; where, retired from the noife
and tumults of the world, and poifeifed of a compe¬
tency of fortune, he might havs been intirely at leifure
for ftudy and a&s of piety. In the mean time, al¬
though his circumftances were fcanty, for he had no¬
thing but his fellowfhip and a college ledure, his cha¬
rity was diffufive and uncommon ; and, ftrange as it
may now feem, he devoted the tenth of his income to
pious and charitable ufes. But his frugality and tem¬
perance always afforded him plenty. His prudence or
moderation, either in declaring or defending his pri¬
vate opimons, was very remarkable ; as was alfo his
freedom from partiality, prejudice or prepoffeffion,
pride, anger, felfilhnefs, flattery, and ambition. He
was meek, patient, equally remote from fuperftition
and licentioul'nefs of thinking; and, in fhort, poffeffed
every virtue. This great and good man died in 1638,
in his yzd year, having fpent above two-thirds of his
time in college.
MEDEA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Aetas
king of Colchis, who poffeffed the golden fleece, A. M.
2741. She fell in love with Jafon, helped him to the
fleece, and then went away with him. She is faid to
have been a great forcerefs, and by her art reftored the
age of .5Lfon her father-in-law. Jafon afterwards for-
faking her, in revenge fhe married Egeus; but was
banifhed Athens, of which he was king.
MEDIA, now the province of Ghtlan in Perfia,
once the feat of a potent empire, was bounded, ac¬
cording to Ptolemy, on the north by part of the Caf-
pian Sea; on the fouth by Perfis, Sufiana, and Affyria;
on the eaft by Parthia and Hyrcania; and on the weff
by Armenia Major. It was anciently divided into fe-
veral provinces, viz. Tropatene, Charomithrene, Da-
rites, Marciane, Amariace, and Syro-Media. By a
later divifion, however, all thefe were reduced to two;
the one called Media Magna, the other Media Atro-
patia, or Amply Atropatene. Media Magna was bound¬
ed by Perfls, Parthia, Hyrcania, the Hyrcanian Sea,
and Atropatene, and contained the cities of Ecbatan,
Laodicea, Apamea, Raga, Rageia, or Ragea, &c.
Atropatene lay between the Cafpian mountains and
the Cafpian Sea.
This country originally took its name from Madai,
the third fon of Japhet; as is plain from Scripture,
where the Medes are conftantly called Madai. Among
profane authors, fome derive the name Media, from
one Medus the fon of Jafon and Medea ; others from
a city called Media. Sextus Rufus tells us that in his
time it was called Medena, and from others w’e learn
that it was alfo called Aria. The moft probable hi-
flory of the Medes is as follow's.
This people lived in fubjedtion to the Affyrians till
the reign of Sennacherib, when they threw off the yoke,
and lived for fome time in a ftate of anarchy. But at
laft, rapine and violence, the natural confequences- of
fuch a fituation, prevailed fo much that they were con-
ftrained to have recourfe to fome kind of government
that they might be enabled to live in fafety. Accord¬
ingly, about 699 B. C. one Dejoces having procured
himfelf to be chofen king, united the fcattered tribes
into which the Medes were at that time divided, and
having applied himfelf as much as pofiible to the civi¬
lization of his barbarous fubjedls, left the throng t®
his fon Phraortes, after a reign of 53 year?.
The new king, who was of a warlike and enterpri-
fing difpofition, fubdued almoft all the Upper Afia ly¬
ing between Mount Taurus and the river Halys which
runs through Cappadocia into the Euxine Sea. Elated
with this good fuccefs, he invaded Affyria, the empire
of wdiich was now much declined, and greatly weak¬
ened by the revolt of many nations which had follow¬
ed the example of the Medes. Nebuchodonofor, or
Chyniladan, however, the reigning prince, having af-
fembled what forces he could, engaged Phraortes, de¬
feated, took him prifoner, and put him to death; af¬
ter which, entering Media, he laid wafte the country,
took the metropolis of Ecbatan itfelf, and levelled it
with the ground.
On the death of Phraortes,his fon Cyaxares was pla¬
ced on the throne. He was no lefs valiant and enter-
prifing than his father, and had better fuccefs againd
the Affyrians. With the remains of that army which
had been defeated under his father, he not only drove
the conquerors out of Media, but obliged Chyniladan
to fhut himfelf up in Nineveh. To this place he im¬
mediately laid clofe fiege; but was obliged to give over
the enterprize on account of an irruption of the Scy¬
thians into his own country. Cyaxares engaged thefe
new enemies with great refolution; but was utterly
defeated; and the conquerors over-ran not only all Me¬
dia, but the greateft part of Upper Afia, extending
their conquefts into Syria, and as far as the confines
of Egypt. They continued matters of all this vail
track of country for 28 years, till at laft Media was
delivered from their yoke by a general maffacre at the
inftigation of Cyaxares.
After this deliverance the Medes foon repoffeffed
themfelves of the territories they had loft; and once
more extended their frontiers to the river Halys, their
ancient boundary to the weftward. After this we find
the Medes engaged in a war with the Lydians; which,
however, ended without any remarkable tranfa&ion :
but on,the conclufion of it, Cyaxares having entered
into a ftrid alliance with Nebuchadnezzar king of Ba¬
bylon, returned in conjun&ion with the Babylonians
before Nineveh ; which they took and levelled with
the ground, putting moft of the inhabitants to the
fword.
After this vi&ory the Babylonian and Median em¬
pires feem to have been united: however, after the
death of Nebuchadnezzar, or rather in his lifetime, a
war enfued, which was not extinguilhed but by the
diffolution of the Babylonian empire. The Medes, un¬
der Aftyages the fon of Cyaxares I. withftood the
power of the Babylonian monarchs; and under Cyrus
and Cyaxares II. utterly deftroyed their empire by the
taking of Babylon, as is related under that article.
After the death of Cyaxares, the kingdom fell to Cy¬
rus, by whom the feat of the empire was transferred to
Persia, under which article the hiftory of Media now-
falls to be confidered, as alfo the manners, &c. of the
inhabitants.
MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy. See there,
n° 377, d.
MEDIATE, or Intermediate, fomething that
ftands between and connefls two or more terms confi¬
dered as extremes; in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to
immediate.
ME-
Media
Mediate.
MED [ 4572 ] MED
Medicago. MEDICAGO, Snail-trefoil ; a genus of the
~ decandria order, belonging to the diadelphta clafs of
plants. There are nine fpecies, though only five are
commonly cultivated in this country. They are low
trailing plants, adorned with fmall yellow flowers, fuc-
ceeded by fmall, round, fnail-ftiaped fruit, which are
downy, and armed with a few ftiort fpines. They are
all eafily propagated by feeds.
MED
MEDICATED waters. See Water; and Air, Medicated, |
n0 8, 50—5.3. Medicinal. |
MEDICINAL, any thing belonging to medicine. ~~ |j
Medicinal Springs, a general name for any foun¬
tain, the waters of which are of ufe for removing cer¬
tain difordersi They are commonly either chalybeate
or fulphureous. See Springs.
I C I N E.
MEDICINE is the art of preventing and curing
difeafes.
History of Medicine.
This art is in jtfelf fo noble, and fo generally ufe-
ful to mankind, that many have thought it came ori¬
ginally from God by exprefs revelation; and, accord-
ingly, we find the heathens with one voice afcribing
the origin of the medicinal art to their gods. Moft
people, however, are now of opinion, that it is of hu¬
man invention; and that mankind were naturally led to
it from cafual obfervations on the difeafes to which they
found themfelves fubjed.
At what time medicine was firft reduced to rules,
and began to be pradlifed as an art, is not known.
The moft ancient phyficians we read of were thofe
who embalmed the patriarch Jacob by order of his fon
Jofeph. The facred writer flyles thefe phyficians fer-
1 vants to Jofeph : from whence we may be affured that
Phyficians they were not priejis, as the firft phyficians are gene-
not: ori- rally fuppofed to have been ; for in that age we'know
priefls5! ^ie Egyptian priefts were in fuch high favour, that
they retained their liberty, when, through a public ca¬
lamity, all the reft of the people were made flaves to
the prince.
It is not probable, therefore, that among the E-
gyptians religion and medicine were originally con¬
joined ; and if we fuppofe this people not to have in¬
vented the art, but received it from fome other nation,
it is as little probable that the priefts of that nation
were their phyficians, any more than thofe of Egypt
already mentioned.
That the Jewifli phyficians were abfolutely diftinA
from their priefts is very certain. Yet as the Jews re-
fided for'fuch a long time in Egypt, it is probable
they would retain many of the Egyptian cuiloms,
from which it would be very difficult to free them.
We read, however, that when king Afa was difeafed
in his feet, “ he fought not to the Lord, but to the
phylicians.” Hence we may conclude, that among
the Jews the medicinal art was looked upon as a mere
human invention; and it was thought that the Deity
never cured difeafes by making people acquainted
with the virtues of this or that herb, but only by his
miraculous pov/er ; which indeed feems moft becoming
his exalted character. That the fame opinion prevail¬
ed among the heathens who were neighbours to the
Jews, is alfo probable from what we read of Ahaziah
king of Judah, who having fent meflengers to inquire
of Baal-zebub God of Ekron concerning his dileafe,
he did not defire any remedy from him or his priefts,
but limply to know whether he fliouid recover or not.
What feems raoft probable on this fubjeft therefore
is, that religion and medicine came to be mixed toge- How ieli- j
ther only in confequence of that degeneracy into ig-gion and |
norance and fuperftition, which fome time or other^^c^ebe j
hath taken place among all nations. The Egyptians, mixjd t0.
we know, came at laft to be funk in the moft ridictr-gether.
Ions and abfurd fuperftition ; and their, indeed, it is no
wonder to find their priefts commencing phyficians,
and mingling charms,‘'incantations, &c. with their
remedies. That this was the cafe, tho’ long after the
days of Jofeph, we are very certain ; and indeed it
feems as natural for ignorance and barbarifm to com¬
bine religion with phyfic, as it for a civilized and en¬
lightened people to keep them feparate. Hence we
fee, that among all modern barbarians their priefts Or
conjurors are their only phyficians. ^
We are fo little acquainted with the ftate of phyficof the
among the Egyptians, that it is needlefs to fay much Egyptian
concerning them. They attributed the invention ofphyhc- i>
medicine, as they did alfo that of many other arts, to
Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. He
is faid to have wrote many things in hieroglyphic cha-
rafters upon certain pillars, in order to perpetuate his
knowledge, and render it ufeful to others. Thefe
were tranfcribed by Agathodemon, or the fecond Mer¬
cury, the father of Tat, who compofed books of them,
that were kept in the moft facred places of the Egyp¬
tian temples. The exiftence of fuch a perfon, how¬
ever, is very dubious, and many of the books afcribed
to him were accounted forgeries as long ago as the
days of Galen; there is alfo great reafon to fufpeft
that thefe books were wrote many ages after Hermes,
and when phyfic had made confiderable advances.
Many of his books are quite trifling and ridiculous ;
and though fometimes he is allowed to have all the
honour of inventing the art, he is on other occafions
obliged to ftiare it with Oliris, Ills, and Apis, or Se-
rapis. , 4
After all, the Egyptian phyfic appears to have been Theii ah- \
little elfe than a heap of abfurd fuperftitions. OrigenAird theo-
informs us, that they believed there were 36 demons,
or gods of the air, who divided the human body among
them; that they had names for all of them; and that
by invoking them according to the part afiedted, the
patient was cured. Of natural medicines we hear of
none recommended by the father of Egyptian phyfic;
except the herb imly, which he gave to Ulyfies in or¬
der to fecure him from the enchantments of Circe; and s ^
the herb mercury, whofe ufe he firft difcovered. HisMethods of
fucceffors made ufe of venefe£lion, cathartics, emetics, cure. 1
and clyfters. There is no proof, however, that this
pra&ice was eftablilhed by Hermes; on the contrary,
the Egyptians themfelves pretended, that the firft hint
“of thefe remedies was taken from foflie obfervations mi
brute
ifHiftory. MED
brute animals. Vencfeftion was taught them by the
hippopotamus, which is faid to perform this opera¬
tion upon itfelf. On thefe occafions, he comes out of
the river, and ftrikes his leg againft a fharp-pointed
reed. As he takes care to direct the ftroke againft a
vein, the confequence muft be a coufiderable efftifion
of blood; and this being fuffered to run as long as the
creature thinks proper, he at laft (tops up the orifice
with mud. The hint of clyiters was taken from the
ibis, a bird which is faid to give itfelf clyfters with
its bill, &c. They ufed venefe&ion, however, but
very little, probably on account of the warmth of the
climate ; and the exhibition of the remedies abovemen-
tioned, joined with abftinence, formed the molt of
; their pradice.
" °f The Geeeks too had feveral perfons to whom they
. "'t attributed the invention of phyfic, particularly Pro-
^0ngt'C metheus, Apollo or Paean, and iEfeulapius ; which
laft was the moft celebrated of any. But here we muft
obferve, that as the Greeks were a very warlike people,
their phyfic feems to have been little elfe than what
is now called furgery, or the cure of wounds, frac*
lures, &c. Hence, iEfculapius, hnd, his pupils Chi¬
ron, Machaon, and Podalirius, are celebrated by Ho¬
mer only for their /kill in curing thefe, without the
leaft mention of their attempting the cures of internal
difeafes. We are not, however, to fuppofe, that they
confined themfclves entirely to furgery. They no
doubt would occafionally prefcribe for internal difor-
ders; but as they were moft frequently converfant with
wounds, we may naturally ftippofe the greateft part of
their fkill to have confided in knowing how to cure
thefe. If we may believe the poets, indeed, the know¬
ledge of medicine feems to have been very generally
Heroes of diffufed. Almoft all the heroes of antiquity are re-
snticiuity ported to have been phyficians as well as warriors.
Mod of them were taught phyfic by the centaur Chi¬
ron. From him Hercules received inftru&ious in the
medicinal art, in which he is faid to have been no lefs
expert than in feats of arms. Several plants were
called by his name; from whence fome think it pro¬
bable that he found out their virtues, though others
are of opinion that they bore the name of this re¬
nowned hero on account of their great efficacy in re¬
moving difeafes. Ariftsus king of Arcadia was alfo
one of Chiron’s fcholars; and is fuppofed to have dif-
covered the ufe of the drug called Jilpbium, by many
thought to he afafoetida. Thefeus, Ttlamon, Jafon,
Peleus, and his fort Achilles, were all renowned for
their knowledge in the art of phyfic. The laft is
faid to have discovered the ufe of verdegrife in clean-
ling foul ulcers. All of them, however, feetn to have
been inferior in knowledge to Palamedes, who hin¬
dered the plague froril coming into the Grecian camp
after it had ravaged moft of the cities of Hellefpont,
and even Troy itlelf. His method was to confine his
foldiers to a fpare diet, and to oblige them to ufe much
exercife.
The rac- Pra&‘ce thefe ancient Greek phyficians, rvot-
tice of theii w‘thfta«ding the praifes beftowed on them by their
gticicnt poets, feems to have been very limited, and in fome cafes
phyficians even pernicious. All the external remedies applied
niji.oper. to Homer’s wounded heroes were fomentations; while
inwardly their phyficians gave them wine, fomplimes
mingled with cheefe feraped down. This laft vve know
generally
I C I N E.  4573
muft have been pernicious in many cafes by increafing
the inflammation^ and it is very probable, that fuch an
improper exhibition was merely a confequence of their
ignorance ; as we fee old women in this country will
give ardent fpirits to thofe who are feized with inflam¬
matory fevers, in order to prevent their patients from
fainting. A great deal of their phyfic alfo confifted
in charms, incantations, amulets, &c. of which, as
they are common to all fuperftitious and ignorant na¬
tions, it is fuperfluous to take any farther notice. 9
In this way the art of medicine continued among Art of mex
the Greeks for many ages. As its firft profeffors knew dxir.e od-
nothing of the animal oeconomy, and as little of theSuial'y eai*
theory of difeafes, it is plain*, that whatever they didpU1C‘
muft have been in confequence of mere random trials,
or empiricifm, in the moft Arid and proper fenfe of the
word. Indeed, it is evidently impoffible that this or
almoft any other art could originate from another
fource than trials of this kind. Accordingly, w’e find,
that fome ancient nations were accuftomed to expofe
their fiek in temples, and by the fides of highways,
that they might receive the advice of every one that
palled. Among the Greeks, however, iEfculapius, as
he was reckoned the moft eminent pra&itioner of his
time, fo his name continued to be revered after his
death; he was ranked amongft the gods; and the prin¬
cipal knowledge of the medicinal art remained with
his family to the time of Hippocrates, who reckoned
himfelf the feventeenth in a lineal defeent from iEfcu-
lapius, and who was truly the firft who treated of me¬
dicine in a regular and rational manner.
At laft, the Grecian philofophers attempted to in¬
troduce particular theories into the medicinal art. Py- p>tha°ora9
thagoras, who lived about the 6oth Olympiad, and introduces
founded the Italic fchool, is the firft we read of who l b theory
began to take thefe things into confideratioo. He be- il’t0 mc‘i^
lieved, that, at the time of conception, a certain fub-Clne‘
ftance defeended from the brain, which contained a
warm vapour, from whence the foul and all the fenfes
derived their original; while the flelh, the nerves, ten¬
dons, bones, hair, and all the body in general, were
made of the blood and other humours which meet itt
the matrix. According to him, the body of the in¬
fant was formed, and became folid in 40 days: but
eleven, nine, or more generally ten months, according:
to the rules of harmony, were requifite to make him
perfedlly complete, and that all that happened to him
during the whole courfe of his life was then regulated ^
and that he carried it along with him in a feries or
chain proportioned to the laws of the fame harmony,
every thing neceffarily falling out afterwards in its own
time. He afferted, that the veins, the arteries, and
the nerves, are the cords of the foul. According to*
him, the foul fpreads from the heart to the brain; and
that part of it which is in the heart is the fame from
whence the paffiot* proceed, whereas reafon and un-
derftandirig refide in the brain. This is what may be
called the Pythagorean phyjiology ; and if we pleafe we
may call the following his pathology. “ The air (fays
he) is all filled with fouls, or demons, and heroes,
that fend dreams, figns, and difeafes to men, and even
to beads ” As to bis pra&ice, we know of no other
remedy , he efteemed befides cabbage; all his other
cures confifted of charms or other fuperftitions. His
dodtrine concerning abfticence from fltfli are too well
known*.
4574 . M E D I
it known, and too abfurd to be infilled on here.
Heraclitus’s A fhort time after Pythagoras, the philofopher He-
flrange me-raclitus applied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic. The
thod of on]y patient of his we hear of was himfelf; and indeed,
curing him- we may ju{jge Gf his pradlice by the method he took
to cure himfelf, it feems to have been for the good of
mankind that he had no more. Being a man of a very
auftere and morofe temper, which occafioned the report
that he always wept, he retired into a folitary place to
avoid the converfation of mankind ; where, living on¬
ly upon water and herbs, he fell into a dropfy. This
obliged him to return to inhabited places, where he
fent for phyficians, not with a defign to follow their
advice, but to expofe their ignorance to the world,
and to make them witnefles of the cure he intended to
perform upon himfelf. Accordingly, he {hut himfelf
up in a liable, where he covered all his body with
dung, hoping by that means to confume the fuperflu-
ous moifture in his entrails: but in this he did not
fucceed ; for he died of the difeafe foon after.
State This may be a fufficient fpecimen of the ancient
the art as philofophic medicine, of which we (hall now take no
left by Hip-farther notice, but proceed to give an account of the
pocratss. ftate ;n w},jch the art was left by Hippocrates, whofe
name has been celebrated through fo many ages. Ac¬
cording to Soranus, Hippocrates was born in the ifland
of Cos, in the firft year of the 88th Olympiad ; but
others make him older, fo that the exaft time in which
Somebookshe lived cannot be afcertained. The works attributed
falfely at- to him are very voluminous, but evidently done by
tributed to different perfons, as many of them are contradi&ory
lyn' to each other, fo that it is difficult to determine thofe
which are really his writings, and thofe which are not.
Some indeed are fo fceptical on this head, as to deny
that we have proper evidence that any of thofe works
really belong to Hippocrates, except a fingle apho-
rifm. Be this, however, as it will, in moll of the
writings afcribed to Hippocrates, we find a general
Heacknow-principle acknowledged which is catted nature. To
ledges one this principle he afcribes a mighty power. “ Nature
general (fays he) is of itfelf fufficient to every animal. She
caUed Afa Perforrlls every thing that is neceffary to them, with-
ture. out needing the leall inftru&ion from any one how to
do it.” Upon this footing, as if nature had been a
principle endowed with knowledge, he gives her the
title of jitji ; and afcribes virtues or power* to her,
which are her fervants, and by means of which fhe
performs all her operations in the bodies of animals:
they diftribute the blood, fpirits, and heat, through
all parts of the body, which by this means receive life
and fenfation. And in other places he tells us, that it
is this faculty which gives nourifhment, prefervation,
t and growth, to all things.
. The manner in which nature a6ls, or commands her
fubfervient powers to aft, is by attra&ing what is
good and agreeable to each fpecies, and in retaining,
preparing, and changing it; and on the other fide in
rejecting whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful, after (he has
feparated it from the good. This is the foundation of
the doflrine of depuration, concoftion, and crifis in
fevers, fo much infilled upon by Hippocrates and mod
other phyficians. He fuppofes alfo, that every thing
has an inclination to be joined to what agrees with it,
and to remove from every thing contrary to it ; and
likewife that there is an affinity between the feveral
This prin¬
ciple adts
by attrac-
C I N E. Hiftory.
parts of the body, by which they mutually fympa-
thize with each other. When he comes to explain
what this principle called nature is, he is obliged to
refolve it into heat, which, he fays, appears to have
fomething immortal in it.
With regard to the anatomical doflrines of Hippo¬
crates, as they mull necefiarily have been very erro¬
neous, we {hall not fpend time in recounting them. j
The health or ficknefs of the body he reckoned to His doc- ’
confift in the date of the four humours. Thefe aretrilie°f th^
the blood, phlegm, the yellow bile, and the melan- ^“^rs j
choly or black bile. The blood, he fays, is naturally the body,
hot and moid, of colour red, and fweet to the tade : i
the phlegm is cold and moid, white, vifeid, and faltilh;
the bile yellow, dry, vifeid, bitter, and drawn from
the fat part of the blood or aliments ; the melancho¬
ly, black bile, he faid, was cold and dry, very vifeid,
windy, and fermentative.
On thefe four humours, as already mentioned, de. Health am
pend health and ficknefs. Men are well when the hu- faknefs,
mours are in their natural date, or while they ba- d°^dpr°" i
lance one another in quality, quantity, and mixture. ’ |
On the contrary, they are fick when the quantity of
any of thefe is lefs or greater than it ought to be, or
when it is difeharged from the red upon any particu¬
lar part of the body, and efpecially when they are not
mixed together as they ought to be. Of ficknefs,
however, he gives no definition except in one place,
where he calls it all that incommodes man. He thought
that the blood in good condition, nourifhed; that it
was the fountain of the vital heat; that it caufed a
frelh colour, and good health. The yellow bile, he
thought, preferved the body in its natural date, hin¬
dering the fmall veflels from being dopped, and keep¬
ing open the drain of the excrements: it alfo actua¬
ted the fenfes, and helped to the concoftion of the
aliment. The black bile was a fort of ground which
ferved as a fupport and foundation for other humours.
The phlegm ferved to lubricate and facilitate the mo¬
tion of the nerves, membranes, cartilages, joints, and
other parts.
Befides thefe four qualities of moidure, drynefs,
heat, and cold, which Hippocrates attributed to the
humours, he believed that they had, or .might have,
abundance of others which all had their ufe, and were
never hurtful but when one prevailed over the red or
was feparated from them. In other pafiages, however,
he affigns different caufes for difeafes- In one of his
books, entitled, “ Of winds, or fpirits,” he fays, that
the air and fpirits are the true caufes of health and dif-
eafes, even in preference to the humours, which are
only collateral caufes as the fpirits mix with them.
Hence, health and ficknefs in general are made to de¬
pend on the following caufes, viz. On the air which
furrounds us; on what we eat and drink ; on fleep,
watching, exercife ; on what goes out of our bodies,
and what is kept in ; and upon the paffions.
The four humours he compares with the four ag£SDifferentt
of man, with the four feafons, and with the climates, difeafei j
Infancy, the fpring, and temperate countries, ought, produ-ed
according to him, to produce blood, and confequently ’J1
more fanguine diftempers than bilious, pituitous, or me- \:
lancholic ones. Youth, fnmmer, and hot and dry coun¬
tries, produce bile, and all the maladies which fpring
from it. Middle age, autumn, and places of a heavy un¬
equal ;
Hiftory. MED
equal air, caufe melancholy and melancholic diftempers.
Old age, winter, and cold moift countries, produce
phlegm and phlegmatic diftempers. He carefully ex¬
amines what forts of food produce blood, bile, See. He
treats alfo of the effeds of deep, watchings, exercife,
and reft, and all the benefit or mifehief we may re¬
ceive from them. Of all the caufes of difeafes, how¬
ever, mentioned by Hippocrates, the moft general are
irec. diet and air. On the fubjeft of diet he has compofed
whh feveral boobs, and in the choice of this he was ex-
sgard to a£tly careful 5 and the more fo, as his pra&ice turned
almoft wholly upon it. He alfo confidered the air
very much ; he examined what winds blew ordinarily
or extraordinarily ; he confidered. the irregularity of
the feafons, the riling and fetting of ftars, or the
time of certain conftellations; alfo the time of the
folftiqes, and of the equinoxes; thofe days, in his
opinion, producing great alterations in certain di¬
ftempers.
Hence it may be inferred that Hippocrates looked
upon the knowledge of aftronomy to be neceffary to
a pbyfician, and believed that the ftars had fome in¬
fluence over our bodies. Some of his ancient commen¬
tators alfo believed that he thought difeafes were oc-
cafioned by the wrath of the gods. But thefe com¬
mentators are contradi&ed by Galen, who affures us,
that when Hippocrates fpoke of fomething divine in
difeafes, he meant no more than that the caufe of
them depended on fome latent conllitution of the at-
mofphere.
Hippocrates lays down three principles of which
oieaor t^ie ^uman ‘s compofed; viz. the folid, the
three prin- an<^ the fpirits, which he fometimes explains
■pies. by “ that which contains,” “ that which is contain¬
ed,” and “ that which gives the motion.” By that
which contains is meant the folid parts, as bones,
nerves, tendons, ligaments, &c. By that which is
contained, he means the four humours already men¬
tioned ; and by that which gives the motion, he means
the fpirits.—The humours and fpirits being, as we
have already feen, the caufes of health and ficknefs,
the folid or containing parts muft be the fubjeft of
them; becaufe they are found or unfound according to
the good or ill difpofition which the humours and
fpirits produce in them, and as the impreflions made
upon them by foreign bodies is beneficial or mif-
chievpus.
He does not, however, pretend to explain how,
from thefe caufes, that variety of diftempers arifes
which is daily to be obferved. All that can be ga¬
thered from him with regard to this is, that the diffe¬
rent caufes above-mentioned, when applied to the
different parts of the body, produce a great va-
<His method nety diftempers. Some of thefe diftempers he
Bfclalfing accounted mortal, other dangerous, and the reft eafily
adi(tempers, durable, according to the caufe from whence they
fpring, and the parts on which they fall. In feveral
places alfo he diftinguifhes difpafes, from the time of
their duration, into acute or Jhort, and chronical or
long: this likewife is referred to the different caufes
before mentioned ; acute difeafes being caught by the
bile and the blood, in the flower of man’s age, or in
fpring-time, and fummer. The chronical ones, on the
contrary, are produced by the phlegm, or melaru boiy,
in old age, and in winter. He likewife diftinguilhes
Voi. VI. 2
I poled of
I C I N E. 457.?
difeafes by the particular places where they prevail,
whether ordinary or extraordinary. The firft, that
is, thofe that are frequent and familiar to certain
places, he called endemic difeafes ; and the latter
which ravaged extraordinarily fometimes in one place,
fometimes in another, which feized great numbers at
certain times, be called epidemic, that is, popular
difeafes ; and of this kind the moft terrible is the
plague. He likewife mentions a third kind, the
oppofite of the former ; and thefe he calls fporadic,
or draggling difeafes : thefe laft include all the diffe¬
rent forts of tiiftempers which invade at any one feafon,
which are fometimes of one fort, and fometimes of
another. He diltinguiflied between thole difeafes
which are hereditary, or born with us, and thofe
which are contracted afterwards; and likewife be¬
tween thofe of a kindly and fuch as are of a malignant
nature, the former of which are eafily and frequently
cured, but the latter give the phyficians a great
deal of trouble, and are feldom overcome by all
their care.
Hippocrates remarked four ftages in diftempers; Remarks
viz. the beginning of the difeafe, its augmentation, four.^aScs
its ftate or height, and its declination. In fuch em*
difeafes as terminate fatally, death comes in place ofP
the declination. In the third ftage, therefore, the
change is moft confiderable, as it determines the fate
of the fick perfon; and this is moft commonly done J?
by means of a crijis. By this word he underftood any A cri(isr .
fuduen change in ficknefs, whether for the better or'vh*t-
for the worfe, whether health or death fucceed im¬
mediately. Such a change, he fays, is made at that
time by nature, either abfolving or condemning the
the patient. Hence we may conclude, that Hippo¬
crates imagined difeafes to be only a difturbance of the
animal oeconomy, with which Nature was perpetually
at variance, and ufing her utmoft endeavours to expel
the enemy. Her manner, of afting on thefe occafion*
is to reduce to their natural ftate thofe humours
whofe difeord occafions the difturbance of the whole
body, whether in relation to their quantity, quality,
mixture, motion, or any other way in which they
become offenfive. The principal means employed by
nature for this end is what Hippocrates calls concottion.
By this we can only underitand the bringing the
morbific matter lodged in the humours to ftich a ftatc,
as to be eafily fitted for expulfion by whatever means
nature thinks moft proper. When matters are brought
to this pafs, whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful im¬
mediately empties itfelf, or nature points out to phy-
ficians the way by which fuch an evacuation is to
be accompliihed. The crifis takes place either by-
bleeding, (tool, vomit, fweat, urine, tumours or abf-
ceffes, fcabs, pimples, fpots, &c. But we muft take
notice that thefe evacuations are not to be looked
upon as the effe&s of a true crifis, unlefs they are
in confiderable quantity ; fmall difeharges not being
fufficicnt to make a crifis. On the contrary, fmall
difeharges are a fign that nature is depreffed by the
load of humours, and that fhe lets them go through
weaknefs and continual irritation. What comes forth
in this manner is crude, becaufe the diftemper is yet
too Itrong ; and while matters remain in this ftate,
nothing but a bad or imperfeft crifis is to beexpefled.
This fhews that the diftemper triumphs, or at lea ft
25 Y is
4576 MED]
j« equal in ftrength to nature, which prognofticates
death, or a prolongation of the difeafe. In this
la(t cafe, however, nature often has an opportunity
of attempting a new crifis more happy than the for¬
mer, after having made frefh efforts to advance the
•concoftion of the humours. —It muft here be obferved,
however, that, according to Hippocrates, concodtion
cannot be made but in a certain time, as every fruit
has a limited time to ripen ; for he compares the
humours which nature has digefted to fruits come to
l4 maturity.
Different The time required for concoftion depends on the
times re- differences among diftempers mentioned above. In
quired for thofe which Hippocrates calls very acute, the dige-
thehu- ^‘on or cr^is happens every fourth day; in thofe
xnours. which are only acute, it happens on the feventh,
eleventh, or fourteenth day; which lait is the longed
period generally allowed by Hippocrates in diftempers
that are truly acute: though in fome places he
ftretches it to the twentieth or one-and-twentieth,
nay, fometimes to the fortieth or fixtieth days. All
difeafes that exceed this laft term are called chronical.
And whereas in thofe difeafes that exceed fourteen
days, every fourth day is critical, or at leaft remark¬
able, by which we may judge whether the crifis on the
following fourth day will be favourable or not; fo in
thofe which come from twenty to forty he reckons
only the fevenths, and in thofe that exceed forty he
begins to reckon by twenties; as appears by the fol¬
lowing progreflion, which contains the days particu¬
larly marked by Hippocrates. He begins with the
fourth ; and then he proceeds to the eleventh, the
fourteenth, feventeenth, twentieth, feven-and-twentieth,
thirty-fourth, the fortieth, the fixtieth, the eightieth,
the hundredth, and the hundred-and-twentieth. Be¬
yond this laft term the number of days has no power
over the crifis. They are then referred to the general
changes of the feafons ; fome terminating about the
equinoxes; others about the fold ices ; others about
the rifing or fetting of the ftars of certain couftella-
tions; or if numbers have yet any place, he reckons
by months, or even whole years. Thus, he fays,
certain difeafes in children have their crifis in the
feventh month after their birth, and others in their
feventh, or even their fourteenth year.
Though Hippocrates mentions the one-and-twen¬
tieth as one of the critical days in acute diftempers,
as already mentioned ; yet, in other places of his
works, he mentions alfo the twentieth. The reafon
he gives for this in one of thofe places of his works
is, that the days of ficknefs were not entire. In ge¬
neral, however, he is prodigioufly attached to the odd
days: infomuch that in one of his aphorifms he tells
us, “ The fweats that come out upon the third, fifth,
feventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, feventeentb,
twenty-firft, twenty-feventh, thirty-firft, or thirty-
fourth days, are beneficial; but thofe that come out
upon other days fignify that the fick {hall be brought
low, that his difeafe {hall be very tedious, and that he
{hall be fubjeft to relapfes.” He further fays, “That
the fever which leaves the fick upon any but an odd
day is ufually apt to relapfe.” Sometimes, however,
he confeffes that it is otherwife ; and he gives an in-
ftance of a falutary crifis happening on the fixth
day. But thefe are very rare inftances, and there-
: C I N E. Hiftory.
fore cannot overthrow the general rule.
Befides jhe crifis, however, or the change which
determines the fate of the patient, Hippocrates often
fpeaks of another which only changes the fpecies of
the diftemper, without reftoring the patient to health;
as when a pleurify turns to an inflammation of the
lungs, a vertigo to an epilepfy, a tertian fever to a
quartan, or to a continual, &c. 1S
But what hath chiefly contributed to procure theHis re-
vaft refpedt generally paid to Hippocrates, is his in-markabl«
duftry in obferving the moft minute circumftances
difeafes, and his exaftnefs in nicely deferibing every
thing that happened before, and every accident that
appeared at the fame time with them ; as alfo what
appeared to give eafe, and what to increafe the ma¬
lady, which is what we call writing the hiftory of a
difeafe.—Thus he not only diftinguilhed one difeafe
from another by the figns which properly belonged to
each; but by comparing the fame fort of diftemper
which happened to feveral perfons, and the accidents
which ufually appeared before and after, be could
eafily foretel a difeafe before it came, and afterwards
give a right judgment of the event of it. In one
place, he infinuates, that he is the greateft phyfician
who can put this in pradlice, or who can tell the patient
what {hall happen to him in the courfe of the diftem¬
per ; which is what we call giving the prognoftics of a
difeafe. By this way of prognofticating, he came to
be exceedingly admired : and this he carried to fuch a
height, that it may juftly be faid to be his mafter-
piece; and Celfus, who lived after him, remarks, that
fucceeding phyficians, though they found out feveral
new things relating to the management of difeafes,
yet were obliged to the writings of Hippocrates for all
that they knew of figns.M
The firft thing Hippocrates confidered when called His methoil
to a patient, was his looks.—It was a good fign with 0<] Pr.0£no"
him to have a vifage refembling that of a perfon in from'the
health, and the fame with what the fiek man had be- patient’s
fore he was attacked by the difeafe. As it varied looks,
from this, fo much the greater danger was appre¬
hended. The following is the defeription which he
gives of the looks of a dying man.—“ When a pa¬
tient (fays he) has his nofe {harp, his eyes funk, his
temples hollow, his ears cold and contrafled, the {kin
of his forehead tenfe and dry, and the colour of his
face tending to a pale-green, or lead colour, one may
give out for certain that death is very near at hand;
unlefs the ftrength of the patient has been exhaufted
all at once by long watchings, or by a loofenefs, or
being a long time without eating.” This obfervation
has been confirmed by thofe of fucceeding phyficians,.
who have, from him, denominated it the Hippocratic
face. The lips hanging relaxed and cold, are like-
wife looked upon by this author as a confirmation of
the foregoing prognoftic. He took alfo his figns
from the difpofition of the eyes in particular. When
a patient cannot bear the light; when he Iheds tears
involuntarily ; when, in fleeping, fome part of the
white of the eye is feen ; unlefs he ufually fleeps after
that manner, or has a loofenefs upon him: thefe figns,
as well as the foregoing ones, prognofticate ill. The
eyes deadened (as it were with a mift fpread over
them, or their brightnefs loft,) likewife prtfage death,
or is a fign of great weaknels. The eyes fpark!ing?
fierce, |
From his
) pofhire in
b bed.
r| Hiftory. MED!
fierce, and fixed, denote the patient to be delirious,
or that he is, or foon will be, feized with a frenzy.
When the patient fees any thing red, and like fparks
of fire and lightning pafs before his eyes, you may
expert an hemorrhage; and this often happens before
thofe cp'fes which are to be attended by a lofs of
blood.
The condition of the patient is alfo (hewn by his
pofture in bed. If you find him lying on one fide,
bis body, neck, legs, and arms, a little contracted,
which is the pofture of a man in health, it is a good
fign: on the contrary, if he lies on his back, his arms
ftretched out, and his legs hanging down, it is a fign
of great weaknefs; and particularly when the patient
Aides or lets himfelf fall down towards the feet, it de¬
notes the approach of death. When a patient in a
burning fever is continually feeling about with his
hands and fingers, and moves them up before his face
and eyes as if he was going to take away fomething
that paffed before them; or on his bed-covering, as if
he was picking or fearching for little ftraws, or taking
away fome filth, or drawing out little flocks of wool;
all this is a fign that he is delirious, and that he will
die. Amongft the other figns of a prefent or ap¬
proaching delirium, he alfo adds this: When a patient
that naturally fpeaks little begins to talk more than
he ufed to do, or when one that talks much becomes
filent, this change is to be reckoned a fort of delirium,
or is a fign that the patient will foon fall into one.
The frequent trembling or leaping up of the tendons
of the wrift, prefage likewife a delirium. As to the
different forts of delirium, Hippocrates is much more
afraid of thofe that run upon doleful fubje&s, than
„8 fuch as are accompanied with mirth.
From his When a patient breathes faft, and is oppreffed, it is
manner of a fign that he is in pain, and that the parts above the
breathing, diaphragm are inflamed. Breathing long, or when
the patient is a great w’hile in taking his breath,
fiiews him to be delirious ; but eafy and natural re-
fpiration is always a good fign in acute difeafes. Hip¬
pocrates depended much on refpiration in making his
prognoftics; and therefore has taken care in feveral
places to defcribe the different manner of a patient’s
breathing. Continual watchings in acute difeafes,
are figns of prefent pain, or a delirium near at
ap band.
From the Hippocrates alfo drew figns from all excrements,
txcre- whatever they are, that are feparated from the body
n'cn.t5’, pf man. His tnoft remarkable ones, however, were
y from the urine. The patient’s urine, in his opinion,
is beft when the fediment is white, foft to the touch,
and of an equal confiftence. If it continues fo during
the courfe of the diftemper, and till the time of the
crifis, the patient is in no danger,, and will foon be
well. This is what Hippocrates called coticofiedurine,
. or what denotes the conco&ion of the hnmours ; and
he obferved, that this concoftion of the urine feldom
appeared thoroughly, but on the days of the crifis
which happily put an end to the diftemper. “ We
ought (faid Hippocrates) to compare the urine with
the purulent matter which runs from ulcers. As the
pus, which is white, and of the fame quality with the
fediment of the urine we are now fpeaking of, is a
fign that the ulcer is on the point of doling ; where¬
as that which is clear, and of another colour befides
CINE. 4577
white, and of an ill fmeli, is a fign that the ulcer is
virulent, and by confequence difficult to be cured : fo
the urines that are like this we have defcribed are
only thofe which may be named good ; all the reft are
ill, and differ from one another only in the degrees of
more and lefs. The firft never appear but when na¬
ture has overcome the difeafe ; and are a fign of the
conco&ion of humours, without which you cannot hope
for a certain cure. On the contrary, the laft are made
as long as the crudity remajns, add the humours con¬
tinue unconco&ed. Amongft the urines of this laft
fort the beft are reddifti, with a fediment that is fbft,
and of an equal confiftence ; which denotes, that the
difeafe will be fomewhat tedious, but without danger.
The vvorft are thofe which are very red, and at the
fame time clear and without fediment; or that are
muddy and troubled in the making. In urine there is
often a fort of cloud hanging in the veffel in which it
is received ; the higher this rifes, or the farther diftant
it is from the bottom, or the more different from the
colour of the laudable fediment abovementioned, the
more there is of crudity. That which is yellow, or of
a fandy colour, denotes abundance of bile ; that which
is black is the worft, efpecially if it has an ill fmell,
and is either altogether muddy or altogether clear.
That whofe fedimept is like large ground wheat, or
little flakes or feales fpread one upon another, or bran,
prefages ill, efpecially the laft. The fat or oil that
fometimes fwims upon the top of the urine, and ap¬
pears in a form fomething like a fpider’s web, is a fign
of a confumption of the flefti and folid parts. The ma¬
king of a great quantity of urine is the fign of a cri¬
fis, and fometimes the quality of it (hews how the blad¬
der is affe&ed. We muft alfo obferve, that Hippo¬
crates compared the ftate of the tongue with the urine;
that is to fay, when the tongue was yellow, and char¬
ged with choler, the urine he knew muft of courfe be
of the fame colour; and accordingly, when the tongue
was red and moift, the urine was of its natural co¬
lour. JO
His prognoftics from the excretions by ftool are as From the
follow. Thofe that are foft, yellowifti, of fome con-excrements
fiftence, and not of an extraordinary ill fmell, that an-by
fwer to the quantity of what is taken inwardly, and
that are voided at the ufual hours, are the beft; of all.
They ought alfo to be of a thicker confiftence when
the diftemper is near the crifis; and it ought to be ta¬
ken for a good prognoftic, when fome worms, round
and long, are evacuated at the fame time with them.
The prognofis, however, may ftill be favourable, though
the matter excreted be thin and liquid, provided it
make not too much noife in coming out, and the eva¬
cuation be not in a fmall quantity nor tpo often; nor
in fo great abundance, nor fo often, as to make the pa¬
tient faint. All matter that is watery, white, of a pale
green, or red, or frothy and vifeous, is bad. That
which is black like greafe, or livid like the colour of
verdegrife, is the moft pernicious. That which is pure
black, and nothing elfe but a difeharge of cbokr adufl,
or black bile, always prognicates very ill; this humour,
from what part foever it comes, never appearing, but
it ftiews at the fame time the ill difpoiition of the in-
teftines. The matter that is of feveral different co¬
lours, denotes the length of the diftemper; and, at the
fame time, that it may be of dangerous confequenpe.
25 Y 2 Hip-
4578
M E D I
Hippocrates places in the fame clafs the matter that is
bilious or yellow, and mixed with blood, or green
and black, or like the dregs or fcrapings of the guts.
The ftools that confift of pure bile, or entirely of
31 phlegm,t he alfo looked upon to be very bad.
From the Matter call up by vomiting ought to be mixed with
n alter choler and phlegm ; where one of thefe humours only
by vomit.P '3 obfcrved, it is worfe. That which is black, livid,
green, or of the colour of a leek, is of difmal confe-
quence. The fame is to be faid of that which fmells
very ill; and if at the fame time it is livid, death is
not far off. The vomiting of blood is very often mor-
33 *a^'
From dif- The fpittings that give eafe in difeafes of the lungs
ferent kindsar (] jn pleurifies, are thofe that come up readily and
offpitungs.without difficulty; and it is good if they are mix¬
ed at the beginning with much yellow : but if
they appear of the fame colour, or are red, a great
while after the beginning of the diftemper, are fait
and acrimonious, and caufe violent coughings, they
are not good. Spittings purely yellow are bad ; and
thofe that are white, vifcous, and frothy, give no eafe.
Whitenefs is a tolerable good fign of concodtion in re¬
gard to fpittings; but they ought not at all, to be
vifcous, nor too thick, nor too clear. We may make
the fame judgment of the excrements of the nofe ac¬
cording to their concodtion and crudity. Spittings
that are black, green, and red, are of very bad confe-
quence. In inflammations of the lungs, thofe that are
mixed with choler and blood prefage well if they ap¬
pear at the beginning, but are bad if they arife not
about the feventh day. But the worft fign in thefe
diftempers is, when there is no expedloration at all,
and the too great quantity of matter that is ready to
be difcharged this way makes a rattling in the bread.
After fpitting of blood next follows the difcharge of
purulent matter, which brings on a confumption, and
at laft death.
From the A kind good fweat is that which arifes on the day
iweat. 0p cr;f,s> ancj ;s difcharged in abundance all over
the body, and at the fame time from all parts of the
body, and thus carries off the fever : A cold fweat is
bad, efpecially in acute fevers, for in others it is only
a fign of long continuance. When the patient fweats
no where but in the head and neck, it is a fign that
the difeafe will be long and dangerous. A gentle
fweat in fome particular part, of the head and Sreaft,
for inftance, gives no relief, but denotes the feat of the
diftemper, or the weaknefs of the part. This kind of
fweat was called by Hippocrates epbidrojis.
From the The hypochondria, or the abdomen in general,
Hite of tbeol1prfjt always to be foft and even as well on the right
dria°ChCm" as on fi’fi* When there is any hardnefs orun-
evennefs in thofe parts, or heat and fwellings, or when
the patient cannot endure to have it touched, it is a fign
35 the inteftines are indifpofed.
He under Hippocrates alfo inquired into the ftate of the pulfe,
Hood fome-or the beating of the arteries. According to Galen,
thing of the^g was tjle phyfician that made ufe of the word
pU1 e* pulje in the fenfe in which it is now commonly taken ;
that is to fay, for the natural and ordinary beating of
the arteries. For the moft ancient phyficians, and
even Hippocrates himfelf, for a long time, by this
word underftood the violent pulfation that is felt in an
inflamed part, without putting the fingers to it. It is
CINE. Hiftory.
obferved, however, by Galen, and other phyficians,
that Hippocrates touches on the fubjeft of the pulfe
more flightly than any other on which he treats. But
that our celebrated phyfician underftood fomething
even on this fubjedf, is eafily gathered from feveral
paffages in his writings; as when he obfervcs, that in
acute fevers the pulfe is very quick and very great;
and when he makes mention, in the fame place, of
trembling pulfes, and thofe that beat flowly ; when he
obferves, that in fome difeafes incident to women,
when the pulfe ftrikes the finger faintly, and in a lan-
guilhing manner, it is a fign of approaching death.
He remarks alfo, in the Ccacis Pr amt tones, that he
whofe vein, that is to fay, whofe artery of the elbow
beats, is juft going to run mad, or elfe that the per-
fon is at that time in a very great paffion of anger. 36
From this account of Hippocrates, it will appear, Was hut
that he was not near fo much taken up with rea^on,ngat'^it|1aJ1eeaj
on the phaenomena of difeafes, as of reporting them. ^^ng. ^
He was content to obferve thefe phaenomena exa&ly,
to diftinguifh difeafes by them, and judged of the event
by comparing them exadtly together. For his fkill in
prognoftics he was indeed very remarkable, as we
have already mentioned, infomuch that he and his pu¬
pils were looked upon by the vulgar as prophets.
What adds very much to his reputation is, that he li¬
ved in an age when phyfic was altogether buried in fu-
perftition, and yet he did not fuffer himfelf to be carried
away by it; on the contrary, on many occafions, he ex-
preffes his abhorrence of it.
Having thus feen in what Hippocrates makes the
difference between health and ficknefs to confift, and
likewife the moft remarkable figns from whence he
drew his prognoftics, we muft now confider the means
he prefcribed for the prefervation of health, and the ^
cure of difeafes. One of his principal maxims wasj-jisme- 1
this, That, to preferve health, we ought not to over- thods for
charge ourfelves with too much eating, nor negleft tlie.Prefier*,
the ufe of exercife and labour. In the next place, That heakh.°f
we ought by no means to accuftom ourfelves to too
nice and exaft a method of living ; becaufe thofe that
have once begun to act by this rule, if they vary in the
leaft from it, find themfelves very ill; which does not
happen to thofe who take a little more liberty, and
live fomewhat more irregularly. Notwithftanding this,
he does not negledl to inquire diligently into what
thofe who were in health ufed for food in his time.
Here we cannot help taking notice of the prodigious p]c{h 0f
difparity between the delicacy of the people in our dogs, foxesj
days, and in thofe of Hippocrates: for he takes great ^c-
pains to tell the difference between the flcfli of a d°g,
a fox, a horfe, and an afs|; which he would not have foocj>
done if at that time they had not been ufed for vic¬
tuals, at leaft by the common people. Befides thefe,.
however, Hippocrates fpeaks of all other kinds ofpro-
vifions that are now in ufe ; for example, falads,
milk, whey, cheefe, flefh as well of birds as of four-
footed beafts, frefh and fait fifh, eggs, all kinds of
pulfe, and the different kinds of grain we feed on, as
well as the different forts of bread that are made of it.
He alfo fpeaks very often of a fort of liquid food, or
broth, made of barley-meal, or fome other grain,
which they fteeped for fome time, and then boiled in
water. With regard to drink, he takes a great deal
of pains to diftinguifti the good waters from the bad.
The
Hiftory. MED
The beft, in his opinion, ought to be clear, light,
without fmell or tafte, and taken out of the fountains
that turn towards the eaft. The falt-waters, thofe
that he calls hard, and thofe that rife out of fenny
ground, are the word of all ; as alfo thofe that come
from melted fnow. But though Hippocrates makes
all thefe diftinftions, he advifes thofe who are in health
to drink of the firft water that comes in their way.
He fpeaks alfo of alum waters, and thofe that are hot;
but does not enlarge upon their qualities. He advifes
to mix wine with an equal quantity of water: and
this, he fays, is the juft proportion ; by ufing which
the wine will expel what is hurtful to the body, and
the water will ferve to temper the acrimony of the hu¬
mours.
For thofe that are in health, and likewife for fuch
as are fick, Hippocrates advifes exercife. The books,
however, which treat on this fubjedf, M. Le Clerc
conje&ures to have been written by Herodicus, who
firft introduced gymnaftic exercife into medicine, and
who is faid by Hippocrates himfelf to have killed feve-
ral people by forcing them to walk while they were af-
flidted with fevers and other inflammatory diforders.
The advices given in them confift moftly in dire&ions
for the times in which we ought to walk, and the con¬
dition we ought to be in before it; when we ought to
walk flowly, and when to run, &c. ; and all this with
refped to different ages and temperaments, and with
deflgn to bring the body down, or diftipate the hu¬
mours. Wreftling, although a violent exercife, is
numbered with the reft. In the fame place alfo, men¬
tion is made of a play of the hands and fingers, which
was thought good for health, and called chironornie.;
and of another diverfion which was performed round a
fort of ball hung up, which they called csrycus,
and which they ftruck forward with both their hands.
With regard to thofe things which ought to be fepara-
ted from, or retained in the human body, Hippocrates
obferves, that people ought to take great care not to load
themfelves with excrements, or keep them in too long;
and befides the exercife abovementioned, which carries
off one part of them, and which he prefcribed chiefly
on this account, he advifes people to excite and roufe
up nature when ftie flagged, and did not endeavour to
expel the reft, or take care of the impediments by
which ftie was refilled. For this reafon he prefcribed
meats proper for loofeningthe belly ; and when thefe
were not fufficient, he dire&ed the ufeof clyfters and
fuppofitories. For thin and emaciated perfons he di¬
rected clyfters compofed only of milk and oily unctu¬
ous fubftances, which they mixed with a decodtion of
ehick-peafe ; but for fuch as were plethoric, they only
made ufe of fait, or fea-water.
As a prefervative againft diftempers, Hippocrates
alfo advifed the ufe of vomits, which he directed to be
taken once or twice a month during the time of winter
and fpring. The moft Ample of thefe were made of a
. decodtion of hyffop, with an addition of a little vine¬
gar and fait. He made thofe that were of a ftrong and
vigorous conftitution take this liquor in a morning faff¬
ing ; but fuch as were thin and weakly took it after
fupper.—Venery, in his opinion, is wholefome, pro¬
vided people confult their ftrength, and do not pur-
fue it to excefs ; which he finds fault with on all occa-
fions, and would have it avoided alfo in relation to
I c I N E. 4579
fleep and watching. In his writings are likewife to
be found feveral remarks concerning good and bad air;
and he makes it appear that the good or bad difpofi-
tion of this element does not depend folely on the dif¬
ference of the climate, but on the fituation of every
place in particular. He fpeaks alfo of the good
and bad effedls of the pafiions, and would have us
ufe a great deal of moderation in regard to them.
From what we have already related concerning the
opinions of Hippocrates, it may naturally be con¬
cluded, that for the moft part he would be contented
with obferving what the ftrength of nature is able to
accomplifh without being aflifted by the phyfician. 3j)
That this was really the cafe, may be eafily perceived He general-
from a perufal of his books entitled, “ Of epidemical ly content-
diftempers which are, as it were, journals of t^ie^th'^bfer
pradice of Hippocrates: for there we find him often ving tjie 0.
doing nothing more than defcribing the fymptoms of a perationsof
diftemper, and informing us what has happened to the nature,
patient day after day, even to his death or recovery,
without fpeaking a word of any kind of remedy.
Sometimes, however, he did indeed make ufe of re¬
medies ; but thefe were exceedingly Ample and few,
in comparifon of what have been given by fucceeding
praditioners. Thefe remedies we ftiall prefently con-
fider, after we have given an abridgement of the prin¬
cipal maxims on which his pradice is founded. 4o
Hippocrates afferted in the firft place, That contra-General
ries, or oppofites, are the remedies for each other;
and this maxim he explains by an aphorifm, where he ,j1(fe^raC
fays, that evacuations cure thofe diftempers which
come from repletion, and repletion thofe that are cau-
fed by evacuation. So heat is deftroyed by cold, and
cold by heat, &c. In the fecond place, he afferted
that phyfic is an addition of what is wanting, and a
fubtradion or retrenchment of what is fuperfluous: an
axiom which is explained by this, viz. that there are
fome juices or humours, which in particular cafes
ought to be evacuated, or driven out of the body, or
dried up ; and fome others which ought to be reftored
to the body, or caufed to be produced there again. As
to the method to be taken for this addition or retrench¬
ment, he gives this general caution, That you ought
to be careful how you fill up, or evacuate, all at once,
or too quickly, or too much; and that it is equally dan¬
gerous to heat or cool again on a fudden ; or rather,
you ought not to do it ; every thing that runs to an
excefs being an enemy to nature. In the fourth place,'
Hippocrates allowed that we ought fometimes to di¬
late, and fometimes to lock up : to dilate, or open the
paffages by which the humours are voided naturally,
when they are not fufficiently opened, or when they
are clofed; and, on the contrary, to lock, up or ftraiten
the paffages that are relaxed, when the juices thatpafs
there ought not to pafs, or when they pafs in too
great quantity. He adds, that we ought fometimes
to fmooth, and fometimes to make rough; fometimes
to harden, and fometimes to foften again; fpmetimes
to make more fine or fupple ; fometimes to thicken;
fometimes to roufe up, and at other times to ftupify
or take away the fenfe ; all in relation to the folid
parts of the body, or to the humours. He gives alfo
this fifth leffon, That we ought to have regard to the
courfe the humours take, from whence they come, and
whither they go; and ia confequence of that, when
4580 M E D I
they go where they ought not, that we make them
take a turn about, or carry them another way, almolt
like the turning the courfe of a river : or, upon other
occalions, that w.e endeavour if pofiible to recal, or
make the fame humours return back again ; drawing
upward fuch as have a tendency downward, and draw¬
ing downward fuch as tend upward. We ought alfo
to carry off, by convenient ways, that which is necef-
fary to be carried off; and not let the humours once
evacuated, enter into the veffels again. Hippocrates
gives alfo the following inftrudlion. That when we do
any thing according to reafon, though the fuccefs be
not anfwerable, we ought not too eafily, or too haltily,
to alter the manner ofadting, as long as the reafons for
it are yet good. But as this maxim might fometimes
prove deceitful, he gives the following as a corredtor
to it: “ We ought (fays he) to mind with a great
deal of attention what gives eafe, and what creates
pain ; what is eafily fupported, and what cannot be
endured.” We ought not to do any thing rafhly; but
ought to paufe, or wait, without doing any thing : by
this way, if you do the patient no good, you will at
leaft do him no hurt. In extreme illnefs we ought to
ufe medicines of the fame nature: That which medi¬
cines cure not, the fword does; what the fword does
not, the fire does ; but what the fire cannot cure
ought to be looked upon as incurable: And laltly,we
ought not to undertake the cure of defperate difeafes
which are beyond the power of phyfic.
Thefe are the principal and moff general maxims
of the pradlice of Hippocrates, and which proceed up¬
on the fuppofition laid down at the beginning, viz.
that nature cures difeafes. We next proceed to con-
fider particularly the remedies employed by him, which
will ferve to give us further inftru&ions concerning his
4t praftice.
Diet his Diet was the firft, the principal, and oftentimes the
principal only remedy made ufe of by this great phyfician to an-
rcmcdy. fwer the greateft part of the intentions above-men¬
tioned : by means of it he oppofed moiit to dry, hot
to cold, &c.; and what he looked upon to be the moft
confiderable point was, that thus he fupported na¬
ture, and aflilted her to overcome the malady. The
dietetic part of medicine Was fo much the invention of
Hippocrates himfelf, that he was very defirous to be
accounted the author of it; and the better to make it
appear that it was a new remedy in his days, he fays
exprefsly, that the ancients had wrote almofl nothing
concerning the diet of the fick, having omitted this
point,' though it was one of the moft effential parts of
the art. That he Ipoke-the truth in this refpe& is
plain from what we have already obferved concerning
the treatment of the wounded heroes by the pupils of
.flifculapius.
The diet prefcribed by Hippocrates for patients la¬
bouring under acute diftempers, differed from that
4i which he ordered for thofe affli&ed with chronical
Diets for ones. In the former, which require a more particular
patients m exa&nefs in relation to diet, he preferred liquid food
fteinpers <0 that which was folid, efpecially in fevers. For thefe
he ufed a fort of broths made of cleanfed barley ; and
to thefe he gave the name of ptifan, which was com¬
mon as well to thefe broths as to the flower of the
grain of which they were made. The manner in which
the ancients prepared a ptifaa was as follows. They
CINE. Hiftory.
firft fteeped the barley in water till it was plumped up;
and afterwards they dried it in the fun, and beat it to
take off the hulk. They next ground it ; and having
let the flower boil a long time in the water, they put
it out into the fun, and when it was dry they preffed
it clofe. It is properly this flower fo prepared that is
called ptifan. They did almoft the fame thing with
wheat, rice, lentils, and other grain : but they gave
thefe ptifans the name of the grain from whence they
were extracted, as ptifan of lentils> rice, &c.; where¬
as the ptifan of barley was called limply ptifan, on ac¬
count of the excellency of it. When they had a mind
to ufe it, they boiled one part of it in 1 o or 15 of wa¬
ter ; and when it began to grow plump in boiling,
they added a drop of vinegar, and a very final] quan¬
tity of anife or leek, to keep it from clogging, or fill¬
ing the ftomach with wind. Hippocrates prefcribes
this broth for women that have pains in their belly after
being brought to bed. “ Boil fome of this ptifan,
(fays he), with fome leek, and the fat of a goat, and
give it to the woman in beck” This will not be
thought very odd, if we refle& on what has been
hinted above, concerning the indelicate manner of li¬
ving in thofe times. He preferred the ptifan to all
other food in fevers, becaufe it foftened and moiftcned
much, and was belides of eafy digeftion. If he was
concerned in a continual fever, he would have the pa¬
tient begin with a ptifan of a pretty thick confidence,
and go on by little and little, leffening the quantity
of barley-flower as the height of the diftemptr ap¬
proached ; fo that he did not feed the patient but with
what he called the juice of the ptifan; that is, the
ptifan drained, where there was but very little of the
flower remaining, in order that nature being difchar-
ged in part from the care of digefting the aliments,
Ihe might the more eafily hold out to the end, and
overcome the diftemper, or the caufe of it. With re¬
gard to the quantity, he caufed the ptifan to betaken
twice a day by fuch patients as in health ufed to take
two meals a-day, not thinking it convenient that
thofe who were fick fhould eat oftener than/vhen they
were well. He alfo would not allow eating twice a-day
to thofe who eat but once in that time when in health.
In the paroxyfm of a fever he gave nothing at all;
and in all diftempers where there are exacerbations, he
forbid nourifhment while the exacerbations continued.
He let children eat more; but thofe who were grown
up to man’s eftate, or were of an advanced age, lefs ;
making allowance, however, for the cuftom of each
particular perfon, or for that of the country. 4;
But though he was of opinion that too much food Did not a
ought not to be allowed to the fick, he was not of theProve
mind of fome phyficians who prefcribed long abfti-^ 1
nence, efpecially in the beginning of fevers. The rea¬
fon he gave for this was, that the contrary practice
weakened the patients too much during the firft days
of the diftemper, by which means their phyficians were
obliged to allow them more food when the illnefs was
at its height, which in his opinion was improper. He
complained that “ they dried up their patients like
herrings, before there was any occaflon for it, and de-,
ftroyed them for want of nourifhment.” Befides, in
acute diftempers, and particularly in fevers, Hippo¬
crates made choice of refrefhing and moiftening nou-
rilhment; ar.d amongft other things prefcribed orange,
melon.
ifiiftory. MED
i melon, fplnadh, gourd, and dock. This fort of food
he gave to thofe that were in a condition to eat, or
44 could take fomething more than a ptifan.
_ The drink he commonly gave to his patients was
[i y'him ' rnac^e e'gkt parts of water, and one of honey. In
| ' fome dillempers they added a little vinegar ; but be-
fides thefe, they had another fort named or mix¬
ture. One prefcription of this fort we find intended
for a confumptive perfon ; it confifted of rue, anife,
celery, coriander, juice of pomegranate, the rougheft
red wine, water, flour of wheat and barley, with old
cheefe made of goats milk. Hippocrates did not ap-
I prove of giving plain water to the fick ; but though
he generally prefcribed the drinks above-mentioned,
he did not abfolutely forbid the ufe of wine, even in
acute diflempers and fevers, provided the patients were
not delirious nor had pains in their head. The quan¬
tity of water he would have them put into it in health,
made him judge that it would not be hurtful to fuch
as were lick if taken after the fame manner. Befides,
he took care to diftinguilh the wines proper in thefe
cafes: preferring to all other forts, white-wine that is
clear and has a great deal of water, with neither fweet-
nefs nor flavour.
Thefe are the moft remarkable particulars concern¬
ing the diet prefcribed by Hippocrates in acute diftem-
pers: in chronical ones he made very much ufe of milk
and whey ; though we are not certain whether this was
done on account of the nourifhment expefted from
them, or that he accounted them medicines.
, Diretfions There were many difeafes for which he judged the
concerning bath was a proper remedy ; and he takes notice of
at “S- all the circumftances that are necefiary in order to
caufe the patient receive benefit from it, among which
the following are the principal. The patient that
bathes himfelf muft remain ftill and quiet in his place
without fpeaking, while the affiftants throw water
over his head or are wiping him dry ; for which lall
purpofe he defired them to keep fponges, inftead of
that inftrument called by the ancientsJlrigil, which
ferved to rub off from the fkin the dirt and naftinefs
left upon it by the unguents and oils with which they
anointed themfelves. He muft alfo take care not to
catch cold ; and muft not bathe immediately after eat¬
ing and drinking, nor eat or drink immediately after
coming out of the bath. Regard muft alfo be had
whether the patient has been accuftomed to bathe while
in health, and whether he has been benefited or hurt
by it. Laftly, he muft abftain from the bath when
the body is too open, or too coftive, or when he is
too weak; or if he has an inclination to vomit, a great
lofs of appetite, or bleeds at the nofe. The advan¬
tage of the bath, according to Hippocrates, confifts
in moiftening and refreftiing, taking away wearinefs,
making the Ikin foft and the joints pliant; in provok¬
ing urine, making the noftrils open, and opening
the other excretories. He allows two baths in a-day
to thofe who have been accuftomed to it in their
4<S heallb-
Approves In chronical diftempers Hippocrates approved very
of exercife much of exercife, though he did not allow it in acute
u< chrom&l ones. but even ;n j^e not a
i empers pat;eBt ought always to lie a-bed ; but tells us, that
“ we mult fometimes pulh the timorous out of bed,
and roufe up the lazy.”
[CINE. 4581
When our phyfician found that diet and exercife
were not fufficient to cafe nature of a burden of cor-On what
rupted humours, he was obliged to make nfe of other ocrafions he
means, of which purgation was one. By this word pui"
he underftood all the contrivances that are made ufeSdtlon*
of to difcharge the ftomach and bowels ; though it
properly fignifies only the evacuation of the belly by
ftool. This evacuation he imagined to be occafioned
by the purgative medicines attradling the humours to
themfelves. When firft taken into the body, he thought
they attra&ed that humour which was moft fimilar to
them, and then the others, one after another.—The
purgatives ufed in his time were moftly emetics alfo,
or at leaft were very violent in their operation down¬
wards. Thefe were the white and black hellebore j
the firft of which is now reckoned among thepoifons.
He ufed alfo the Cnidian berries, which are nothing
elfe but the feeds of thymalaea or chamaelea ; cneorum,
peplium, which is a fort of milk-thiftle ; thepfia, the
juice of hippophae, a fort of rhamnus; elaterium, or
or juice of the wild cucumber ; flowers of brafs, colo-
quintida, fcammony, the magnefian ftone, which is a
fort of Ijmeftone, &c. 4*
As thefe purgatives were all very ftrong. Hippo- what
crates was extremely cautious in their exhibition. He°1gCu)1^3'
did not prefcribe them in the dog-days; nor did he them,
ever purge women with child, and very feldom chil¬
dren or old people. He principally ufed purgatives-
in chronical diftempers; but was much more wary in
acute ones. In his books entitled “ Of epidemical
diftempers,” there are very few patients mentioned to
whom he gave purgative medicines. He alfo takes
notice exprefsly, that thefe medicines having been
given in cafes of the diftempers of which he was
treating, had produced very bad effefts.—We are
not, however, from this to conclude that Hippocrates
abfolutely condemned purging in acute diftempers ;
for in fome places he exprefsly mentions his having
given them with fuccefs. Pie was of opinion, for in-
ftance, that purging was good in a pleurify when
the pain was feated below the diaphragm ; and in this
cafe he gave black hellebore, or fome peplium mixed
with the juice of laferpitium, which is fuppofed to have
been our afafaetida. 49
The principal rule Hippocrates gives with relation His rule
to purging is, that we ought only to purge off tbej^;Cr<:[1^;ns
humours that are concodled, and not thofe that are
yet crude, taking particular care not to do it at the
beginning of the diftemper, left the humours fhould
be difturbed or ftirred up, which happens pretty of¬
ten. He was not, however, the firft who remarked
that it would be of ill confequence to ftir the humours
in the beginning of an acute diftemper. The Egyp¬
tian phyficians had before obferved the fame thing.—
By the beginning of a diftemper, Hippocrates under¬
ftood all the time from the firft day to the fourth
complete. yo
Notwithftanding this, however, it is certain that Gives ano-
Hippocrates did fometimes exhibit purgatives at the‘b*””le
beginning of acute diftempers; and he has an aphorifm t°
diredtly contrary to the precedent one, where he fays, mer.
That in the beginning of diftempera we ought to ftir
the humours, and to purge what we think we have
ftirred. This aphorifm has occafioned no fmall trouble
to phyficians of fucceeding ages,, who have found a-.
, gre;afc
4582
great deal of diiSculty in reconciling it with the fore¬
going. Galen has got off by commenting on the phrafe
to ftir up. This, he fays, fignifies ufing all the reme¬
dies that are neceflary for the eafe of the patient; a-
mong which he reckons particularly bleeding and pur¬
ging. According to him, therefore, the ftirring up
mentioned by Hippocrates confifts chiefly in bleeding:
that is to fay, purgation might be admitted at the be¬
ginning of diftempers fometimes, but very rarely; and
in fa6t we find, that Hippocrates himfelf did purge
fome people at the beginning of diftempers, though
s, very feldom.
Hydra- Hippocrates imagined that each purgative medicine
gogue, was adapted to the carrying off fome particular hu-
vvhencifde rnouri an<^ bence the diftindion of purgatives into hy-
no'miruled* dragogue, cholagogue, &c. which is now juftly explo¬
ded. In confequence of this notion, which prevailed
long after his time, he pretended that we knew if a
purgative had drawn from the body what was fit to be
evacuated according as we found ourfelves. well or ill
upon it. If we found ourfelves well, it was a fign that
the medicine had effeftualiy expelled the offending hu¬
mour. On the contrary, if we were ill, he imagined,
whatever quantity of humour came away, that the hu¬
mour which caufed the illnefs ftill remained ; not jud¬
ging of the goodnefs or badnefs of a purge by the
quantity of matters that were voided by it, but by
their quality and the effeft that followed after it.
Hisprac- Vomits were alfo pretty much ufed as medicines by
ticewith Hippocrates. We have already feen what thofe w’ere
regard to which he prefcribed to people in health by way of
vomits. preventatives. With regard to the fick, he fometimes
advifed them to the fame, when his intentions were
only to cleanfe the ftomacb. But when he had a mind
to recall the humours, as he termed it, from the inmoft
recefies of the body, he made ufe of brifker remedies.
Among thefe was white hellebore; and this indeed he
moft frequently ufed to excite vomiting. He gave
this root particularly to melancholy and mad people ;
and from the great ufe made of it in thefe cafes by
Hippocrates and other ancient phyficians, the phrafe
to have need of hellebore, became a proverbial expreffion
for being out of one’s fenfes. He gave it alfo in de¬
fluxions, which come, according to him, from the
brain, and throw themfelves cn the noftrils or ears, or
fill the mouth with faliva, or that caufe ftubborn pains
in the head, and a wearinefs or an extraordinary bea-
vinefs, or a weaknefsof the knees, ora fwelling all over
the body. He gave it to confumptive perfons in broth
of lentils, to fuch as were afflided with the dropfy
called leucophlegniatia, and in other chronical diforders.
But we do not find that he made ufe of it in acute di-
flempers, except in the cholera morbus, where he fays
he prefcribed it with benefit. Some took this medi¬
cine falling; but moft took it after flipper, as was com¬
monly pradifed with regard to vomits taken by way
prevention. The reafon why he gave this medicine
moft commonly after eating was, that by mixing with
the aliments, its acrimony might be fomewbat abated,
and it might operate with lefs violence on the mem¬
branes of the ftomach. With the fame intention aifo
he fometimes gave a plant called fefamoides, and fome¬
times mixed it with hellebore. Laftly, in certain
cafes he gave what he called fft or facet hellebore.
This term had fome relation to the quality of the hel-
Hiftory. 1
lebore, or perhaps to the quantity be gave of it. ■
When Hippocrates had a mind only to keep the His leni-I
body open, or evacuate the contents of the inteftines, lives, cly-,
he made ufe of fimples ; as for example, the herb ^ers>
mercury, or cabbage ; the juice or decodion of which lt91
he ordered to be drank. For the fame purpofe he ’ ‘
ufed whey, and alfo cows and affes milk ; adding a
little fait to it, and fometimes letting it boil a little.
If he gave afles milk alone, he caufed a great quanti¬
ty of it to be taken, fo that it muft of neceflity loofen
the body. In one place he prefcribes no lefs than nine
pounds of it to be taken as a laxative, but does not
fpecify the time in which it was to be taken. With the
fame intention he made ufe of fuppofitories and clyfters.
The former were compounded of honey, the juice of
herb mercury, of nitre, powder of colocynth, and other
fharp ingredients to irritate the anus. Thefe they
formed into a ball, or into a long cylindrical mafs like
a finger. The clyfters he made ufe of for fick people
were fometimes the fame with thofe already mention¬
ed as preventatives for people in health. At other
times, he mixed the decoftion of herbs with nitre,
honey, and oil, or other ingredients, according as
he imagined he could by that means attradl, wafh, ir¬
ritate, or foften. The quantity of liquor he order¬
ed was about 36 ounces; from which it is probable
he did not intend that it fliould all be ufed at one
At fome times Hippocrates propofed to purge the ]y[e()ffjnei !
bead alone. This remedy he made ufe of, after pur- to purge ihej
ging the reft of the body, in an apoplexy, inveterate head*
pains of the head, a certain fort of jaundice, a con-
fumption, and the greateft part of chronical diftem¬
pers. For that purpofe he made ufe of the juices of
ieveral plants, as celery ; to which he fometimes added
aromatic drugs, making thepatients fnuff up this mix¬
ture into their noftrils. He ufed alfo powders com¬
pounded of myrrh, the flowers of brafs, and white
hellebore, which he caufed them put up into the nofe,
to make them fneeze, and to dravy the phlegm from
the brain. For the fame purpofe alfo he ufed what
he calls tetragonon, that is, “ fomething having four
angles;” but what this was, is now altogether un¬
known, and was fo even in the days of Galen. The
latter phyfician, however, conje&ures-it to be antimo¬
ny, or certain flakes found in it. i
In the diltemper called empyema, (or a colle&ion !
matter in the bread), he made ufe of a very rough me- dy for an (;
dicine. He commanded the patient to draw in his empyema, j
tongue as much as he was able ; and when that was
done, he endeavoured to put into the hollow of the
lungs a liquor that irritated the part, which, raifing a
violent cough, forced the lungs to difeharge the puru¬
lent matter contained in them. The materials that he
ufed for this purpofe were of different forts; fometimes
he took the root of arum, which he ordered to be boiled
with a grain of fait, in a fufficient quantity of water
and oil, diffolving a little honey in it. At other times,
when he intended to purge more ftrongly, he took the
flowers of copper and hellebore : after that he ftiook
the patient violently by the ihoulders, the better to
loofen the pus. This remedy, according to Galen, he *
received from the Cnidian phyficians; and it has never
been ufed by the fucceeding ones, probably becaufe
the patients could not fuffer it.
MEDICINE.
Blood-
MEDICINE.
Kiftory.
sg Blood-letting was another method of evacuation
Blood-let- pretty much ufed by Hippocrates. Another aim he
tmp. when }«id In this, befides the mere evacuation, was to divert
prcftai ed. or recal the courfe of the blood when he imagined it
was going where it ought not. A third end of bleed¬
ing was to procure a free motion of the blood and fpi-
rits, as we may gather from the following paffage:
“ When any one becomes fpeechlefs of a bidden,
(fays he), it is caufed by the (hutting of the veins, e-
fpecially when it happens to perfons otherwife in good
health, without any outward violence. In this cafe the
inward vein of the right-arm muft be opened, and
more or lefi blood taken away, according to the age
or conftitution of the patient. Thofe that lofe their
fpeech thus have great flufhings in their face, their
eyes are ftiif, their arms are diftended, their teeth gnafh,
they have palpitations of the arteries, cannot open
their jaws, the extremities are cold, and the fpirits are
intercepted in the veins. If pain enfues, it is by the
acceflion of the black bile and (harp humours. For
the internal parts being vellicated or irritated by thefe
humours, fuffer very much; and the veins, being alfo
irritated and dried, diftend themfelves extraordinarily,
and are inflamed, and draw all that can flow to them;
fo that the blood corrupting, and the fpirits not being
able to pafs through the blood by their ordinary paf-
fages, the parts grow cold by reafon of this ftagnation
of the fpirits. Hence come giddintfs, lofs of fpeech,
and convulfions, if this diforder reaches to the heart,
the liver, or to the great veins. From hence come alfo
epilepfies and palfies, if the defluxions fall upon the
parts laft mentioned ; and that they dry up, becaufe
the fpirits are denied a paffage through them. In this
cafe, after fomentation, a vein muft be opened, while
the fpirits and humours are yet fufpended aad unfet¬
tled.”
Hippocrates had alfo a fourth intention for bleed¬
ing, and this was refre(hment. So in the iliac paffion,
he orders bleeding in the arm and in the head; to the
end, fays he, that the fuperior venter, or the bread,
may ceafe to be overheated. With regard to this eva¬
cuation, his conduft was much the fame as to purging,
in refpeid of time and perfons. We ought, fays he,
to let blood in acute difeafes, when they are violent,
if the party be lufl;y and in the flower of his age. We
ought alfo to have regard to the time, both in refpeil
to the difeafe and to the feafon in which we let blood.
He alfo informs us, that blood ought to be let in great
ains, and particularly in inflammations. Among thefe
e reckons fuch as fall upon the principal vifeera, as
the liver, lungs, and fpleen, as alfo the quinfy and
pleurify, if the pain of the latter be above the dia¬
phragm. In thefe cafes he would have the patients
Hooded till they faint, efpecially if the pain is very
acute; or rather he advifes that the orifice (hould not
be clofed till the colour of the blood alters, fo that from
livid it turn red, or from red, livid. In a quinfey he
blooded in both arms at once. Difficulty of breathing
he alfo reckons among the diftempers that require
bleeding ; and he mentions another fort qf inflamma¬
tion of the lungs, which he calls a fwelling, or tumours
of the lungs arifing from heat; in which cafe he ad¬
vifes to bleed in all parts of the body; and diredfs par¬
ticularly to the arms, tongue, and noftrils. To make
bleeding the more ufeful in all pains, he dire&ed to
Vot. VI. i
open the vein neareft the part affe&ed; in a pleurify
he dire&s to take blood from the arm of the fide affec¬
ted; and for the fame reafon, in pains of the head, he
diredts the veins of the nofe and forehead to be opened.
Thefe diredlions, however, we now know to be almoft
entirely fuperfluous, and to have proceeded from Hip¬
pocrates’s ignorance of the blood’s circulation. When
the pain was not urgent, and bleeding was advifed by
way of prevention, he diredled the blood to be taken
from the parts fartheft off, with a defign to divert the
blood inienfibly from the feat of pain. The higheft
burning fevers which (hew neither figns of inflamma¬
tion nor pain, he does not rank among thofe dillempers
that require bleeding. On the contrary, he maintains
that a fever itfelf is in fome cafes a reafon againft bleed¬
ing. If any one, fays he, has an ulcer in tne head, he
mull bleed, utilefs be has a fever. He fays further,
thofe that lofe their fpeech of a fudden muft be blood¬
ed, unlefs they have a fever. Perhaps he was afraid
of bleeding in fevers becaufe he fuppofes that they
were produced by the bile and pituita, which grew
hot, and afterwards heated the whole body, which is,
fays he, what we call fever, and which, in his opinion,
cannot well be evacuated by bleeding. In other places
alfo he looks upon the prefence or abundance of bile
to be an objeftion to bleeding ; and he orders to for¬
bear venefedtion even in a pleurify, if there is bile. To
this we mud add, that Hippocrates ditlinguifhed very
particularly between a fever which followed no other
diftemper, but was itfelf the original malady, and a
fever which came upon inflammation. In the early
ages of phyfic, the firft were only properly called fe¬
vers : the others took their names from the parts af-
feCted; as pleurify, peripneumeny, hepatitis, nephritis,
&c. which names fignify that the pleura, the lungs,
the liver, or the kidneys, are difeafed, but do not inti¬
mate the fever which accompanies the difeafe. In this
latter fort of fever Hippocrates eonftantly ordered
bleeding, but not in the former. Hence, in his books
Of Epidemic Diftempers, we find but few direftions
for bleeding in the acute diftempers, and particularly
in the great number of continual and burning fevers
there treated of. In the firft and third book we find
but one fingle inftanceof bleeding, and that in a pleu¬
rify ; in which, too, he ftaid till the eighth day of the
diftemper. Galen, however, and moft other commea-
tators on Hippocrates, are of opinion that the latter
did generally blood his patients'plentifully in the be¬
ginning of acute diforders, though he takes no notice
of it in his writings. But had this been the cafe, he
would not perhaps have had the opportunity of feeing
fo many fevers terminate by crifes, or natural evacua¬
tions, which happen of themfelves on certain days.
Hippocrates, in fa<ft, laid fo much weight upon the
affiftance of nature and the method of diet, which was
his favourite medicine, that he thought if they took
care to diet the patients before-mentioned, according
to rule, they might leave the reft to nature. Thefe are
his true principles, from which he never deviates; fo
that his pieces Of Epidemical Difeafes feem to have
been compofed only with an intention to leave to po-
fterity an exaft model of management in purftiance of
thefe principles.
With regard to the rules laid down by Hippocrates
for bleeding, we muft further take notice, that jn all
25 Z difeafes
4SSs
544
difeafes which had their feat above the liver, he blood¬
ed in the arm, or in fome of the upper parts of the
body ; but for thofe that were fituated below it, he
opened the veins of the foot, ankle, or ham. If the
belly was too laxative, and bleeding was thought ne-
ceffary, he ordered the loofenefs to be flopped before
bleeding.
Almoft all thefe inftances, however, regard fcarce
any thing but acute diftempers ; but we find feveral
concerning chronical difeafes. “ A young man com¬
plained of great pain in his belly, with a rumbling
while he was fading, which ceafed after eating : this
pain and rumbling continuing, his meat did him no
good ; but, on the contrary, he daily wafted and
grew lean. Several medicines, as well purges as
vomits, were given him in vain. At length it was re-
folved to bleed him, by intervals, firft in one arm and
then in the other, till he had fcarce any blood left,
and by this method he was perfectly cured.”
Hippocrates let blood alfo in a dropfy, even in a
tympany ; and in both cafes he prefcribes bleeding in
the arm. In a difeafe occafioned by an overgrown
fpleen, he propofes bleeding feveral times repeated at
a vein of the arm which he calls the fplenetic; and in
a kind of jaundice, he propofes bleeding under the
tongue. On fome occafions he took away great
quantities of blood, as appears from what we have
already obferved. Sometimes he continued the blood¬
ing till the patient fainted: at other times he would
blood in both arms at once; at others, he did it in fe¬
veral places of the body, and at feveral times. The
veins he opened were thofe of the arm, the hands, the
ankles on both fides, the hams, the forehead, behind
the head, the tongue, the nofe, behind the ears, un¬
der the breafts, and thofe of the arms; befides which,
he burnt others, and opened feveral arteries. He
likewife ufed cupping-veffels, with intent to recall
or withdraw the humours which fell upon any part.
Sometimes he contented himfelf with the bare attrac¬
tion made by the cupping veffels, but fometimes alfo
he made fcarifications.
His diuretic When bleeding and purging, which were the prin-
and fudori- cipal and moft general means ufed by Hippocrates
fic medi- for taking off a plethora, proved infufficient for that
cines. purpofe, he had recourfe to diuretics and fudorifics.
The former were of different forts, according to the
conftitution of the perfons: fometimes baths, and
fometimes fweet wine, provoke urine; fometimes the
nouriftiment which we take contributes to it: and
amongft thofe herbs which are commonly eaten, Hip¬
pocrates recommends garlic, leeks, onions, cucumbers,
melons, gourds, fennel, and all other things which
have a biting tafte and a ftrong fmell. With thefe
he numbers honey, mixed with water or vinegar, and
all fait meats. But, on fome occafions, he took four
cantharides, and, pulling off their wings and feet, gave
them in wine and honey. Thefe remedies were given
in a great number of chronical diftempers after pur¬
ging, when he thought the blood was overcharged
with a fort of moifture which he calls ichor; or in
fupprefiions of urine, and when it was made in lefs
quantity than it ought. There were alfo fome cafes
in which he would force fweat as well as urine; but
he neither mentions the difeafes in which fudorifics
are proper, nor lets us know what medicines are to
Hiftory,
be ufed for this purpofe, except in one Angle paffage,
where he mentions fweating, by pouring upon the
head a great qantity of water till the feet fweat; that
is, till the fweat diffufes itfelf over the whole body,
running from head to foot. After this he would have
them eat boiled meat, ami drink thereupon pure wine,
and, being well covered with clothes, lay themfelves
down to reft. The difeafe for which he propsfes the
above-mentioned remedy is a fever; which is not, ac¬
cording to him, produced by bile or pituita, but
by mere laffitude, or fome other like caufe; from
whence we may conclude that he did not approve of
fweating in any other kind of fever. j8
Other remedies which Hippocrates tells us he made He fome-
ufe of were thofe that purged neither bile nor phlegm, times ufed
but adl by cooling, drying, heating, moiftening, or by hypnotics,
clofing and thickening, refolving and diffipating.
Thefe medicines, however, he does not particularly
mention; and it is probable they were only fome
particular kinds of food. To thefe he joined hjrp-
notics, or fuch things as procure fleep ; but thefe laft
were ufed very feldom, and, it is molt probable, were
only different preparations of poppies. S9
Laftly, befides the medicines already mentioned, And fpeci-
which adted in a fenfible manner, Hippocrates made hcs*
ufe of others called fpecifics; whofe aftion he did not
underftand, and for the ufe of which he could give no
reafon befides his own experience, or that of other
phyficians. Thefe he had learned from his prede-
ceffors the defeendants of iEfculapius, who, being
empirics, did not trouble themfelves about inquiring
into the operation of their remedies, provided their
patients were cured. Co
Of the external remedies preferibed by Hippo-His exter-
crates, fomentations were the chief. Thefe were of ml applica-
two kinds. The one was a fort of bath, in which the dons,
patient fat in a veffel full of a decodlion of fimples
appropriated to his malady; fo that the part affeded
was foaked in the decoftion. This was chiefly ufed
in diftempers of the womb, of the arms, the bladder,
the reins, and generally all the parts below the dia¬
phragm. The fecond way of fomenting was, to take
warm water and put it into a fkin or bladder, or even
into a copper or earthen veffel, and to apply it to the
part affeded; as, for example, in a pleurify. They
ufed likewife a large fponge, which they dipped in
the water, or other hot liquor, and fqueezed out part
of the liquor before they applied it. The fame ufe
they made of barley, vetches, or bran, which were
boiled in fome proper liquor, and applied in a linen
bag. Thefe are called moift fomentations. The dry
ones were made of fait or millet, heated confiderably*
and applied to the part. Another kind of fomenta¬
tion was the vapour of fome hot liquor; an inftance
of which we find in his firft book of Womens di/iem~
pers. He caft, at feveral times, bits of red-hot iron
into urine, and, covering up the patient clofe, caufed
her to receive the fleam below. His defign in thefe
kinds of fomentations was to warm the part, to re-
folve or diffipate, and draw out the peccant matter, to
mollify and affuage pain, to open the paffages, or even
to (hut them, according as the fomentations were emol¬
lient or aftringent.
Fumigations were likewife very often ufed by Hip¬
pocrates. Ip the quinfey, he burned hyffop with
fulphur
MEDICINE.
4585
Hiftory. MED
fulpbur and pitch, and caufed the fmoke to be drawn
into the throat by a funnel; and by this means he
brought away abundance of phlegm through the
mouth, and through the nofe. For this purpofe he
took nitre, marjoram, and crefs-feeds, which he boiled
in water, vinegar, and oil, and, while it was on the
fire, caufed the patient to draw in the iteam by a pipe.
In his works we find a great number of fumigants for
the diftemptrs of women, to promote the menftrual
flux, to check it, to help conception, and to cafe pains
in the matrix, or the fuffocation of it. On thefe oc-
cafions he ufed fuch aromatics as were then known,
viz. cinnamon, caffia, myrrh, and feveral odoriferous
plants; as likewife fome minerals, fuch as nitre, ful-
phur, and pitch, and caufed them to receive the va¬
pours through a funnel into the uterus.
Gargles, a kind of fomentations for the mouth,
were alfo known to Hippocrates. In the quinfey he
ufed a gargle made of marjoram, favory, celery, mint,
and nitre, boiled with water and a little vinegar.
When this was (trained, they added honey to it, and
wafiied their mouths frequently with it.
Oils and ointments were likewife much ufed by Hip¬
pocrates, with a view' to mollify and abate pain, to ripen
boils, refolve tumours, refrelh after wearinefs, make
the body fupple, &c. For this purpofe, fometimes
pure oil of olives was ufed ; fometimes certain fimples
were infufed in it, as the leaves of myrtle and roles;
and the latter kind of oil was in much requeft among
the ancients. There were other forts of oils fome¬
times in ufe, however, which were much more con-
pounded. Hippocrates fpeaks of one called fujinum,
which was made of the flowers of the iris, of fome
aromatics, of an ointment of narciflus made with the
flowers of narciffus and aromatics infufed in oil.
But the mod compounded of all his ointments was
that called netopwn, which he made particularly for
women; and confided, according to Hefyehius, of a
great number of ingredients. Another ointment, to
which he gave the name of ceratum, was compofed of
oil and wax. An ointment which he recommends for
the foftening of a tumour, and the cleanfing of a
wound, was made by the following receipt: “ Take
the quantity of a nut of the marrow or fat of a (heep,
of madic or turpentine the quantity of a bean, and as
much wax ; melt thefe over a fire, with oil of rofes, for
a ceratum.” Sometimes he added pitch and wax,
and, with a fufficient quantity of oil, made a compo-
fition fomewhat more confident than the former, which
he called ceraptjfits.
Cataplafrns were a fort of remedies lefs confident
than the two former. They were made of powders
or herbs deeped or boiled in water or fome other li¬
quor, to which fometimes they added oil. They were
ufed with a view to foften or refolve tumours, ripen
abfcefles, &c. though they had alfo cooling cataplaims
made of the leaves of beets or oak, fig or olive-trees,
boiled in water.
Ladly, to complete the catalogue of the external
remedies ufed by Hippocrates, we (hall mention a'fort
of medicine called collyrium. It was compounded of
powders, to which was added a fmall quantity of
fome ointment, or juice of a plant, to make a folid or
dry mafs; the form of which was long and round,
which was kept for ufc. Another compofifion of
I C I N E.
much the fame nature was a fort of lozenge of the
bignefs of a fmall piece of money, which was burnt
upon coals for a perfume, and powdered for par¬
ticular ufes. In his works we find likewife defcrip-
tions of powders for feveral ufes, to take off fun¬
gous flefh, and to blow into the eyes in ophthal-
mies, &c. gj
Thefe were almoft all the medicines ufed by Hip- His com-
pocrates for external purpofes. The compound me- pound me¬
dicines given inwardly were either liquid, folid, ordicines'
lambitive. The liquid ones were prepared either by
decodlion or infufion in a proper liquor, which, when
drained, was kept for ufe ; or by macerating certain
powders in fuch liquors, and fo taking them toge¬
ther, or by mixing different kinds of liquors toge¬
ther. The folid medicines confided of juices infpif-
fated; of gums, refins, or powders, made up with
them or with honey, or fomething proper to give the
neceffary confidence to the medicine.- Thefe were
made up in a form and quantity fit to be fwallowed
with eafe. The lambitive was of a confidence be¬
tween folid and fluid; and the patients were obliged
to keep it for fome time to diffolve in the mouth, that
they might fwallow it leifurely. This remedy was
ufed to take off the acrimony of thofe humours which
fometimes fall upon this part, and provoke coughing
and other inconveniences. The bafis of this lad com-
pofition was honey. It is worth our obfervation, that
the compound medicines of Hippocrates were but very
few, and compofed only of four or five ingredients at
mod; and that he not only underdood pharmacy, or
the art of compounding medicines, but prepared fuch
as he ufed himfelf, or caufed his fervants prepare them
in his houfe by his diredtions. g2
The fird phyfician of eminence who differed confi- Praxagoras
derably in his prattice from Hippocrates was Praxa- the (hd
goras. From fome authors we learn that he ac-
counted for difeafes from the qualities of the humours, Hippo-
of which he reckoned ten forts, whereas Hippocrates crates,
fuppofed only four. Ccelius Aurelianus acquaints us,
that he made great ufe of vomits in his pradlice, info-
much as to exhibit them in the iliac pafiion till the
excrements were difcharged by the mouth. In this
didemper he alfo advifed, when all other means failed,
to open the belly, cut the intedine, take out the in¬
durated faeces, and then to few up all again ; but this
pradiice hath not been followed by any fubfequent
phyfician.
We mud now take notice of a capital didindlion Phyficians
among the ancient phyficians into the two claffes of divided in-tn
dogmatifts and empirics; or into thofe who proceeded
according to rules derived from reafoning, and thofempl
who, without paying any regard to theory or rea¬
foning, truded folely to the oblervations arifing from
their own experience, or that of others. From what
has already been faid concerning the theories of Hip¬
pocrates, it is very eafy to fee that the dogmatids
were in very great danger of committing errors, if
they reafoned from fuch falfe and abfurd hypothefes
as were invented by the philofophers in thofe ages.
The natural fondnefs of mankind, however, for their
own theories, prompted the philofophers to explode Chryfippu#
experience as much as poffible; and accordingly we u^pis
find, that in the time of Philip, father of Alexander the
the Great, one Chryfippus, a phyfician of Cnidos, at- prafliec,
25 Z 2 tempted
4586
MEDICINE.
Hiflory,
tfmpted to overthrow the pra&ioe which had been
eftabliihed on the experience of all the ancient phyfi-
cians, merely by iiis talent at declamation and reafon-
ing. He difapproved of venefedlion and purgatives,
though he fometimes made ufe of purgatives and cly-
fters; but the reafons he had for his conduft cannot
now be known, as his books are totally loft.
Doctrines Erafrftratus, the fcholar of Chryfippus, was a phy-
nf Erafi- cian of great eminence, and ftourifhed in the time of
hiatus. Seleucus Nicator. According to Galen, he entirely
banilhed venefedfton from medicine; though fome nf-
ftrrn that he did not totally difeard it, but only ufed
it lefs frequently than other phy&cians. His rea-
<55 fons for ciifapproving of venefeAion are as follow:
difapproved ** 15 to fucceed in venefedion, becaufe we
of venefee- cannot always fee the vein we intend to open, and
tipn, becaufe we are not fure but we may open an artery
inftead of a vein. We cannot afeertain the true quan¬
tity to be taken. If we take too little, the intention
is by no means anfwered. If we take too much, we
run a rifle of deftroying the patient. The evacuation
'of the venous blood alfo is fucceed&d by that of the
fpirits, which on that oecafion pafs from the arteries
into the veins. It muft likewife be obftrved, that as
the inflammation is formed in the arteries by the blood
coagulated in their orifices, venefeftion muft of eourfe
c^ be ufe?lefs4and of no effedl.”
And pur- As Erafiftratus did not approve of venefe&ion, fo
S'ng. neither did he of purgatives, except very rarely, but
exhibited clyfters and vomits; as did alfo his mafter
Chryfippus. He was of opinion, however, that the
clyfters fliould be mild ; and condemned the large
quantity and acrid quality of thofe ufed by the an¬
cients. The reafon why purgatives were not much
irfed by him was, that he imagined purging and vene-
fedtion could anfwer no other purpofe than diminifh-
ing the fulnefs of the veffels, and for this purpofe he
afferted that there were more effeftual means than ei¬
ther phlebotomy or purging. He afferted that the
humours difeharged by cathartics were not the fame in
the body that they appeared after the difeharge ; but
that the medicines changed their nature, and produced
a kind of corruption in them. This opinion has fince
been embraced by a great number of phyficians. He
did not believe that purgatives adled by attra&ion;
but fubftituted in the place of this principle what Mr
6g Le Clerc imagines to b^ the fame with Ariftotle’s
Reeom- fuga vaetti. The principal remedy fubftituted by him
mends ab» in place of purging and venefeftion was abftinence.
ftincnce. When this, in conjunflion with clyfters and vomits,
was not fufficient to eradicate the difeafe, he then had
recourfe to exercife. All this was done with a view
to diminilh the plenitude, which, according to him,
was the moft frequent caufe of all difeafes. Galen
alfo informs us, that Erafiftratus had fo great an opi¬
nion of the virtues of fuccory in difeafes of the vifeera
and lower belly, and efpecially in thofe of the liver,
^hat he took particular pains to deferibe the method
of boiling it, which was, “ to boil it in water till it
was tender; then to put it into boiling water a fecond
time, in order to deftroy its bitternefs; afterwards to
take it out of the water, and preferve it in a veffel with
oil; and laftly, when it is to be ufed, add a little weak
vinegar to it.” Nay, fo minute and circumftantiate was
Erafiftratus with regard to the preparation of hia fa¬
vourite fuccory, that he gave orders to tie feveral of
the plants together, becanfe that was the mare com¬
modious method of boiling them. Tlie reft of Era-
fiftratus’s medicines confided altnoft entirely of regi¬
men ; to which he added fome topical remedies, fuch
as cataplafms, fomentations, and undtions. In ihort,
as he could neither endure compounded medicines,
nor fuperftitious and fine-fpun reafonings, he reduced
medicine to a very fimple and compendious art. But,
though hitherto Erafiftratus feems to have been a dog-
matift, he agreed with the empirics in aflerting that
we cannot always difeover the fpecific or latent caufes
of diftempers, yet he maintained that in many cafes
we could difeover the immediate caufes ; and that
where we could do fo, we ought to employ our reafon
in order to remove the oaufe, and thus to cure the
diftemper.
With regard to forgery, Erafiftratns appears to Was a bold
have been very bold; and as an anatomift he is faid tofurgeon.
have been exceedingly cruel, infomuch that he dif¬
fered criminals while yet alive *. In a feirrhons li- * See Ana-
ver, or in tumours-of that organ, Ceelius Aurdianus,1,wJF>
obferves, that Erafiftratus made an incifion thro’ the
fkin and integuments, and having opened the abdo¬
men he applied medicines immediately to the part af¬
fected. But though he was thus bold in performing
operations on the liver, yet he did not approve of the
paracentefis or tapping in the dropfy ; becaufe (faid
he) the waters being evacuated, the liver, which is in¬
flamed and become hard like a Hone, is more prefled
by the adjacent parts which the waters kept at a di-
ftance from it, fo that by this means the patient dies.
He declared alfo againft drawing teeth which were not
loofe, and ufed tc5 tell thofe -who talked with him on
this operation, That in the temple of Apollo there
was to be feen an inftrument of lead for drawing teeth;
in order toinfimiate that we muft not attempt the ex¬
tirpation «f any but fuch as are loofe, and call for no
greater force for their extirpation than what may be
fuppofed in an inftrument of lead. ?0
Herophilus, the difciple of Praxagoras, and cotem-Herophilus
porary of Erafiftratus, is faid to have been the firft na'le great.
phyfician of the dogmatic fed who made fo great an^[^[snie*
ufe of medicines both fimple and compound, that nei- t
ther he nor his difciples would undertake the cure of
any diforder without them. He feems alfo.to have
been the firft who treated accurately of the doCtrine of
pulfcs, of which Hippocrates, as already obferved,
had but a fuperfieial knowledge. Galen, however,
affirms, that on this fubjed he involved himfelf in dif¬
ficulties and advanced abfurdities; which indeed we
are not greatly to wonder at, confidering the time in
which he lived. He took notice of a difeafe at that
time pretty rare, and to which he aferibes certain hid¬
den deaths. He calls it a palfy of the heart; and per¬
haps it may be the fame difeafe with what is now term¬
ed the angina pefloris.
According to Celfus, it was about this time that Medicine
medicine was firft divided into three branches, viz. thed'vide<1 'n*
dietetic, the pharmaceutical, and the chirurgical medi- ‘° tllr'e
• rrii ij • • * brflncncjj
cine. I he nrlt of thele employed a proper regimen in the
cure of difeafes ; the fecond, medicines; and the third,
the operation of the hands: and the fame author informs-
us, that thefe three branches became now the bufinefsof
as many diftintt dafles of men j fo thatfronuhis time we
may
> Hlftaff. • • MEDI
may date the origin oftheihree profefllons of pbyficians,
apothecaries, and furgeons.~ Before this divilion, thofe
called pbyjicians difcharged all the feveral offices be*
longing to the three profeffions ; and there were only
two kinds of them, viz. one called who
only gave their advice to the patients, and directions
to thofe of an inferior clafs, who were called Jwo.vgyoi,
and worked with their hands either in the performing
operations, or in the compofition and application of
yt remedies.
Empiric Thg firll.grand revolution which happened in the
ed^by°Sera* tnedicinal art after the days of Herophilus and Era-
picn. fiffr.atus was occafinned by the founding of the empiric
feet by Serapion of Alexandria about 287 years before
Chrift. The divifion into dogma tiffs and empirics
had indeed fubfifted before, as already mentioned;
but about this time the latter party began to grow
ftrortg, and to have champions publicly afferting its
caufe. Galen informs us, that Serapion ufed Hippo¬
crates very ill in his writings, in <which he difeovered
an excels of pride, felf-fufficiency, and contempt for
all the phyficians that went before him. We have
fome Iketches of bis praritice in Gselius Aurelianius,
from wiltich we may infer that be retained the medi¬
cines of Hippocrates and the other phyCcians who
went before him, though he reje&ed their reafoning.
We know not what .arguments he advanced for the
fopportiof bis feutiments, fince his works are loft, as
well as thofe of the other empirics; and we fhould
knowinothing at all of any of them, if their adverfaries
7 3 had not quoted them in .order to confute them.
Doctrine of The.empirics admitted only one •general method of
the Empi- obtaining .fkill in the medical art, which was by >ex-
rics' perience, called by the Greeks -From this
word they took their maroe, and refufed to be called
after the founder or any champion of their fed.
They defined experience “ a knowledge derived from
the evidence jof feufe.” It was either fortuitous, or
acquired by defign. For acquiring pradical fkill
they recommended what they called Tr^n<n(, or one’s
own obfervation, and the reading of hiftories or cafes
faithfully related by others. Hence they thought
that .we are enabled to.know a difeafeby its refemblance
to others; and, when new difeafes.occurred, to con¬
clude what-was proper to be done from the fymptoms
they had in common with others that were before
known. They aflerted, that obfervation ought princi¬
pally to be employed in two different ways; fir ft is
difeavering what things are falut«ry, and what are of
an indifferent nature ; and, feeondiy, .what particular
difeafe is produced by a certain concurrence of fymp¬
toms ; for they.did not call every fymptom a difeafe,
but only fuch a combination of them as from long
experience they found to accompany each other, and
produced fuch diforders as began and terminated in
T4 the fame manner.
Of die Dog- On the other hand, the dogmatift affirmed, that
matics. there was a neceflity for knowing the latent as well
as the evident caufes of difeafes, and that the phyfi-
cian ought to underftand the natural adlions and func¬
tions of the human body, which neceffarily pre-
fuppofes a. knowledge of the internal parts. By fecret
or latent caufes they meant fuch as related to the ele¬
ments or principles of which our bodies are compofed,
and which are the origins of a good or bad ftate of
CINE. 4587
health. They eflerted thM it was iiupofTrble to know
how to cure a difeafe without knowing the caufe
whence it proceeded ; becaufe undoubtedly it behoved
them to vary prodigioufly in themfelves according to
the different caufes by which they were produced. 7S
The next remarkable perfon in the hiftory of phyficD°^ri"e ot
is Afclepiades, who flonrifhed in the century immedi-atjes pi*
ately preceding the birth of Chrift. He introduced
the philofophy of Democritus and Epicurus into me¬
dicine, and ridiculed the do&rioes of Hippocrates.
He afferted, th,at matter confidered in itfelf was of an
unchangeable nature ; and that all perceptible bodies
were compofed of u number of fmaller ones, between
which there were interfperfed an infinity of fmall fpaces
totally void of all matter. He thought that the foul 7s
itfelf was compofed of thefe fmall bodies. He laughed Contradifb.
at the principle called nature by Hippocrates, and HlpP0C':i*
alfo at the imaginary faculties faid by him to be fub-s‘
fervient to her; and ftill more at what he called at-
trattion. This laft principle Afclepiades denied in
every inftance, even in that of the loadftone and heel,
imagining that this phaenomenon proceeded from a
concourfe of corpufcles, and a particular difpofition or
modification of their pores. He alfo maintained, that
nothing happened or was produced without fome caufe ;
and that what was called nature was in reality no
more than matter and motion. From this laft prin¬
ciple he inferred that Hippocrates know not what he
faid when he fpoke of nature as an intelligent being,
and aferibed qualities of different kinds to her. For
the fame reafon he ridiculed the do&rine of Hippo¬
crates with regard to crifes ; and afferted that the
termination of difeafes might be as well accounted for
from mere matter and motion. He maintained, that
.we were deceived if we imagined that nature alwaya
did good; fince it was evident that (he often did a
great deal of harm. As for the days particularly
fixed upon by Hippocrates for crifes, or thofe on
which we ufually obferve a change either for the bet¬
ter or the worfe, Afclepiades denied that fuch altera¬
tions happened on thofe days rather than on others.
Nay, he afferted that the crifis did not happen at any
time of its own accord, or by the particular determi¬
nation of nature for the cpre of th^ diforder, but that
it depended rather on the addrefs and dexterity of the
phyfician; that we ought never to Wait till a diftemper
terminates of its own accord, but that the phyfician
by his care and medicines muft haften on and advance
the core.— According to him, Hippocrates and other
ancient phylicians attended their patients rather with
a view to obfer.ve in what manner they died than in
order to cure them; and this under pretence that
nature ought to do all herfelf, without any affiftance.
The phyfiology of Afclepiades, or what we may call
fuch, is as follows. “ The particular affemblage,
(fays he), of the various corpufcles above-mentioned,
and reprefented as of different figures, is the reafon
why there are feveral pores or interftices within the
common mafs, formed by thefe corpufeles; and why
thefe pores are of a different fize. This beino taken
for granted, as thefe pores are in all the bodies we
obferve, it muft of courfe follow that the human body
has fome peculiar to itfelf, which, as well as thofe
of all other bodies, contain other minute bodies,
which pafs and repafs by thofe pores that communicate
with
4j88 MED
with each other; and as thefe pores or interftices
are larger or fmaller, fo the corpufclea which pafs
through them differ proportionably as to largenefs and
nunutenefs. The blood confifts of the largeft of
thefe corpufcles, and the fpirits, or the heat, of the
fmalleft.”
From thefe principles the following pathology is
deducible : “ As long as the corpufcles are freely re¬
ceived by the pores, the body remains in its natural
ftate; and, on the contrary, it begins to recede from
that ftate, when the corpufcles find any obftacle to
their paflage. Health therefore depends on the juft
proportion between the pbres and the corpufcles they
are deftined to receive and tranfmit; as difeafes, on
the contrary, proceed from a difproportion between
thefe pores and the corpufcles. The moll ufual ob¬
ftacle on this occafion proceeds from the corpufcles
embracing each other, and being retained in fome of
their ordinary paffages, whether thefe corpufcles ar¬
rive in too large a number, are of irregular figures,
move too fall or too flow, &c.
Among the diforders produced by the corpufcles
flopping of their own accord, Afclepiades reckoned
phrenlies, lethargies, pleurifies, and burning fevers.
Pains, in particular, are claffed among the accidents
which derive their origin from a ftaghation of the
Jargeft of all the corpufcles of which the blood con¬
fifts. Among the diforders produced by the bad
ftate and difpofition of the pores, he placed deliqui-
ums, languors, extenuations, leannefs, and dropfies,
&c. Thefe laft diforders he thought proceeded from
the pores being too much relaxed and opened : the
dropfy in particular proceeds from the flelh being per¬
forated with various fmall holes, which convert the
nourilhment received into them into water. Hunger,
and efpecially that fpecies of it called fames canina,
proceeds from the opening the large pores of the
ftomach and belly ; and third from an opening of
their fmall ones. Upon the fame principles he ac¬
counted for intermittent fevers. Quotidian fevers are
caufed by a retention of the largelt corpufcles, thofe
77 of the tertian kind by a retention of corpufcles fome-
Account of what fmaller, and quartan fevers are produced by a
ticePraC" retenti°n t^ie fmalleft corpufcles of all.
The pra&ice of Afclepiades was fuited to remove
thefe imaginary caufes of diforders. He cempofed a
book concerning common remedies, which he princi¬
pally reduced to three, viz. geftation, fri&ion, and
the ufe of wine. By various exercifes he propofed to
render the pores more open, and to make the juices
and fmall bodies, which caufe difeafes by their reten¬
tion, pafs more freely ; and whereas the former phy-
ficians had not recourfe to geftation till towards the
end of long-continued diforders, and when the pa¬
tients, tho’ entirety free from fever, were yet too weak
to take fufficient exercife by walking, Afclepiades ufed
^citation from the very beginning of the moft burn¬
ing fevers. He laid it down as a maxim, that one fever
was to be cured by another; that the ftrength of the
patient was to be exhauftedby making him watch and
endure third to fuch a degree, that, for the two firft
Bays of the diforder, he would not allow them to cool
their mouths with a drop of water. Celfus alfo obferves,
that though Afclepiades treated his patients like a
butcher during the firft days of the diforder, he indul-
I C I N E, Hiftory.
ged them fo far afterwards as even to give dire&ions
for making their beds in the fofteft manner. On fe-
veral occafions Afclepiades ufed fri&ions to open the
pores. The dropfy was one of the diftempers in which
this remedy was ufed ; but the moft Angular attempt
was, by this means, to lull phrenetic patients afieep.
But though he enjoined exercife fo much to the fick,
he denied it to thofe in health ; a piece of conduit not
a little furprifing and extraordinary. He allowed wine
freely to patients in fevers, provided the violence of the
diftemper was fomewhat abated. Nor did he forbid
it to thofe who were afflidled with a phrenzy : nay,
he ordered them to drink it till they were intoxicated,
pretending by that means to make them fleep ; be-
caufe, he faid, wine had a narcotic quality and procured
fleep, which he thought abfolutely neceflary for thofe
who laboured under that diforder. To lethargic pa¬
tients he ufed it on purpofe to excite them, and roufe
their fenfes: he alfo made them fmell ftroag-feented
fubftances, fuch as vinegar, caftor, and rue, in order to
make them fneeze; and applied to their heads cata-
plafms of mallard made up with vinegar.
Befides thefe remedies, Afclepiades enjoined his pa¬
tients abftineuce to an extreme degree. For the firft
three days, according to Celfus, he allowed them no
aliment whatever; but on the fourth began to give
them vidluals. According to Ccelius Aurelianus, how¬
ever, he began to nourilh his patients as foon as the
acceflion of the difeafe was diminilhed, not waiting till
an entire remiflion; giving, to fome, aliments on the
firft, to others on the fecond, to others on the third,
and fo on to the feventh day. It feems almoft incre¬
dible to us, that people ftiould be able to fall till this
laft mentioned term ; but Celfus allures us, that abfti-
nence till the feventh day was enjoined by the prede-
ceflbrs of Afclepiades, and by Heraclides Tarentinus. 7g
The next great revolution which happened in the Methodic
medicinal art, was brought about by Themifon, the ^ found-
difciple of Afclepiades, who lived not long before theed.^ The-
time of Celfus, during the end of the reign of Augu-mi °n‘
ftus, or beginning of that of Tiberius. The fe<Sl
founded by him was called methodic^ becaufe he endea¬
voured to find a method of rendering medicine more
eafy than formerly. 75
He maintained, that a knowledge of the caufes ofTheii doc- !
difeafes was not neceflary, provided we have a duere-1™65*
gard to what difeafes have in common and analogous
to one another. In confequence of this principle, he
divided all difeafes into two, or at moft three, kinds.
The firft included difeafes arifing from ftridlure ; the
fecond, thofe arifing from relaxation ; and the third,
thofe of a mixed nature, or fuch as partook both of
ftri&ure and relaxation.
Themifon alfo aflerted, that difeafes are fometimes
acute, and fometimes chronical; that for a certain time
they increafe; that at a certain time they are at their
height; and that at laft they were obferved to dimi-
nifh. Acute difeafes, therefore, according to him,
mull be treated in one way, and chronical ones- in an¬
other ; one method mull be followed with fuch as are
in their augmentation, another with fuch as are at
their height, and a third with fuch as are in their de-
clenfion. He aft'erted, that the whole of medicine con¬
fided in the obfervation of that fmall number of rules
which are founded upon things altogether evident. He
Hiftory. MEDICINE. 4589
faid, that all diforders, whatever their nature was, if
included under any of the kinds abovementioned, ought
to be treated precifely in the fame way, in whatever
country and with whatever fymptoms they happen to
arife. Upon thefe principles, he defined medicine to be
“ a method of conducing to the knowledge of what
difeafes have in common with each other, and which at
80 the fame time is evident.”
n Phis feft Themifon was old when he laid the foundation of
f[ “’’ythe Methodic fed; and it was only brought to perfec-
>1 pheffaluT tl0n ky Theflalus, who lived under the emperor Nero.
Galen and Pliny accufe this phyfician of intolerable in-
folence and vanity ; and report, that he gave himfelf
the air of defpifing all other phyficians: and fo into¬
lerable was his vanity, that he affumed the title of the
conqueror of phyfcians, which he caufed to be put up¬
on his tomb in the Appian way. “ Never was moun¬
tebank (fays Pliny) attended by a greater number of
fpeftators than Theflalus had generally about him ;
and this circumftance is the lefs to be wondered at, if
we confider that he promifed to teach the whole art of
medicine in lefs than fix months. In reality, the art
might be learned much fooner if it comprehended no
more than what the methodifts thought neceflary : for
they cut off the dogmatics examination ofthecaufes of
difeafes; and fubftituted in the room of the laborious
obfervations of the empirics, indications drawn from
the analogy of difeafes, and the mutual refemblance
they bear to each other. The moil Ikilful of all the
methodic fed, and he who put the lad hand to it, was
Soranus. He lived under the emperors Trajan and A-
8, drian, and was a native of Ephefus.
Doctrine of One of the moft celebrated medicinal writers of an-
Celfus. tiquity was the Celfus whom we have already had oc-
cafion to mention. Moft; writers agree, that he lived
in the time of Tiberius, but his country is uncertain.
It is even difputed whether or not he was a profeffed
phyfician. Certain it is, however, that his books on
medicine are the moft valuable of all the ancients next
to thofe of Hippocrates. From the latter, indeed, he
hath taken fo much, as to acquire the name of the La-
. tin Hippodrates ; but he hath not attached himfelf to
him fo clofely as to rejeft the affiftance of other au¬
thors. In many particulars he has preferred Afcle-
piades. With him he laughs at the critical days of
Hippocrates, and afcribes the invention of them to
a foolifti and fuperftitious attachment to the Pythago¬
rean doftrine of numbers. He alfo reje&ed the doc¬
trine of Hippocrates with regard to venefe&ion, of
which he made a much more general ufe; but did not
take away fo much at a time, thinking it much better
to repeat the operation than weaken the patient by too
great an evacuation at one time. He ufed cupping
alfo much more frequently, and differed from him
with regard to purgatives. In the beginning of dif¬
orders, he faid, the patients ought to endure hunger
and thirft : but afterwards they were to be nourilhed
with good aliments ; of which, however, they were not
to take too much, nor fill themfelves all of a fudden,
after having failed. He does not fpecify how long
ga the patient ought to pra&ife abftinence ; but affirms.
He put no that in this particular it is neceflary to have a regard
confidence to the difeafe, the patient, the feafon, the climate, and
drawn 'from ot^er c*rcumftances °f a hke nature.—The figns drawn
the pulfe. fr°m t^ie Pu^e he looked upon to be very precarious
and uncertain. “ Some (fays he) lay great ftrefs up¬
on the beating of the veins or the arteries ; which is a
deceitful circumftance, fince that beating is flow or
quick, and varies very much, according to the age, fex,
and conftitution of the patient. It even fometimes
happens that the pulfe is weak and languid when the
ftomach is difordered, or in the beginning of a fever,
though in other refpe&s the body be in a good ftate;
fo that we might, in this latter cafe, be induced to be¬
lieve, that a man is very weak, when he is juft enter¬
ing into a violent paroxyfm, has ftrength enough left,
and may be eafily recovered from it. On the con¬
trary, the pulfe is often high, and in a violent com¬
motion, when one has been expofed to the fun, or
comes out of a bath, or from ufing exercife ; or when
one is under the influence of anger, fear, or any other
paffion. Befides, the pulfe is eafily changed by the
arrival of the phyiician, in confequence of the patient’s
anxiety to know what judgment he will pafs upon his
cafe. To prevent this, the phyfician muft not feel the
patient’s pulfe on his firft arrival: he muft firft fit down
by him, aflume a cheerful air, inform himfelf of his con¬
dition ; and if he is under any dread, endeavour to re¬
move it by encouraging difcourfe; after which he may
examine the beating of the artery. This neverthelefs
does not hinder us from concluding, that if the fight
of the phyfician alone can produce fo remarkable a
change in the pulfe, a thoufand other caufes may pro¬
duce the fame effeft.” 85
About the 131ft year after Chrift, in the reign of Account ef
the emperor Adrian, lived the celebrated Galen, a na-Galei1,
live of Pergamus, whofe name makes fuch a confpicu-
ous figure in the hiftory of phyfic. At this time the
dogmatic, empiric, methodic, and other feds, had
each their abettors. The methodics were held in
great efteem, and looked upon to be fuperior to the
dogmatics, who were ftrangely divided among them¬
felves, fome of them following Hippocrates, others
Erafiftratus, and others Afclepiades. The empi¬
rics made the leaft confiderable figure of any. Ga¬
len undertook the reformation of medicine, and re-
ftored dogmatifm. He feems to have been of that
fed which was called ccleflic, from their choofingout
of different authors what they efteemed good in them,
without being particularly attached to any one more
than the reft. This declaration he indeed fets out
with; but, notwithftanding this, he follows Hippo¬
crates much more than any of the reft, or rather fol¬
lows nobody elfe but him. Though before his time fe-
veral phyficians had commented on the works of Hip¬
pocrates, yet Galen pretends that none of them had
underftood his meaning befides himfelf. His firft at¬
tempt therefore was to explain the works of Hippo¬
crates; with which view he wrote a great deal, and af¬
ter this let about compofing a fyftem of his own. In
one of his books entitled, “ Of the eftablifliment of
medicine,” he defines the art to be one which teaches
to preferve health and cure difeafes. In another book,
however, he propofes the following defirution : “ Me¬
dicine (fays he) is a fcience which teaches what is
found, and what is not fo; and what is of an indiffe¬
rent nature, or holds a medium between what is found
and what is the reverfe.” He affirmed, that there are
three things which conftitute the objeft of medicine,
and which the phyfician ought to confider as found, as
net
459°
M E D I
not found, oi* of a neutral and iridifferent nature.
Thefe are the body itfelf, the figns, and the caufes.
He efteems the human body found, when it is in a
good ftate or habit with regard to the fmiple parts of
which it is cotnpofed, and when befides there is a juft
proportion between the organs formed of thefe fimple
parts. On the contrary, the body is reckoned to be
unfoUrid, when it recedes from that ftate, and the juft
proportion abovemehtioned. It is in a ftate of neu¬
trality or indifference, when it is in a medium between
foundnefs and its oppofite ftate. The falutary figns
are fuch as indicate prefent health, and prognofticate
that the man may remain in that ftate for the time to
come. The infalubrious figns, on the contrary, indi¬
cate a prefent diforder, or lay a foundation for fufpec-
ting the approach of one. The neutral figns, or fuch
as are of an indifferent nature, denote neither health
nor indifpofition, either for the prefent, or for the time
to come. In like manner he fpeaks of caufes falutary,
unfalutary, and indifferent.
Thefe three difpofitiems of the human body, that is,
foundrtefs, its reverfe, and a neutral ftate, comprehend
all the differences between health, and diforder, and in¬
difpofition : and each of thefe three ftates or difpofi-
tions has a certain extent peculiar to itfelf. A found
habit of body, according to the definition of it already
given, is very rare, and perhaps never to be met with ;
but this does not hinder us to fuppofe fuch a model for
regulating our judgment with refpeft to different eon-
ftitutions. On this principle Galen eftabliftves eight
other principal eonftitutions, all of which differ more
or lefs from the perfeft model abovementroned. The
four fir ft are fuch as have one of the four qualities of
hot, cold, moift, or dry, prevailing in too great a
degree ; and accordingly receive their denomination
from that quality which prevails over the reft. The
four other fpecies of conftitntions receive their deno¬
minations from a combination of the abovementioned;
fo that, according to his definition, there may be a hot
and dry, a hot and moift, a cold and moift, and a
cold and dry conftitution. Befides thefe differences,
there are certain others which refult from occult and
latent caufes, and which, by Galen, are faid to arife
from an idiojyncrafy of conftitution. It is owing to this
idiofyncrafy, that fortie have an averfion to one kind
of aliment and fome to another, that fome cannot en¬
dure particular fmells, &c. But though thefe eight
Jaft mentioned conftitutions fall fhort of the perfec¬
tion of the firft, it does not thence follow, that thofe
to whom they belong are to be claffed among the va-
fetudinary and difeafed. A difeafe only begins when
the deviation becomes fo great as to hinder the action
of the parts.
Galen defcribes at great length the figns of a good
Or bad conftitutioii, as well as thofe of what he calls a
neutral habit. Thefe figns are drawn from the origi¬
nal qualities of cold, hot, moift, and dry, and from
their juft proportion or difproportion with refpetft to
the bulk, figure, and fituation, of the organical parts.
With Hippocrates he eftablifhes three principles of an
animal-body; the parts, the humours, and the fpirits.
By the parts he properly meant no more than the fo-
lid parts; and thefe he divided into fimilar and ©rga-
nical. Like Hippocrates he alfo acknowledged four
humours; the blood, the phlegm, the yellow and
CINE. Hiflary'
black bile ; and of thefe he gave the fame definitions
with thofe already taken notice of under Hippocrates,
He eftabliihed three different kinds of fpirits; the vi¬
tal, the animal, and the natural. The firft of thefe
are, according to him, nothing elfe but a fubtle va¬
pour arifing from the blood, which draws its origin
from the liver, the organ, or inftrument of fanguifi-
cation. After thefe fpirits are conveyed to the heart,
they, in conjun&ion with the air we draw into the
lungs, become the matter of the fecond fpecies, that
is, of the vital fpirits, which are again changed into
thofe of the animal kind in the brain. He fuppofed
that thefe three fpecies of fpirits ferved as iaftruments
to three kinds of faculties, which refide in the refpec*
live parts where thefe faculties are formed. The na¬
tural faculty is the firft of thefe, which he placed in
the liver, and imagined to prefide over the nutrition,
growth, and generation, of the animal. The vital fa¬
culty he lodged in the heart, and fuppofed that by
means of the arteries it communicated warmth and life
to all the body. The animal faculty, the nobleft of
all the three, and with which the reafoning or govern¬
ing faculty was joined, according to him, has its feat
in the brain; and, by means of the nerves, diftribute*
a power of motion and fenfation to all the parts, and
prefides over all the other faculties. The original
fource or principle of motion in all thefe faculties,
Galen, as well as Hippocrates, defines to be Nature.
Upon thefe principles Galen defined a difeafe to be
“ fuch a preternatural difpoiiuen or affe&ion of the
parts of the body, as primarily, and of itfelf, hinders
their natural and proper a&ion.” He eftablifhed three
principal kinds of difeafes : the firft relates to the fi¬
milar parts ; the feeond, to the organical; and the
third is common to both thefe parts. The firft kind
of difeafes confifts in the intemperature of the fimilar
parts; and this is divided into an intemperature •with¬
out matter., and an intemperature <xaiih matter. The
firft difcovers itfelf when a part has more or lefs heat
or cold than it ought to have without that change of
quality in the part being fupported and maintained by
any matter. Thus,-for inttance, a perfon s head may
be overheated and indifpofed by being expofed to the
heat of the fun, without that heat being maintained by
the continuance or congeftion of any hot humour in
the part. The fecond fort of intemperature Is when
any part is not only rendered hot or cold, but alfo fill¬
ed with a hot or cold humour, which are the caufes
of the heat or cold felt in the part. Galen alfo ac¬
knowledged a fimple intemperature ; that is, when one
of the original qualities, fuch as heat or cold, exceeda
alone and feparately ; and a compound intemperature,
when two qualities are joined together, fuch as heat
and drynefs, or coldnefs and humidity. He alfo efta-
bliihed an equal and unequal temperature. The for¬
mer is that which is equally in all the body, or in any
particular part of it, and which creates no pain, be-
eairfe it is become habitual, fuch as drynefs in the hec¬
tic conftitution. The latter is diftinguilhed from the
former, in that it does not equally fubfift in the whole
of the body, or in the whole of a part. Of this kind
of intemperature we have examples in certain fevers,
where heat and cold, equally, and almoft at the fame
time, attack the fame part; or in other fevers, which
render the furface of the body cold as ice, while the
inter-
Hiftory. M E D I
internal parts burn with heat s or laftly, in cafee where
the ftomaeh is cold and the lirer hot.
The fecond kind of diforders, relating to the orga*
nical parts, refults from irregularities of thefe parts,
with refpeft to the number, bulk, figure, fnuatton,
&c.; as when one has fiK fingers, or only four; when
cne has any part larger or fmaller than it ought to be,
&c. The third kind, which is common both to the
fimilar and the organical parts, is a folution of conti¬
nuity, which happens when any fimilar or compound
part is out, bruifed, or corroded.
Like Hippocrates, Galen diftinguifhed difeafes into
acute and chronical ; and, with refpedt to their nature
and genius, into benign and malignant; alfo into epi¬
demic, endemic, and fporadic.
After having diftinguilhed the kinds of difeafes, Ga¬
len comes to explain the caufes 5 which he divides into
external and internal. The external caufes of difeafes,
according to him, are fix things, which contribute to
the prefervation of health when they are well difpofed
and properly ufed, but produce a contrary effeft
when they are imprudently ufed or ill difpofed. Thefe
fix things are, the air, aliments and drink, motion
and reft, fleeping and watching, retention and excre¬
tion, and laftly the paffions. All thefe are called
the procataretic or bfginning caufes, becaufe they put
In motion the internaj caufes; which are of two kinds,
the antecedent and the conjunli. The former is dif-
covered only by reafoning; and confifts for the mod
part in a peccancy of the humours, cither by pleni¬
tude or cacochymy, i.e. a bad ftateof them. When
the humours are in too large a quantity, the cafe is
called * plethora } but wemuft obferve, that this word
equally denotes too large a quantity of all the humours
together, or a redundance of one particular humour
which prevails over the reft. According to thefe prin¬
ciples, there may be a fanguine, a bilious, a pituitous,
or a melancholy plenitude : but there is this difference
between the fanguine and the three other plenitudes,
that the blood, which is the matter of the former, may
far furpafs the reft 5 whereas, if any of the three laft
mentioned ones do fo, the cafe is no longer called pleni-
tude» but taeochymy; becaufe thefe humours, abound¬
ing more than they ought, corrupt the blood. The
caufes he alfo divides into fuch as are manifeft and evi¬
dent, and fuch as are latent and obfeure. The firft are
fiicb as fpontaneoufly come under the cognizance of
our fenfes when they aft or produce their effefts : the
fecond are not of themfelves perceptible, but may be
difeovered by reafoning; the third fort, /. t. fuch
as he call* occult or concealed, cannot be difeovered at
all. Among this laft he places the caufe of the hy¬
drophobia.
He next proceeds to confider the fymptoms of dif¬
eafes. A fymptom he defines to be “ a preternatural
affeftfon depending upon a difeafe, or which follows it
as a lhadow does a body." He acknowledged three
kinds of fymptoms ; the firft and moft confiderable of
thefe confided in the aftion of the parts being injured
or hindered ; the fecond in a change of the quality of
the parts, their aftions in the mean time remaining
entire 5 the third related to defefts in point of excre¬
tion and retention.
After having treated of fymptoms, Galen treats of
the Jigns of difeafes. Thefe are divided into dia?-
Vei, VI. i
cine; 459I
noftic and prognoftic. The firft are fo called becaufe
they enable us to know difeafes, and diftinguifh them
from each other. They are of two forts, pathognomic
and adjuntt. The firft are peculiar to every difeafe,
make known its precife fpecies, and always accom¬
pany it, fo that they begin and end with it. The
fecond are common to fevcral difeafes, and only ferve
to point out the difference between difeafes of the
fame fpecies. In a pleurify, for inftance, the pathog¬
nomic figns are a cough, a difficulty of breathing, a
pain of the fide, and a continued fever. The adjunft
figns are the various forts of matter expeftorated,
which are fometimes bloody, fometimes bilious, &c.
—The diagnoftic figns were drawn from the defeftive
or difordered difpofition of the parts, or from the
difeafes themfelves; fecondly, from the caufes of
difeafes; thirdly, from their fymptoms; and laftly,
from the particular difpofitions of each body, from
things which prove prejudicial and thofe that do
fervice, and from epidemical difeafes.—The prognoftic
figns he gathered from the fpecies, virulence, and
peculiar genius of the difeafe ; but as we have already
fpoken fo largely concerning the prognoftics of Hip¬
pocrates, it is fuperfluous to be particular on thofe of B4
Galen.—-His methodof cure differed little from that of Difference
Hippocrates: but from the fpeeimen already given be.tween ‘h*
of Galen’s method of teaching the medicinal art, it is Hl? p,c.rat!e
evident that his fyftem was little elfe than a heap ofryfteros.enM:
fpeculations, diftinftions, and reafonings; whereas that
of Hippocrates was founded immediately upon fafts,
which he had either oblerved himfelf, or had from the
obfervation of others.
In confequence of the eftabliihment of fuch a fyftem,
the medicinal art, as well as others during the dark
ages of popery, came to be reduced to a heap of
quibbling diftinftions and metaphyfical nonfenfe.—-
After the days of Galen, however, the knowledge of
medicine did not immediately decline. Dr Freind is
of opinion that it continued to advance till the year
600. He cenfures Mr Le Clerc for placing the
phyficians Oribafius, Aetius, Alexander, and Paulus
iEgineta, all without any diftinftion, fin the fourth cen¬
tury ; and ftill more for placing Diodes Caryftius
500 years after Chrift, when he fhould, according to
him, have been placed 300 years before him. 8y
Oribafius flouriftied about the year 360, and wasAc.ccunt
phyfician to the emperor Julian. He fpeaks very 0,lbali‘,s'
fully of the effefts of bleeding by way of fcarification,
a thing little taken notice of by former writers : from
his own experience he affures us that he had found it
fuccefsful in a fuppreffion of the menfes, defluxions
of the eyes, hcadach, and ftraitnefs of breathing even1
when the perfon was extremely old. He tells his own
cafe particularly, when the plague raged in Afia,
and he himfelf was taken ill, that the feCond day he
fcarified his leg, and took away two pounds of blood;
by which method he entirely recovered, as did feveral
others who ufed it. In this author alfo we find the
firft defeription of a furprifing and terrible diftemper 8<
called MKccvepanu, a fpecies of melancholy and mad. New di-
nefs, which he deferibes thus. “ The perfons affefted fte5nper dc*
go out of their houfes in the night-time, and in every^bcdb?
thing imitate wolves, and wander among the fepulchres
of the dead till day break. You may know them by
thefe fymptoms: Their looks are pale; their eyes '
26 A heavy,
4592 MED!
heavy, hollow, dry, without the lead moiiture of a
tear ; their tongue exceedingly parched and dry, no
fpittle in their mouth, extreme third ; their legs, from
the falls and the bruifes they receive, full of incurable
fores and ulcers.” A&uarius adds, that at day-break
they return home, and come to their fenfes. This
defcription refembles that of the demoniac cured by
our Saviour, and this man’s poffeflion was probably a
fpecies of the fame madnefs.
.AeJus. Aetius lived very near the end of the fifth, or in the
beginning of the fixth century. Many paflages in
hit writings ferve to fhew us how much the actual and
potential cautery were ufed by the phyficians of that
age. In a palfy, he fays from the works of another
phyfician, that he (hould not at all hefitate to make
an efchar either way, and this in feveral places ; one
in the nape, where the fpinal marrow takes its rife,
two on each fide of it; three or four on the top of the
head, one juft in the middle, and the three others
round it. He adds, that in this cafe, if the ulcers
continue running a good while, he ftiould not doubt
of a perfedl recovery. He is ftill more particular
when he comes to order this application for an in¬
veterate afthma, after all other remedies have been
tried in vain. One, he fays, ftiould be made on each
fide near the middle of the joining, of the clavicle,
taking care not to touch the wind-pipe : two other
little ones are then to be made near the carotids under
the chin, one on each fide, fo that the cauftic may
penetrate no further than the ikin ; two others under
the breafts, between the third and fourth ribs ; and
again, two more backwards towards the fifth and
fixth ribs. BeflUes thefe there ought to be one in the
middle of the thorax near the beginning of the xi¬
phoid cartilage over the orifice of the ftomach ; one
on each fide between the eighth and ninth ribes ;
and three others in the back, one in the middle, and
the two others juft below it, on each fide of the ver¬
tebrae. Thofe below the neck ought to be pretty
large, not very fuperficial, nor very deep : and all
thefe ulcers fttould be kept open for a very long
time.
The ufe of iffues was indeed known to Hippocrates.
They ufed both the a&ual and potential cautery for
making them ; the former of which is preferred by
many, becaufe the efchar made by it feparates much
fooner than the other. The moft confiderable diffe¬
rence between the ancient and modern pra&ice with
regard to iffues is, that the ancient phyficians fome-
times made them near a bone, as in the nape, the
clavicles, &c. where if any thing is put in to keep the
iffue open, it muft prefs upon the periofteum, and
create great pain ; befides that in fuch a part the
difcharge, on which the cure chiefly depends, can
never be fo confiderable. As for that particular
fpecies of iffues called fetons, we find them plainly de-
fcribed bv Langfranc, above 400 years ago; and if
we examine into the writers before Langfranc, we
fhall find the pra&ice ftill more ancient. Roland, who
Jived in the 13th century, not only mentions the
thing, but ufes the very word, and gives a defcription
how the needle with the thread fhould be paffed.
Aetius takes notice of the worms bred in different
parts of the body called dracunculi, which were un¬
known to Galen.—H« feems alfo to be the firft Greek
CINE, Hiflory.
writer among the Chriftians who gives us any fpeci-
men of medicinal fpelis and charms; fuch as that of
a finger of St Blafius for removing a bone which tticks
in the throat, and another in relation to a fiftula.
He gives a remedy for the gout, which he calls the
grand drier: the patient is to ufe it for a whole year,
and ebferve the following diet each month. “ In
September, he muft eat and drink milk : In O&ober,
he muft eat garlic; in November, abftain from ba¬
thing ; in December, he muft eat no cabbage; in
January, he is to take a glafs of pure wine in the
morning ; in February, to eat no beet; in March, to
mix fweet things both in eatables and drinkables; in
April, not to eat horfe-radifti, nor in May the fifti
called polypus; in June, to drink cold water in a
morning ; in July, to avoid venery ; and laftly, in
Auguft to eat no mallows.” This may futficiently
(hew the quackery of thofe times, and how fuperfti-
tion was beginning to mix itfelf with the art.
Alexander, who flourifhed in the reign of J«ft»nian, Ajex^dcr#
is a more original author than either of the two for¬
mer. He confines himfelf dire&ly to the defcribing
the figns of difeafes, and the methods of cure, with¬
out meddling with anatomy, the materia medica, or
furgery, as all the reft did. He employs a whole
book in treating of the gout. One method he takes
of relieving this difeafe is by purging; and in moft of
the purges he recommends hermodaftyls, of which he
has a great opinion.—In a caufus, or burning fever,
where the bile is predominant, the matter fit for
evacuation, and the fever not violent, he prefers
purging to bleeding, and fays that he has often ordered
purging in acute fevers ; which method, fays Dr
Freind, when ufed with judgment, is frequently
attended with fuprifing fuccefs.—In the caufus alfo,
if a fyncope happens from crude and redundant hu¬
mours, he recommends bleeding. In a fyncope fuc-
ceeding the fuppreffion of any ufual evacuation, he re¬
commends bleeding, with fri&ions. The diagnoftics
upon which he founds this pradh'ce are the following;
viz. a face paler and more fwelled than ufual, a bloated
habit of body, with a little fluggiftr pulfe, having long
intervals between the ftrokes.—In tertian, and much
more in quartan fevers, he recommends vomits above
all other remedies, and affirms that by this remedy
alone he has cured the moft inveterate quartans.—On
the bulimus, or canine appetite, he makes a new ob-
fervation, viz. that it is fometimes caufed by worms.
He mentions the cafe of a woman who laboured un¬
der this ravenous appetite, and had a perpetual gnaw¬
ing at her ftomach and pain in her head ; after taking
hiera, (he voided a worm above a dozen of cubits
long, and was entirely cured of her complaints.—He
is alfo the firft author who takes notice of rhubarb;
which he recommends in a weaknefs of the liver and
dyfentery.—Alexander is recommended by Dr Freind
as one of the btft practical writers among the ancients,
and well worthy the perufal of any modern. g3
Paulus was born in the ifland ^Egina, and lived in Paulus
the 7th century. He tranfcribes a great deal from-^S*11^-
Alexander and other phyficians. His defcriptiong
are (hort and full. He treats particularly of womens
diforders; and feems to be the firft inftance upon re¬
cord of a profeffed man-midiuife, for fo he was called
by the Arabians: and accordingly he begins his book
with
IHiftorf. M E D I
with the difcwders incident to pregnant women. He
treats alfo very fully of furgery; and gives fome di¬
rections, according to Dr Freind, not to be found in
po the more ancient writers.
Account of With this phyfician clofes the period of the Greek
the Arabi- claffical phylicians. As for the weftern parts of the
»n phylici- wor]tj) every art and fcience had been long loft in
iDs- them, by the inundation of Goths and other barba¬
rous nations who over-ran the Roman empire. The
Arabians, who about this time over ran the eaftern
parts of the world, were at firft as great enemies to
learning of all kinds as the Goths; but at length they
applied themfelves to the ftudy of feveral fciences,
particularly medicine. They were for the moft part,
indeed, only copiers of the Greeks; we are, however,
indebted to them for fome improvements. They were
the firft who introduced chemical remedies, though of
thefe they ufed but few, nor did they make any con-
fiderable progrefs in the chemical art. Anatomy was
not in the leaft improved by them, nor did furgery
receive any advancement till the time of Albucafis,
who lived, probably, in the lath century. They
added a great deal to botany and the materia medica,
by the introduction of new drugs, of the aromatic
kind efpecially, from the eaft, many of which are of
confiderable ufe. They alfo found out the way of
making fugar; and by help of that, fyrups; which two
new materials are of great ufe in mixing up compound
medicines.
With regard to their pra&ice, in fome few particu¬
lars they deviated from the Greeks. Their purging
medicines were much milder than thofe formerly in
ufe; and even when they did prefcribe the old ones,
they gave them in a much lefs dofe than formerly.
Difpute The fame reflection may be made concerning their
concerning manner of bleeding, which was never to that exceffive
blood let- degree praCtifed by the Greeks. They deviated from
“1S* Hippocrates, however, in one very trivial circum-
ilance, which produced a terrible controverfy. The
qucftion was, Whether blood in a pleurify ought to
be drawn from the arm of the affeCted fide, or the
oppofite. Hippocrates had direCted it to be drawn
from the arm of the affeCted fide; but the Arabians,
following fome other ancient phyficians, ordered it to
be drawn from the oppofite one. Such was the igno¬
rance of thofe ages, that the univerfity of Salamanca
in Spain made a decree, that no one fhould dare to
let blood but in the contrary arm; and endeavoured to
procure an edift from the emperor Charles V. to fecond
it; alleging that the other method was of no lefs per¬
nicious confequence to medicine, than Luther’s herefy
had been to religion.
9} By reafon of the general decay of learning in the
phikians weftern Parts of the world, the Greek writers became
moftly ap- totally forgot, becaufe nobody could read the lan-
plauded. guage; and the Arabians, though moftly copiers
from them, enjoyed all the reputation that was due to
the others. The Arabian phyfic was introduced into
Europe very early, with the moft extravagant ap-
plaufe ; and not only this, but other branches of their
learning came into repute in the weft; infomuch that
in the I ith century, the ftudies of natural philofophy
and the liberal arts were called the Jhtdies of the Sara-
sens. This was owing partly to the crufades under¬
taken againft them by the European princes; and
CINE. 4593
partly to the fettlement of the Moors in Spain, and
the intercourfe they and other Arabians had with the
Italians. For, long before the time of the crufades,
probably in the middle of the 7th century, there were
Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin profeffors of phyfic fettled r it ^ f
at Salernum: which place foon grew into fuch credit, sa|er,,um
that Charles the Great thought proper to found a founded,
college there in the year 802 ; the only one at that
time in Europe. Conftantine the African flourirtied
here towards the latter end of the 1 ith century. He
was a native of Carthage; but travelled into the eaft,
and fpent 30 years in Babylon and Bagdad, by which
means he became mafter of the oriental languages and
learning. He returned to Carthage; but being in¬
formed of an attempt againft his life, made his
efcape into Apulia, where he was recommended to
Robert Guifcard, created, in 1060, duke of that
country, who made him his fecretaiy. He was
reputed to be very well verfed in the Greek, as
well as the eaftern tongues; and feems to have been
the firft who introduced either the Greek or Arabian
phyfic into Italy. His works, however, contain no¬
thing that is new, or material ; though he was then
counted a very learned man, and for that age no doubt
was fo.
From this time to the end of the 15th and begin¬
ning of the 16th century, the hiftory of phyfic fur-
niflies us with no interefting particulars. This period,
however, is famous for the introduftion of chemiftry
into medicine, and the difcovery of three new diftem-
pers, the fweating ficknefs, the venereal difeafe, and
the fcurvy. The fweating ficknefs began in 1483, in
the army of Henry VII. upon his landing at Milford- an,e 0f the
haven, and fpread itfelf at London from the 21ft offweating
September to the end of Oftober. It returned here ficknefs-
five times, and always in fummer; firft in 1485, then
in 1506, afterwards in 15x7, when it was fo violent
that it killed many in the fpace of three hours, fo that
numbers of the nobility died, and of the commonalty
in fevcral towns often the one-half perilhed. It ap¬
peared the fourth time in 1528, and then proved mor¬
tal in fix hours ; many of the courtiers died of it, and
Henry VIII. himfelf was in danger. In 1529, and
only then, it infefted the Netherlands and Germany,
in which laft country it did much mifchief. The laft
return of it was in 1551, and in Weftminfter it carried
off 120 in a day. Dr Caius defcribes it as a peftilent
contagious fever, of the duration of one natural day:
the fweat he reckoned to be only a natural fymptom,
or crifis of the diftemper. It firft affeded fome par¬
ticular part, attended with inward heat and burning,
unquenchable thirft, reftleffnefs, ficknefs at ftomach
but feldom vomiting, head-ach, delirium, then faint-
nefs, and txceflive drowfinefs. The pulfc was quick
and vehement, and the breath fliort and labouring.
Children, poor and old people, were lefs fubjed to it.
Of others, fcarce any efcaped the attack, and moft of
them died. Even by travelling into France or Flan¬
ders they did not efcape ; and, what is ftill more
ftrange, the Scots were not affeded : abroad the Eng-
lifh only were feized, and foreigners in England were
free. At firft the phyficians were much puzzled how
to treat this difeaft. The only cure they ever found,
however, was to carry on the fweat for a long time;
for, if flopped, it was dangerous or fatal. The way
26 A 2 therefore
4594
MEDICINE-
therefore was to be patient and lie dill, and not catch
cold. If nature was not ttrong enough to force out
the fweat, it was neceflary to afiift her by art, with
doaths, wine. See. The violence of the ditlemper
was over in 15 hours; but there was no fecurity for
the patient till 24 were paffed. In fome ftrong con-
ftitutions there was a neceffity to repeat the fweating;
even to 12 times. The removing out of bed was at¬
tended with great danger; fome who had not fweated
enough fell into very ill fevers. No flelh-meat was to be
allowed in all the time of the diftemper ; nor drink
for the firft five hours. In the feventb, the diftemper in-
creafed; in the ninth the delirium came on, and fleep
was by all means to be avoided. However terrible
this diftemper appeared at firft, it feldom proved
obftioate if treated in the above-mentioned man-
Chemiftry
introduced
Appear¬
ance of the
venereal
dtfeafc
In the beginning of the 16th century, the famous
chemift Paracelfus introduced a new fyftem into me¬
dicine, founded on the principles of his art. The
Galenical fyftem had prevailed till his time; but their
pra&ice had greatly degenerated, and wa* become
quite trifling and frivolous. The phyficians rejected
the ufe of opium, mercury, and other efficacious re¬
medies. Paracelfus, who made ufe of thefe, had
therefore greatly the advantage over them ; and now
all things relating to medicine were explained on ima¬
ginary chemical principles. It will eafily be con¬
ceived that a prafiice founded in this manner could
be no other than the moft dangerous quackery. At
this time, however, it was neceffary; for now a new
difeafe over-ran the world, and threatened greater de-
ftru&ion than almoft all the old ones put together,
both by the violence of its fymptoms, and its baffling
the moft powerful remedies at that time known.—
This was the venereal difeafe, which is faid to have been
imported from the Weft-Indies by the companions of
Chriftopher Columbus. Its firft remarkable appear¬
ance was at the fiege of Naples in 1494, from whence
it was foon after propagated through Europe, Afia,
and Africa. The fymptoms with which it made the
attack at that time were exceedingly violent, much
Hiftoty,
more fo than they are at prefent; and eonfeqoently
were utterly unconquerable by the Galenifts. The
quacks and chemifts, who boldly ventured on mer¬
cury, though they no doubt deftroyed numbers by
their excelfive ufe of it, yet (hewed that a remedy for
this terrible diftemper was at laft found out. and that
a proper method of treating it might foon be fallen
upon. Shortly after, the Weft-Indian fpecific, gnaia-
cum, was difeovered: the materia medica was enriched
with that and many other valuable medicines, both
from the Eaft and Weft-Indies; which contributed
confiderably to the improvement of the pradice of py
pbyfic. The feurvy likewife began to fpread during Of the i'cur*
the courfe of this century. It had firft appeared, mvy*
i486, in Mifnia; where it not only proved very dan¬
gerous, but was alfo contagious. It probably owed
its origin to an unwholefome fea-diet. The mariners
of Saxony called it fcharhvck, which, in their lan¬
guage, fignifies infiamtnation; and this it feems was
one way in which it at firft appeared, and terminated
often in a gangrene. It brake out among the Por-
tuguefe failors in fome of their voyages to the Eaft-
Indies, and in 1600 .fpread hfelf through the moft of
Europe; nor were the proper remedies for it difeovered
till very lately.
The revival of learning, which now took place
throughout Europe, the appearance of thefe new dif-
tempers, and the natural fondnefs of mankind for
novelty, contributed greatly to promote the advance¬
ment of medicine as well as other fciences. It was cirCu]3tjja|
not, however, till the year 1628 that a foundation of the
was laid for a folid and rational fyftem. This was blood dif- i
done by Dr Harvey, who difeovered the circulationcoveml*
of the blood; which may juftly be reckoned the moft
capital difeovery that ever was made with regard to
the pradice of medicine. The immediate confe-
quences of it were, that all the vain and fanciful theo¬
ries of the ancients were thrown afide, and others
more rational eftabliihed in their place. How far
thefe have yet been afeertained, fo as to be fafely taken
for a diredion to the pradical phyfician in all cafes,
we now proceed to inquire.
PartI. THEORY of MEDICINE.
Sect. I. General account of Theories to the
time of Hoffman.
M«th\mati- T> E F O R E the time of Harvey, who difeovered
cal or me- the circulation of the blood, though every phyfi-
chanical cian had fome kind of theory of his own, yet, as all of
theory. thefe were built Up0n principles in themfelves errone¬
ous, and inconfiftent with what has been fince difeovered
concerning the ftrudure of the human body, they are
bow quite unworthy of notice. But, on the difeovery
of the circulation of the blood, matters took a diffe¬
rent turn, and phyficians began to aim at eftablilhing
a theory of medicine upon more folid and confiftent
principles. It was generally agreed, that the circula¬
tion was the capital and vital fundion of the body,
and that upon it the life and health did immediately
depend. The blood was confidered as it were the
frimum mobile of the whole body; and to fomething
in the blood all the diforders to which the human race
are liable, were thought to be owing.
About this time, alfo, the laws of mechanics began
to be better and more generally underftood; and va¬
rious theories were formed with a defign to account
for all the phenomena of the human body upon mathe.
matical or mechanical principles. Calculations were
made concerning the diameters of the veflels, their
gradual diminution, the fridion of the blood againft
their fides, the force of the heart, &c. Thus were ma¬
thematics introduced into phyfic, and every thing re¬
lative to the human body was thought to be perform¬
ed by the mere force of fuch mechanical powers as we
are acquainted with, and whofe effeds we obferve in
pumps, ftcam-engines, and other hydraulic machines.
This confequences of this dodrine, however, foon
deftroyed the principles on which it was founded; and
fuch prodigious powers were attributed to the adion
of fome parts of the body, as were much more than
fufficient
Part I. M E D I
Theory. fufBcfcnt to deftroy the texture of the parts themftlves,
Digeftion, for example, was thought to be accomplilh-
etl by the mere mechanical prelfure of the ftomach up¬
on the aliments contained in it, and Dr Pitcairn cal¬
culated this preffure at more than 5000 pounds weight:
but, by a ftrange and almoft unaccountable overfight,
be did not advert, that upon his hypothefia the foft
texture of the vifcus would have been totally deftroy-
ed by the hardnefs of fome parts of the aliments fwal-
lowed even by the human fpecies, and much more in
other animals ; as we fee that dogs will fwallow and
digeft even the hardeft bones. The immenfe differen¬
ces alfo between the calculations of different mathema¬
ticians, fhewed evidently, that either fome other power
than mere mecbanifm was concerned in the operations
of the human body, or that its mechanifm was of a dif¬
ferent kind from that which takes place in machines
conftrufted by art.
The greateft difficulty the mechanical phyficians
had to encounter arofe from the phenomena of mufen-
lar motion. The force of the mufcles in contra&ion
is obferved to be fo great, that it feems fcarce poffible
to account for it upon mechanical principles. At¬
tempts were made indeed to overcome this difficulty.
The mnfcular fibres were fuppofed to be full «f fmall
cells, which, being inflated by the animal-fpirits deri¬
ved from the brain through the nerves, fhortened the
length of the mufcle, and thus caufed it to com raft.
But, even allowing this hypothefis to be true, another
difficulty, equally great, arofe from it ; namely, to ac¬
count for the origin of this prodigious power attribu-
ioo ted to the animal-fpirits. To evade this difficulty,
Theory of Stahl maintained, that the rational and immaterial foul
Stahl. itfelf was the fburce of all the motions of the human
body; and that by the direftion of this fpiritual be¬
ing every thing was condufted, both with relation to
the motion of the mufcle, and to every fu'uftion both
vital and natural.
The confeqoences of this fyftem were ftill worfe
than thofe of the former; for now metaphyfics were
fuperadded to mathematics, and phyficians were tempt¬
ed to negleft the anatomy of the body, and to inter¬
meddle with fpiritual fubjefts which they could by no
means comprehend. Neither could the moft rigid
Stahlians deny, that in many cafes the human body
is fubjeft to the common laws of mechanifm:; fo that
their fyftem, inftead of explaining, tended to fet afide
all kind of reafoning, and to involve every thing in
darknefs.
But, befides the mechanical theory, another was in¬
vented foon after Harvey’s difeovery of the circula¬
tion, by which every thing was aferibed to an altera-
tion in the quality of the blood itfelf. This took its
Dr Boer- r^e principally from fome microfcopic obfervations of
haave’s the- Lewenhoek; and was adopted by Boerhaave, who bath
ory. moft fully explained it. He begins with confidering
the difeafes arifing from a weaknefs and laxity of the
ultimate and fineft fibres of the human body. This, he
fays, is immediately owing to an obftruftion in the
converfionof the aliments into healthy juices: and this
again to too great a confumption of good fluids, to
the fluggifhnefs of the power of the folids over the
fluids, or the too great vifeidity of the aliments them-
felves ; or it may arife from too weak a motion in the
fluids, proceeding chiefly from a defeft of mufcular mo-
CINE. 4595
tion, or from too great a pulling of the fibre, next
breaking.
Oppofite to thefe are the difeafes arifing from fibres
too ftiff and elaftic. Thefe are produced by the ufe
of ftrong aliments, exercife, acid and auftere medicines,
and in ftiort by every thing that tends to incretffe the
ftrength of the body.
The fimple fibres (or the ultimate and fineft fibres of
the body), interwoven with each other, according to
our author, form the moft fimple membrane; and this
formed into a hollow tube, makes one of the leaft kind
of veffels. If many of the fmalleft fibres are twitted
together in the formation of the membrane, it will be
proportienably thicker, and the vefit ls formed of it
will, in like manner, be fo much ftronger; and hence
proceed the difeafes of weak and lax, and of too ftiff
and elaftic, vifeera.
Our author next confiders the moft fimple and fpon-
taneous defefts of our fluids. Thefe are either from
the prevalence of an acid, which is again produced
by the eating of acid vegetable food, or taking fer¬
mented liquors in too great quantity; or from a fpon-
taneous gluten arifing from the ufe of crude and fari¬
naceous aliments, &c.; or from an alkali. This laft
is produced by the ufe of animal food, efpecially fuch
as has a putrid taint, and the ufe of alkalefcent vege¬
tables, &c. 10i
Befides all thefe, however, he fays, there are dif- His account
eafes arifing merely from a too great increafe of°f^rord.ers
circulatory motion. The immediate caufe of this m"
increafe is the more frequent and ftrong contrac-circulations
tion of the heart. This again happens when the
brain and cerebellum are fo ftrongly compreffed, that
they fend forth too great a quantity of the nervous
juice; as in paffions of the mind, or in pains. It may
arife alfo from an irritation of the heart itfelf, either by
the blood returning more qoickly to it, occafioned by
mufcnlar motion, or to fome acrimony prefent in the
blood itfelf. roj
Oppofite to thefe are the difeafes which proceed from From a
a deficiency of the circulation, or from plethora. The plethora
firft is produced by the fpontaneous degeneracy of the and defic!-
humours already mentioned ; the fecond is a greaterch^latioif
quantity of well-conditioned blood than what is ca¬
pable of undergoing thofe changes which muft necef-
farily happen in life, unlefs diftempefs intervene and
difturb them. It is produced by every thing which
makes a quantity of good chyle and blood, at the fame
time hindering their attenuation, confumption, and
perfpiration through the pores of the (kin. T04
He next goes on to confider the difeafes proceed- Of obftrnc*
ing from the leaft compound obftruftions, and fromtions 4nti
wounds. An obftruftion is the (hutting up of a ca-vvounils’
nal, and denying the paffage to a fluid which (hould
flow through the fame. This may proceed from the
narrownefs of the veffel, the bignefs of the prefenting
body, or from both taken together. The veflel may
become too narrow from outward preffure, from its
own contraftion, or from its fides growing thicker.
The bulk of the fmall bodies contained in the veffels
becomes too great, either by the (liminefs of the fluid,
or their having mittaken their paffage; and when thefe
two meet together, the obltruftion is more obftinate
and difficult to remove. The bulk of the fluid parts
is increafed to fuch a degree as to render them inca¬
pable
4596 M E D I
Theory, pable of flowing, I, Either by changing their fphe-
rical figure into another, prefenting itfelf in a larger
fize to the mouth of the canal; or, 2. By the joining
together, into one, feveral particles which were fingle
before. The figure* is chiefly altered when that even
preffure of the fmalleft particles, now left to their own
elafticity which ufed to work and prefs together from
all fides equally, is ceafed; that is, when the motion is
become languid, or the veil'd relaxed; or when the
quantity of liquid is leflened. The particles run into
one, by too much reft; by cold ; froll; drying; heat;
a violent circular motion, and the preflure of a ftrong
veffel; by an acid, auftere, fpirituous, and abforbing
coagulum; by a ilime ; or by an oil. The particles
of fluids having miftaken their paifage, are Hopped
when a fmall body of them runs into the dilated mouth
of a canal, through the extremities of which they can¬
not pafs. This dilatation is chiefly occafioned by a
fullnefs, an increafed motion, a rarefaftion of the fluid,
and relaxation of the veflel; and moft of all thefe are
foon fucceeded by their contraries: “ Which is the
*0; immediate caufe of all colds.”
®f inflam- An inflammation he defines to be an attrition of the
nwtIon* red arterial blood ftagnating in the fmalleft veflels; occa¬
fioned by the motion of the blood circulating with great¬
er force in the larger veflels. This ftagnation is occafion¬
ed in the fmalleft arteries by whatever makes the ends of
the veffels in their cones and cylinders fo narrow that the
diameter of their orifices is made lefs than the globules
of the blood ; the caufes whereof may be heat, violent
motion, foreign bodies ftuck in, ligatures, the taking
inwardly, or applying to the furface of the body, ftiarp
fubftances of various kinds, cold, too great rubbing,
Sec. An inflammation is likewife produced by every thing
that (huts up the paffages, and at the fame time ap¬
plies to them either inwardly or outwardly fuch acri¬
monious bodies as are both oily and faline : Alfo by
fuch things as occafion the blood to fettle and coagu¬
late in the body ; as too violent motions, a draining
of the thinneft parts by fweating, urine, fpitting, loofe-
nefs, ferous eruptions, and all fuch things as coagu¬
late, whether medicines or poifons. In the lymphatic
arterial veflels, an inflammation is produced, 1. By all
the caufes which render their mouths fufficiently wide
to admit the grofs parts of the blood, which, being
driven in deeper, meet with narrow paflages that give
way; and, 2. By all the caufes of inflammation in the
blood-veflels, fo that this difeafe may take place in
every conic veflel through which the red blood flows
10<! from the wide to the narrow end.
Of fever. Fever is infeparably conne&ed with inflammation.
To have a juft notion of the caufe of it, Dr Boerhaave
fays, it will be neceflary to choofe from the innume¬
rable fymptoms that occur in all the variety of fevers,
fome general ones that are common to all ; the pre¬
fence of which makes the phyfician fenfible that his pa¬
tient has a fever: then, from the confideration of thefe,
the individual and fpecific nature of the fever is to be
found out. In every fever produced by an internal caufe,
there are to be obferved, at fome times and in fome de¬
gree, a fbivering, a quick pulfe, and a heat. Thefe are
prefent in ail fevers; but of the three, there is only the
quick pulfe which is prefent from the beginning to the
end; fo that the phyfician may from that fingle phseno-
menon conclude whether a fever is prefent or not. The
CINE. Part I.
proximate or neared caufe of this quicknefs is there*Theory.
fore alfo the proximate caufe of the fever. The quick- ”
nefs of the pulfe is immediately produced by the quick¬
er contra&ion of the heart; and that again by the too
quick reciprocal influx of the nervous juice, and that of
the cerebellum, into the mufcles and ventricles of the
heart. Almoft every fever begins, as already obferved,
with a fenfe of coldnefs, (hivering and (baking, greater
or lefs, according to the different conftitution of the
patient, or the nature of the fever itfelf. At this time
the pulfe is quick, fmall, and often intermitting; the
extremities frequently pale, cold, (lift, trembling, and
void of feeling: whence it appears, that then the blood
ftagnates at the ends of the capillary veflels, at the fame
time that there is prefent fome caufe which irritate*
the heart.
In all fevers, after the fymptoms already mentioned,
there arifes a heat; which is greater or lefs, of a long¬
er or (horter continuance, according to the different
nature of the fever. This heat, as it follows the pre-
exiftent fever, ought rather to be taken for its effe£l
than its caufe, fo that the too quick contraftion of the
heart, with an increafed refiftance at the extremities of
the capillary veffels, is fufficient to give us a juft idea
of all acute fevers; that is, fuch as quickly pafe off,
with danger to the patient. Either of thefe two (a/z.
the quick contra&ion of the heart, or the refiftance ia
the capillary veffels) may be occafioned, in a living
animal, by an infinite number and variety of caufes:
which, however, are divided, according as they are ei¬
ther Angular or proper to each, or as they are univer-
fal and common to many; and thefe laft are general¬
ly owing to the ufe of the fame air, diet, and manner
of living, by thofe who are feized with the fever.
The caufes of fevers, then, are either fmgular, or u- Cavl**0f
niverfal, or epidemical. The Angular proximate caufes fjYer/
may be reduced under fome heads. 1. The things re¬
ceived into the body being (harp or pricking; whether
thefe things are called meat, drink, prefervatives, or
poifons; provided they are endowed with fuch proper¬
ties that they cannot be digefted, moved, or evacuated}
or when taken in fuch a quantity as to irritate the
ftomach, or to choak and obftrufl the paflages, and
putrefy within the body. 2. The things retained in
the body which were wont to be evacuated each in
their proper way; and thefe may be retained by means
of cold, unftions, vapours, fome thick and fat aliment,
drink, medicines, poifons, or air. The fame effeft will
alfo follow from too long continued reft, the omiflion
of fome ufual .exercife, obftru&ions and compreflions
either from the contained or furrounding bodies.
3. From adlion ; fuch as the too great difturbance of
mind or body, occafioning heat and toflings. 4. From
external, (harp, pungent, tearing, burning, and infla¬
ming applications. 5. From thofe things which make
a confiderable change upon the humours and their mo¬
tions : which may be done by many externals as well
as internals; fuch as hunger, great evacuations, collec¬
tions of pus, water and watery blood, in dropfies and
empyemas; or (harp ferum, inflamed and burnt cho-
ler, fuppurations, gangrenes, too much waking, in*
tenfe ftudy, and excefs of venery.
The effefts of fever are, a too quick expulfion an^£/ye^80#
propulfion of. the circulating humours, too great an^"^ 0
agitation of the ftagnating ones, and a mixture of
tbofe
Part T.
heory. thofe which ought to remain feparate j an overcoming
,r and concofling of what refifts; a fecretion of the con-
cofted matter ; and a critical evacuation of what has
occalioned the fever by its coaguluro and irritation ; a
change of the found liquors into a difeafed (late ; a
change of the found parts into a condition able to bear
many things which could not be borne before; an ex-
preffion of the moft thin and liquid juices; a thicken¬
ing of the remainder; a drought, heat, anxiety, pain,
wearinefs, weaknefs, heavfnefs, lofs of appetite, and
naufea.
The fooner the irritation is allayed and the ftngna-
ting liquids refolved, fo much the flighter and ihorter
will be the fever, and the fooner will it tend to health ;
and fo on the contrary: and the fever will alfo vary
according to the different degrees and concourfe of
both. Hence we may learn that a fever may often be
a medicine inftrumental in the cure of other difeafes;
fuch as the palfy, &c. Hence the beginnings, full
height, declenfion, crifes, changes, and cure of fevers,
are various in the very acute fevers, and even in the
,0p Angular kind.
©f the cold The cold fit, which happens in the beginning of
fit in fevers, acute fevers, fuppofes a fmaller attrition of the liquors
againft each other and their veffels; the lefiening of the
circular motion; a ftagnation of the liquids at the ex¬
tremities; a lefs contra&ion of the heart, a lefs quan¬
tity of the blood forced out of it, and the animal fpi-
rits flowing in lefs quantity from the cerebellum to it.
„ The fhaking fuppofes a wavering of the mufcles be¬
tween their tone andlaxnefs; fome caufes now extend¬
ing and foon after relaxing them; and thefe motions
fucceeding each other quickly, without the will of the
patient, or even againft his will; the influx of the ar¬
terial and nervous juices, fometimes abfent, fometimes
prefent. The cold fit therefore argues, in the begin¬
ning of the difeafe, a reft of both thefe liquids ; to-
j . wards the end, often too long an abfence of the fame,
J ,I0 after an extravagant expence of the one or both.
( Of anguilh. The anguifh in fevers is occafioned by the blood
being flopped in the heart itfelf, and confequently hin¬
dered from palling thro’ the lungs and aorta: whence
a cramp of the contra&ed vefiels, or an impoffibility
of the inflamed matter palling through them. The
fame effect follows from the blood being hindered in
its paflage through the vena portarum in the liver by
the fame caufes; whence all the venous blood, brought
hither by the caeliac and mefenteric arteries, cannot re¬
turn, but ftagnates, extends the vefiels, refills the ap¬
proaching blood conveyed through the arteries, and
tlI produces all the evils deducible from thefe caufes.
Thirft. Thirft in fevers owns for its caufes a thicknefs of
the liquids, and their inability to flow; a fait, alkaline,
or a bilious and oleous acrimony.
Loathing. Another very common fymptom in fevers is loath¬
ing. The proximate caufe of this is a flight convul-
fion of the mufcular fibres of the fauces, gullet, ftomach,
inteftines, and abdominal mufcles. Its capfes are,
i. A (harp, putrid, bilious matter derived into the
empty ftomach, riling towards the fauces, pricking
and twitching both, whence, the other parts follow
the fame motion; or, 2. A vifcid, fluggilh, and float¬
ing matter, which, by watering thofe parts, doth alfo
twitch them. 3. A flight inflammation of the fto-
mach, gullet, inteftines, and neighbouring vifcera,
4597
4. The remembrance of things which) when formerly The or y
taken, ufed to occafion loathings. 5. Laftly, The in- ‘
ordinate motion of the nervous juice, no matter whence
arifing. 113
Vomiting, which at firft is a violent expulfton and Vomiting
throwing up of the contents of the ftomach, and after- an<1 hick-
wards alfo of the guts, and laftly of the bowels emp-up‘
tying themfelves into the latter, hath, for its proxi¬
mate caufe, a convulfion of the mufcular fibres of the
fauces, gullet, ftomach, inteftines, diaphragm, and
of the abdominal mufcles; and for its remote caufe,
whatever ftimulates thefe fibres by irritating them or
thofe vifcera which are eafily convulfed. It happens
fometimes, therefore, from a defeat of the ftomach,
which is convulfed, inflamed, impofthumated, fcir-
rhous, and cartilaginous, together with an acute fever.
It may happen alfo from a defedt of the bowels, and
the furrounding parts affedled in the fame manner, and
irritated by the diftended ftomach full of aliments or
other matters; or it may happen from all the caufes of
very great loathings. Hickups may arife from the
fame caufes.
1’he weaknefs in fevers proceeds from the hindrance Weaknefs.
of the influx and preflure of the nervous juice into the
mufcles. It may proceed from the emptinefs of the
veflels, from the liquid being fpent, or its being un¬
able to flow; from the obftrudlion of the canal; or its
being prefled and fqueezed by an external caufe, chief¬
ly about its origin in the brain and cerebellum; and
from the weaknefs of the heart.
Heat in fevers is known outwardly by the thermo-
meter, and the fenfe or feeling of the patient; but the
inward heat, from the rednefs of the urine. It al¬
ways argues a greater quantity of fire in that place
where the heat isgreateft. This again arifes from an
unufually ftrong rubbing of the fluid parts among each
other, againft the veflels, and of the veflels againft the
liquids. This violence arifes from the great motion of
the parts pulhed from the heart, and from the ftrong
refiftance of the veflels againft the heart.
The great motion of the blood expelled from the
heart is meafured by the thicknefs of it, and by its
quick or flow running through the veflels. The de¬
gree of thicknefs is known by infpefting the fame when
extravafated, from the fad difiipation of the thinneft
part, and from the hardnefs of the pulfe. The quick-
nefs of its running is computed from the number of
the beatings of the heart, compared with the great-
nefs of the pulfe beatings. The greatnefs of the re¬
fiftance is known from the bulk of fluggilh liquors
that are to be moved ; and from the fniall number,
narrownefs, or immobility of the canals which are to
let the liquids pafs. That the liquids to be moved are
too bulky, is known from the figns of a plethora, of
a cacochymy, or of a fudden folution of thefe liquids
which juft before were ftagnating, as it happens in fat
people : but this appears moft of all to be the cafe
when the.veins are much fwelled, and at the fame time
the arteries full and their motions quick. The nar¬
rownefs of the veflels is underftood by feeing, feeling,
and knowing, the dry conftitution of the patient,
whofe heat increafes greatly upon the lead increafe of
motion. The immobility of the channels, or their
unwillingnefs, as it were, to be dilated, is known by
all the figns of ftiff fibres, of tpo great a degree of
ftrength
MEDICINE.
459S M E D I
Theory, length,
* — From all of theft proximate caufei may arift the ft*
brile heat} of which again there may be numberlefs
remote caufes. But it may arift from the increafe of
only one of theft caufts ; in which cafe, the increaftof
the heat keeps pace with the increaft of the caufe. If
two caufts increaft together, then will the increaftd
heat be as the produfts of the increments of thoft
eaufes when multiplied by each other. The effe£U of
this increaftof heat are, to difiipate the moft liquid parts
of the blood, i. e. the water, fpirits, falts, and moft
fubtile oils.; it dries the remaining mafs, thickensit, and
caufts it to run together into an immoveable and irre*
folvable matter ; it extricates the falls and oils, atte¬
nuates and makes them (harper, exhales and moves
them. The confequence of all this is, that the fmalleft
veflels are worn out and broken 5 the fibres dried, made
ftiff, and (hrivelled; and hence are produced many
acute, dangerous, and mortal difeafes; which may
be eafily accounted for and derived from the firft effect
of heat mentioned here, viz, the difBpation of the
lf I thinned parts of the blood.
Delirium. A delirium in fevers always fuppofts a morbid af-
feftion of the medullary part of the brain, which may
arift from any obftrmftion whatever, the hindrance of
the influx, the tranaflux, and flowing out of the ner¬
vous juice through the fubftance of the brain } from a
violent quick motion, a ftagnation, and many other
caufes, to find out which the phyfician ought to uft
|J(S all his fagacity and application,
Coma. A coma, or continual propenflty to fleep, fometimes
with a real fleep, and often without it, always proceeds
from fuch a ftate of the brain as hinders the free exer-
cift of the fcnfes and animal-motions. It may arift
from a defeA of the nervous juice derived to the brain,
or from the reparation of animal-fpirits from the blood
into the nerves being obftru&ed, or from thofe fpirits
being denied their free paflage to and fro through the
nerves. This fymptom therefore may be produced by
feveral different, and often contrary, caufts ; fuch as
all violent and great evacuations or repletions 1 all the
too great thickenings of the blood, whether by gluti¬
nous, fat, or inflammatory matters and caufts 5 every
thing comprefllng the brain itfelf, of whatever nature
it may be j and the fame caufts will produce the fame
cffe&s, if they aft immediately upon the nerves thetn-
felves.
Watchful- oppofite evil to the former is a conftant and
wefs, ’ obftinatc watehfulnefs, Its cauft is generally the firft
beginning of the flighted inflammation of the brain j
which, if increaftd, generally turns to a coma.
„ ,’®.. Convulfions in fevers always proceed from a defeft
on »»5ns0f tj,e {jrajn, whlcb either affefted by fome matters
conveyed thither through the nerves, and thereby
twitched; or they proceed from the unruly arrival,
transflux, and iffaing forth of the animal-fpirits; which
may arife from every one of the caufes that are able to
create a delirium, a coma, or an obftinate wstchful-
nefs. If the caufti continue long* the evil foon fpreads
to the wholfefyftem of the nerves; whence proceed in-
tsg numerable mifthieft,
Sweating. Sweats, in the beginning of an acute ftver, arife from
a laxity of the extreme capillary veffds, a violent cir¬
culation of the blood, and an eafy reparation of the
1 thin watery part from the others. A continuance of
CINE* ( . Part t
them deprives the blood of It* diluting liqoor,'thickens Theory. |
the remainder, and occafions mortal QbftrnftioBs t be- 
cauft the blood afterwards will hardly admit either
of being diluted or refolved ; whence maybe produced
almoft all the different kinds of acute dueafes, n9 |
A diarrhoea or looftnefs happens pretty frequently Disrrliess. ||
in fevers. The matters voided in this cafe are mucus,
lymph, gluten, pus, watery blood, and blood itfelf; all
coming from the noftrils, mouth, fauces, gullet, do-
maeh, liver, gall-bladder, pancreas, the guts them-
ftlves, and the meftntery. The caufes of their work¬
ing themfelves off in the form of this diftafe are, fuch
a powerful force as carries them into the inteftines,
while the contraifting force of the inteftines is much
weakened; or they may arift from impediments in
the abforbing vefftls of the guts, fuch as the lac-
teals hindering the inlets of fome of theft matters thro*
them into the blood, Hence a looftnefs in fevers is
very various as to its caufes, effefts, and conftquen*
ces. If it continues long, it difpofts the bowels of
the lower belly more and more to this difeafe; it wea*
keus, inflames, and excoriates them} and it drains and
dries the other bowels and veffels. Hence a want of
nourifliment, leannefs, weakaefs, bloody-flux, a thick-
nefs of the fluids through the whole habit, a laxity of
the folids, a pituitous bloating all over, a dropfy, and
a confumption.
Inflammatory puftules have generally for their mat-
ter, fomething which cannot pafs through the lead vef- ^
fels of the (kin, but is forced to ftop there j and, for
their cauft, they acknowledge the circulating, ftcre-
tory, and excretory, power of lift,’ fa that they are
manifold according to theft different caufts, and from
thence fevers take their names ; as the eryflpdatous,
fcarlet, red, petechial, purple; and variolous or mor-
billous, from the fmall-pox and meafles, m
The above is Dr Boerhaave's theory of continued intermit-
fevers. The intermittents, be fays, have for their proxb tent fevers, i,
mate cauft a vifeofity of the arterial blood, upon which
fucceeds a too quick and ftrong contraftion of the
heart, and after this a refolution of what had been
ftagnated; which ends the fit.
For a long time this theory continued to prevail, Thi« theory11
and is ftill adopted by feveral phyficians. It was not, vppofed by ^
however, without oppofltion, even during the lifetime Kofiman’
of Dr Boerhaave, His opponent was Dr Hoffman,
who was alfo a man of great learning and eminence in
his profeflion, He found fault with Dr Boerhaave
for neglecting the nervous fyftem ; and afferted, that
fa far was the body from depending on the ftate of the
fluids, that the crafts of the fluids themfelves was en¬
tirely dependent on the nervous power 5 and that ft
flight alteration in this power was capable of inftan-
taneoufly changing the blood and all the other hu¬
mours into fluids of a quite different nature from what
they formerly had. He was of opinion therefore, that
all, or at leaft the greateft part of difeafes, were affec¬
tions of the nervous fyftem. This opinion is now fo
generally diffuftd and adopted, that Dr Boerbaave’s
theory is in a manner totally exploded j end as a fy¬
ftem of pbyfic built on principle® flmilar to thoft of
Hoffman, hath for fome years been taught by Dr
Cullen of Edinburgh, we (hall give as full an account
of it as our limits will admit,
SfC-r,
u
t Part I.
M E D I
of the o
H ginal fta
the human
iudy.
tiS
Of the
J growth
1 of the
hotly.
1 Sect. II. Dr Cvllek’s Theory.
The Do&or begins with dividing his theoretical part,
or the Injiitutions of Medicine,into three general heads.
The firil, called phyjiology, treats of that condition of
the human body which is neceflary to life and health.
The fecond, czWtA pathology, delivers the general doc¬
trine of difeafes; and the third, called therapeutics,
delivers the general do&rine concerning the means of
prevention and cure.
I. Physiology.
In treating of this fubjedt, our author firft confiders
the folid matter of which our bodies are compofed,
and which he calls the fimple folid. Here he differs re-
r;. markably from Dr Boerhaave. The latter, following
the do&rines of the chemifts, aflerted, that the original
{lamina of the human body are fibres compofed of earthy
particles cemented together by a kind of glutinous mat¬
ter. This cementation is denied by Dr Cullen, who very
juftly obferves, that nothing can be deduced from the
chemical analyfis of thefe folids, unlefs we were able to
recompofe them from the principles to which they are
reduced by chemical operations. All that we can
know, therefore, with regard to our folid parts, is, that
they are formed of water, and a certain matter con¬
creting along with it. The brain is that part of the
human body which is firft formed ; and therefore he
is of opinion, that it is the principal or chief organ,
upon which the welfare of the body depends. The ori¬
ginal ftamina of the body he alfo fuppofes to be fi¬
brous ; and differs from other phyfiologifts, who fup-
pofe it totally to confift of cellular texture. Thislaft,
he thinks, is fuperadded to the fibres. How the nutri¬
tious matter is applied to the fibres, in order to extend
them in length, or to form a cellular texture on their
furface, he declares himfelf unable to explain. “ It
is probable, however, fays he, that for a certain time,
at its firft beginning, the growth of animal bodies pro¬
ceeds in the fame manner as that of vegetables : but it
is evident, that, at a certain period, in the growth of
animals, a different ceconomy takes place ; and that
afterwards the growth feems to depend on an exten-
fion of the arteries in length and widenefs by the blood
propelled into them. It may be fuppofed that this ex-
tenfion of the arteries is applied to every fibre of the
body; and that, by the extenfion of thefe, it gives
an opportunity for the application and accretion of the
nutritious matter, to the growth therefore of the fibre
itfelf, and to the growth of cellular texture on its fur-
face. Perhaps the fame extenfion of the arterial fy-
ftem gives occafion to the fecretion of fluids, which,
poured into the cellular texture already formed, ac¬
cording to the difpofition of thefe fluids to con¬
crete more or lefs firmly, gives the different de¬
grees of hardnefs or denfity to be obferved through¬
out the body.
“ By this extenfion of the arterial fyftem, the fe-
veral parts of the body are gradually evolved, fome of
them fooner, others later, as by the conftitution of
the original ftamina, or after occurrences, they are fe-
verally put into fuch conditions as render them lefsex-
pofed to the impetus of the blood, and fitted to receive
a greater quantity of it. But as the parts by thefe
caufes firft. evolved will increafe the moft in the denfi¬
ty of their folid parts, they will therefore more and
Vol. VI. x
CINE. 4599
more refift their former growth ; and by the fame re-Theory,
fiftance will determine the blood with more force and
in greater quantity into the parts then not fo far evol¬
ved. Hence the whole fyftem will be at length evol¬
ved ; and every part of the folids will, in refpeft of
denfity and refiftance, be in balance with every other
part, and with the forces to which they are feverally
expofed.
“ The extenfion of the arteries depends upon the
refiftances which occur to the free tranfmiflion of the
blood through them; and further, from a refiftance in
the veins. For as a confiderable portion of the blood
does not commonly pafs into the fmaller branches of
the arteries, but mutt pafs very entirely into the veins;
fo thefe, by their capacity conftantly diminifhing as
they approach nearer to the heart, and by their coats
being of a denfity and firmnefs fufficient to prevent fur¬
ther dilatation, confiderably refift the free paffage of
the blood from the arteries into them.
“ While thefe refiftances continue, the arteries, and
with them almoft every fibre of the body, muft be ex¬
tended at every fyftole of the heart, and with this ex¬
tenfion the growth of every part will proceed : but as
every part, by its receiving an addition of folid matter,
becomes more denfe and rigid; fo it is lefs eafily ex¬
tended, and perhaps lefs readily receives an accretion
of new matter than before. Hence it is, that the more
the body grows, it admits of any additional growth
the more flowly ; and unlefs the extending powers in¬
creafe in the fame proportion with the increafing den¬
fity of the folids, there muft be a period at which
thefe two powers will balance each other, and the
growth will proceed no farther. But as it is evident,
that the bulk and weight of the heart, and probably
therefore its force, does not increafe with the increa¬
fing bulk of the body, and that the aftion of the heart
is the principal extending power in the fyftem ; it is
alfo plain, that the extending power does not ex¬
tend in the fame proportion with the increafing den¬
fity of the folids; and therefore that thefe two pow¬
ers will, at a certain period, come to balance each
other.
“ But ftot only is the force of the heart thus con¬
ftantly diminifhing with refpeA to the refiftance of the
arteries, but, tho’ this force were ftill fubfifting, it
has, from other caufes, lefs effedt in extending the ar¬
teries. The blood is more confined in the arteries,
and extends them further in proportion to the refift¬
ance of the veins ; and this refiftance in the veins, and
extenfioti of the arteries depending upon it, will be
more or lefs according to the refpedlive denfity of thefe
two fets of veffels. But it appears from the experi¬
ments of Sir Clifton Wintringham, that the denfity
and firmnefs of the veins with refpeft to their corre-
fponding arteries is much greater in young animals
than in old ones: and thence it appears, that, during
the growth of animals, the arteries are acquiring an
increafe of denfity in a greater proportion than the
veins are at the fame time ; and therefore that the re¬
fiftance in the veins with refpCsft to‘ the arteries muft
be conftantly diminifhing ; that the veins will there¬
fore receive a greater proportion of blood ; that in the
fame proportion the arteries will "bdlefs extended; and
laftly, that the diminifbed refiftafrcc in the veins con¬
curring with the diminifhed force of the heart, will the
26 B fooner
4600
Th kor y. fooner bring tT\C incr^afing rigidity of the arteries,
   1 and therefore of every fibre in the body, to be in ba¬
lance with the extending powers; at leaft fo far as to
prevent their producing any farther growth.
“ This account of the change of the refinances in the
arteries and veins with refpett to one another is agree¬
able to phasnomena which (hew that the arteries are
larger, and contain more blood in proportion to the
veins, in young animals than in old; that arterial hae¬
morrhages occur tnoft frequently in young perfons ;
and that congeftions in the veins with haemorrhagies,
or hydropic effufions depending upon them, occur moll
frequently in old age.
Death from “ It is probable, that the refiftance both of arteries
mere old and veins goes on increafing, while the force of the
age ac- heart is not increafed at the fame time': but it appears
counted ajj-0> t{)at from t^e diminilhing force of the heart, and
* ’ the compreffion which the fmaller veflels are expofed to
from the diftenfion of the larger, the a&ion of the
mufcles, and other caufes ; the number of fmall vef-
fels, and therefore the capacity of the whole fyftem, is
conftantly diminifliing fo much, that the heart may
flill for fome time be fufficient for the circulation of
the blood. But while the refiftances in the veffels are
conftantly increafing, the irritability of the moving
fibres and the energy of the brain are at the fame
time conftantly diminifhing ; and therefore the power
©f the heart muft at length become unequal to its
talk, the circulation muft ceafe, and death enfue.
“ The unavoidable death of old perfons is thus in
part accounted for; but it is, however, ftill probable,
that the fame event proceeds chiefly from the decay
and total extinflion of the excitement or vital power
of the nervous fyftem, and that from caufes very much
independent of the circulation of the blood, and ari-
fing in the nervous fyftem itfelf, in confequencc of the
progrefs of life. This feems to be proved by the de¬
cay of fenfe, memory, intelleft, and irritability, which
conftantly takes place as life advances beyond a certain
period.”
Thus, according to our author, the nervous fyftem
is the fubftratum or fundamental (lamina of the whole
body; and indeed, as he explains it, our whole frame
is fo made up of nerves, that the body may be faid to
contain nothing elfe. The nervous fyftem he divides
into four parts. 1. The medullary fubftance contain¬
ed in the cranium and vertebral cavity 5 the whole of
which feems to confift of diftindl fibres, but without
the feveral fibres being feparated from each other by
any evident developing membranes. 2. Connected
with one part or other of the above fubftance are the
nerves, in which the fame medullary fubftance is con¬
tinued ; but here more evidently divided into fibres,
each of which is feparated from the others by an en¬
veloping membrane derived from the pia mater.
3. Parts of the extremities of certain nerves in which
the medullary fubftance is divefted of the inveloping
membranes from the pia mater, and fo fituated as to
be expofed to the aftion of certain external bodies, and
perhaps fo framed as to be affedled by the aftion of
certain bodies only. Thefe he calls theJentient extre¬
mities of the nerves. 4. Certain extremities of the
nerves fo framed as to be capable of a peculiar con-
tra&ility, and in confequence of their fituation and
Part !. j ’
attachments to be by thei'r cootra&ion capable of mo-THEOR vi ^
ving moll of the folid and fluid parts of the body. '!
Thefe he calls the moving extremities of the nerves ; they
are commonly called moving or mufcular fibres. The
proofs of this laft pofition we (hall give in his own
words. 117
“ XCI. The inherent power (or contraftility of Mufcles \
the mufcles) is fuppofed to be more vigorous, rnove'tt°0|
able, and permanent, in certain mufcular fibres than in th/j^rvoui
others. fyftem.
“ XCII. The inherent power, or the contraflion
dependent upon it, can be excited by certain applica¬
tions, made either to the mufcles themfelves, or to the
nerves connejfted with them ; and in either cafe, the
the effedls of fuch application are fo exadlly the fame
as to allow us to conclude that the matter of the
nerves and of the mufcular fibres is of the fame kind.
“ XCIII. The mufcular fibres are fenfible to va¬
rious impreflions, and are otherwife organs of the fen-
fations of confcioufnefs. From this alfo it is prefumed,
that the mufcular fibres confift of the fame matter
which is the fubjedt of fenfe in other parts of the ner¬
vous fyftem.
“ XCIV. From (XCII. XCIII.) and other con-
fiderations, we think it probable, that the mufcular
fibres are continuations of the medullary fubftance of
the brain and nerves as before alleged.
“ XCV. Though the mufcular fibres confift of the
fame kind of matter as that in the nerves, the latter
(hew no contradlility, becaufe they have not the pecu-
culiar organization of the former.”
Some phyfiologifts, particularly Dr Haller, have
endeavoured to prove, that the mufcles have a power
of motion independent of that which they receive from
the nerves: thefe our author refutes by Tome experi¬
ments which prove, that both of them continue for an
equal length of time, and that when the nerve is irri¬
tated, the mufcle contradls, even after death, iq the
fame manner as tho’ the mufcular fibres themfelves were
irritated. I;ig
The Dodlor next endeavours to (hew, that the force Power of T
of cohefion and of the mufcular fibres are the fame. His cohefion |
words are, “ As the force of cohefion in the mufeu-th.e ftme jl
lar fibres of living animals is much greater than in thofe}^.tp^1e^H1l
of dead ones, it is probable from this and other confi-
derations that the caufe of mufcular contradlion is an
increafe only of that fame power which gives the con¬
tradlility of the fimple folids, and of other inanimate
elaftics. Haller Prim. Lin. 407, 408.
“ If this is true, it will alfo explain why the force
of cohefion in mufcular fibres is greater than that of
the medullary fibres in any other part of the nervous
fyftem, though both kinds of fibres confift of the fame
kind of matter.” The power abovementioned he
conjedlures to be an elaftic fluid, the motions of which
are excited in the nerves, and by their means accu¬
mulated in the mufcles. The excitement of the fluid in
fome meafure is what is properly called life, at lead as
far as that is corporeal; and its collapfe, or fome dimi¬
nution of its motion, produces deep, fainting, &c. or
if the collapfe is total and irrecoverable, death itfelf. 1*9
With regard to this nervous power, the Dodlor ab-Nervous
folutely refufes that it is fecreted from the blood. “ The P°*et^not
rood common opinion (fays he) is, that the brain is a from tlie
fe- blood.
MEDICINE.
iPart I. M E D I
hkory. fecretory organ, which fecretes a fluid neceflary to the
" fun&ions of the nervous fyftem ; that this fluid is al¬
ternately exhaufted and recruited, and thereby gives
occafion to the alternate ftates of fleeping and waking.
But this fupppofnion is attended with many difficul¬
ties. i. It is probable that the nervous fluid exifted
! in the animal embryo before the adtion of the heart,
or any fecretory fundlion could take place. 2. In
(animals which during the winter fuffer a temporary
death, when, by heat, they are again reftored to life,
the vital power of the folids is reftored before the flui¬
dity of the blood. 3. The nervous fluid fubfiftsin the
nerves and mufcular fibres long after they are fepara-
ted from the brain, and often when cut into fmall
parts. 4. Though it be true that the brain is a fe¬
cretory organ, the fluid may be deftined to another
purpofe; and, fo far as we underfland that purpofe, the
fluid fit for it muft be unfit for the purpofes of fenfe
and motion. 5. There is no appearance, in any part
of the nervous fyftem, of provifion made for an occa-
fional accumulation of the fecreted fluid ; nor is there
any evidence of its a&ually taking place. 6. The
phaenomena of fleep and waking do not correfpond
with fuch a fuppolition ; as fleep often takes place
when the fecreted fluid muft be copioufly prefent, and
waking can be protrafted when the fluid is exhaufted
much beyond its ufual meafure. 7. Both ftates are
induced by many caufes which can hardly be fuppofed
to adt upon a fecretion.
“ A certain compreffion of the brain can produce a
ftate of the fyftem refembling fleep: but that ftate is
in fome refpedls different from that of ordinary fleep ;
and it does not by any means appear, that natural
and ordinary fleep depends upon any compreffion of
the brain.
“ As it is therefore probable, that fleep and wa¬
king do not depend upon a different quantity of the
matter of the nervous fluid for the time prefent in the
fyftem, or upon any caufes interrupting its motion,
while the condition of the matter remains the fame, we
are difpofed to believe, that thofe ftates of fleep and
waking depend upon the nature of the nervous fluid it-
felf capable of becoming more or lefs moveable;
that it is chiefly in the brain fufceptible of thefe dif¬
ferent conditions; and that efpecially by its condition
13a there, it has its more general effedfs on the fyftem.”
Nutrition Speaking afterwards of the nutrition of the body, he
conveyed to fays, “ From the fibrous parts being evidently, in
b'8the^ ra°^ ‘n^ances» Parts l^e nervous fyftem, and from
nerves6. graclual formation of the foetus, in which the ner¬
vous fyftem is firft formed, we think it probable, that
the whole of the fibres in the different parts of the bo¬
dy are a continuation of the nerves; and this again
will lead to the conclufion, that the nourifhment of the
foft and homogeneous folid every where is conveyed to
it by the nerves.
“ This fuppofes alfo what is otherwife probable,
that the cortical part of the brain, or common origin of
the nerves, is a fecretory organ, in which the gluten
of the blood being freed from all faline matter before
adhering to it, becomes fit for the nourifhment of the
folids, and being poured in a fufficiently diluted ftate
upon the organ of the nerves, it is filtrated along the
fibres of thefe ; and is thus conveyed to every ftaminal
fibre of the fyftem. We fuppofe, at the fame time,
CINE. 4601
that the medullary, or what may be called the yj/ZiTHEORy*'
matter of the nerves, is, in the living body, conftant- "
ly accompanied with a fubtile elaftic fluid, which fits
them for being the organs of fenfe and motion, and
which probably is alfo the means by which the nutri¬
tious fluid is carried on in the fubftance of the nerves
from their origin to their extremities.
By this fyftem the blood and its circulation, inftead
of being the principal or vital funftion, as it was rec¬
koned by Harvey and others, becomes fo much a fe-
condary in the animal ceconomy, that it anfwers little
other purpofe befides the nutrition of the body. It
hath been objefted, however, that this fluid is, fome ,3I
how or other, of the utmoft confequence; fince a Why fud-
ftoppage of the circulation, or a wound in the large den death
veflels about the heart, proves inftant death, without
waiting for any confumption of the body by reafon of^j,^ the
its want of nouriftiment. This our author explains large blood-
by reminding us, that the veflels muft neceflarily be in velfels.
a certain ftate ofdiftenfion, in order to the mobility of
the nervous fluid. The evacuation of all the blood caufe*
an irretrievable collapfe of the veflels, and confequent-
ly of the nervous fluid, upon which death immediate¬
ly takes place.
We apprehend it would be fuperfluous here to enter
into any particular difquifition concerning the manner
in which each of the fun&ions of the animal oeconomy
are performed. Thefe may be feen under their pro¬
per articles as they occur in the order of the alpha¬
bet, and what we have already taken notice of will
be fufficient to make his theory of difeafcs quite in¬
telligible.
II. Pathology.
From the Iketch we have given of Dr Cullen’s phy-
fiology, it mayeafily be imagined, that the diftinguilh-
ing chara&eriftic of his pathology will be, that almolt
all difeafes are the confequences of an afle&ion of the
nervous fyftem. The nervous power, he thinks, is the
fame with what Hippocrates called Nature, and to
which he afcribed fuch efficacy in removing difeafes.
This fubjeft, however, the latter did not profecute to
any good purpofe, and his followers ftill lefs. Erafi- Nervous
ftratus took no notice of it; and though Galen afcri- power ne-
bed an a&ive power to what he called Nature, yet h* ®]e^edhb^.
confidered this as chiefly concerned in the fupport ofp
health and the cure of difeafes, and referred the ope¬
rations of nature in the cure of difeafes to the folids
and fluids. In the 15th and 16th centuries thcrefto-
rers of phyfic for a long time overlooked the nervous
power; and though the chemifts introduced their doc¬
trines with regard to the fluids, yet they acquiefced
in the former do&rine which afcribed to them the
ultimate powers of the animal ceconomy. Van Hel-
mont indeed pfopofed a very confiderable change by
his doftrine of the archaus ; maintaining, that the mo¬
tion of it had a greater (hare in the produ&ion of dif¬
eafes than the caufes affigned by the chemitts and Ga-
lenifts. But this do£trine was delivered in fuch an
obfeure and fanciful manner, that no notice was taken
of it; and people continued to imagine that difeafes
confifted in a certain intemperies of the fluids, and
that fever particularly confifted in a preternatural
heat. After the difeovery of the circulation, Sylvius
de la Boe afferted, that fever proceeded from an in-
creafed velocity of the blood, and that an increafed.
26 B 2 quick-
4602 M E D I
Theory, quicknefs of the pulfe was its pathognomic. This,
however, we are not to admit as true, becaufe then
the cure of fevers would confift only in diminifhing the
velocity of the blood, which is very eafily done; yet
fometimes it is necefiary to increafe this velocity in or¬
der to cure the fever. To this doftrine Bellini and
Boerhaave added the doftrine of acrimony and a len-
tor or vifcidity in the blood; and this theory, fuch
as we have laid down above from the aphorifms of
Boerhaave, continued to be followed till very lately.
Hoffman confiders fevers as entirely confiding in a
change of the date of motion in the mufcular fibres;
which undoubtedly depends on that of the nervous fy-
ftem. The particular caufe is a fpafm in the ex¬
treme arteries; and the cure confids in a relaxation of
that fpafm, without regarding the fluids, but only fo
far as they affeft the nervous fyflem.
’33 The following are the general phasnomena of fevers
th^phaeno-39 d°wn by Dr Cullen. The perfon is affected
jviena of firtt with a languor, or fenfe of debility, ina&ivity,
fevers. and fluggifhnefs. The face and extremities become
pale ; the features fhrink ; the bulk of every external
part is diminifhed, and the fkin all over the body ap¬
pears condrifledas if by cold. A coldnefsof the ex¬
tremities may now be perceived by another perfon,
though the patient himfelf takes little or no notice of
it. At length the cold becomes alfo perceptible to
him ; firft, commonly, in his back, and thence paffing
over the whole body; though now his fkin frequently
feels warm to another perfon. The fenfe of cold con¬
tinually increafes, and at length produces a tremor in
all the limbs, with frequent fuccuffions or rigors of the
trunk of the body. When this fenfe of cold and its
effe&s have continued for fome time, they become lefs
violent, and alternate with warm flufhings. By degrees
the cold goes off entirely, and a heat greater than in a
natural date prevails all over the body. With this
heat the colour of the fkin returns ; and a preternatural
rednefs appears, efpecially in the face. With the heat
and rednefs the fkin is relaxed and fmoothed, but for
fome time it continues dry. The features of the face,
and other parts of the body, recover their ufual fize,
and even become more turgid. When the heat, red¬
nefs, and turgefcence, have increafed and continued for
fome time, a moidure appears upon the face, which by
degrees becomes a fweat, and at length prevails over
the whole body. As this fweat continues to flow, the
heat of the body abates; the fweat, after continuing
fome time, gradually ceafes; the body returns to its
ufual temperature, and mod of the functions are re-
ftored to their ordinary date.
From thefe general appearances, the paroxyfm may
be divided into three different ftages, viz. the cold) the
h»t, and the fweating flages or fits ; in each of which
a confiderable change happens to feveral of the func¬
tions.
On the fird approach of languor, the pulfe fome¬
times become flower, and always weaker, than before;
and as the fenfe of cold comes on, it becomes fmaller,
very frequent, and often irregular. As the cold wears
off and the heat comes on, the pulfe becomes more re¬
gular, hard, and full; and in thefe refpefts increafes
till the fweat breaks out. As the fweat flows, the
pulfe becomes fofter and lefs frequent, until, the fweat
ceafing altogether, it returns to its ufual date. The
CINE. Part I.
refpiration during the cold ftage is fmall, frequent, and Theory
anxious; as the hot ffage conies on, it becomes fuller,  
and more free ; but is dill frequent and anxious, till
the flowing of the fweat relieves the anxiety, and ren¬
ders the breathing lefs frequent. On the approach of
the cold dage, the appetite ceafes, and does not re¬
turn till either the paroxyfm is at an end, or the fweat
has flowed for fome time. Generally, however, du¬
ring the whole paroxyfm, there is not only a want of
appetite, but an averfion from all folk! food, efpecially
of the animal kind. As the cold dage advances, naufea
and vomiting frequently come on, with the difeharge
of a matter for the mod part bilious; but when the hot
dage is pretty well advanced, this ficknefs abates, and
commonly goes off altogether when the fweat breaks
out. A confiderable degree of third is commonly felt
during the whole courfe of the paroxyfm. In the cold
dage, it feems to arife from the drynefs and clamminefs
of the mouth and fauces ; and during the hot dage,
from the heat which then prevails: but, as the fweat
flows, the mouth becomes more moid; and the third,
together with the heat, gradually abates.
In the courfe of the paroxyfm, a conliderable change
is alfo made in the date of the fecretions. The cir-
cumdances already mentioned (hew it with regard to
the faliva, and it is dill more remarkable with regard
to the urine. In the cold dage, the urine is almoll
colourlefs and without cloud or fediment. In the hot
dage it becomes high coloured, but is dill without fe¬
diment. After the fweat has flowed freely, the urine
depofits a fediment commonly lateritious, and continues
to do fo for fome time after the paroxyfm is over.
Stools feldom occur till towards the end of a paroxyfm,
except in certain uncommon cafes which are attended
throughout with a diarrhoea.
It frequently happens alfo that tumours, fubfiding
on the furface of the body, fuffer, during the cold dage
of fevers, a confiderable diminution of their bulk ; but
which returns, though not always, during the fweat-
ing dage. In like manner, ulcers are fometimes dried
up during tbe cold dage, and return again to difeharge
matter during the fweating dage, or after the paroxyfm
is over.
During the cold dage, the fenfibility is often great¬
ly impaired ; but when the hot dage comes on, the
fenfibility is recovered, and often confiderably increa¬
fed. When the cold dage comes on, the attention
and recolle&ion become difficult; and continue fo, more
or lefs, during the whole paroxyfm. Hence fomc
confufion of thought takes place, and often arifes to a
delirium ; which fometimes comes on at the beginning
of the cold dage, but more frequently not till the hot
dage is formed. With the cold dage alfo comes on a
kind of drowfinefs or dupor, which fometimes increa¬
fes to fuch a degree that the patient becomes coma-
tofe, and almod apopleftic. In this dage alfo a head-
ach fometimes comes on : but more commonly this is
not felt till the hot dage is formed ; and then it is
ufually attended with a throbbing of the temples. The
head-ach continues till the fweat breaks out; but as
this flows more freely, that gradually wears off. At
the fame time there are commonly pains of the back,
and fome of the great joints; which are to be derived
from the fame caufes with the head-ach.
Thefe are the principal phsnomena to be obferveef
ia
Part I. MEDICINE.
Theory, in the paroxyfm of a fever; but it is very feldom that
“Hr the difeafe is terminated by a Angle paroxyfm i'uch as
hath been already defcribed. It more generally hap¬
pens, that after the feries of phenomena above-men-
4603
cafes the fever has its paroxyfms protra&ed longer than The
ufual, before it changes into a type of more frequent
repetition.
I'rom all this the Doctor concludes, that every fever
tioned, and after the patient has been for a certain confifts of repeated paroxyfms, and differs from others
only in the circumftances and repetition of the pa¬
roxyfms; and therefore that it was allowable to take
the paroxyfm of a pure intermittent as an example and
model of the whole.
length of time free from them, the fame feries of phe¬
nomena begins again to arife, and to obferve the fame
courfe as before; and thefe dates of fever and apyrexia
often continue to alternate with each other for a great
number of times. In thefe cafes, the length of time
from the end of one paroxyfm to the beginning of an¬
other is called an Intermission ; and the length of
time from the beginning of one paroxyfm to the be¬
ginning of another is called an Interval.
Of different When the difeafe confifts of a number of paroxyfms,
kinds of it is generally to be obferved that the intervals be¬
tween them are nearly equal; but thefe intervals are
of different lengths in different cafes. The mod ufual
interval is that of 48 hours; which is named the Ter¬
tian Period. The next mod common is that of 72
hours, and is named the Quartan Period. An inter¬
val of 24 hours is called the Quotidian Period. This
lad is not unfrequent: but all intervals longer than the
quartan are extremely rare, and probably only irregu¬
larities of the tertian or quartan periods.
The paroxylms of pure intermittent fevers are always
finifhed in lefs than 24 hours. But it frequently hap¬
pens that there are fevers which confid of. repeated pa¬
roxyfms without any entire intermiffion between them:
The phenomena of fevers being thus enumerated, of the
the Dodior next proceeds to explain their caufes. Thec?ufes of
proximate caufe, he fays, has hitherto eluded the re- ^cverf-
fearches of phyficians; but as the hot dage is fo con-
dantly preceded by a cold one, he prefumes that the
cold dage is the caufe of the hot one, and confe-
quently that the caufe of the cold dage is the caufe
of all that follows in the courfe of the paroxyfm.
The cold dage, he obferves, is always preceded by
evident marks of a general debility prevailing in the
fydem. The fmallnefs and weaknefs of the pulfe, the
palenefs and coldnefs of the extreme parts, with the
dtrinking of the whole body, fufficiently (hew that
the adlion of the heart and larger arteries is for the
time extremely weakened. At the fame time the lan¬
guor, inadtivity, and debility of the animal-motions,
the imperfedi fenfations, the feeling of cold while the
body is truly warm, and fome other fymptoms, all
fhew that the energy of the brain itfelf is on this
occafion greatly weakened : and as this weaknefs of
yet in fuch cafes it Is obferved, that though the hot the adfion of the heart can hardly be attributed to
nnrl furoatirw* ftarT-s of tK* ,vw,rr.T,c ^ any other caufe, it is alfo a proof of the diminidied
energy of the brain.—Another proof of the exidence
of debility is, that when the paroxyfms of a fever
have ceafed to be repeated, they may be again re¬
newed ; and are mod commonly renewed by the ap¬
plication of debilitating powers.
Hence, fays our author, it is evident that there
are three dates which always take place in fever, viz.
a date of debility, a date of cold, and a date of heat;
and as thefe three dates regularly fucceed each other
in the order above-mentioned, it is to be prefumed
that they are in the feries of caufe and effeft with re¬
gard to one another.—The hot dage, he thinks, is an
effeft of the vis medicatrix naturce fo famous in the
fchools of phyfic, and it is probable that many fymptoms
of difeafes are owing to the fame caufe. To this
and fweating dages of the paroxyfms do not entirely
ceafe before the 24 hours from their beginning have
expired, they fuffer, however, before that time, a con-
ftderable abatement or Remission of their violence;
and at the return of the quotidian period, a paroxyfm
is in fome diape renewed, and runs the fame courfe as
before. This conditutes what is called a Remittent
Fever. In many cafes, however, this remiffion is not
confiderable, and perhaps takes place without fweat;
the returning paroxyfm is not marked by the ufual
fymptoms of a cold dage, but is chiefly known by the
aggravation or exacerbation of a hot flage ; in which
cafes the difeafe is called a Continued Fever. In
fome cafes the remifiions and exacerbations are fo in-
confiderable, that they are not eafily obferved or di-
dinguidied; and this has led phyficians to imagine that
there is a fpecies of fever fubfiding forfeveral days to- caufe he alfo inclines to attribute fome of the fymp-
cether, and feemingly confiding of one paroxyfm only, toms of the cold dage; but is obliged to refer them
This they have called a Continent fever; but Dr to a law which he fays exids in the animal cecono-
Cullen affures us, that, in a long courfe of praflice, he
had no opportunity of obferving fuch a fever.
With refpefl to the form or type of fevers, it may
be obferved, that the quartan, while it has the longed
interval, has at the fame time the longed and mod
violent cold dage; but, upon the whole, the diorted
paroxyfm: the tertian, having a dtorter interval than
the quartan, has, at the fame time, a fliorter and lefs
my, whereby thofe powers which have a tendency to
hurt and dedroy the fydem, often excite fuch mo¬
tions as are fuited to obviate the effe&s of the noxious
power. That fome part of the cold dage is owing
to the vis medicatrix, he thinks further probable, be-
caufe the cold dage appears univerfally to be a means
of producing the hot; becaufe cold, externally appli¬
ed, has very often fimilar effedts; and efpecially be-
violent cold dage; but a longer paroxyfm: and, lad- caufe is feems to be in proportion to the degree of
ly, that the quotidian, with the diorted interval, has tremor in the cold dage that the hot one proceeds
the lead of a cold dage ; but the longed paroxyfm. more or lefs quickly to a termination of the paroxyfm,
The type of fevers is fometimes changed in their courfe. and tea more complete folution and longer intermifiion.
When this happens, it is generally in the following In the time of the cold dage, there feems to be a
manner: Both tertians and quartans change into quo- fpafm induced every-where on the extremities of the
tidians; quotidians into remittents; and thefe lad be- arteries, particularly of thofe upon the furface of the
come often of the mod continued kind; and in all thefe body. This appears from the fuppreffion of all the
excre-
4604 MEDICINE. Part
Theory, excretions, and from the fhrinking of the external very certainly upon any fvveats coming out. Itisin-THco
~ parts: and though this may in part be attributed to deed probable, that the vomiting in the cold ftage of
the weaker aftion of the heart in proptiling the fevers, is one of the means employed by nature for
blood into the extreme veflels ; yet as thefe fymptoms reftoring the determination to the furface of the body;
often continue after'the action of the heart is reltored, and it is a circumftance affording a proof, both of
there is reafon to believe that a fpafmodic conftriftion this and of the general connedtiou between the domach
has taken place ; and that it fubfids for fome time, and and furface of the body, that emetics thrown into the
fupports the hot ftage ; for this ftage ceafes with the ftomach and operating there in the time of the cold
flowing of the fweat, and the return of other excre- ftage, commonly put an end to it, and bring on the
tions, which are marks of the relaxation of veffels hot ftage. It alfo affords a proof of the fame con-
formerly conftridled. ne&ion, that cold water taken into the flomach pro-
The idea of fever then may be, that a fpafm of the duces an increafe of heat on the furface of body, and
extreme veffels, however induced, may prove an ir- is very often a convenient and effedtual means of pro-
ritation to the heart and arteries ; and that this con- ducing fweat.
tinues till the fpafm is relaxed and overcome. Still,
however, it will remain a queftion what is the caufe
of this fpafm ; whether it be dire&ly produced by the
remote caufes of fever, or if it is only a part of the
vis medicatrix naturse. The doftor is inclined to the
latter opinion ; firft, becaufe it is certain that debility
Jays the foundation of fever : fecondly, becaufe fup-
pofing this uncertain, we can more eafdy perceive how
debility induces fpafm, than how fpafm produces de¬
bility, which always more or lefs appears : and third¬
ly, becaufe we perceive that the degree of fpafm
formed, and the obftinacy of its continuance, depend,
in many cafes, upon the power of the caufes inducing
debility, and upon the debility induced ; for the more
powerful the debilitating caufes, and the greater the
debility produced, the paroxyfms are the longer, and
the more frequently repeated.—From hence, fays he,
we are led to believe, that, together with the fpafm,
there is an atony fubfifting in the extreme veffels, and
that the relaxation of the fpafm requires the reftoring
of the tone and adtion of thefe.
This may be illuftrated from confidering the fymp-
toms which take place with refpeft to the functions
of the ftomach in fevers; fuch as the anorexia, naufea,
and vomiting. The connection, or confent, which we
obferve between the perfpiration and the appetite in
healthy perfons, renders it probable, that the tone of
the extreme veffels on the furface of the body, and
that of the mufcular fibres of the ftomach, are con¬
nected or confenting with each other s and that there¬
fore in fevers the want of appetite or of tone in the
mufcular fibres of the ftomach may depend upon the
atony of the extreme,veffels on the furface of the body,
~~A further proof that in fevers the fibres of the
ftoraach are affeCted with an atony, is the naufea and
vomiting which fo frequently occur, and which fo
commonly depend upon a debility of the ftomach.—-
That the debilty of the ftomach whieh produces vo¬
miting depends upon an atony of the extreme veffels
pn the furface of the body appears particularly from
an obfervation of Sydenham, In the attack of the
plague, a vomiting happens, which prevents any me¬
dicine from remaining upon the ftomach ; and Dr
Sydenham tells us, that he could not overcome this
vomiting but by external means, applied to produce
a fweat pr determination to the furface of the body.
The connexion .between the ftate of the ftomach
and that of the extreme veffels on the furface of the
body appears from this alfo, that the vomiting, which
fo frequently happens in the cold ftage of fevers, com¬
monly ceafcs upon the coming on of the hot, and
We draw a proof of the fame conne&ion from this
alfo, that cold applied to the furface of the body,
when it does not ftop perfpiration, is always a power¬
ful means of exciting appetite. It may alfo be con-
fidered, whether the fever which fo conftantly accom¬
panies the digeftion of food in the ftomach be not in¬
duced by filling the ftbmach, by relaxing its mufcular
fibres, and thereby inducing an atony of the extreme
veffels.
The Dodlor acknowledges a difficulty in explaining
how an atony and fpafm can fubfift at the fame time
in the fame veffels; but confiders it as a matter of fadl
which cannot be denied ; and at the fame time thinks
it may be found analogous to what happens upon
other occafions in the fyltem, where we often obferve
atony producing fpafm.—This atony is fuppofed to
depend upon a diminution of the energy of the brain ;
and that this diminution takes place in fevers, he con¬
cludes, not only from the debility prevailing in fo
many of the fun&ions of the body as already men¬
tioned, but from the fymptoms peculiar to the brain
itfelf.
Delirium is common in fever; and this fymptom
commonly depends on fome inequality in the excite¬
ment of the brain, or intelle&ual organ 5 and hence it
may be concluded, that, in fever, it denotes fome di¬
minution in the energy of the brain. Delirium indeed
feems often to depend on an increafed impetus of the
blood in the veffels of the brain; and therefore attends
phrenitis. It frequently appears alfo in the hot ftage
of fevers, accompanied with a head-ach and throbbing
of the temples. But, as the impetus of the blood in
the veffels of the head is often confiderably increafed,
by exercife, external heat, paffions, and other caufes,
without occafioning any delirium ; it mull be fup¬
pofed, that the fame impetus, in the cafe of fever,
produces delirium; for this reafon only, that at ^he
fame time there is fome caufe which diminiflies the
energy of the brain, and prevents a free communica¬
tion between the parts concerned in the intellectual
functions, Upon the fame principles alfo he fuppofes
that there is another fpecies of delirium which depends
more entirely on the diminiffied energy of the brain j
and may therefore arife when there is no unufual in.
creafe of the impetus of the blood in the veflels of the
brain. Such feems to be the delirium occurring at
the beginning of the cold ftage of fevers, or in the hot
ftage of fuch fevers as (hew ftrong marks of debility ia
the whole fyftem.
“Upon the whole then, (fays he), our dodrine of
fever is explicitly this:—The remote caufes of fever
are
Part I,
soRY.are certain feelative powers applied to the nervous
”   fyftem, which, dirninifhing the energy of the brain,
thereby produce a debility in the whole of the func¬
tions, and particularly in the a&ion of the extreme
veffels. Such, however, is at the fame time the na¬
ture of the animal ceconomy, that this debility proves
an indiredt ftimulus to the fanguiferous fyftem ;
whence, by the intervention of the cold ftage and
fpafm connected with it, the adftion of the heart and
larger arteries is increafed, and continues fo till it has
had the effeA of reftoring the energy of the brain,
of extending this energy to the extreme veffels, of
reftoring therefore their adlion, and thereby efpe-
cially overcoming the fpafm affedling them ; upon
the removing of which, the excretion of fweat, and
other marks of the relaxation of excretories, take
r35 place.”
Erroneous The Dodtor next proceeds to take notice of fome
opinions miftakes concerning the nature of fever.— It has been
Ite natunf luppofed, that a lentor or vifcidity prevailing in the
Hof fever mafs of blood, and ftagnating in the extreme veffels,
I refuted, is the caufe of the cold ftage of fevers and its confe-
quences. But there is no evidence of any fuch vifci¬
dity previoufly fubfifting in the fluids ; and as it is
very improbable that fuch a ft ate of them can be fud-
denly produced, the fuddennefs with which paroxyfms
come on, renders it more likely that the phsenomena
depend upon fome caiife a&ing on the nervous fy¬
ftem, or the primary moving powers of the animal
ceconomy.
Another opinion, which has been very univerfally
received, is, that a noxious matter introduced into, or
generated in the body, is the proximate caufe of fever;
and that the increafed aftion of the heart and arteries,
which makes fo great a part of the difeafe, is an ef-
fedt of the vis medicatrix naturts to expel this mor¬
bific matter, and particularly to change and concodt
it, fo as to render it altogether innocent, or at lead
fit for being more eafily thrown out of the body.
This dodtrine, however, though of as great antiquity
as any in the records of phyfic, and received into
every fchool of medicine, he neverthelefs confiders as
exceedingly erroneous. Fevers are produced by cold,
fear, and other caufes, with all the effemial circum-
ftances belonging to the difeafe, and terminating by
fweat, without any evidence or fufpicion of morbific
matter. There have been fevers fuddenly cured by
an haemorrhagy fo moderate as cannot carry out any
confiderablc portion of a matter diffufed over the
whole mafs of blood; nor can we conceive how the
morbific matter could be colle&ed or determined to
pafs off by fuch an outlet as in that cafe is opened.
Even fuppofing a morbific matter were prefent, there
is no explanation given in what manner the concodlion
of it is performed ; nor is it ftiewn that any fuch change
does in fadt take place. In certain cafes it is indeed
evident, that a noxious matter is introduced into the
body, and proves the caufe of fever. But even in thefe
cafes it appears, that the noxious matter is thrown out
again, without having fuffered any change: that the
fever often terminates before the matter is expelled:
and that, upon many occafions, without waiting the
fuppofed time of concodtion, the fever can be cured ;
and by remedies which do not feem to operate upon
the fluids, or to produce any evacuation.
460?
But though he thus reafons agamft the notion of Theory
fevers being an eflort of nature for concodting and ex- '
pelling a morbific matter, the Doctor by no means
denies that the caufe of fever frequently operates
upon the fluids, and particularly produces a putref-
cent date of them. This he acknowledges is fre¬
quently the cafe : but at the fame time he maintains,
that fuchachange ofthe fluids is not commordythe caufe
of fever; that very often it is only an effedt; and that
there is no reafon for believing the termination of
the fever to depend upon the expulfion of the putrid
matter.
Another opinion with regard to intermittent fevers
remains ftill to be mentioned. In thefe fevers a great
quantity of bile is commonly thrown out by vomiting;
and this is fo frequently the cafe, that many have fup¬
pofed an unufual quantity of bile, and perhaps a pe¬
culiar quality of it, to he the caufe of intermittent
fevers—This, however, does not appear to be well-
founded. Vomiting, by whatever means excited, if
often repeated, with violent draining, feems to be
powerful in emulging the biliary duels, and com¬
monly throws out a great deal of bile. This will
happen efpecially in the cafe of intermittent fevers.
For as, in the ftate of debility and cold ftage of thefe
fevers, the blood is not propelled in the ufual quan¬
tity into the extreme veffels, and particularly into
thofe on the furface of the body; but is accumulated
in the veffels of the internal parts, and particularly in
the vena port arum; fo this may occafion a more co¬
pious fecretion of bile. The circumftance, however,
which chiefly occafions the appearance of bile in thefe
cafes is, the influence of warm climates and feafons.
Thefe feldom fail to produce a ftate of the human
body, in which the bile is difpofed to pafs off by its
fecretories in greater quantity than ufual, and per¬
haps alfo changed in its quality; as appears from the
difeafe of the cholera, which fo frequently occurs in
warm feafons. This difeafe, however, occurs often
without fever: and there are very ftrong reafons for
fuppofing that intermittent fevers for the moft part
arife from another caufe, viz. marih effluvia; while at
the fame time there is no evidence of their arifing from
the ftate of the bile alone. The marfti effluvia, how¬
ever, commonly operate in the fame feafon that pro¬
duces the change of the bile; and therefore, confi-
dering the vomiting and other circumftances of the
intermittent fevers which here concur, it is not fur-
prifing that autumnal intermittents arc fo often at¬
tended with effufions of bile.
The Do&or now proceeds to confider the difference-
of fever, and its caufes. With other phyficians, he
fuppofes, that in every fever there is a power applied
to the body which has a tendency to hurt and deftroy
it, and produces certain motions in it which deviate
from the natural ftate: and, at the fame time, in every
fever which has its full courfe, he fuppofes, that, in
confequence of the conftitution of the animal cecono¬
my, there are certain motions excited which have a
tendency to obviate the effe6ts of the noxious power,
or to correft and remove it. Both thefe kinds of
motions he confiders as conftituting the difeafe. The
latter, which are of falutary tendency, and confidered
as the operations of the vis medicatrix natures, he
calls the re-action of the fyftem.
M E D I G I N E,
Fro*
4606 M E D I
Theory. From the above do&rine it appears, that, in fever,
the circumftances of debility, fpafm, and re-a6tion, are
chiefly to be confidered; and therefore, according as
thefe are different in degree, and different in propor¬
tion to one another, they will exhibit the chief diffe-
i ^ rences of fevers.
Of ,he Every fever of more than one day’s duration, con-
caufes of lifts of repeated paroxyfms; and in tbofe in which
paroxyfms the paroxyfms are diftindtly obferved, it is conftantly
interval's” to renlar^e^, that every paroxyfm is finifhed in lefs
than 24 hours: but as we cannot perceive any thing
in the caufe of fevers determining to this, we muft
fuppofe it to depend on fome general law of the ani¬
mal ceconomy. Such a law feems to be that which
fubjedts the ceconomy, in many refpedls, to a diurnal
revolution. The caufe of this is uncertain; but the
returns of fleep and watching, of appetites and excre¬
tions, and the changes which regularly occur in the
ftate of the pulfe, (hew fufficiently that in the human
body a diurnal revolution takes place. That the pa¬
roxyfms are connected with that revolution appears
from this, that though the intervals of paroxyfms are
different in different cafes, the times of the acceffion
of the paroxyfms are generally fixed to one time of
the day; fo that quotidians come on in the morning,
tertians at noon, and quartans in the afternoon. It
is ftill, however, to be remarked, that as quartans and
tertians are apt to become quotidians, thefe to pafs
into the ftate of remittents, and thefe to become con¬
tinued; and that, even in the continued form, daily
exacerbations and remiffions are generally to be ob¬
ferved : all this fhews fo much the power of diurnal
revolution, that when, in certain cafes, the daily exa¬
cerbations and remiffxons are with difficulty diftin-
guifhed, we may ftill prefume that the general ten¬
dency of the ceconomy prevails; that the difeafe ftill
confifts of repeated paroxyfms ; and, on the whole,
that there is no fuch difeafe as hath been commonly
called a continent fever.
The repetition of the paroxyfms depends on the cir¬
cumftances belonging to them when already formed.
The longer thefe paroxyfms are protrafted, the fooner
they are repeated ; and therefore we are to conclude,
that the caufe of the frequent repetition is to be fought
for in the caufe of the protra&ion of the paroxyfms.
The duration of the whole paroxyfm chiefly depends
upon that of the hot ftage, in which the reaftion is 0-
perating to take off the fpafm formed in the cold ftage.
We may therefore fufpeft that the longer duration of
the hot ftage is owing either to the obftinacy of the
fpafm, or to the weaknefs of the reaction ; and it is
probable, that fometirnes the one and fometimes the
other of thefe circumftances takes place.
The degree of fpafm which takes place in fevers,
may be fuppofed different, according the degree of ir¬
ritability in each particular perfon; and therefore the
reaction in fever being given, the paroxyfm, or conti¬
nuance of the hot ftage, may be longer or fhorter, ac¬
cording to the degree of fpafm that has been formed.
One of the caufes of the obftinacy of fpafm is, that in
inflammatory difeafes there is a diathefts pblogiftica
prevailing in the body, and this diathelis is fuppofed
by the Do&or to confift in an increafed tone of the
whole arterial fyftem. When therefore this diathefis
accompanies fever, as it fometimes does, it may be fup-
CINE. Part x.
pofed to give occafion to the febrile fpafms being form- Theorv.
ed more ftrongly, and thereby to produce more pro- 
tradted paroxyfms. Accordingly we find, that all in¬
flammatory fevers are of the continued kind, and that
all the caufes of the diathefis phlogiftica have a ten¬
dency to change intermittent into continued fevers.
As continued fevers, therefore, are in many cafes at¬
tended with the diathefis phlogiftica, our author thence
concludes, that this is the caufe of their continued form.
In many fevers, however, there is no evidence of any
diathefis phlogiftica being prefent, or any evidence of
more confiderable fpafm ; and in fuch fevers we mull
impute the protra&ion of the paroxyfms, and the con¬
tinued form of the fever, to the weaknefs of readlion.
That this caufe takes place, may be concluded from
hence, that in many cafes of fever wherein thefeparate
paroxyfms are the moll protra&ed, and the mod diffi¬
cultly obferved, we find the moll confiderable fymp-
toms of a general debility; and therefore it may be
concluded, that in fuch cafes the protra&ed paroxyfms
and continued form depend upon a weaker readion,
owing either to the caufes of debility applied having
been of a more powerful kind, or to circumftances of
the patient’s conftitution favouring their operation.
From the view juft now given of the caufes of th«
protradion of paroxyfms, and therefore of the form
of continued fevers ftridly fo called, it feems probable,,
that the remote caufes of thefe operate by occafioning
either a phlogiftic diathefis, or a weaker readion; for
we can obferve, that the moft obvious difference of
continued fevers depends upon the prevailing of one or
other of thefe ftates.
With regard to the remote caufes of fever, as this Remote
has been confidered as confifting chiefly in an increa-caufcs of
fed adion of the heart and arteries, phyficians havefever*
fuppofed, that certain dired ftimulants, fitted to pro¬
duce this increafed adion, are the remote caufes of
fever. In many cafes, however, there is no evidence
of fuch ftimulants being applied: and in the cafes in
which they are applied, they either produce only a
temporary frequency of pulfe, which cannot be confi¬
dered as a difeafe; or, if they do produce a permanent
febrile ftate, it is by the intervention of a topical in¬
flammation, which produces a difeafe different from
what is ftridly called a fever.
That dired ftimulants are the remote caufes of fever
feems farther improbable, becaufe the fuppofition does
not account for the phaenomena attending the acceffion
of fevers, and becaufe other remote caufes can with
greater certainty be affigned. As fevers are fo gene¬
rally epidemic, it is probable, that fome matter float¬
ing in the atmofphere, and applied to the bodies of
men, ought to be confidered as the remote caufe of
fevers. Thefe matters being prefent in the atmofphere,
and a<Sting upon men, may be confidered either as
Miasmata, or as Contagions. t ^
Miafmata may arife from various fources, and be of Of miaf-
different kinds; but we know little of their variety ormata*
of their feveral effects. We know with certainty only
one fpecies of miafma which can be confidered as the
caufe of fever; and from the univerfality of this it may
be doubted whether there be any other. The miafma
fo univerfally the caufe of fever, is that which arifes
from marfties or moift ground a&ed upon by heat.
So many obfervations have now been made with refpetl
to
Part I. M E D I
'heory* to this, ia fo many different regions of the earth, that
there is neither any doubt of its being in general a
caufe of fevers, nor of its being very univerfally-the
caufe of intermittent fevers in all their different forms.
The fimilarity of the climate, feafon, and foil, in which
intermittents arife, and the fimilarity of the difeafes
arifing in different regions, concur in proving that
there is one common caufe of thefe difeafes, and that
this is the marlh miafma. What is the particular na¬
ture of this miafma we know not; nor do we certain¬
ly know whether it differs in kind or not: but it is
probable that it does not; and that it differs only in
the degree of its power, or perhaps in its quantity, in
140 a given fpace.
ions"1*" ^ contagions, a great variety have been fuppofed
to exift; but this feems to be afferted without fuffici-
ent evidence. The number of genera and fpecies of
contagious difeafes, of the clafs of pyrexia;, at prefent
known, is not very great. Whether there are any be¬
longing to the order of phlegmafiae, is doubtful; and
though it fhould be fuppofed, it will not much increafe
the number of contagious pyrexiae: and as each of the
contagious difeafes hath been found always to retain
the fame chara&er, and to differ only in circumftances,
which may be imputed to feafon, climate, and other ex¬
ternal caufes, or to the peculiar conftitution of the per-
fons affedled, it may thence be concluded, that in each
of thefe fpecies the contagion is of one fpecific nature;
and that there is one principal, perhaps one common,
fource of fuch contagions.
It is now well known, that the effluvia arifing from
the living human body, if long confined in the fame
place, without being diffufed in the atmofphere, ac¬
quire a fingular virulence^-and, in that ftate, applied
to the bodies of men, become the caufe of a fever
which is very contagious. The late obfervations on
jail and hofpital fevers have fully proved the exiftence
of fuch a caufe; and it is fufficiently obvious, that the
fame virulent matter may be produced in many other
places. At the fame time the nature of the fevers ari¬
fing renders it probable, that the virulent ftate of hu¬
man effluvia is the common caufe of fuch fevers, as
they differ only in a ftate of their fymptoms; which may
be imputed to the circumftances of feafon, climate, &c.
concurring with the contagion, and modifying its
force.
With refpeft to thefe contagions, though they are
fpoken of above as a matter floating in the atmofphere,
it is proper to obferve, that they are never found to a&
but when they are near to the fources from whence
they arife j that is, either near to the bodies of men
from which they immediately iffue, or near to fome
fubftances which, as having been near to the bodies
of men, are imbued with their effluvia, and in which
fubftances thefe effluvia are fometimes retained in an ac¬
tive ftate for a very long time. The fubftances thus
imbued with an aftive matter may be called fomites;
and the Doftor thinks it probable, that contagions,
as they arife from fomites, are more powerful than as
they arife immediately from the human body. But
though it is probable that fevers generally arife from
marlh or human effluvia, we cannot with any certain¬
ty exclude fome other remote caufes which are com¬
monly fuppofed to have a (hare in producing them.
The firft of thefe caufes to be taken notice of is, the
Vol. VI. I
CINE. 4607
operation of cold on the human body. The-orv.
This aiSs fo differently in different circumftances,  
that it is difficult to give a fatisfaftory explanation °fof the ope-
it. In certain circumftances cold has manifeftly a fe- ration of
dative power. It can extinguilh the vital principle cold,
entirely, either in particular parts, or through the
whole body; and, confidering how much the vital prin¬
ciple of animals depends upon heat, it cannot be doubt¬
ed that the power of cold is always more or lefs di¬
rectly fedative. But it is equally ,manifeft, that, in
certain circumftances, cold proves a ftimulus to the
living body, and particularly to the fanguiferous fy-
ftem. Befides the fedative and ftimulant powers of
cold, it is alfo manifeftly a powerful aftringent; cau-
fing a contraction of the veffels on the furface pf the
body, and thereby producing palenefs and a fuppref-
fion of perfpiration. It is likewife probable, that this
conftriCtion is in fome meafure communicated to the
whole body, and that thereby the application of cold
proves a tonic with refpeft to the whole fyftem.
Thefe feveral effeCis of cold do not all take pkce at
the fame time, but may be varioufly combined. The
ftimulant power taking place, obviates the effeCts that
might otherwife have arifen from the fedative, and in
fome meafure from thofe of the aftringent power. But
the ftimulant and tonic powers of cold are commonly
conjoined, and the former perhaps depend in part upon
the latter.
In what circnmftances thefe different effeCts of cold
take place, is difficult to determine ; but the morbid
effeCts may be obferved to be chiefly of four kinds.
One is a general inflammatory diathefis of the fyftem;
which is commonly accompanied with rheumatifm, or
other phlegmafia. A fecond is a catarrhal affeCtion ;
a third is a gangrene ; and a fourth is a proper fever.
In producing this laft, the operation of cold generally
concurs with that of marffl or human effluvia. In all
its operations, cold feems to aft more powerfully, in
proportion as the body, and particularly the vigour of
the circulation, is previoufly more weakened.
Befides cold, there are other powers which feem to
be the remote caufes of fevers; as fear, intemperance
in drinking, excefs in venery, and other caufes, which
evidently weaken the fyftem. But, whether any of
thefe fedative powers be alone the remote caufe of fe¬
ver, or if they only concur with the operation of marfh
or human effluvia, or if they give an opportunity to
the pofitive operations of cold, are queftions not to be
anfwered with certainty.
The caufes of death in fevers are either direft or in- Of the
direft. The firft are thofe which dire&ly attack andGauf£S.°f
deftroy the vital principle as lodged in the nervous
fyftem, or deftroy the organs immediately connected
with it. The fecond, or the indiredl caufes of death,
are thofe which interrupt fuch functions as are necef-
fary to the due continuance and fupport of the vital
principle.
Of thefe general caufes thofe which operate more
particularly in fevers feem to be, firft the violence of
reaction,- which, either by repeated violent excite¬
ments deftroys the vital power itfelf, or by its vio¬
lence deftroys the organization of the brain neceffary
to the adtion of the vital principle, or by the fame
violence deftroys the organization of the parts more
immediately neceffary to the circulation of the blood.
26 C Se-
4608
Th
Ry. Secondly, the caufie of deatli In fevers may be a poi-
fon, that is, a power capable of deftroying the vital
principle; and this poifon may be either the miafma
or contagion which was the remote caufe of the fever,
or it may be a putrid matter generated in the courfe
of the fever. In both cafes, the operation of fuch a
power appears either as a&ing chiefly on the nervous
fyilem, inducing the fymptoms of debility; or, as ac¬
ting upon the mafs of blood, inducing a putrefcent
ftate in it, and in the fluids derived from it.
From all this the fymptoms (hewing the tendency
to death in fevers may be difcovered, by their being
either the fymptoms of violent readtion, of great debi¬
lity, or of a ftrong tendency to putrefaction in the
fluids.
The fymptoms which denote the violence of reac¬
tion, are, 1. The increafed force, frequency, and
hardnefs of the pulfe. 2. The increafed heat of the
body. 3. Thofe fymptoms which are the general
marks of an inflammatory diathefis; and more efpecial-
ly thofe of a particular determination to the brain,
lungs, or other important vifcera. 4. Thofe which are
the marks of the caufe of violent rea&ion; that is, of
a ftrong fpafm appearing in the fuppreffion of the ex-
144 crttions.
"Symptoms The fymptoms which denote a great degree of de*
^reaTdebi biHty —in the animal-fundtions, 1. The weaknefs
f/ty! S voluntary motions. 2. The irregularity of the
voluntary motions depending on their debility. 3. The
weaknefs of fenfation. 4. The weaknefs and irregu¬
larity of the intelledlual operations.—-In the vital func¬
tions, 1. The weaknefs of the pulfe. 2. The cold-
nefs or (hrinking of the extremities. 3. The tendency
to a deliquium animi in an eredl pofture. 4. The
weaknefs of refpiration.—In the natural-fundtions,
1. The weaknefs of the ftomach, as appearing in ano¬
rexia, naufea, and vomiting. 2. Involuntary excre¬
tions, depending upon a palfy of the fphindters.
3. Difficult deglutition, depending upon a palfy of
,4J the mufcles of the fauces.—The fymptoms denoting a
Denoting putrefcent ftate of the fluids, are, x. In the ftomach,
a putrefcent t’ae loathing of animal food, naufea, and vomiting,
fluids'^1 * £reat antl a defire of acids. 2. In the mafs of
blood, an unufual fluidity, fo that when drawn out of
the veins it does not coagulate as ufual; hasmorrhagy
from different parts, without marks of increafed impe¬
tus; eftuffions under the (kin or cuticle, forming pete-
chiae, maculae, and vibices, and effufions of a yellow
ferum under the cuticle. 3. In the ftate of excre¬
tions, frequent, loofe, and fetid (tools; high-coloured
turbid urine; fetid fweats ; and the fetor of blifters.
4. The cadaverous fmell of the whole body.
Of critical Many phyficians have been of opinion that there is
‘*>s» fomething in the nature of fevers which generally de¬
termines them to be of a certain duration; and, there¬
fore, that their terminations, whether in health or in
death, happen at certain periods of the difeafe rather
than at others. Thefe periods are called the Criti¬
cal Days. Thefe were carefully obferved by Hip¬
pocrates and the ancients, but have been denied by
many to take place in the fevers of thefe northern re¬
gions. Dr Cullen, however, is of opinion, that the doc¬
trine of the ancients, and particularly that of Hippo¬
crates, on this fubjeft, was well founded; and that it
is juft and true even with refpeift to the fevers of our
MEDICINE. Part I.
climate. For this opinion he gives the following rea-Theory,
fons; 1. Becaufe the animal ceconoroy is readily fub*
je&ed to periodical movements, both from its own con-
ftitution, and from habits which are readily produced
Becanfe periodical movements take place in
the difeafes of the human body with great conftancy
and exaftnefs, as in the cafe of intermittent fevers, and
many other difeafes.
The critical days, or thofe on which the termina¬
tion of continued fevers is fuppofed to happen, are, the
third, fifth, feventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, feven*
teenth, and twentieth. We mark none beyond this
laft; becaufe though fevers are fometimes protrafted
beyond this period, the inftances are but rare, and we
have not a fufficient number of obfervations to afeer-
tain the courfe of them; and likewife becaufe it is pro*
bable, that in fevers long protrafted the movements
become lefs exaft and regular, and are therefore lefs
eafily obferved. This appears from the fafts laid down
by Hippocrates: as, in 163 cafes of fevers, no fewer
than 107, or more than two thirds of the whole num¬
ber, terminated on one or other of the eight days above-
mentioned; none terminated on thefecond or thirteenth;
and upon the eighth, tenth, twelfth, fifteenth, fixteenth,
eighteenth, and nineteenth, there are but 18 termina¬
tions, or one-ninth of the whole. But though it
muft be acknowledged that it is the general tendency
of the animal-oeconomy to determine the periodical
movements in fevers to be chiefly on critical days, it
muft alfo be acknowledged that in many cafes the re¬
gular courte of it may be diflurbed by particular cir-
cumftances. Thus, though the chief and more re¬
markable exacerbations in continued fevers happen on
the critical days, there are truly exacerbations hap¬
pening every day; and thefe, from certain caufes, may
become confiderahle and critical.
What determines the periods to be changed about
the 11 th day, hath not been well underftood. But the
fa& is certain : for there is no inftance of any termi¬
nation on the 13th; but on the 14th, 17th, and 20th,
there are 43 inftances of termination, and only fix on
all the intermediate days between thefe. Hippocrates
indeed makes mention of many terminations happen¬
ing on the 4th day ; but, from its inconfiltency with
the general tendency, and fome other confiderations.
Dr Cullen is led to think that the terminations on
this day are to be looked upon only as irregularities.
The opinions of thofe modern phyficians who refufe
the prevalence of critical days, he thinks, are to be
little regarded. The obfervation of the courfe of con¬
tinued fevers is difficult and fallacious; and therefore
the regulating of that courfe may have efcaped inat¬
tentive and prejudiced obfervers. His own obierva-
tions amount to this: That fevers with moderate fymp¬
toms, generally cafes of the fynocha, frequently ter¬
minate in nine days or fooner, and very conftantly on
one or other of the critical days which fall within that
period: but it is very rare in this climate, that cafes of
either the typhus or fynochus terminate before the
1 uh day; and when they do terminate on this day, it
is moft commonly fatal. When protra&ed beyond this
period, their termination hath been very conftantly ob¬
ferved on the 14th, 17th, or 20th day. I4T
In fuch cafes, the falutary terminations are feldom of crif**.
attended with any confiderable evacuation. A fweat-
i"g
l;Part I,
i j’w eor v- ing frequently appears, but is feldom confiderable ;
■jjr " and critical and decifive terminations have been hardly
ever obferved attended with vomiting, evacuations by
Itool, or remarkable changes in the urine. The folu-
tion of the difeafe is chiefly to be difcerned from fome
return of fleep and appetite, the ceafing of the deli¬
rium, and an abatement of the frequency of the pulfe.
By thefe fymptoms we can often mark a crifls of the
difeafe; but it feldom happens fuddenly and entirely,
and it is moft commonly from fome favourable fymp¬
toms on one critical day that we can announce a more
entire folution on the next following.
Having thus given a pretty full account of the
Do&or’s general theory of fevers, we now proceed to
148 take notice of his dodtrine of inflammation.
Of inflam- When any part of the furface of the body is af-
ratjon. fe&ed with unufual rednefs, heat, pain, and tumour,
we name the difeafe an inflammation or phlegmafia.
Thefe fymptoms of inflammation are never very ton-
fjderable, without the whole fyftem being at the fame
time affe&ed with pyrexia. The internal parts are
fubjedf to inflammation as well as the external; and we
judge them to be inflamed, when, togetherwithpyrexia,
*here is a fixed pain in any internal part, attended
with fome interruption in the exercife of its fundtions.
We judge of the prefence of inflammation alfo from
the ftate of the blood drawn from the veins. When
the blood, after cooling and concreting, fhews a por¬
tion of th* gluten feparated from the reft of the mafs,
and lying on the furface of the eraflamentum; as fuch
feparation happens in all cafes of more evident phleg*
mafia, fo in ambiguous cafes, we, from this appear¬
ance, joined with other fymptoms, conclude the pre¬
fence of inflammation. At the fame time it mult be
obferved, that as feveral circumftances in blood-letting
may prevent this feparation of gluten from taking
place in blood otherwife difpofed to it, fo we cannot
always conclude, from the want of fuch appearance,
t49 againft the prefence of inflammation.
®f its The phenomena of inflammation all concur in
.caul'es, fhewing, that there is an increafed impetus of the
blood in the veflels of the part affedfed; and as at the
fame time the adlion of the heart is not always con-
fiderably increafed, Dr Cullen fuppofes that the in¬
creafed impetus of the blood in the particular part
is owing efpecially to the increafed adtion of the
veflels of the part itfelf. The caufe of this increafed
adlion is therefore to be inquired after, and is the
proximate caufe of inflammation. In many cafes we
can manifeftly perceive, that inflammation arifes from
the application of ftimulant fubftances to the part.
When the application of ftimulants therefore is evi¬
dent, we feek for no other caufe of inflammation;
but as, in many cafes, fuch application is neither
evident, nor (with any probability) to be fuppofed,
we muft in fuch cafes feek for fome other caufe of
the increafed impetus of the blood in the veflels of
I49 the part.
Erroneous Many phyficians have fuppofed, that an obftrudlion
opinions Df tlje extreme veffels, any-how produced, may prove
ii°refuted^ a cau^e ‘n^amrnat‘on: but many difficulties attend
this dodtrine.
x. The fuppofition of an error loci is not at all
probable. For the motion of the blood in the extreme
vcffels is fo weak and flow, as readily to admit a
4609
retrograde courfe of it: and therefore, if a par-THSonr.
tide of blood fliould happen to enter a veflel whofe
branches will not allow its paflage, it will be
moved backwards till it meet with a veflel fit for
tranfmitting it; and the frequent ramifications and
anaftomofes of the extreme arteries are very favour¬
able to this.
2. The fuppofition of a preternatural lentor or vifci-
dity of the blood, is not well-founded; for it is proba¬
ble, that nature has fpecially provided againft a ftate of
the fluids fo incompatible with the exercife of the
moft important fundions of the animal ceconomy.
While motion continues to prevent any feparation of
parts, and heat continues to preferve the fluidity of
the more vifcid, there feems to be always fo large a
quantity of water prefent, as to give a fufficient flui¬
dity to the whole.
3. The Do&or fuppofes that no general lentor
ever does take place; becaufe, if it did, it muft (hew
more confiderable effe&s than commonly appear.
4. There are no experiments dire&ly in proof of a
preternatural lentor prevailing in the mafs of blood;
nor is there any evidence of certain parts of the blood
occafionally acquiring a greater denfity and force of
cohefion than ordinary; neither is there any proof
of the denfer or more coherent parts being prefent in
the mafs of blood in fuch greater proportion than
ufual, as to occafion a dangerous fpiffitude. The ex¬
periments of Dr Browne Langrifh on this fubjeft af¬
ford no conclufion, having been made on certain parts
of the blood feparated from the reft, without attend¬
ing to the circumftances of blood letting, which very
much alter the ftate of the feparation and concretion
of the blood drawn out of the veins.
5. In the particular cafe of inflammation, there are
feveral circumftances which render it probable that
the blood is then more fluid than ufual.
6. Though an obllruftion fhould be fuppofed to
take place, it will not be fufficient for producing the
effefts appearing in inflammation. An obftru£lion of
one vefftl does not, as has been imagined, increafe the
velocity of the blood in the neighbouring veflels which
are free ; and in fa£t it appears, from many obferva-
tions and experiments, that confiderable obftrudlions
may be formed, and may fubfift, without producing
the fymptoms of inflammation.
Obftruftion, therefore, is not to be confidered as
the caufe of inflammation; but, at the fame time, it
is probable, that fome degree of obftru£lion does take
place in every inflammation. The diftenfion, pain,
rednefs, and tumour, attending inflammation, are only
to be explained by fuppofing, that the extremities of
the arteries do not readily tranfmit the unufual quantity
of blood impelled into them by the increafed a&ion
in the courfe of thofe veflels. Such an obftruftion
may be fuppofed to happen in every cafe of an in¬
creafed impetus of the blood; but it is probable,
that, in the cafe of inflammation, there is alfo a
preternatural refiftance to the free paffage of the
fluids. ,yo
From the do&rine of fever we are led to believe, Inflamma-
that an increafed adlion of the heart and arteries isMo"gene-
not fupported for any length of time by any othercompanied
means than a fpafm affedting the extreme vcffels : with fpafnr,
and that the fame fpafm takes place in Inflammation,
26 C 2 feems
MEDICINE.
4610 M EDI
Theory, feeras probable from hence, that every confiderable in*
’ ' fiammation is introduced by a cold ilage, and is ac¬
companied with that and the other circundtances of
pyrexia ; and it feems alfo probable, that fomcthing
anaiogous'to this occurs even in the cafe of thofe in¬
flammations which feem lefs confiderable and to be
tS, purely topical.
Jnflamma- From all this, the nature of inflammation may be
Uo“ Par(1* explained in the following manner. Some caufes of
GainedtX inequality in the diftribution of the blood may throw
an unufual quantity of it upon particular vefiels, to
which it mud neceffarily prove a ftimulus. But, fur¬
ther, it is probable, that,, to relieve the congeftion,
the vis medicatrix nature increafes ftill more the ac¬
tion of thefe veffels, which it effeds by the formation
of a fpafm on their extremities, as in all other febrile
dvfeafesi A fpafm, therefore, of the extreme arteries,
fupporting an increafed a&ion in the courfe of them,
may be confidered as the proximate caufe of inflamma¬
tion, at leaft in all cafes notarifing from dired ftimuli
applied. That this is the cafe, feems probable from the
confideration of rheumatifm. This is a fpecies of in¬
flammation which is often manifeftly produced, either
by cold applied to over-diftended veflels, or by caufes
of an increafed impetus and over-diftenfion in veflels
previoufly conftrided. Hence the difeafe efpecially
appears at feafons liable to frequent and confiderable
vicifiitudes of heat and cold. To this we may add,
that the parts of the body mod frequently affeded
with inflammation, are thofe expofed both toover-di-
ftenfion from a change in the diftribution of the fluids,
and at the fame time to the immediate adio’n of cold.
Hence quinfies and pneumonic inflammations are more
frequent than any others.
That a fpafm of the extreme veflels takes place in
inflammation is further to be prefumed from what is at
the fame time the ftate of the whole arterial fyftem.
In every confiderable inflammation, though arifing in
one part only, an affedion is communicated to the
whole fyftem ; in confequence of which, an inflamma-
is* tion is readily produced in other parts befidesthat firft
affedled. This general affedion is well known to
explained? phyficians under the name of the diathesis phlo-
gistica. It appears moll commonly in perfons of
the mod rigid fibres ; is often manifeftly induced by
the tonic or aftringent powers of cold ; is increafed
by all tonic and ftimulant powers applied to the bo¬
dy ; is always attended with a hardnefs of the pulfe ;
and is moft effedually taken off by the relaxing powers
of blood-letting. From thefe circumftances it feems
probable, that the diathejis phlogijiica confifts in an in-
credfed tone, or contradility, and perhaps 'contrac¬
tion, of the mufcular fibres of the whole arterial fyftem.
Such a ftate of the fyllem prefumes a fpafm of the ex¬
treme veffels, and the general ftate commonly arifes
from that begun in a particular part; tho’ it be alfo
probable, that the general ftate may arife and fubfift
forfome time without the obvious inflammation of any
particular parts.
liiftamma- If an inflammation is cured while the ftate and tex-
tions may ture Qf the part remain entire, the drfeafe is faid to
natedb^re term'nate hy refclution. This happens when the pre-
foJution. vious congeftion and fpafm have been in a moderate
degree, and the increafed impetus of the blood has
been fufficient to overcome the fpafm, to dilate the
CINE. ’ Part 1/
veffels, and to remove the congeftion, fo that the part THtoMf
is reftored to its ordinary and-healthy ftate. A refo- ' 'l
lution takes place alfo when the increafed impetus of
the fluids has produced an increafed exhalation into ;
the adjoining cellular texture, or an increafed excre¬
tion in fome neighbouring part, and has thereby re¬
lieved the congeftion in the veffels, and relaxed the
fpafm of the inflamed part. Laftly, a refolution may
take place, when the increafed impetus of the blood in
the whole fyftem occafions fuch an evacuation, as, tho*
in a diftant part, may prove fufficient to take off the
phlogiftic diathefis of the whole fyftem, and thereby
relieve the congeftion and fpafm of the particular part j
affeded by inflammation.
The tumour which appears in inflammation may
be imputed in part to the congeftion of fluids in the
veffels; but is owing chiefly to an effufion of matter
into the adjoining cellular texture ; and accordingly
tumours feldom appear but in parts adjoining to a lax
cellular texture. If, in this cafe, the matter effufed be
only a larger quantity of the ordinary exhalent fluid,
this, when the free circulation in the veffels is reftored,
will be readily abforbed, and the ftate of the part will
become the fame as before: but, if the increafed im¬
petus of the blood in an inflamed part dilate the ex¬
halent veffels to fuch a degree that they pour out an
entire ferum, this will not fo readily be re-abforbed ;
and, from the experiments of Sir John Pringle and
Mr Gaber 'we learn, that under ftagnation the ferum
may undergo a particular change, by having the glu¬
ten prefent it in changed into a white, opaque, mo¬
derately vifcid, mild liquor, which we name pus.
When this change happens in the inflamed part, as it
is at the fame time attended with an abatement of the
rednefs, heat, and pain, which formerly diftinguifhed *54
the difeafe, it is faid to be terminated by suppura-By.fuppB"
tion ; and an inflamed part containing a colleftion of
pus, is called an abscess. In inflammation, the ten¬
dency of it to fuppuration may be difcovered by the
continuance of the .inflammation, without the fymp-
toms of refolution ; by fome remiffion of the pain of
diftenfion; and by the pain being of a throbbing
kind, more diftindlly conne&ed with the pulfation of
the arteries ; by the pulfe of the arteries being fuller
and fofter; and often by the patient’s being afflifted
frequently wdth cold fttiverings. This happens at no
determinate period ; and when the tendency is deter¬
mined, the time neceffary to a complete fuppuratioa
is different in different cafes. When pus is completely
formed, the pain formerly in the part entirely ceafes,
and a weight is felt in it. If the colledlion is formed
immediately under the fkin, the tumour becomes
pointed, the part becomes foft, and the fludlation of
the fluid within can be commonly perceived ; and, at
the fame time, the rednefs of the fkin, which formerly
prevailed, is entirely gone.
In abfceffes, while the pus is formed of one part of
the matter which had been effufed, the other and
thinner parts are re abforbed ; fo that in the abfcefs,
when opened, pus alone appears. This pus, how¬
ever, is not the converted gluten alone: for the con-
verfion of this being the effect of a particular fermen¬
tation, which may affe£l the folid fubftance of the
part, and perhaps every folid of animal-bodies ; fo it
moft readily and particularly affedts the cellular tex-
ture*
faft I.
• ture, and thereby a great dea! of this
"forms a part of the pus; and it generally happens
fo, that fome of the fmaller red veffels are eroded, and
fome red blood appears mixed with the pus in ab-
fcefies. Hence we may fee how an abfcefs, when
MEDICINE.
i eroded, and the part affe&ed. Scirrhofity is chiefly obferved in
glandular parts, and is owing to the parts readily ad¬
mitting a ftagnation of the fluids.
Beli.ies thefe there are the following ways, not
commonly taken notice of, in which inflammations
461 I
formed, may either fpread into the cellular texture of terminate. One is, by the efluflion of a portion of
the neighbouring parts, or, by eroding the incum¬
bent teguments, be poured out upon the furface of the
body, and produce an open ulcer.
The matter of abfcefies, and of the ulcers following
them, is various, according to the nature of what is ef-
fufed, and which may be,
t. A matter thinner than ferum. 2. An entire
and pure ferum. 3. A quantity of red globules.
4. A matter furniflied by particular glands feated in
the part. Of thefe, the fecond only affords a proper
pus, the effufion of which, whether in abfceffes or ul¬
cers, feems to be the peculiar efl’eft of an inflamma¬
tory ftate of the veffels; and from this caufe it is, that,
when ulcers do not produce a proper pus, we in many
inftances bring them to a ftate of fuppuration, by the
application of ftimulants exciting inflammation, fuch as
balfams, mercury, copper, &c.
the entire mafs of blood, either by means of rupture
or analtomolis, into the adjoining cellular texture.
This happens efpecially in inflammations of the lungs,-
where the effufed matter, by compreffing the veffels,.
and flopping the circulation, occaflons a fatal fuffoca-
tion ; and this!is perhaps the manner in which the
peripneumony moil comonly proves fatal.—Another
kind of termination is that of certain inflammations
on the furface of the fkin, when there is poured out
under the cuticle a fluid too grofs to pafs through
its pores; and which therefore feparates it from the
{kin, and raifes it up into the form of a veficle contain¬
ing the effufed fluid.—A third way is, when the in¬
ternal vifcera are inflamed, there appears almoft always
upon their furface an exfudation, which appears partly
in a vifcid concretion upon their furface, and partly in
a thin ferous fluid effufed into the cavities in which
When the matter effufed into the cellular texture the inflamed vifcera are placed. Though thefe ap-
!y gan-
rer.e and 0f an inflamed part is tainted with a putrid ferment,
phacelus. tj,j8 procjuces> in the effufed matter, a change ap¬
proaching more or lefs to a complete putrefaftion.
When this is in a moderate degree, and affefts only the
fluids effufed, with the fubllance of the cellular tex¬
ture, the part is faid to be affedted with a gangrene;
but if the putrefa&ion affedt alfo the veffels and
mufcles of the part, the difeafe is faid to be a spha¬
celus.
A gangrene may arife from a putrid ferment ac¬
ting on the matter which is moft commonly effufed,
and likewife from that matter being peculiarly difpo-
fed to putrefa&ion; as particularly feems to be the cafe
of the red globules of blood effufed in a large quanti¬
ty. In a third manner alfo, a gangrene feems fre¬
quently to arife from the violent excitement of the in¬
flammation deftroying the tone of the veffels; whereby
the whole fluids flagnate and run into putrefaftion,
which taking place in any degree deftroys further the
tone of the veffels, and fpreads the gangrene.
A tendency to gangrene may be apprehended from
extreme violence of pain and heat in the inflamed
pearances very conftantly accompany thofe inflam¬
mations which have proved fatal, it is however pro¬
bable, that like circumftances may attend thofe in¬
flammations terminated by refolution, and may con¬
tribute to the event, as there are inftances of a pneumo¬
nic inflammation terminating in an hydrothorax.
The remote caufes of inflammation may be reduced
to four heads, x. The application of ftimulant fub-
ftances, among which are to be reckoned the adfion
of fire, or burning. 2. External violence operating
mechanically in wounding, bruifing, or overftretching
the parts. 3. Extraneous fubftances lodged in any
part of the body, though they be neither of an acrid
quality, nor of a pointed form. 4. Cold, in a cer¬
tain degree, not fufficient immediately to produce
gangrene.
We cannot perceive, that in different cafes of in¬
flammation there is any difference in the ftate of the
proximate caufe except in the degree: and though
fome difference of inflammation may arife from the
difference of its remote caufes, this is not neceffary
to be taken notice of here; becaufe the different ap-
part, and from a great degree of pyrexia attending pearances which attend different inflammations may
the inflammation. The adtual coming on of it is per¬
ceived by a change of colour in the part from a clear
to a dark red ; by blifters arifing upon it ; by its
becoming foft, flaccid, and infenfible ; and by the
ceafing of all pain while tbefe appearances take place.
As the gangrene proceeds, the colour of the part be¬
comes livid, and, by degrees, quite black, the heat
entirely ceafes, the foftnefs and flaecidity of the part
increafes; it lofes its confiftence, acquires a cadave-
be referred for the moft part to the difference of the
part affe&ed, as will appear when we confider the feve-
ral genera and fpecies of difeafes in the Nofology.
Sect. III. Abflraft of Dr Gregory’/ Theory.
In his Confpettus Medicine Theoretica, publifhed at
Edinburgh in i 780, the DoAor* begins withobferving,
that fome funftions of the human body relate to itfelf
rous fmell, and may then be confidered as affedted with only, and others to external things. To the latter clafs
a fphacelus. belong thofe which by phyficians are called the animal
The fchools of phyfic have commonly reckoned a funttions; fuch as fenfe, and voluntary motion : to
fourth way in which inflammation may terminate, viz. the former, thofe named vital funfliorts, becaufe,
by a fcirrhus, or an indolent hardnefs of the part, without them, life could not fubfift but a very fliort
This, however, according to Dr Cullen, is a rare oc- time ; fuch as the adlion of the brain and nerves, the
currence ; and feems not to depend fo much upon the circulation of the blood, and refpiration.
nature of inflammation, as upon the circumftances of By reafon of the conllant watte of the folids, and
evapo-
j8
Animal,
vital, and;
natural
fun&ions
explained.
* Prefent Profefibr of the Theory of Medicine in the Univerfity of Edinburgh.
4612 M E D I
Theory, evaporation of the fluid parts of the body, we ftand
"in need of nourifliment, which fupplies this wafte;
after which the putrid and excrementitious parts are
thrown out by the proper paffages. The digeftion
of the food, fecretion of the humours, and excretion of
the putrid parts of the food, are called the natural
fun&ions ; which, though neceflary to life, may be in-
iS!> terrupted for a confiderable time without danger.
Ddeafes difeafe takes place, when the body hath fo far
eofo) oiu?d ^ec^net^ fr°m a f°und ftate> that its funftions are
’ either quite impeded, or performed with difficulty.
A difeafe therefore may happen to any part of the
body either folid or fluid, or to any one of the func¬
tions; and thofe may occur either Angle, or feveral
of them joined together; whence the diftin&ion of
difeafes into ft-mpie and compound.
We have examples of the moll Ample kinds of
difeafes, in the rupture or other injury of any of the
corporeal organs, by which means they become lefs
fit forperforming their offices ; or, though the organs
themfelves fhould remain found, if the folid or fluids
hhve degenerated from a healthy ftate ; or if, having
loft their proper qualities, they have acquired others
of a different, perhaps of a noxious nature ; or laftly,
if the moving powers (hall become too weak or too
ftrong, or direft their force in a way contrary to what
nature requires.
Difeafes of this kind, however, occur fo rarely,
that they may rather be accounted imaginary than
160 otherwife ; for the moft Ample difeafes are either pro-
-Syraptoms. du&ive of others, or of fymptorns, by which alone they
become known to us.—Every thing in which a Ack
perfon is obftrved to differ from one in health is called
a fyjT/ptem; and the moft remarkable of thefe fymp-
toms, and which moft conftantly appear, deflne and
conftitute the difeafe.
The caufes of difeafes are various; often obfcure,
‘fcnd fometimes totally unknown. The moft full and
perfefl proximate caufe is that which, when pre-
i«i fent, produces a difeafe, when taken away removes
C ufes ;tj anc] when changed alfo changes it.—There are
nent'and a^° remote caufes> which phyficians have been ac-
exciting. cuftomed to divide into the predifponent and exciting
ones. The former are thofe which only render the
body At for a difeafe, or which put it into fuch a
ftate 'hat it will readily receive one. The exciting
caufe is that which immediately produces the difeafe
in_a body already difpofed to receive it.
The predifponent caufe is always inherent in the
body itfelf, though perhaps it originally came from
without ; but the exciting caufe may either come from
idi within or from without.
Proximate From a jun&ion of the predifponent and exciting
cau*"e* caufes comes the proximate canfe, which neither of
the two tak^n Angly is able to produce; feeing
neither every exciting caufe will produce a difeafe in
every perfon, nor will every one predifpofed to a
difeafe fall into it without an exciting caufe.—A
body predifpofed to difeafe therefore hath already
declined fomewhat from a ftate of perfect health,
although none of its funftions are impeded in fuch a
manner that we can truly fay the perfon is difeafed.
Yet fometimes the predifponent caufe, by continuing
Jong, may arrive at fnch an height, that it alone,
without the addition of any exciting caufe, may pro-
CINE. Part I. |
duce a real dtfeafe.-*-Of this we have examples in the i’HEORy,|
debility of the Ample folids, the mobility of the'- ^
living folids, and in plethora.—The exciting caufe
alfo, though it (hould not be able immediately to
bring on a difeafe; yet if it continues long, will by
degrees deftroy the ftrongeft conftitution, and render
it liable to various difeafes ; becaufe it either pro¬
duces a predifponent caufe, or is converted into it,
fo that the fame thing may fometimes be an exciting
caufe, fometimes a predifponent one ; of which the
inclemencies of the weather, doth, luxury, &c. are
examples. |
Difeafes, however, feem undoubtedly to have their whence I
origin from the very conftitution of the animal ma- difeafes orbi
chine; and hence many difeafes are common to everySi,ia£e* |
body when a proper exciting caufe occurs, though
fome people are much more liable to certain difeafes
than others. Some are hereditary; for as healthy pa¬
rents naturally produce healthy children, fo difeafed
parents as naturally produce a difeafed offspring. Some
of thefe difeafes appear in the earlieft infancy ; others
occur equally at all ages; nor are there wanting fome
which lurk unfufpe&ed even to the lateft old age, at
laft breaking out with the utmoft violence on a proper
occaAon. Some difeafes are born with us, even though
they have no proper foundation in our conftitntion, as
when a foetus receives fome hurt by an injury done to
the mother; while others, neither born with us, nor
having any foundation in the conftitution, are fucked
in with the surfe’s milk. Many difeafes accompany
the different ftages of life; and hence fome are proper
to infancy, youth, and old age. Some alfo are proper
to each of the fexes; efpecially the weaker fex, pro¬
ceeding, no doubt, from the general conftitution of the
body, but particularly from the ftate of the parts fub-
fervient to generation. Hence the difeafes peculiar
to virgins, to menftruating women, to women with
child, to lying-in women, to nurfes, and to old wo¬
men. The climate itfelf, under which people live,
produces fome difeafes; and every climate hath a ten¬
dency to produce a particular difeafe, either from its
excels of heat or cold, or from the mutability of the
weather. An immenfe number of difeafes alfo may be
produced by impure air, or fuch as is loaded with pu¬
trid, marfhy, and other noxious vapours. The fame
thing may happen alfo from corrupted aliment, whe¬
ther meat or drink; though even the beft and moft nu¬
tritious aliment will hurt if taken in too great quan¬
tity; not to mention poifons, which are endowed with
fuch pernicious qualities, that even when taken in a
very fmall quantity they produce the moft grievous
difeafes, or perhaps even death itfelf. Laftly, from
innumerable accidents and dangers to which mankind
are expofed, they frequently come off with broken
limbs, wounds, and contuftons, fometimes quite incu¬
rable; and thefe misfortunes, though proceeding from
an external caufe at firft, often terminate in internal
difeafes.
Hitherto we have mentioned only the dangers which
come from without; but thofe are not lefs, nor fewer
in number, which come from within. At every breath,
man ponrs forth a deadly poifon both to himfelf and
others. Neither are the effluvia of the lungs alone hurt¬
ful ; there flows out from every pore of the body a
moll fubtile and poifonous matter, perhaps of a putre-
fcent
Part I, M £ D I
skort. fcptit nature, which being long accumulated, and not
f ‘ allowed to difFufe itfelf through the air, infers the
body with molt grievous difeafes; nor doth it ftop
here, but produces a contagion which fpreads devalua¬
tion far and wide among mankind. From too much
or too little exercife of our animal-powers alfo no
fmall danger enfues. By inadlivity either of body or
mind, the vigour of both is impaired; nor is the dan¬
ger much lefs from too great employment. By mode¬
rate ufe, all the faculties of the mind, as well as all the
parts of the body, are improved and ftrengtbened ;
and here nature hath appointed certain limits, fo that
exercife can neither be too much neglefted, nor too
much increafed, with impunity. Hence thofe who ufe
violent exercife, as well as thofe who /pend their time
in floth and idlenefs, are equally liable to difeafes'; but
each to difeafes of a different kind: and hence alfo the
bad effects of too great or too little employment of the
mental powers.
Befides the dangers ariflng from thofe a&ions of the
body and mind which are in our own power, there are
others arifing from thofe which are quite involuntary.
Thus, pafilons of the mind, either when carried to too
great excefs, or when long continued, equally deftroy
* the health ; nay, will even fometimes bring on fuddeft
death. Sleep alfo, which is of the greateil fervice in
reftoring the exhaufted ftrength of the body, proves
noxious either by its too great or too little quantity.
In the mod healthy body, alfo, many things always
require to be evacuated. The retention of thefe is
hurtful, as well as too profufe an evacuation, or the ex¬
cretion of thofe things either fpontaneoufly or artifi¬
cially which nature direfts to be retained. As the
folid parts fometimes become flabby, foft, almoft dif-
folved, and unfit for their proper offices, fo the fluids
are fometimes infpiffatcd, and formed even into the
hardefl folid mafles. Hence impeded a&ions of the
organs, vehement pain, various and grievous difeafes.
Lallly, fome animals are to be reckoned among the
caufes of difeafes; namely, fuch as fupport their life at
the expence of others: and thefe either invade us from
without, or take up their refidence within the body,
gnawing the bowels while the perfon is yet alive, not
only with great danger and diftrefs to the patient, but
fometimes even death itfelf.
Man, however, is not left without defence again(l
fo many and fo great dangers. The human body is pof-
feffed of a moft wonderful power, by which it preferves
itfelf from difeafes, keeps off many, and in a very fhort
time cures fome already begun, while others are by
the fame means more flowly brought to a happy con-
clufion. This power, called the autocrateia, or vis me-
dicatrix nature, well known both to phyficians and
philofophers, by whom it is moft juftly celebrated;
this alone is fufficient for curing many difeafes, and
is of fervice in all. Nay, even the beft medicines ope¬
rate only by exciting and properly direding this force ;
for no medicine will ad on a dead carcafe. But though
phyficians juftly put confidence in this power, and
though it generally cures difeafes of a {lighter nature,
it is not to be thought that thofe of the more grievous
kind are to be left to the unaffifted efforts of the vis
medicatrix, Phyficians therefore have a twofold error
to avoid, namely, either defpifing the powers of na¬
ture too much, or putting too great confidence in
CINE. 4613
them; becaufe in many difeafes thefe efforts are either Thro r y.
too feeble or too violent, infomgch that fometimes
they are more to be dreaded than even the difeafe itfelf.
So far therefore is it from being the duty of a pliyfi-
cian always to follow the footileps of nature, that it is
often neceffary for him to take a dirediy contrary
courfe, and oppofe her efforts with all his might. r(f4
In his fecond chapter, Dr Gregory tells us, that the Of the che-
animal folid, when chemically examined, yields earth, !T’j.cai ana'
oil, fait, water, phlogifton, and a great quantity of^-j^j
mephitic air. Thefe elements are found in various pro- lids,
portions in the different parts of the body; and hence
thefe parts are endowed with very different mechanical
powers, from the hardeft and moft folid bone, to the
foft and almoft fluid retina. Nay, it is principally in
this difference of proportion between the quantities of
the different elements, that the difference between the
folid and fluid parts of the animal confift, the former
having much more earth and lefs water in their com-
pofition than the latter. The cohefion, he thinks, is
owing to fomething like a chemical attraftion of the
elements for one another; and its caufe is neither to
be fought for in the gluten, fixed air, nor earth. This
attradfion, however, is not fo ftrong, but that even
during life the body tends to diffolution ; and imme¬
diately after death putrefaftion commences, provided
only there be as much moilture in it as will allow an
inteftine motion to goon. The greater the heat, the
fooner does putrefaftion take place, and with the great¬
er rapidity doth it proceed; the mephitic air flies off,
and together with it certain faline particles; after
which, the cohefion of the body being totally deftroy-
ed, the whole farts into a putrid colluvies, of which
at length all the volatile parts being diffipated, no¬
thing but the earth is left behind.
This analyfis, he owns, is far from being perfefl ;
becaufe nobodj hath ever been able, by combining the
chemical principles of flelh, to reproduce a compound
any thing like what the flefli originally was: but, how¬
ever imperfect the analyfis may be, it ftill hath the ad¬
vantage of (howing in fome meafure the nature and
caufes of certain difeafes, and thus leads phyficians to
the knowledge of proper remedies. i^y
The folid parts are fitted for the purpofes of life in 'he co-
three feveral ways; namely, by their cohefion, their
flexibility, and their elafticity, all of which are various elaftici’t/of
in the various parts of the body. Moft of the funftionsthe folids.
of life confift in various motions. In fome the moft
violent and powerful motions are required; and there¬
fore fuch a degree of cohefion is neceffary in thefe
parts as will be fufficient for allowing them to perform
their offices without any danger of laceration. It is
therefore neceffary that fome of the folid parts fhould
be more flexible than others ; and it is likewife necef¬
fary that thefe parts, along with their flexibility fhould
have a power of recovering their former fliape and II-
tuation, after the removal of the force by which they
were altered.
Thefe variations in flexibility, within certain li¬
mits, feldom produce any material confequence with
regard to the health : though fometimes, by exceed¬
ing the proper bounds, they may bring on real and
very dangerous difeafes ; and this either by an excefs or
diminution of their cohefion, flexibility, or elaflicity.
By augmenting the cohefian, the elafticity is alfo for
the
4614 M E D I
Theory, the moft part augmented, but the flexibility diminifh-
”*ed; by diminifhing the cohefioh, the flexibility be¬
comes greater, but the elafticity is diminifhed.
The caufes of thefe affedlions, though various, may
be reduced to the following heads. Either the che¬
mical compofition of the matter itfelf is changed ; or,
the compoiition remaining the fame, the particles of
the folidmaybe fo difpofetl, that they lhall more or lefs
flrongly attraft one another. As to the compofition,
almolt all the elements may exift in the body in an un¬
due proportion, and thus each contribute its (hare to
the general diforder. But of many of thefe things we
know very little; only it is apparent, that the fluid parts,
which confift chiefly of water, and the folid, which are
made up of various elements, are often in very diffe¬
rent proportions : the more water, the lefs is the cohe-
fion or elafticity, but the greater the flexibility; and
the reverfe, if the folid or earthy part predominates.
The remote caufes of thefe different dates, whether
predifponent or exciting, are very various. In the firft
place, idiofyncrafy itfelf, or the innate conftitution of
the body, contributes very much to produce the above-
mentioned effe&s. Some have naturally a much harder
and drier temperament of the body than others; men,
for inftance, more than women ; which can with the
utmoft difficulty, indeed fcarce by any means what¬
ever, admit of an alteration. The fame thing takes
place at different periods of life ; for, from firft to laft,
the human body becomes always drier and more rigid.
Much alfo depends on the diet made ufe, which always
produces a ccrrefponding date of the folids, in pro¬
portion to its being more or lefs watery. Neither are
there wanting the moft weighty reafons for believing,
tbat not only the habit of the body, but even the dif-
pofttion of the mind, depends very much on the diet we
make ufe of. The good or bad conco&ion of the ali¬
ment alfo, the application of the nourilhment prepared
from it, and likewife the date of the air with regard to
moifture or drynefs, affeft the temperament of the
body not a little; and hence thofe who inhabit
mountainous or dry countries, are very different from
the inhabitants of low marfhy places. Laftly, the
manner of living contributes fomewhat to this effedf:
Exercife preffes out and exhales the moifture of the
body, if in too great quantity ; on the contrary, floth
and lazinefs produce an effedl directly oppofite, and
caufe a redundancy of humours.
But, putting the chemical compofnion of the folid
parts out of the queftion altogether, they may be af-
fe&ed by many other caufes. The condenfation, for
inftance, or compreflion of the particles, whether by
mechanical caufes, or by means of cold or heat, makes
a confiderable alteration in the ftrength and elafticity
of every folid body. Blow much mechanical preffure
contributes to this may be underftood from the expe¬
riments of Clifton Wintringham : and hence alfo are
we to deduce the reafon of many fa<3s of the higheft
importance in the animal-oeconomy; namely, the
growth, date, decreafe, of the body ; its rigidity
daily increafing ; and at laft the unavoidable death
incident to old age from a continuance of the fame
caufes.
Perhaps the different denfity of the folids is in fome
raeafure owing to Nature herfelf; but it feems rather to
depend more on the powers of exercife or inadtivity in
CINE. Part I.
changing the date of the folids, the effe&s of which Thiory, j
on the body, whether good or bad, may hence be ea- 
fily underftood.
Heat relaxes and expands all bodies, but cold ren¬
ders them more denfe and hard ; the effe&s of which
on the human body are well known to moft people.
Though the body is found to preferve a certain de¬
gree of heat almoft in every fituation, it is impoffible
but that its furface muft be affedfed by the tempera¬
ture of the ambient atmofphere, and we have not the
lead reafon to doubt that every part of the body may
thus, feel the effedls of that temperature. What a dif¬
ference is there between one who, expofed to the fouth-
wind, becomes lazy and languid, fcarce able to drag
along his limbs ; and one who feels the force of the
cold north-wind, which renders the whole body alert,
ftrong, and fit for adtion.
That thefe various caufes, each of which is capable
of aft'edting the conftitution of the body when taken
fingly, will produce much greater effedls when com¬
bined, is fufficiently evident. The experiments of
Bryan Robinfon, the effedls of the warm bath, and in¬
deed daily experience, (hew it fully. igs 1
It is not yet certainly known what is the ultimate Of the j
ftrudlure of the minuted parts of the animal-folid 1
whether it confifts of ftraight fibres or threads, whofe„„|
length is very confiderable in proportion to their
breadth, varioufly interwoven with one another, as
Boerhaave fuppofes; or of fpiral ones, admirably con-
volmed and interwoven with one another, as fome mi-
crofcopical experiments feem to (hew; or whether the
cellular texture is formed of fibres and laminx% and
from thence the greateft part of the body, as the ce¬
lebrated Haller hath endeavoured to prove. itfr 1
The cellular texture is obferved throughout the^6 Cvl,u* ^
whole body: it furrounds and connedls the 'fibres ar testure*'
themfelves, which are fufficiently apparent in many of
the organs; and (lightly joins the different parts which
ought to have any kind of motion upon the neighbour¬
ing ones. By a condenfation of the fame fubftance al¬
fo, the ftrongeft, and what feem the thinned, mem¬
branes are formed; the moft Ample of which, being
accurately examined, difcover the cellular ftru&ure.
This cellular fubftance fometimcs increafes to a furpri-
fing degree, and all parts formed of it, membranes,
veffels, &c. efpeeially by a gentle diftenfion; for a
fudden and violent diftenfion either breaks it altoge¬
ther, or renders it thinner. Sometimes alfo it grows
between neighbouring parts, and joins thofe which na¬
ture hath left free. Preternatural concretions of this
kind are often obferved after an inflammation of the
lungs or of the abdominal vifcera ; and thefe new
membranes are found to be truly cellular. This fub¬
ftance, when cut, or by any other means divided, grows
together of its own accord ; but if, by reafon of very
great inflammation and fuppuration, a large portion of
the cellular texture hath been deftroyed, it is never
again renewed, and an ugly fear is left. It is even
faid, that this fubftance, in certain cafes, is capable
of joining the parts either of the fame body with one
another, or of a foreign body with them ; and upon
this, if on any foundation, refts the art of Taliacotius,
and that of tranfplanting teeth, lately fo much talk¬
ed of.
The cellular texture is in fome places merely a kind
of
Part I.
MEDICINE.
461
shTheory. of network, in others filled with fat. Wherever too
7 great bulk or compreffion would have been inconve¬
nient or dangerous, as in the head, lungs, eyes, eye¬
brows, penis, fcrotum, See. there it collefts no fat,
but is lax, and purely reticulated ; but between the
mufcles of the body and limbs below the tkin, in
the abdomen, efpecially in the omentum and about
s lSg the kidneys, very much fat is fecreted and collefled.;
fof the fat. The fat is a pure animal-oil, not very different from
the expreffed and mild vegetable ones ; during life it
is fluid, but of different degrees of thicknefs in dif¬
ferent parts of the body. It is fecreted from the blood,
and is often fuddenly reabforbed into it, though pure
oil is very rarely obferved in the blood. It is indeed
very probable, that oil, by digeftion, partly in the
primas vise, and partly in the lungs, is converted into
gluten, and this again into oil by means of fecretion 5
though no organs fecreting the fat can be fliewn by
anatomifts. It is, however, probable that there are
fuch organs; and that the cellular texture has fome
peculiar ftrudture in thofe parts which are deftined to
contain the fat already fecreted, without fuffering it
to pais into other places ; for it never paffes into thofe
parts which are purely reticulated, although the cel¬
lular texture is eafily permeable by air or water over
the whole body from head to foot.
The fat is augmented by the ufe of much animal-
food, or of any other that is oily and nourifhing, pro¬
vided the digeflion is good ; by the ufe of ftrong
drink, efpecially malt-liquor; by much reft of body
and mind, much deep and inactivity, caftration, cold,
repeated bloodletting, and in general by whatever di-
minifhes the vital and animal powers. Much, how¬
ever, depends on the conflitution of the body itfelf;
nor is it poffible to fatten a human creature at pleafure
like an ox. A certain degree of fatnefs, according to
the age of the perfon, is a fign and effeCt of good
health ; but when too great, it becomes a difeafe of
•itfelf, and the caufe of other difeafes. It may al¬
ways be very certainly removed by ftrong exercife,
little deep,' and a fpare and folid diet. The fat al¬
ways makes up a confiderable part of the bulk of the
body, and very often by far the greateft part. Its ufe
feems to be to make the motion of the body more eafy
and free by leflening the fridion of the moving parts,
and thus preventing the abrafion of the folids, which
would otherwife happen. It is alfo of ufe to hinder
the parts from growing together, which fometimes
happens when, by an ulcer or any other accident, a
part of the cellular texture containing the fat is de-
ftroyed. Befides all this, the fat contributes not a
little to the beauty of the body, by filling up the
large interftices between the mufcles, w-hich would
otherwife give the perfon a deformed and (hocking ap¬
pearance. It is thought to be nutritious, when ab-
forbed from its cells by the blood; but of this we
have no great certainty. It feems to have fome power
of defending from the cold, feeing nature hath beftow-
ed it in very great quantity on thofe animals which in-
habit the colder regions.
The vital Thofe parts of the body which enjoy fenfe and mo-
folids. bility, are called living or vital folids. They are the
brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, fpinal marrow,
the nerves arifing from thefe and diffufed throughout
the whole body, and which are diftributed through the
Vol. VI. 2
various organs of fenfe and through the mufcles, and Theo
laftly the mufcles themfelves. Senfation is much more
general than mobility, as being common to all the
parts already mentioned. Mobility is proper to the
mufcular fibres alone: wherever there is fenfation,
therefore, we may believe that there are nerves ; and
wherever there is mobility, we may believe that muf¬
cular fibres exift. Nay, even mobility itfelf feems to
originate from the connexion which the mufcles have
with the nerves : for foon after the nerves are com-
prefled, or tied, or cut, the mufcles to which they are
diftributed lofe their faculties; which happens, too,
when the brain itfelf, or the origin of the nerves, is
affe&ed. Some reckon that the mufcles are produced
from the nerves, and confift of the fame kind of mat¬
ter. Both indeed have a fimilar ftru&ure, as being fi¬
brous and of a white colour : for the mufcles when well
freed from the blood, of which they contain a great
abundance, are of this colour as well as the nerves; nei¬
ther can the nervous fibres by any means be diftin-
guifhed from the mufcular fibres themfelves. Both have
alfo fenfation; and both-ftimulants and fedatives adf in
the fame manner, whether they be applied to the
mufcles themfelves, or to the nerves.
It is difficult for us to difeover the origin of many
parts of the body, or to afeertain whether they are
produced all at the fame time, or one after another:
yet it muft be owned, that many of the mufcular parts
are obferved to have attained a remarkable degree of
ftrength, while the brain is ftill foft and almoft fluid;
and that the adtion of thefe mufcular parts is required
for the ad!ion and growth of the brain. The mufcles
are alfo of a much firmer contexture than the nerves;
and enjoy a power of their own, namely, that of irri¬
tability, of which the nerves never participate. Of ne-
ceffity, therefore, either the mufcles muft be conftruc-
ted of fome kind of matter different from that of the
nerves; or if both are made of the fame materials,
their organization muft be exceedingly different. But
if thefubftance of the mufcles and nerves is totally dif¬
ferent, we may eafily be convinced that much of the
one is always mixed with the other; for it is impof-
fible to prick a mufcle even with the fmalleft needle,
without wounding or lacerating many nervous fibres
at the fame time. Seeing, therefore, there is fuch a
clofe connedfion between the mufcles and nerves both
as to their fundlions and ftrudture, they are deferved-
ly reckoned by phyfiologifts to be parts of the fame
genus, called ihe genus nervofum, or nervous fyjlem. 17o
After treating of fenfe in general, the Dodfor pro-Of the
ceeds to confider particularly each of the fenfes both of
external and internal. He begins with the fenfe offeelms'
feeling, as being the moft Ample, and common to
every part of the nervous fyftem. In fome places, how¬
ever, it is much more acute than in others; in the Ikin,
for inftance, and efpecially in the points of the fin¬
gers. Thefe are reckoned to have nervous papilla,
which by the influx of the blood are fomewhat erected
in the adiion of contadt, in order to give a more acute
fenfation ; though indeed this opinion feems rather to
be founded on a conjedture derived from the ftrudiure
of the tongue, which is not only the organ of tafte, but
alfo a moft delicate organ of touch, than upon any
certain obfervations.
From the fenfe of feeling, as well as all the other fenfes,
26 D either
4616 M E D I
Theory, either pain er pleafure may a rife; nay, to thisfenfewe
commonly refer both pain and almoft all other trouble-
fome fenfations, tho’ in truth pain may arife from every
i7r vehement fenfation. It is brought on by any great
<5f pain. force applied to the fentient part ; whether this force
comes from within or from without. Whatever,
therefore, pricks, cuts, lacerates, diftends, compreffes,
bruifes, ftrikes, gnaws, burns, or in any manner of
way ftimulates, may create pain. Hence it is fo fre¬
quently conjoined with fo many difeafes, and is often
more intolerable even than the difeafe itfelf. A mo¬
derate degree of pain ftimulates the affedled part, and
by degrees the whole body; produces a greater flux of
blood and nervous power to the part affe&ed; and of¬
ten ftimulates to fuch motions as are both neceflary
and healthful. Hence, pain is fometimes to be rec¬
koned among thofe things which guard our life. When
very violent, however, it produces too great irritation,
inflammation and its confequences, fever, and all thofe
evils which flow from too great force of the circula¬
tion ; it diforders the whole nervous fyftem, and pro¬
duces fpafms, watching, convulfions, delirium, debi¬
lity, and fainting. Neither the mind nor body can
long bear very vehement pain; and indeed nature hath
appointed certain limits, beyond which Ihe will not
permit pain to be carried, without bringing on a deli-
rium, cenvulfions, fyncope, or even death, to refcue the
miferable fufferer from his torments.
Long continued pain, even though in a more gentle
degree, often brings on a debility, torpor, palfy, and
rigidity of the affected part. But if not too violent,
nor accompanied with fever, ficknefs, or anxiety, it
fometimes feems to contribute to the clearnefs and a-
cutenefs of the judgment, as fome people teftify who
17J have been affli&ed with the gout.
Anxiety. Anxiety is another difagreeable fenfation, quite dif¬
ferent from pain, as being more obtufe and lefs ca¬
pable of being referred to any particular part, though
frequently more intolerable than any pain. But we
muft take care to diftinguifh between this anxiety of
which we treat in a medical fenfe, and that which is
fpoken of in common difcourfe. The latter doth not
at all depend on the ftate of the body, but belongs en¬
tirely to the mind ; and arifes from a fenfe of danger,
or a forefight of any misfortune. The former is truly
corporeal; and derives, no lefs than pain, its origin from
a certain ftate of the body. Notwith(landing this diffe¬
rence, however, it is very pofiible for both thefe kinds
of anxiety to be prefent at the fame time, or for the
one to be the caufe of the other. A very great bodily
anxiety will ftrike fear and anxiety into the moft
refolute mind ; and mental anxiety, on the contrary,
if very violent and long-continued, may induce the
former, by deftroying the powers of the body, efpe-
cially thofe which promote the circulation of the blood.
Anxiety, in the medical fenfe of the word, arifes in
the firft place from every caufe difturbing or impeding
the motion of the blood through the heart and large
veffels near it. Anxiety, therefore, may arife from
many difeafes of the heart and its veflels, fuch as its
enlargement, too great conftridlion, oflification, poly¬
pus, palpitation, fyncope, inflammation, debility, and
alfo fome affeftions of the mind. It is likewife produced
by every difficulty of breathing, from whatever caufe
jt may arife; becaufe then the blood paffes lefs freely
CINE. Part l
through the lungs: anxiety of this kind is felt deep in Theory.
the bread. It is faid alfo to arife from the difficult 
paffage of the blood through the liver or other abdo¬
minal vifcer^.
A certain kind of anxiety is very common and
troublefome to hypochondriacal people; and arifes
from the ftomach and inteftines being either loaded
with indigefted and corrupted food, or diftended witb
air produced by fermentation and extricated from the
aliments. By fuch a load, or diftenfion, the ftomach,
which is a very delicate organ, becomes greatly af-
fe£ted. Befides, the free defcent of the diaphragm is
thus hindered, and refpiration obftrufted. Anxiety
of this kind is ufually very much and fuddenly relieved
by the expulfion of the air ; by which, as well as by
other figns of a bad digeftion, it iseafily known. In
thefe cafes the anxiety is ufually, tho’ with little accu¬
racy, referred to the ftomach.
Anxiety alfo frequently accompanies fevers of every
kind, fometimes in a greater and fometimes in a lef-
fer degree. In this cafe it arifes as well from the ge¬
neral debility, as from the blood being driven from
the furface of the body and accumulated in the large
veflels; as in the beginning of an intermittent fever.
Or it may arife from an affe&ion of the ftomach,
when overloaded with crude, corrupted aliment; or di¬
ftended and naufeated with too much drink, efpe-
cially medicated drink. As the fever increafes, the
anxiety of the patient becomes greater and greater ;
remarkably fo, according to the teftimony of phyfi-
cians, either immediately before the crifis, or on the
night preceding it; as before the breaking out of ex¬
anthemata, haemorrhagy, fweat, or diarrhoea, which
fometimes remove fevers. The patient feels likewife an
anxiety from the ftriking in of any eruption or critical
metaftafis. This fenfation alfo accompanies fevers and
moft other difeafes, when the vital power is exhaufted,
and death approaches, of which it is the forerunner
and the fign. It happens at that time, becaufe the
vital powers, unable to perform their fun&idns, cannot
make the blood circulate. But what kind of anxiety
this is, the other figns of approaching death (hew very
evidently. Moreover, even in the time of deep, anxie¬
ty may arife from the fame caufes: hence frightful
dreams, which frequently difturb our repofe with fur-
prife and terror.
Itching, an uneafy fenfation, with a defire of fcratch- itching,
ing the place affefled, is often very troublefome, al-
tho’ it feems to be more akin to pleafure than to.pain,
As pain proceeds from too great an irritation, either
chemical or mechanical, fo does itching proceed from
a flight one. Titillation, or fridlion, of a woollen fliirt,
for inftance, upon the (kin of a perfon unaccuftomed
to it, and of a delicate conftitution, excites itching ;
as do alfo many acrid folfils, vegetables, and animals.
Hence an itching is the firft fenfation after the appli¬
cation of cantharides, although the fame, when aug¬
mented, becomes painful. The fame effedl is produ¬
ced by any thing acrid thrown out upon the (kin; as in
exanthematic fevers, the difeafe called the/Vc/5, &c. Lice,
worms, efpecially afcarides, irritating either the (kin
or the inteftines, excite a troublefome itching. Cer¬
tain fpecies of internal itching excites people to many
neceffary adions both in a difeafed and healthy (latey
fuch as the excretion of the faeces and urine, cough¬
ing*
Part I. M E D I
Theory, ing, fneezing, and the like.
— Too acute a fenfation over the whole body is very
rarely if ever obferved. In a particular part the fenfc
of feeling is often more acute than it ought to be, either
from the cuticle itfelf being too thin and foft, or being
removed; or from the part itfelf being inflamed, or ex-
pofed to too great heat. It becomes obtufe, or is even
quite deftroyed over the whole body, or in great part
of it, from various affe&ions of the brain and nerves;
as when they are wounded, comprefled, or defe<ftivein
vital power. This is called anaejlkejra, and fometimes
accompanies palfy.
This fenfe may be deficient in a particular part, ei¬
ther from the nerve being difeafed, or from its being
compreffed or wounded, or from the part itfelf being
expofed to too great a degree of cold ;—or from the
fcarf-fkin which covers it being vitiated, either beco¬
ming too thick or hard, by the handling of too rough,
or hard, or hot bodies, as is the cafe with glafs-makers
and fmiths; or from the elevation of the cuticle from
the fubjacent cutis, or true flcin itfelf, by the interpo-
fition of blood, ferum, or pus ; or from the cutis be¬
ing macerated, relaxed, or become torpid, which fome¬
times happens to hydropic perfons; or laftly, from the
whole organ being corrupted by gangrene, burning,
cold, or contufion. This fenfe is very rarely depraved,
unlefs perhaps in the cafe of delirium, when all the
fun&ions of the brain are difturbed in a furprifing
174 manner.
Of tafte. The fenfe next to be confidered is that of tafte, the
principal organ of which is the tongue; and the near¬
er the tip of it, the more acute is the fenfe, and the
nearer the glottis fo much the more obtufe. It muft
be owned, however, that fome kind of acrid fubftances,
the tafte of which is fcarce perceived upon the tip of
the tongue, excite a moft vehement fenfation about its
roots, or even in the throat itfelf. The tongue is en¬
dowed with many large and beautiful nervous papillas,
which feem to be the chief feat of this fenfe, and in
the a6l of tailing are elevated and eredled in order to
give the more acute fenfation.
Nothing can be tailed which is not foluble in the fa-
liva, that, being applied in a fluid form, it may per¬
vade the involucra of the tongue, and affeft its nervous
pulp ; and hence infoluble earths are quite infipid.
Neither is it fufficient for a body to be foluble that it
may be tailed: it muft alfo have fomething in it faline,
or at leaft acrid, in order to ftimulate the nervous fub-
ftance; and hence, whatever has lefs fait than the fa-
liva is totally infipid.
The taile is rarely found to be too acute, unlefs
through a fault in the epidermis which covers the
tongue. If this is removed or wounded, or covered
with ulcers, aphthae, &c. then the tafte, becoming too
acute, is painful; or fometimes no other fenfation
than that of pain is felt. It may be impaired, as well
as the fenfe of feeling, from various difeafes of the
brain and nerves; of which, however, the inftancesare
but rare. In fome people it is much more dull than in
others; and in fuch the fenfe of fmelling is ufually de¬
ficient alfo. The tafte is moft commonly deficient on
account of the want of faliva; for a dry tongue cannot
perceive any tafte: hence this fenfe is very dull in many
difeafes, efpecially in fevers, catarrhs, &c. as well on
account of the defedl of faliva, as of appetite, which
2
CINE. _45i7
is of fo much fervice in a ftate of health; or by reafon Theory
of the tongue being covered with a vifcid mucus.
The tafte is frequently depraved; namely, when we
have a perception of tafte without the application of
any thing to the tongue; or, if any thing is applied to
it, when we perceive a tafte different from what it ought
to be. This happens for the moft part from a vitia¬
ted condition of the faliva, which is itfelf tatted in the
mouth. Hence we may perceive a fweet, faline, bit¬
ter, putrid, or rancid tafte, according to the Hate of
the falivar which may be corrupted either from the ge¬
neral vitiated condition of the mafs of humours, or the
glands which fecreteit; of the mouth itfelf; or even of
the ftomach, the vapours and eru&ations of which rife
into the mouth, efpecially when the ftomach is difeafed.-
Befides the faults of the faliva, however, the tafte
may be vitiated from other caufes ; as for inftance the
condition of the nervous papillae. This, however, is as
yet but little known to us; for the tafte is fome¬
times plainly vitiated when at the fame time the faliva
appears quite infipid when tafted by other people.
Phyficians, in almoft every difeafe, but efpecially in
fevers, inquire into the ftate of the tongue; not, indeed,
without the greateft reafon : for from this they can
judge of the condition of the ftomach; of the thirft, or
rather the occafion the patient has for drink, when, on
account of his delirium or ftupor, he neither feels his
thirft, nor is able to call for drink. And laftly, from
an infpeftion of the tongue, phyfioians endeavour to
form fome judgment concerning the nature, increafe,
and remiffion of the fever. 175
The next fenfe confidered by our author is that of Of fmelL
fmell. Its feat is in that very foft and delicate mem¬
brane, filled with nerves and blood-veffels, which covers
the internal parts of the nofe, and the various finufes
and cavities proceeding from thence. This fenfe is
more acute about the middle of the feptum, and the
ojfa fpongiofa, where the membrane is thicker and
fofter, than in the deeper cavities, where the mem¬
brane is thinner, lefs nervous, and lefs filled with blood-
veffels; although even thefe do not feem to be altoge¬
ther deftitute of fmelling.
As by our tafte we judge of the foluble parts of bo¬
dies, fo by our fmell we judge of thofe very volatile
and fubtile parts which fly off into the air; and like
the organ of tafte, that of fmell is kept moift, that
it may have the more exquifite fenfation, partly by its
proper mucus, and partly by the tears which defcend
from the eyes.
Some kinds of odours greatly affe£l the nervous fy-
ftem, and produce the moft furprifing effedls. Some
gratefully excite it, and immediately recruit thefpirits
when almoft finking; while fome produce fainting,
nay, as it is alleged, even fudden death. To this head
alfo are we to refer thofe antipathies, which, though
truly ridiculous, are often not to be fubdued by any
force of mind.
This fenfe is fometimes too acute, as well from
fome difeafe in the organ itfelf, which happens more
rarely, as from the too great fenfibility of the nervous
fyllem in general, as is fometimes obferved in nervous
fevers, phrenitis, and hyfterics. It is more frequent¬
ly, however, too dull, either from difeafes of the
brain and nerves, as from fome violence done to the
head, or from fome internal caufe ; or it may proceed
26 D 2 from
4618
Theory.
X7<!
Of bearin'
M E D I
from a drynefs of the organ itfelf, either on account
'of the cuitomary humours being fuppreffed or turned
another way, or from the membranes being oppreffed
with too great a quantity of mucus or of tears. Of
both thefe cafes we have inftances in the catarrh, where
at firft the noftrils are dry, but afterwards are deluged
with a thin humour, or Hopped up with a thick one.
But in thefe, and many other examples, the membrane
of the nofe itfelf is affefted with inflammation, relaxa¬
tion, or too great tenfion, by which it is impofiible
but the nerves, which conftitute a great part of it,
muft be vitiated. It is evident alfo, that whateverob-
itruds-the free entrance of the air into the noftrils, or
impedes its paflage thro’ them, muft prove detrimental
io the fenfe of fmelling.
; The fenfe of hearing is more frequently vitiated
than almoft any of the reft, as having a molt delicate
organ, and one compofed of many and very fmall
parts, of which an account is given under the article
Anatomy, n° 405.— It frequently becomes too acute;
either from the general habit of the body being too
irritable, fttoh as often happens to hyfterical and lying-
in women ; or from too great a fenfibility of the brain
itfelf, which is not unfrequently obferved in fevers, as
well as in phrenitis, and fometimes in the true mania;
or it may be from a difeafe of the ear itfelf, as when
it is affe&ed with inflammation, pain, or too great
tenfion.— It may be rendered dull, or even be altogether
deftroyed, fo that the perfon (hall become totally deaf,
from the fame caufes ailing with different degrees of
force. This happens efpecially from the want of the
external ear; or the from meatus auditorius being flop¬
ped up with mucus, wax, or other matters ; or from the
ffdes of the canal growing together, as fometimes hap¬
pens after fuppuration, or the ftnall-pox ; or by the
membrane of the tympanum becoming rigid or relaxed,
or being eroded or ruptured ; or the tympanum itfelf,
or the euftachian tube, may from certain caufes be ob-
ffrudled ; or fome of the little bones or membranes, or
feme of the mufcles of the labyrinth itfelf, may be
affeiled with concretion, fpafm, palfy, or torpor;
or laftly, it may happen from difeafes of the brain and
nerves, all the organs of hearing remaining found.
Hence deafnefs is often a nervous difeafe, coming
fuddenly on, and going off of its own accord. Hence
alfo it is common in old people, all of whofe folid parts
are too rigid, while their nervous parts have too little
fenfibility.
Perfons labouring under fevers, efpecially of the
typhus kind, often become deaf. When this comes on
along with other figns of an oppreffed brain, and a
great proftration of ftrength, it may be a very bad
fign ; but for the moft part it is a very good one, even
though accompanied with fome degree of torpor or
fleepinefs.
A very common difeafe in the fenfe of hearing is
when certain founds, like thofe of a drum, a bell, the
falling of water, &c. are heard without any tremor
in the air, or without a found perfon’s hearing any
thing. This difeafe is called tinnitus aurium, of
which various kinds have been obferved. For the
moft part it is a very flight tranfient diforder; but
fometimes it is moft; obftinate, long-continued, and
troubkfome. It fometimes arifes from the flighted
xaufe, fuch as any thing partially flopping up the
CINE. Fart I.
meatus auditorius or euftachian tube itfelf, fo that Theory*.
accefs is in part denied to the air ; whence it happens “
that the latter ftrikes the membrane of the tympanum,
or perhaps the interior parts, unequally, and with too
much force. Hence bombs, a kind of tinnitus, are
heard even by the moft healthy when they yawn.
A much more frequent and troublefome fpecieS of
tinnitus accompanies many difeafes both of the fe¬
brile and nervous kind. This is occafioned partly by
the increafed impetus of the blood towards the head,
with an increafe of fenfibility in the nervous fyftem
itfelf, fo that the very beatings of the arteries are
heard ; and partly from the increafed fenfation and
mobility of the nerves and mufcles of the labyrinth ;
whence it happens, that the parts which ought to be
at reft until excited by the tremor of the air, begin
to move of their own accord, and impart their mo¬
tion to other parts which are already in a morbid ftate
of too great fenfibility.
A tinnitus fometimes arifes from any vehement
affedtion of the mind ; fometimes from a diforder
in the ftomach; fometimes from a rheumatic difor¬
der affedling the ears and head ; or from a catarrh,
which commonly affedls the tube. Sometimes, how¬
ever, the tinnitus alone affefts the patient; and even
this is a difeafe of no .fmall confequence. Thefe va¬
rious caufes, however, both of this and other dif-
orders of the hearing, are often very difficult to be
diftinguifhed, as well on account of the inacceffible
fituation of the organ, as on account of the little know¬
ledge we have of its aftion. But from whatever caufe
it arifes, both this and the other various affedlions
of the hearing, can neither be cured certainly nor
eafily. I?y
Concerning the nature of the fenfe of fight, feco/vifion.
Anatomy, n°4o6, and (the Index fubjoined to) Op¬
tics.—Of this fenfe fome flight diforders, or rather
varieties, are often obferved. Thofe perfons are called 178
jhort-fighted who cannot fee diftindlly unlefs the ob-
jedt be very near them. This diforder arifes from ^ te pe0*
too great a refradlion of the rays by reafon of their
being too foon colledled into a focus by the cry-
ftalline lens, and diverging again before they fall up¬
on the retina, by which means they make an in-
diftindt pidlure upon it. The moft ui’ual caufe is too
great a convexity of the eye or fome of its humours,
as too prominent a cornea. It is a difoider com¬
mon to young people, which is fometimes removed
when they grow older. As foon as the firft ap¬
proaches offliort-fightednefs are obferved, it is fuppofed
it may be obviated by the perfon’s accuftoming him-
felf to view remote objedts, and keeping his eyes off
very fmall and near ones ; as, on the contrary, it may¬
be brought on by the oppofite cuftom ; becaufe the
eye accommodates itfelf fomewhat to the diitances
of thofe objedls which it is accuftomed to view.
But a concave glafs, which caufes the rays of light
to diverge more than naturally they would before
falling upon the cornea, is the moft fimple and certain
remedy. .
Long-fighted people are thofe who cannot fee an i_ong-
objedl diltindlly unlefs it be at a confiderable diftance fightedpeo-
from them. This arifes from caufes contrary to the Ple*
former; namely, the eye being too fiat, fo that there
is no Toom for refradling the rays and bringing them
into
sfjpart I. M E D I
iuheory. into a focus. Hence this defeA is common in dd
“T people, and remedied by the ufe of convex glaffes,
Thofe are called nyciakpes who fee better with a
very weak than with a llrong light. It is a deleft
very feldom to be met with in the human race,
though every perfon is fenfible of it who hath been
long kept in the dark and is then fuddenly brought
into the light. The difeafe arifes from too great a
180 fenfibility of the retina, and the pupil being too open.
<i rarious dif- The fight is liable to many and grievous diforders.
* [j^ers in It is (harpened beyond meafure, fo that the perfon
0 1 lon* either perceives nothing diftinftly, or with great pain,
from the fame caufes that induce a fimilar diforder
in the other fenfes; namely, exceffive fenfibility in
the general habit of body: or a particular ftate of
the brain common in phrenitics, or even in thofe
afflifted with fevers arifing from inflammation or too
great excitement; though more frequently from the
condition of the eye itfelf, one becomes unable to bear
the light. The inflammation of the tunica adnata,
andthe fore-part of the fclerotica, is communicated to
the back parts of it, and from thence to the choroides
and retina itfelf. Hence the light becomes into¬
lerable, andvifion is attended with pain and great irri¬
tation, fomettmes inducing or augmenting a delirium.
The fenfe of feeing is made;dull, or even totally
abolifhed, by age ; the aqueous humour not being
fupplied in fufficient quantity, and the cornea and
lens, or the vitreous humour, becoming fhrivelled or
decayed. It may likewife happen from the cornea
becoming dry and opaque; which is to be imputed to
the languid motion of the blood, and to great numbers
of the fmall veflels being obftrufted or having their
Tides concreted ;—or from the cryftalline lens becoming
yellow like amber, and the retina itfelf lefs fenfible,
for old age xliminifhes every fenfation. It is totally
aboliflied by injuries of the brain, the optic nerve, or
the retina, even though the ftrufture of the organ
fhould remain found. This difeafe is called an avum-
rojis,; and is eafily known by the dilatation and im¬
mobility of the pupil, the humours of the eye remain¬
ing clear. It is commonly owing to congeftion of
blood ; and fometimes, where no congeftion of blood
^ can be fhown, to mere ftupor of the nerves. If it be
only a torpor of part of the retina, we fee black fpots
in thofe things at which we look ; or flies feem to
pafs before our eyes, a very bad fign in fevers, and
almoft always mortal.—The fight is abolifhed alfo by
the obfcurity or opacity of any of the parts through
which the rays ought to pafs and be refrafted ; as if
the cornea lofe its tranfparency by being covered with
fpots ; or the aqueous humours become corrupted with
blood, ferttm, or pus; or the lens (which often hap¬
pens and which is called a cataraft) becomes of a
grey or brown colour, or the vitreous humour be in
like manner corrupted ; or laftly, when all the humours
being diflolved, confufed, and mixed together, by in¬
flammation and fuppuration, either do not fuffet the
light to pafs at all, or to pafs imperfeftly and un¬
equally ; whence either no image is formed on the
retina, or it appears obfcure, diftorted, imperfeft, and
ill-coloured.
The fight is alfo depraved, when things ap¬
pear to it of a colour different from their own, or
even in another fituation and of another fhape than
CINE. 4619
they ought to have. This happens from the humours Theory,
being tinftured with any unufual colour, as is faid to
happen in the jaundice; or from an extravafation and
mixture of the blood with the aqueous humour. A
furprifing depravation alfo, or conftant and perpetual
defeft of vifion, is not unfrequently obferved in men
otherwife very healthy, and who fee quite clearly ;
namely, that they cannot diftinguifli certain colours,
green, for example, from red *. Another depravation * Sec the
is, when, without any light being admitted to theamc,e Co.*
eyes, fparks, fmall drops of a flame or gold colour,
and various other colours, are obferved to float before
us. This is generally a very flight and tranftent dif- ing.J
order, common to thofe whofe conftitutions are very ir¬
ritable ; and arifes from the flight impulfe, as it would
feem, on the retina, by the veffels beating more vehe¬
mently than ufual. A fiery circle is obferved by pref-
fing the eye with the finger after the eye-lids are fhut.
The fame reafon, perhaps, may be given for thofe
fparks which are feen by perfons labouring under the
falling-ficknefs, and inceafing to the fize of an im-
menfe and luminous beam before they fall down in
Convulfions. A fimilar beam thofe who have re¬
covered from hanging or drowning teftify that they
have obferved : for by reafon of the refpiration be¬
ing fuppreffed, the veffds of the head fwell and com-
prefs the whole brain and nervous parts of the head.
Sparks of the fame kind, and thefe too of no good
omen, are obferved in patients'labouring under a fever,
where a phrenitis or fierce delirium is at hand; and
likewife in thofe who are threatned with palfy, apo¬
plexy, or epilepfy.—A diftinft but falfe perception,
namely of vifible thiogs which do not exiil, is to be
imputed to fome injury of the brain, to madnefs ora
delirium, not to any difeafe of the eye. ig,
A very frequent defeft of vifion remains to be Squinting,
mentioned; namely, fquinting. A perfon is faid to
fquint who has the axes of the eyes more oblique
than ufual, and direfted to different points. Hence
a great deformity, and often an imperfeft and confufed
vifion by which the objedls are fometimes feen double.
It is an evil for the moft part born with the perfon,
and often correfted by thofe attempts which an infant
makes to fee more pleafantiy and diftinftly-; and this
even without being confcious of its own defefts. It
is alfo eafily learned, elpecially in infants, even with¬
out their own knowledge, by that kind of imitation
which has a great influence over the human race, efpe-
cially in their tender years.—it is by no means,, how¬
ever, fo eafily unlearned.
Squinting is frequently occafioned by a fpafm, palfy,
rigidity, &c. of the mufcles which manage the eye; by
epilepfy ; by certain difeafes of the head, the hydro¬
cephalus efpecially ; or by any great injury done to
the head. Sometimes, though very rarely, it comes
on fuddenly without any known caufe. It is very pro¬
bable, however, that fquinting often arifes from a fault
of the retina;, when their central points, for inftance,
and thofe fimilarly placed with refpeft to the centre,
do not agree. In this cafe there muft be a contorfion
of the eye, that the objeft may not be feen double.
This feems alfo to be the reafon that fquinting is hor¬
ribly increafed when the perfon brings the objeft near
his eye in order to view it more perreftly. Or if the
central point of either, or both, of the retinas be infen-
4620 M E D I
Theory, fible, or nearly fo, it is neceflary for the perfon to di-
ftort his eyes that he may have any diftinft vifion of
objefts. If the optic nerve had not entered the retina
obliquely, but pafled dire&ly through its centre, we
igj would all either have fquimed, or feen double.
Of vertigo. Phyficians have referred to the fenfe of vifion that
mofi; tronblefome fenfation which we call a vertigo:
though it feems rather to belong to that of feeling, or
of confcioufnefs; for the diforder is not removed either
in the dark, or by (hutting the eye-lids. The vertigo
takes place when external objefts really at red feem to
reel, to whirl round, to tremble, or to move in any
manner of way. If the diforder be very violent, the
perfon is neither able to fee, on account of a dimnefs
of fight; nor can he (land, as the powers fail which
ought to govern the limbs. A naufea alfo ufually ac¬
companies the vertigo, and the one generally produces
the other.
This diforder is obferved to be both the fymptom
and forerunner of fame dangerous difeafes; fuch as
apoplexy, epilepfy, hyfteria; haemorrhages from the
nofe and other parts; fupprefiions of the menfes; great
plethora; fevers, as well fuch as are accompanied with
debility, as thofe in which there is an increafed-impe¬
tus of the blood towards the head. An injury done to
the head alfo, but rarely one done to the eyes unlefs
in fo far as it affe&s the whole head, brings on a ver¬
tigo. A vertigo may be likewife produced by a very
great and fudden lofs of blood or other fluid; debility;
fyncope; various difeafes of the alimentary canal, of
the ftomach efpecially; poifons admitted into the bo¬
dy, particularly of the narcotic kind, as opium, wine,
&c and hence vertigo is a fymptom of every kind of
drunkennefs. Various motions alfo, either of the head
or the whole body, being toffed in a (hip, efpecial¬
ly if the veflel is fmall and the fea runs high, pro¬
duce a vertigo. In thefe and fimilar examples,
the unufual and inordinate motions of the blood are
communicated to the nervous parts which are in the
head ; or thefe being affe&ed by fympathy from the
neighbouring parts, produce a confufed fenfation as if
of a rotatory motion. Nay, it is often produced from
an affedtion of the mind itfelf, as from beholding any
thing turned fwiftly round, or a great cataradl, or
looking down a precipice, or even by intenfe thought
without looking at any thing.
Though a vertigo be for the mod part a fymptom
and concomitant of other difeafes, yet it is fometimes
a primary difeafe, returning at intervals, increafing gra¬
dually, and equally impeding and deftroying the func-
jg3 tions of the body and mind.
Diforders Having thus treated of the external fenfes, the Doc-
of the in- tor next proceeds to confider thofe properly called in-
fes"31 len* iernah which are, the memory, the imagination, and
the judgment. The firft is leflened, difturbed, or even
totally deftroyed, in many difeafes, efpecially thofe
which affett the brain; as the apoplexy, palfy, inter¬
nal tumours of the head, external violence applied, fe¬
vers, efpecially thofe in which there is an increafed
motion of the blood towards the head, or where the
brain is any other way very much affe&ed. It is very
rarely, however, depraved in fuch a manner that ideas
are not reprefented to the mind in their proper order;
or if at any time fuch a diforder occurs, it is confider-
ed rather as a diforder of the, imagination, or as a de-
C I N E. Part I.
lirium, than a failure of the memory. The mind is faidTHsoR'i ns
to be difordered when the perceptions of memory or  —’P
imagination are confounded with thofe of fenfe, and
of confequence thofe things believed to be now pre- ;
lent which are really pad or which never exifted; or
when the fenfe of the perfon concerning ordinary things
is different from that of other people. The general •
name for fuch diforders is vefania: if from fever, it is
called delirium. A general fury without a fever, is
called mania, or madnefs: but a partial madnefs, on
one or two points, the judgment remaining found in
all other refpefts, is called melancholia. There is, how¬
ever, no exaft and accurate limits between a found
mind and madnefs. All immoderate vivacity borders I
upon madnefs; and, on the other hand, a forrowful and
gloomy difpofition approaches to melancholy. is4
Delirium accompanies fevers of many different kinds. Delirium!
Sometimes it is flight, eafily removed, and fcarce to
be accounted a bad fign. Often, however, it is very
violent, and one of the very worft of figns, requiring
the utmoft care and attention.
A delirium is either fierce or mild. The fierce de- j
lirium is preceded and accompanied by a rednefs of
the countenance, a pain of the head, a great beating
of the arteries, and noife in the ears; the eyes in the
mean time looking red, inflamed, fierce, (hining, and
unable to bear the light; there is either no deep at
all, or deep troubled with horrid dreams; the wonted
manners are changed; an unufual peevifhnefs and ill-
nature prevail. The depravation of judgment is firft
obferved between deep and waking,and by the perfon’s
crediting his imagination, while the perceptions of fenfe
are negledted, and the ideas of memory occur in an
irregular manner. Fury at laft takes place, and fome¬
times an unufual and incredible degree of bodily
ftrength, fo that feveral people can fcarce keep a
fingle patient in his bed.
The mild delirium, on the contrary, is often accom¬
panied with a weak pulfe, a pale collapfed counte¬
nance, and a vertigo when the patient fits in an eredl
pofture; he is feldom angry, but often (lupid, and forae-
times remarkably grieved and fearful. The lofs of
judgment, as in the former kind, is firft perceived when
the patient is half awake; but a temporary recovery
enfues upon the admiflion of the light and the con-
verfation of his friends. The patient mutters much to
himfelf, and attend* little to the things around him; at
laft, becoming quite ftupid, he neither feels the fenfa-
tions of hunger or thirft, nor any of the other pro-
penfities of nature, by which means the urine and ex¬
crements are voided involuntarily. As the diforder in-
creafes, it terminates in fubfultus tendinum, tremors,
convulfions, fainting, and death. The other fpecies of
delirium alfo frequently terminates in this, when the
fpirits and ftrength of the patient begin to fail.
The fymptoms accompanying either of thefe deli-
ria, (hew an unufual, inordinate, and unequal motion
of the blood through the brain, and a great change in
that date of it which is neceffary to the exercifeof the
mental powers. It is fufficiently probable, that an in¬
flammation of the brain, more or lefs violent and general,
fometimes takes place, although the figns of univerfal
inflammation are frequently flight. This we learn from
the diffe&ion of dead bodies, which often (hew an un¬
ufual rednefs of the brain or of fome of its parts, or
fome-
Part I. M E D I
iTheory, fometimes an effufion or fuppnration.
The ftate of the brain, however, may be much af-
fedled, and a delirium induced, by many other caufes
befides the motion of the blood. In many fevers, ty¬
phus, for inllance, the nervous fyftem itfelf is much
fooner and more affected than the blood ; and though
the morbid affedtions of the nervous fyftem are as in-
vifible to the fenfes as the healthy ftate of it, the fymp-
toms of its injuries plainly fhew that its aftion, or ex-
citement as {omc ca\\ it, is unequal and inordinate. In
,8S this way, too, a delirium is produced by feveral poifons.
■fand^ma pathology of melancholy and mania is much
' fia!'1 1,1:1 more obfcure; as coming on without any fever, or di-
fturbance in the blood’s motion. Often alfo they are
|i hereditary, depending on the original ftru&ure of the
body, efpecially of the brain; the fault of which, how¬
ever, cannot be dete&ed by the niceft anatomift. It
is known, however, that various difeafes of the brain,
obftruiftions, tumours, either of the brain itfelf, or of
jj the cranium preffing upon it, any injury done to the
head, and, as feme phyficians relate, the hardnefs and
drynefs of the brain, and fome peculiar irritations af¬
fecting the nervous fyftem, are capable of bringing on
this malady. And indeed fo great is the irritation of
the nervous fyftem in mad people, that they often deep
little or none for a long time.—Yet even this fo defec¬
tive and imperfedt knowledge of thedifeafes of thebrain
and nerves, is by no means free fromdifHculties. For tho*
we know that the brain, or a certain part of it, is hurt,
or that it is irritated by a fwelling, or a pointed bone
growing into it, nobody can foretel how great, or what
may be the nature of the malady from fuch a hurt: for
examples are not wanting of people who, after lofing
a large part of the brain, have recovered and lived a
long time ; or of thofe who have perceived no incon¬
venience from a large portion of that vifeus being cor¬
rupted, until at length they have fallen fuddenly down
and died in conviftfions.
Another difeafe of the internal fenfes, quite diffe¬
rent from thefe, is fatuity or idiotifm. Thofe are call¬
ed idiots, who are deftitute either of judgment or me¬
mory, or elfe have thefe faculties unequal to the com¬
mon offices of life. A kind of idiotifra is natural and
common to all infants ; neither is it to be accounted a
difeafe. But if it lafts beyond the ftate of infancy,
it is a real difeafe, and for the moft part incurable.
It hath the fame caufes with the other difeafes of the
internal fenfes; although thefe can fcarcely be detec¬
ted by the eye or by the knife of the anatomift. It
frequently accompanies, or is the effeft of, epilepfy.
Hence, if the epilepfy derives its origin from caufes
j ■ not feated in the head, as from worms lodging in the
inteftinesj.the fatuity may be cured by diflodging thefe,
and removing the epilepfy. It is not unlikely that the
fatuity of children, and the dotage of old men, may arife
from the brain being in the former too foft, and in the
1 latter too hard.
ipiforders mu^cu^ar power may be difeafed in a great
jfn the muf-num^er ways. The mobility itfelf may be too
War great; but this muft be carefully diftinguifhed from
power. vigour. The mobility is the eafe with which the muf-
cular fibres are excited into contraflion. The vigour,
on the other hand, is that power with which the con-
tradfion is performed. They are fometimes joined,
but more frequently feparate, and for the moft part
CINE. 4621
the exceffes of each are owing to contrary caufes. Theory.
Too great mobility is when motions are excited by ’
too flight a ftimulus, or when too violent motions are.^1®^
produced by the cuftomary ftimulus. A certain ha- mobufty.
bit of body, fometimes hereditary, renders people liable
to this difeafe. Women have a greater (hare of mobi¬
lity than men have. Infants have a great deal of mo¬
bility, often too great; youth has lefs than infancy,
but more than man’s eftate; tho’ old age has com¬
monly too little. A lazy, fedentary life, full diet, a
fuppreffion of the ufual evacuations, fulnefs of the
blood-veffels, and fometimes their being fuddenly emp¬
tied, laxity, flaccidity of the folids in general, but
fometimes too great a tenfion of the moving fibres, the
ufe of diluents, efpecially when warm, or heat applied
in any manner, produce too great mobility. And this
may be either general or particular, according as the
caufes have been applied to the whole body, or only
to a part of it. ,88
Vigour in general is rarely morbid ; although fome- Too great
times certain mufcular parts appear to have too great v'g0UI:> an‘1
ftrength. In maniacs and phrenitics, an immenfe
ftrength is obferved in all the tnufcles, efpecially in
thofe that ferve for voluntary motion; which is not
unjuftly reckoned morbid. The reafon of this excefs
is very obfeure ; however, it is plainly to be referred
to a difeafed ftate of the brain.
A more frequent and more important excefs of vi¬
gour is obferved in thofe mufcular fibres that do not
obey the will, fuch as thofe which move the blood. Its
circulation is thus often increafed, not without great
inconvenience and danger to the patient. But a (lighter
excefs of this kind, pervading the whole body, ren¬
ders people apt to receive inflammatory difeafes, and is
ufually called a phlogijiic diathefu. But this is bet¬
ter obferved when local, as in inflammation itfelf.
Too great vigour of the mufcular fibres may arifer
from the nervous power increafed beyond meafure,
as in mania, phrenitis, or violent afleftions of the
mind ; from too great a tenlion of the fibres, by
which they more eaiily and vehemently conceive mo¬
tions, as of the arteries when filled with too much
blood; from catching cold, by being expofed either to
cold or heat, as ufually happens in the fpring; or laft-
ly, though the nervous power and tenfion of the fibres
fliould not at all be changed, their action may be¬
come too great, from a ftimulus more violent than ufuat
being applied, or from the ufual ftimulus if the fibres
themlelves having already acquired too great a (hare of
mobility. ^
The oppofite to too great mobility is torpor, and of torpor
to too great vigour is debility. Torpor is fuch a di- anJ ntobi-
minution of mobility as renders the parts une**lty-
qual to their functions. It arifes from caufes diredt-
ly oppolite to mobility ; fuch as, in the firft place, a
harder and more rigid contexture of the parts them-
felves, or even fometimes from one too lax and flaccid;
from old age ;. from fome peculiar temperament of bo¬
dy, fuch as one phlegmatic, frigid, or infenfible ; too
great and inccffant labour, cold, fpare diet, and an
exhaufted body. This evil is the more to be dread¬
ed, becaufe, the powers of the body being deficient,
nature is neither able to make any effort of herfelf, nor
are the remedies, in other cafes the moft efficacious,,
capable of affording her any affiftance.
v Debility
4622
Theory
Of palfy.
MEDICINE.
Part E
• Debility takes place, when the motion of the
mufcles, either voluntary or involuntary, is not per¬
formed with fulBcient ftrength. A greater or lefFer
/hare of debility, either general or of fome particular
part, accompanies almoft all difeafes, and is indeed no
fmall part of them. It likewife renders a man obnoxious
to innumerable diforders, and throws him as it were
defencelefs in their way. It often depends on the ori¬
ginal ftru&ure of the body, fo that it can be cor-
redted neither by regimen nor medicines of any kind.
A different degree of ftrength alfo accompanies, the
different ages of mankind; and thus, in fome cafes, de¬
bility cannot be reckoned morbid. But a truly mor¬
bid and unwonted debility arifes from the nervous
force being diminifhed ; from difeafes of the brain and
nerves, or of the mufcles through which they are di-
ftributed; from a decay of the nerves themfelves; from
a want of the due tenfion of the fibres, or the fibres
themfelves becoming torpid; from the body exhaufted
byfparediet, want, evacuations; orlaftly, from difeafes
affediing the whole body, or fome particular parts
of it.
The higheft degree of debility, namely, when the
ftrength of the mufcles is altogether or nearly deftroy-
ed, is called paralyfts or palfy; and is either univerfal,
or belonging only to fome particular mufcles. An
univerfal palfy arifes from difeafes of the brain and
nerves, fometimes very obfcure, and not to be difco-
vered by the anatomift ; for the nervous power itfelf
is often deficient, even when the ftrudtureof the nerves
remains unhurt: yet often, a compreffion obftruc-
tion, or injury of the veffels, extravafation of blood, or
ferum, colledlions of pus, fwellings, &c. are difcover-
ed. It frequently arifes from certain poifons adtingon
the nerves; from the fumes of metals ; from the dif-
tafes of parts, and affediions of the mufcles, very re¬
mote from the brain, as in the colic of Poidlou. A
palfy of fingle mufcles, but lefs perfedl, often arifes
without any defedt of the brain or nerves, from any
violent and continued pain, inflammation, too great
tenfion, relaxation, reft, or deftrudtion of the contex¬
ture of the parts, fuch as commonly happens after the
rheumatifm, gout, luxations, fradtures of the bones,
and ifchurta.
An univerfal palfy, however, as it is called, fel-
dom affedls the whole body, even though it fhould
originate from a difeafe of the brain. We moft
commonly fee thofe that are paralytic affedled on¬
ly on one fide, which is called an hemiplegia. It is
faid that the fide of the body oppofite to the difeafed
fide of the brain is moft commonly affedled. If all
the parts below the head become paralytic, it is
called a paraplegia. In thefe difeafes the fenfes for
the moft part remain; though fometimes they are abo-
liftved, and at others rendered dull. Sometimes, tho’
rarely, and which is an exceeding bad fymptom, the
motion, fenfation, pulfe, and heat of the paralytic
limbs are loft ; in which cafe the arteries themfelves
become paralytic. A palfy of the whole body, as far
as regards the voluntary motions, with ancefthefia and
fleep, is called an apoplexy. This proceeds from fome
injury of the brain: though a ftate very fimilar to it is
induced by narcotics, opium, wine itfelf,or any gene¬
rous liquor taken to excefs ; and laftly, by breathing in
fixed or mephitic air, or that which is poifoned and
corrupted with phlogifton. Theobs(
Another difeafe to which mnfcular motion is liable,
and that neither flight nor unfrequent, is calledfpafm. ’J!1 f
This is a violent and irregular motion of the mufcles, pa m’ ll'*
of which there are two kinds, the tonic and clo¬
nic. The latter is frequently called a in or- j1
der to diftinguifh it from the other, which is more pe- ;j
culiarly called fpafm.
Spafm therefore is a violent, conftant,and preternatu¬
ral contraction of the mufcular fibres ; but a convulfion
is an unufual and violent contraction alternated with
relaxation. People are rendered liable to fpafm by too |
fenfihle an habit of body, or too great mobility ; and
hence it is a difeafe common in women, in infants, and
in weak, luxurious, lazy, and plethoric people. It is
brought on. thofe already predifpofed to it, by any kind ' t
of ftimulus applied to the brain, or to any nerve, mufcle, I
or nervous part connected with it: of which we have {
examples in dentition; worms lodged in the inteftines, I
and irritating them ; any acrid matter infeCting the.
blood, or much affeCting the ftomach and inteftines;
the irritation of any nerve, or of the brain itfelf, by 1
an exoftofis, fweliing, too great fulnefs of the veffels,
pain, vehement affeClions of the mind, fudden evacua- I
tion, or poifons admitted into the body. Frequently,
however, the malady originates from flight caufes, little
known, and not eafily obferved.
Spafm is both the caufe and efFed:, and frequently j
conftitutes the greateft part, of moft difeafes. It is of- .1
ten very difficult either to be known or cured; becaufe |
it is fo multiform, and produces as many different fymp- ^
toms as there are organs affe&ed; of which it furpri-
fingly difturbs, impedes, or increafes the funCIions. It |
is a difeafe feated in the original ftamina of the con-
ftitution; and neither to be removed by flight remedies,
nor in a (hort time. ^ I
With regard to fleep, our author obferves, that itsg]eep. 11
ufe is fufficiently apparent from the effeCls which it J
produces in the Body. It reftores the powers both of J
mind and body when exhaufted by exercife, giving vi- |
gour to the one and reftoring its wonted alacrity to
the other. It renders the mufcles again a&ive and
moveable, after they have become wearied, rigid, pain- j
ful, and trembling by hard labour. It moderates the
quicknefs of the pulfe, which ufually increafes at night;
and brings it back to its morning ftandard. It feems
alfo to affift the digeftion of the aliment; leflens both
the fecretions and excretions; and renders the fluids J
thicker than otherwife they would be, efpecially in a
body endowed with little fenfibility or mobility. Hence
fleep is not only ufeful, but abfolutely neceffary for
preserving life and health ; and is a moft excellent re¬
medy both for alleviating, and totally removing, a Jj
great many difeafes.
Want of fleep is hurtful in a great many different
ways, efpecially to the nervous fyftem. It renders
the organs of fenfe both external and internal, as well |
as thofe of every kind of motion, unfit for performing
their offices. Hence the fenfations are either aboli/h- j
ed, or become imperfeCi or depraved ; and hence im-
becillity of mind, defeCt of memory, a kind of deli¬
rium, mania itfelf, pain of the head, weaknefs of
the joints, an imperfed or inordinate aCtion of the
vital organs, quicknefs of pulfe, heat, fever, depra- [
ved digeftion, atrophy, leannefs, and an increafe
or
Part I.
MEDICINE.
4623
!ory. or perturbation of the fecretions and excretions.
I ^ Sleep may be prevented both in healthy and fick
1 Caufes pre-people from various caufes; fuch as ftrong light,
1 venting and no;fe> pa;nj anger, joy, grief, fear, anxiety, hunger,
K”"8in^°n thirft, vehement defire, motion of the body, memory,
imagination, intenfe thought, &c. On the other hand,
fleep is brought on by a flight impreffion on the or¬
gans of fenfe, or none at all ; by the humming of
bees, the noife of falling water, cold and infipid dif-
courfe ; or laftly, by fuch an exercife of the memory
as is neither too laborious nor difturbing to the mind.
Too great an impulfe of the blood towards the head,
fuch as often happens in fevers, prevents fleep; but a
free and equal diftribution of the blood through the
whole body, efpecially the extreme parts, frequently
brings it on. Whatever weakens the body alfo fa¬
vours fleep ; and hence various kinds of evacuations,
the bath, fomentations, fometimes heat itfelf, are
ufeful for promoting it. It alfo comes on eafily after
taking food, or indulging venery; the violent fen-
. fation being then quieted, and the body itfelf fome-
what weakened. Cold produces z deep fleep of long
continuance, not eafily difturbed, and often termina¬
ting in death. Laftly, there are certain fubftances
which, when applied to the body,not only do not excite
the nervous fyftem, but plainly lay us afleep, and render
us unfit for Lnfation : of this kind are thofe called nar¬
cotics, as opium and the like ; among which alfo we
may reckon wine taken in too great quantity. Laftly,
watching itfelf is often the caufe of fleep; becaufe
while a man is awake he always more or lefs exepcifes
the organs of his body, by which the nervous power
is diminifhed and confumed; and thus the more violent¬
ly the body Is exercifed, in the fame proportion is the
perfon under a necellity of fleeping.
Sleep is deficient in many difeafes j for there are
few which do not excite pain, anxiety, or uneafinefs,
fufficient to prevent the approach of fleep, or to
difturb it. Fevers generally caufe thofe who labour
under them to fleep ill; as well on account of the
uneafinefs which accompanies this kind of difeafes,
as by reafon of the impetus of the blood towards
the head being frequently increafed; and likewife
from the ftomach being difordered, loaded with meat,
or diftended with drink. Hence alfo we may fee the
reafon why many hypochondriac and hyfteric patients
fleep fo ill; namely, becaufe they have a bad digef-
tion, and their ftomach is difpofed to receive many
though frequently flight diforders ; the flighteft of
which, however, is fufficient to deprive the patient
of reft, provided the body be already irritable, and
endowed with too great a (hare of mobility.
194 Want of fleep will hurt in difeafes as well as in health,
fioned°bCa" ant^ ^or t^ie ^atTie rea^on i but in a greater degree,
too littlJor3^ more quickly, in the former than in the lat-
toomuch ter; and is therefore not only a very troublefome
fleep. fymptom of itfelf, but often produces other very dan¬
gerous ones.
Too much fleep, on the other hand, produces many
mifchiefs, rendering the whole body weak, torpid,
lazy; and even almoft takes away the judgment. It
alfo difturbs the circulation, and diraini(hes moft of
the fecretions and excretions. Hence plethora, fat-
nefs, flaccidity, and an inability for the common of¬
fices of life.^-The caufes of this excefs are, either the
Vol. VI. 2
ufual caufes of fleep above-mentioned increafed beyond Theory.
meafure, or fome fault in the brain, or a compreffion ~
of it by an extravafation of the humours ; or fome¬
times, as it would feem, from great debility produced
by an unufual caufe, as in thofe who are recovering
from typhous fevers and other difeafes. In thefe examples,
however, this excefs of fleep is by no means hurtful;
not even, perhaps, in thofe cafes where an excefs of grief
continued for a long time, or a great fright, have pro¬
duced afurprifing and unexpected fomnolency. Laftly,
many people have accuftomed themfelves, and that
not without a great deal of hurt to their conftitutions,
to fleep too much. Nor are there examples wanting
offome who have pafled whole days, and even months,
in fleep almoft uninterrupted.
With regard to the manner in which the circulation
of the blood is performed, and the various principles
of which it is compofed, fee the articles Blood, and 195
Anatomy chap, x—xiv.—As for the diforders toVcinS
which the blood and its circulation are fubjed,
author obferves, that in our younger years the veins ^
are much more denfe, firm, and ftrong, than the in old age.
arteries ; but the latter, by reafon of the continual
preffure upon them, and the ftrength which they
exert, become daily more firm, hard, and ftrong,
until at laft they equal or exceed the veins themfelves
in ftrength ; and it is not uncommon in old men to
find fome part of the arteries converted into an horny
fubftance, or even into a folid bone. Hence in the
ftate of infancy the greateft part of the blood is con¬
tained in the arteries, and in old age in the veins :
an affair indeed of no fmall moment, as it (hews the
reafon in fome meafure of the ftate of increafe and
decreafe of the body. Befides, if any difeafe happens
from too great a quantity of blood, it thence appears
that it muft (hew itfelf in young fubjefts in the ar¬
teries, and in old ones in the veins; and this is the
reafon of many difeafes which accompany certain pe¬
riods of life. ,0,5
In moft if not in all fpecies of animals, the arteries of Arteries of
the females are much more lax and capacious whenwomcn
compared with the veins, and the veins much lefs, lban
in the males of the fame genus. The defign of na- jax of
ture in this conformation is evident, namely, that they men.
may be the better able to nourifh the foetus in their
womb. The fame likewife feems to be the reafon why
wbmen are more inclined to plethora than men ; and
to this greater capacity of the arteries and fmallnefs
of the veins are we to afcribe that beauty and elegant
(hape of the arms in women, not disfigured or livid
with veins as in men. „
The blood is alfo diftributed in various proportions Effefts of
to the different parts of the body, and that proportion the dirtri-
too differs at different periods of our lives. At firft of
an immenfe quantity is fent to the head, becaufe thattheb ood*
part of the body is firft to be evolved and fitted for its
offices : but as foon as the parts begin to make a confi-
derable refiftance to the efforts of the blood, and the
veffels cannot eafily be further dilated, it is neceffarily
fent off to other parts; by which means the reft of the
body increafes in bulk, and becomes fitted for per¬
forming its proper fun&ions. Th? effedt of this
change is alfo very foon obferved, namely, when none
of the blood paffes through the navel, and of con-
fequence a greater quantity is fent by the iliac ar-
26 E teries
4624 M E D I
Theory, teries to the inferior extremities, Thefe, though fo
' fmall and flender in the foetus, increafe very fuddenly ;
fo that often in not many months the child can
not only (land on its feet, but even walk tolerably
8 well.
Of the Phyficians are wont to judge of the Hate of the
pulfc. circulation by the pulfe ; which indeed is very various,
as well with regard to its frequency, as to the ftrength
and equality of its ftrokes and intervals.—Its common
qnicknefs in a healthy grown-up perfon is about 70
ftrokes in a minute. In a foetus, perhaps, it is more
than double ; and in an infant a few months old,
hardly lefs than 120. As we grow up, this quicknefs
gradually diminifhes ; fo that in extreme old age it
fometimes does not exceed 50, or is even flower. This
rule, however, is not without exceptions: for many,
efpecially thofe of an irritable habit, have the pulfe
much quicker ; while others, even in the vigour of
their age, have the pulfe remarkably flow. It is for the
mod part fomewhat quicker in women than in men.
195 q'hj pUlfe ;s a]f0 rendered quicker, both in a healthy
quick* t0t> anc* difeafed body, by the application of ftimuli of
many different kinds. Exercife efpecially, by ac¬
celerating the return of the blood through the veins,
increafes the quicknefs of the pulfe to a furprifing de¬
gree. Likewife various kinds of irritations affec¬
ting the nervous fyftem, as intenfe thinking, paffions
of the mind, pain, heat, ftimulating medicines, wine,
fpices, &c. produce the fame effeft. The acrimony
of the blood itfelf alfo is thought to quicken the
pulfe.
When a perfon firft awakes in the morning the
pulfe is flow, but becomes quicker by degrees on
account of the many irritating matters applied to the
body. Its quicknefs is increafed after taking food,
efpecially of the animal kind, orfuch as is hot or fea-
foned with fpices. In the evening a flight fever comes
on, for which reft and fleep are a remedy. Thefe
things, however, are fcarce to be obferved in a healthy
perfon, but are very evident in one that is feverifh,
efpecially when the difeafe is a he&ic.—Again, even
debility itfelf often renders the pulfe quicker than
ufual; becaufe the ventricle of the heart not
being quite emptied, it is the fooner dilated again,
and of. confequence contrafts the fooner. For this
reafon a phyfician can never judge of the ftrength of
the circulation from the frequency of the pulfe.
Laftly, in all fevers, however different from one ano¬
ther, the pulfe is found to be too quick, partly per¬
haps from debility, partly from the acrimony of
the fluids, and partly from the repulfion of the blood
from the furface of the body, and the accumulation of
it in the large veffels where it adls as a ftimulus;
though it mull be owned, that a great deal of this is
obfcure, if not totally unknown ; nor in truth are we
able to underftand in what manner autocrateia adls
with regard to the frequency of the pulfe.
When too Pu'k’s fe^om obferved too flow, unlefs when
flow. t^ie mobility of the body is much diminiflied, as in
decrepid old age, or from a compreflion or difeafe of
the brain ; but a greater compreflion of the brain
ufually produces a vaft quicknefs of the pulfe, as in
the hydrocephalus, apoplexy, See. Sometimes alfo
the pulfe is too flow in thofe who are recovering from
tedious fevers. But this is a matter of little moment,
Tart ]
CINE.
and feems to be owing to fome kind of torpor. Theory
While the frequency of the pulfe continues the fame, io,
its ftrokes may be either full, great, ftrong, and hard; Full, gra
or foft, fmall, and weak. A full, great, and
pulfe takes place when the ventricle Itrongly and com- defined!
pletely empties itfelf; throwing out a great quantity
of blood into the arteries, which fully diftends them
and ftimulates them to ftrong contraction. A pulfe
of this kind is common in ftrong healthy men, and is
feldom to be accounted a fymptom of difeafe. But if
it be too ftrong, and ftrike the finger of the perfon
who feels it violently and fharply, it is called a hard
pulfe. This hardnefs is produced by a fudden and vio¬
lent contraction of the heart and arteries, which diftends
even the remote branches, as thofe of the wrift, too
fuddenly and fmartly, and excites them alfo to fudden
and violent contractions.
A hard pulfe therefore denotes too great an aCtion
of the heart and arteries. It may arife from various
caufes: in the firft; place, from too great a tenfion of
the veffels; for inftance, from their being too full, and
by that means more prone to motion, and the more
fit for receiving violent motions. It may arife alfo
from too great a denfity and firmnefs of the folids;
and hence it is moft frequent in cold countries, among
ftrong robuft people, and fuch as are accuftomed to hard
labour. It may likewife arife from various caufes irri¬
tating the whole nervous fyftem, or only the heart and
arteries. Laftly, it accompanies many fevers, as well
as moft inflammatory diforders, whether the inflamma¬
tion arifes from a general ftimulus applied to the
whole body, or from the irritation of particular parts,
by degrees extended over the whole Body. In fuch
a ftate of the circulation, the patient frequently
ftands in need of blood-letting, and almoft; always
bears it well.
A fmall, weak, and foft pulfe is generally owing to
caufes oppofite to the foregoing, and indicates a con¬
trary ftate of the circulation and nervous fyftem. It
frequently requires ftimulants; nor does it generally
require blood-letting, or eafily bear it. Sometimes,
however, a pulfe of this kind is obferved even in the
cafe of a dangerous inflammation, of the ftomach for
inftance, or inteftines. But in thefe and the like ex¬
amples, we ought to attend to the nature of the ma¬
lady, much more than to the ftate of the pulfe.
The pulfe is faid to intermit, when the ftroke doesmitting
not return after the ufual interval, and perhaps not pulfe.
till after twice, thrice, or four times the ufual fpace.
A pulfe of this kind feems to be almoft natural and
conftant in fome animals, and is common to fome men
even in the moft perfeft health; and if thefe happen to
be feized with a fever, the pulfe fometimes becomes
equal, nor can the difeafe be removed before the inter-
miflion hath returned.
Moreover, in fome people, though their pulfe beats
equally while in health, yet the flighteft illnefs makes
it intermit; and in others, efpecially thofe who have a
great deal of mobility in their conftitution, fuch as hy¬
pochondriac and hyfteric people, the intermifiion of
the pulfe is felt, without applying the finger to the ar¬
tery, merely by the uneafinefs which they perceive in
their breafts during thofe intervals in which the pulfe
is deficient. An intermittent pulfe likewife occurs in
many difeafes of the breaft, efpecially when water is
col-
I Part I. M E D I
Theory.colle&ed in it; and the like happens in the end of all
: difeafes, efpecially fevers, when the ftrength is nearly
exhaufted, and death approaches, of which it is fre¬
quently the forerunner.
An intermitting pulfe therefore feems to arife from
an unequal influx of the nervous power into the heart
and other organs which promote the circulation, which
indeed is of little moment; or from the decay and
exhauftion of the nervous power, by which means the
heart is not able to contraft till it hath been di-
ftended beyond its due pitch. Or laftly, it may arife
from difeafes of the organ itfelf, or the neighbouring
parts ; from fwellings, water, &c. preffing upon
them, and impeding the a6lion of the heart; which
indeed is a very dangerous diforder, and almoft always
mortal.
Many other variations of the pulfe are enumerated
by phyficians, but moft of them uncertain, and not
confirmed by experience in this country at lead ; we
fliall therefore now confider the motion of the blood,
203 which may be either too great, too fmall, or irregular.
A quick A quick pulfe, aeteris paribus, produces a more ra-
pulfe. pid circulation, becaufe the fooner that the ventricle
of the heart is emptied, the more quickly is the blood
thrown into the arteries ; and their a&ions muft an-
fwer to this ftronger ftimulus. Hence exercife, heat,
ftimulants, plethora, every kind of irritation, paffions
of the mind, and fever, increafe the circulation. The
effeft of this increafe is a diftenfion of the veifels, a fti¬
mulus applied to the whole body, an increafe of heat,
and often a debility. The fecretion offweat is increa-
fed while the other fecretions are diminiflied, and the
various fun&ions of the body impeded ; third comes on,
the appetite is loft, the fat confumed, and a difpofi-
tion to putrefcency introduced. Sometimes the fmaller
veflels are burft ; whence effufions of blood and hae¬
morrhages. But we are by no means to forget, that
this violent motion of the blood, however hurtful it
may feem, is among the bed remedies made ufe of by
■ 104 nature in curing many difeafes.
,-Diminution The motion of the blood is diminiftied, efpecially
1 «fthe by debility, torpor, the want of irritation or of ex-
\ ^|)0nod's ino'ercife ; the fame thing happens to all the humours, if
there is any obftrudfion in the veflels, or any caufe by
which their return is hindered or rendered more diffi¬
cult. Thus, from the very weight of the blood itfelf,
if a perfon hath flood long on his feet, the humours
return more flowly from the inferior extremities. Any
difeafe of the heart and arteries alfo, as an aneurifm,
contraftion, olfification, muft neceflarily obftruA the
circulation. The fame thing happens from obftruftions
of the veins, or interrupted refpiration, by which the
paflage of the blood thro’ the lungs to the left fide of
the heart is impeded.
But, from whatever caufes this diminution of the
circulation takes place, the bad confequences are per¬
ceived chiefly in the veins, becaufe in them the blood
always moves more flowly than in the arteries. Hence
varices, and congeftions of blood, efpecially in thofe
parts of the body where the veins are deftitute of
valves, and of confequence where the motion of the
mufcles cannot aflift the circulation. Hence alfo arife
dropfies from an impeded or languid motion of the
blood; becaufe the refiftance of the veins being increa-
fed, the blood is received into them with the greater
CINE. 4625
difficulty, and more of the thin humour is driven intoTHEonr.
the exhaling veflels, and by them depofited in fiich" ““
quantities as cannot be reabforbed by the lymphatics.
Thefe difeafes, as well as all others proceeding from
defeats of the circulation, are alfo more difficult of cure
than others, becaufe all the vital powers are weakened
at the fame time. 10J
Another diforder of the circulation is where the Irregular
blood is carried to one part of the body in too great diflribution
quantity, by which means the other parts are depri-0^1,
ved of their due. This irregular diftribution of the
vital fluid frequently arifes from a ftimulus applied to
the part itfelf, or to the brain, or at length afting on
the mind, which, according to the laws of fympathy,
produces a certain and definite diftribution of the blood.
It arifes alfo not unfrequently from a fpafm taking
place in fome other parts, which drives the blood out
of its ordinary courfe.
In proportion to this irregularity of the circula¬
tion are the confequences; heat, fwelling, rednefs, in¬
flammation, rupture of veflels, haemorrhages, effufions,
deftruftion, corruption, and fuppuration of the cellular
texture and adjoining parts, &c. Even this evil,
however, nature often converts into an excellent reme¬
dy ; and phyficians, following her fteps, frequently
attempt to dire£l the diftribution of the blood in par¬
ticular difeafes, as well knowing that a change in the
diftribution of the blood is frequently efficacious either
for radically curing fome difeafes, or relieving their
moft urgent fymptoms.
Laftly, fome diforders in the motion of the heart it¬
felf, and thofe of no fmall confequence, remain yet to
be taken notice of, namely, palpitation and fyncope.
A palpitation is a violent and irregular a&ion of thepa|pjtat;on
heart, fuch as for the moft part is perceived by the pa- of the
tient himfelf, and that not without a great deal of un-heart,
eafinefs and oppreffion at his breaft; and is alfo ma-
nifeft to the by-ftanders if they apply their hands, or
look at his naked breaft ; the pulfe of the arteries
in the mean time being weak, unequal, and intermit¬
ting. This is a fpafmodicdiforder; and is induced by
various caufes affedting either the nervous fyftem in
general, or the heart in particular. Every difeafe of the
organ itfelf, fuch as a conftridtion of its valves and blood*
veifels,an offification, enlargement,or polypushindering
the freeadlionof the heart, and evacuation of blood from
it, are capable of exciting it to violent and unufual con-
tradlions. The fame effeft will alfo follow plethora,
or too violent an impulfe of the blood, &c. The heart
will likewife frequently palpitate from a violent excite¬
ment of the nervous fyftem, efpecially where the con-
ftitution is endowed with a great deal of mobility.
Hence palpitations from any affedtion of the mind,
and in hyfteric women. Palpitation may likewife
arife from an affedtion of the ftomach, occafioned by
worms, a furfeit, flatus, or ftimulation by various acrid
fubftances. It frequently alfo accompanies the gout
when driven back, or even when a fit is coming on.
Sometimes it arifes from debility, whatever may be the
caufe; frequently from any difficulty in breathing;
and many of thefe caufes may be joined at the fame
time, or fome of them produce others.
Hence we may fee why the evil is fometimes flight
and of ftiort continuance; at other times altogether
incurable, and certainly mortal in a longer or Ihorter
26 E 2 time;
4626 M E D I
Theory, time; why it fometimes returns at intervals, often
' coming on and being increafed by every kind of ir¬
ritation and exereife, and fometimes Relieved or totally
107 removed by ftimulants or exercife.
Syncope. A fyncope is when the action of the heart, and,
alongft with it that of the arteries, is fuddenly and
very much leflened; whence the animal-powers, the
fenfes, and voluntary motions, immediately ceafe. This
may be produced by almoft all the caufes of palpita¬
tion ; becaufe whatever can difturb and diforder the
motion of the heart, may alfo weaken or fufpend it.
The vitiated ftrufture of the heart itfelf therefore, vio¬
lent paffiohs of the mind, whether of the deprdling
kind, or thofe which fuddenly and vehemently excite,
various kinds of nervous difeafes, thofe of the ftomach,
every kind of debility and evacuation, efpecially a
great lofs of blood, exceffive and unremitting labour,
long watching, heat, pain, many kinds of poifons,
&c. produce fainting.
Hence we fee, that whatever weakens the motion
of the blood through the brain tends to produce faint¬
ing ; and, on the contrary, whatever tends to aug¬
ment that motion, alfo tends to refrelh, and prevent
the perfon from fainting. Hence alfo we fee hoy the
mere pofture of the body may either bring on or keep
off fainting, or remove it after it hath already come on.
We likewife fee how this diforder may fometimes be
of little confequence, and eafily removed ; at others
very dangerous, not only as a fymptom, but even in it¬
felf, as fometimes terminating in death ; and laftly,
how it may be ufed as a remedy by a Ikilful phyfician,
and artificially induced, either to free the patient from
violent pain, or toftopan immoderate effufion of blood
108 fcarce to be reftrained by any other method.
Dlforders With regard to the diforders of the blood itfelf, our
pf the blood author qbferves, that the glutinous part of it produces
e ' that buff coloured appearance often feen upon blood
drawn from people afflidfed with inflammatory diforders,
and even fometimes when no fuch difeafes are prefent.
This cruft indeed is nothing elfe than the pure gluten
of the blood taking longer time than ufual to coagulate,
by which means the red particles have an opportunity of
falling to the bottom. This indicates no lentor, den-
fity, thicknefs, or tenacity of the blood, as was for¬
merly thought; but rather its thinnefs, or at leaft a
lefs tendency in it to coagulate. It arifes for the moft
part from a violent agitation and conquaffation of the
blood within the body ; and hence it accompanies
many fevers, all inflammations, haemorrhages fome¬
times, exanthemata, plethora, pain, and many irrita¬
tions. Nor is this cruft always to be accounted mor¬
bid, as it often happens to the moft healthy ; and may
even be produced or deftroyed by the flighteft caufes
while the blood is running from the vein, fo that fre¬
quently we fhall fee a very thick and tenacious cruft
on the blood flowing into one cup, while that which
runs into another has little or none at all. In general,
however, the appearance of this cruft (hews, that the
patient will bear bloodletting well, though thofe have
been in a great miftake who diredled this operation
top to be repeated till no more cruft appeared on the blood.
Polypi and The glutinous part of the blood alfo frequently pro-
moles. duces thofe maffes called polypi, which fometimes take
place during life, but more frequently after death, in
CINE. Part I,
the large veffels near the heart, or even in the cavitiesTHEOR
of that organ. Similar maffes alfo are frequently
formed in the uterus, and are called tnsles.
The quantity of blood contained in a healthy body Difeafes
is very various, and difficult to be afcertained. Many from p)«.
difeafes, however, may arife from its being either too'bori.
fcanty or too abundant. Too great a quantity of
blood is produced by the ufe of rich, nourilhing diet,
ftrong drink, accompanied with a good digeltion ;
from a lazy, fedentary life, or much flcep, efpe¬
cially in thofe who have been formerly accultomed to
much exercife ; with many other caufes of the fame
kind. It renders the perfon dull, weak, and languid,
and fometimes almoft totally oppreffes him ; nor are
thofe organs deftined for moving the bipod fufficient
for driviiig forward fuch a load. The pulfe finks; and
fometimes a fyncope, vertigo, or palpitation, takes
place. More frequently, however, the veffels are too
much diftehded, and ready to be thrown into violent
and irregular motions. Hence a difpofition to fevers,
inflammations, an unequal diftribution of the blood,
unufual congeftions, rupture of the veffels, and has-
morrhages. Moreover, by reafon of the clofe connec¬
tion between the fanguiferous and the nervous fyftem,
a fulnefs of blood produces a difpofition to fpafm and
other difeafes of that kind.
Hence we may underftand why a plethora is fome¬
times accompanied with a weak and Sometimes with a
ftrong and hard pulfe, why it is the caufe as well as
a part of fo many diftempers, why it is the effedt of
a high ftate of health, &c. an i
The want of a due quantity of blood is no lefs per- From a
nicious than too great an abundance of it. It debili- fcarcity ofi
tales the perfon, and renders him unable to perform theb*oc>l1,
proper offices of life ; produces a languid circulation,
fyncope, fpafms, and at laft death itfelf. In a flighter
degree of the difeafe the body is emaciated thro’ want
of nourifhment, and its fun&ions are vitiated in various
ways. It may arife from want, bad food, or fuch as af¬
fords little nourifhment: from bad digeftion,or the chyle
being hindered from palling into the blood: from fevers,
or other difeafes which exhauft the bodyand hinder nu¬
trition : or laftly, from various evacuations, particular¬
ly of blood; and that the more efpecially if they are
fudden, for in flow evacuations the vefiels accommo¬
date themfelves furprifingly to the quantity left in
them. Befides, if the body is flowly exhaufted, the
excretions are leffened by reafon of the deficiency of
the vital power; fo that the unufual expence is eafily
compenfated by the unufnal retention. But if the eva¬
cuation happens to be very fudden and great, it may
either prove mortal in a fhort time, or break the con-
ftitution to a degree beyond recovery.
By a great and long-continued-deficiency of blood
the quality of it alfo is impaired; becaufe the thin part
of it is eafily and foon made up; but the glutinous, thick,
and red part, not fo eafily. Hence the blood becomes
thin, pale, fcarcely capable of coagulation, or afford¬
ing a proper fupport to the body. Too great thin- Ji4
nefs of the blood alfo proceeds from ufing much drink, From too
efpecially of the aqueous kind, (lender and little nou-thin blood,
rifhing diet, a bad digeftion in the ftomach ; from
difeafes of the lungs and thofe organs which elaborate
the red part; or from fuppreffions of the ufual evacu¬
ations
*13
?o thick
>ood.
|ui(ls.
I. M E D I
r. ations of thin humours, as fweat or urine, induced by
_ <*)]d, a fault of the fecreting organs, or by putrefcency.
But along with this other diforders of the blood con¬
cur.
A too thin and watery blood makes the face pale,
the body weak, languid and torpid; the folid parts be¬
come flaccid from want of nourilhment and having too
great a quantity of water in their compofnion. It
brings on hydropic effufions of water in all parts of
the body, by reafon of the increafed exhalation of
that thin fluid which moiftens all the inward parts;
partly by reafon of the blood itfelf being in fome mea-
fure diflblved, fo that it pafles out of the veflels
more eafily and plentifully than it ought to do ; and
partly by rtafon of the veffels being relaxed beyond
their ufual pitch, and not making a proper refiftanee.
Befides, in this cafe, the lymphatic veins are fo far from
abforbing more than ufual, that, partaking likewife of
general debility^ they are fcarce fufficient for perform¬
ing their proper offices.
Nature, however, hath taken care, by the moft Ample
means, to provide againft fo many and fo great evils;
for neither doth the blood fo eafily become thin as fome
have imagined,nor when this quality takes place doth
it want a proper remedy. For almoft inftantly, if the
perfon be otherwife in health, the excretions of the
thinner matters are greatly augmented, and the whole
mafs of blood in a fhort time becomes as thick as for¬
merly.
The oppofite to this, namely, too great a thicknefs
of the blood, though often fpoken of by phyficians, is
very rarelyj if ever obferved; and thofe fevers and in¬
flammations which have been thought to arife from
thence, are now found to originate from other caufes.
The following would feem to be the law of the human
conftitution. As foon as the blood hath attained the
due degree of thicknefs, or gone in the lead beyond it,
the excretions are either fupprefied or diminifhed, the
body attra&s more moifture from the air, the perfon
is thirfty, and drinks as much as is neceflary for dilu¬
ting the blood. But if water is wanting, and the per¬
fon cannot fatisfy his tbirft, then the blood is fo far
from being thickened, that by reafon of a putrefcency
begun or augmented, it is much diffolved, becomes
acrid, and is with difficulty contained in the veffels.
The acrimony of the fluids hath afforded a large
field for declamation to the fpeculative phyficians, and
upon this flender foundation many perplexed and in¬
tricate theories have been built. It is certain indeed,
that the blood in a ftate of health hath fome final! fliare
of acrimony; and this acrimony, from certain caufes,
may be a little increafed fo as to produce various dif-
eafes of a dangerous nature. This we are affured of
from the increafe of motion in the heart and arteries,
and the fimilar augmentation of the aftion of the fe-
cretory organs, from acrid fubftances taken inwardly.
The fame thing alfo appears from the unufual acri¬
mony of the fecreted fluids in fuch cafes, by which the
veffels are fometimes greatly ftimulated, and fometimes
even quite eroded. Very many acrid fubftances, how¬
ever, are daily taken into the ftomach; fo that thefe
mu ft either be correfted in the prim# via, or changed
by digeftion before they pafs into the blood; or at
leatt, by dilution with much water, or being blunted
by an admixture with gluten, oil, or phlogilton, they
CINE. 4627
muft depofit much of their acrimony, and at laft be Theory-.
thrown out of the body as noxious fubftances. Thus ‘
a vaft quantity of falls, acid, alkaline, and neutral, may
pafs through the body without in the leaft affe&ing
the health; though thefe falls, if taken in very large
quantity, undiluted, or not thrown out of the body,
will do much hurt. Jl5
Moreover, even while life continues, putrefa&ion isPutrehen-
going on, and produces much of that fubftance called CV*
animal fait; for into this a great part of our food is
converted and paffes off by the urine. But if this pu-
trefcent difpofition be too great, it will produce too
large a quantity of animal fait ; efpecially if much of
any faline fubftance is otherwife thrown into the body
without proper dilution : and this kind of difeafe is
well known to failors who have been long at fea with¬
out having an opportunity of getting frefti provifions.
For this fpontaneous putrefcency, nature hath fug-
gefted a proper remedy, namely, frefh meat, efpecially
of the vegetable and acefcent kind, and foch as is well
impregnated with fixed air, which it may impart to
the body. But where this kind of food is wanting,,
the putrefaction goes on apace, and a very great
thinnefs and acrimony of the juices take place; efpe¬
cially if there be alfo a fcarcity of water, or the excre¬
tions which ought to carry the putrid matters out of
the body languiffi, either from cold, fioth, torpor, de-
preffing paffions of the mind, or from the conftitution
being broken by difeafes; or laftly, from too great
heat, which always favours putrefaction.
Befides, it would feem, that, fometimes a difpofir-
tion to putrefaction is much increafed by the reception
of a putrid ferment into the body; of which we have
examples in fome infectious fevers, where the conta-
ion is very much affifted by heat, animal-diet, certain-
inds of falls, debility, and naftinefs.
Laftly, any fingle part of the body may putrefy
from various caufes, as from inflammation, gangrene,
cold, &c. and thus may the whole body be infeCted;
although for the moft part the difeafe proves mortal
before the corruption hath fpread over the whole body.
But when the mafs of blood begins to putrefy great¬
ly, it not only becpmes very acrid, but thin alfo,. fo
that it either will not coagulate at all, or ftiews only
a flight and very loofe craffamentum. Nay, even the
red globules are broke down and deftroyed; in
which cafe it is impoffible but the blood mull be¬
come very acrid, as well on account of the evolution
of the fait, as by reafon of the rancid and putrid glu¬
ten, which ftimulates, and frequently even erodes,,
the veffels ; producing fpots, firft red, then livid
and black, rumours, and ulcers fcarce poffible to be
cured without firft removing the putrefeent difpofition
of the humours. From the fame caufes proceed hse-
morrhages from every part of the body, fcarce to be
reftrained ; a moft intolerable faetor of the breath and
all the excrements; the higheft debility and laxity of
the folids; the putrefaftion afting as a poifon to the
nervous fyftem, and at length bringing on death. 1j7
An acrimony of the acid kind never takes place in Acid and
the human blood, nor in any of the humours fecreted a!kalinea—
from it; though one of them, namely the milk, turnscnmoni£E’
acid fpontaneoufiy in a very (hort time after it is drawn
from the breaft. Neither, indeed, doth an alkaline
acrimony feem ever to take place in the blood. Pu-
wefsency,
4628
TH EORY
ll8
Of refpira-
A cough.
MEDICINE. Part
. trefcency indeed tends this way, and at lait terminates ing the mufcles ferving for exfpiration into a violent The
in it; but fcarcely while the perfon lives, though the convulfion ; the glottis at the fame time contra&ing
nature of the urine, even while recent, feems to be but by means of the fympathy between it and the neigh¬
bouring parts. Thus the air is thrown out with fuch
little diftant from that of an alkali.
Many kinds of acrimony indeed may exift in the
blood from too liberal an ufe of fpices, wine, &c. but
of thefe we know nothing certain. We are allured,
however, that the body is often infe&ed with various
kinds of morbid acrimony, which bring on many and
dangerous difeafes, as the fmall-pox, mealies, cancers,
lues venerea, Sec. of which the origin and manner of
a&ing are very little known, though the effefts are
abundantly evident. In moft cafes, however, nature
hath taken no lefs care to provide againft the acrimony
than againft the too great thicknefs of the blood.
Sometimes an antidote is afforded, either by the excite¬
ment of thirft, that the acrid fubftance may be diluted
with plenty of drink ; or by increafing the evacua¬
tions, that it may be thrown out of the body ; or laft-
ly, by exciting various motions and aftions of the vi¬
tal powers, by which it may be either fubdued, chan¬
ged, rendered innocent, or expelled from the body by
new and unwonted paffages.
With regard to refpiration, our author obferves,
violence, that it drives the irritating fubftance along
with it; and thus a cough becomes not only ufeful,
but abfolutely neceffary for the prefervation of life, as
being able to free the lungs from every kind of irrita¬
ting fubftance or foulnefs, which might foon bring on
a fuffocation. Hence a cough is almoft an infeparable
companion of every inflammation of the lungs, as well
as every difficulty in refpiration ; and even frequently
accompanies the entrance of the pureft air when the
trachea and bronchias are excoriated, or become too
fenfible. Examples alfo are not wanting, where a vio¬
lent and troublefome cough hath arifen from an irrita¬
tion of the nervous fyftem, or even of fome particular
part, of the ear, for inftance, the ftomach and inteftines
by worms, the liver by inflammation, See.
Coughing may alfo be voluntarily excited, and may
then be managed at pleafure. Even when involuntary,
it may be moderated, or fuppreffed, by a contrary ef¬
fort ; though a violent fit of coughing cannot by any
means be refifted. When once it is excited, the cough
that it may be obftru&ed from various caufes feated goes on till the irritating fubftance be expelled, or the
either in the lungs themfelves, or the furrounding parts, fenfe of irritation abolilhed, or perhaps overcome by a
But from whatever caufe this obftru&ion may arife, it more uneafy fenfation than even the cough itfelf; af-
undoubtedly produces all thofe difeafes which proceed ter which, the irritation again returning at a certain
from an interrupted circulation. The lungs them- interval, the cough alfo comes on. Hence we are
felves alfo being at length compreffed, and not fuffer- taught a method of allaying and quieting this moft
ed to dilate fufficiently, cannot throw off the vapour* troublefome malady, though frequently it is not in our
which arifes from them; and hence they are frequent- power to remove the caufe of it altogether.
ly oppreffed with moifture. At the fame time they ;
irritated, fo that a greater quantity of mucus, and that
of a thicker kind than ufual, is fecreted; by which
means the paffages through which the air enters them
are (lopped up, and a violent cough at length throws
off the load.
The refpiration is alfo fubjeft to fome other difor-
ders, as a cough and fneezing; which, though at firft
fight they may feem very dangerous, are not deftitute
of ufe, and may even be reckoned among the moft fa-
lutary attempts of nature to relieve the patient. Of¬
ten, however, they are attended with danger, or very
great uneafinefs; namely, when they are either too vio¬
lent, or exerted in vain. At any rate, it is neceffary
for a phyfician to know the nature, caufes, and effetffs
of thefe, that he may be enabled to promote them when
neceffary, to moderate them when too violent, and to
flop them when noxious or to no purpofe.
A cough is a violent, frequently involuntary, and
fonorous exfpiration, fuddenly expelling the air with
great force through the glottis fomewhat contradled.
The convulfion of the mufcles ferving for exfpiration,
gives a great force to the air, while the contra&ion of
the glottis produces the found. It is often long con¬
tinued, being repeated at certain intervals, during each
of which the infpiration is imperfedt and obftru&ed
by reafon of the contradlion of the glottis. It is ex¬
cited by any kind of acrid fubftance, either chemically
or mechanically applied to thofe paffages through
which the air enters. Thefe are lined with a mem¬
brane fo exceedingly delicate and impatient of ftimu-
lus, that it cannot even bear the touch of the mildefi:
fub&ance, fuch as a fmall drop of water, without throw-
A very violent cough is often dangerous. For by
the retention of the breath, and the ftrong efforts made
in coughing, a great quantity of blood is colleded in
the lungs, of which the veffels are diftended, and fre¬
quently broken ; and hence there fometimes happens a
violent, and even fatal haemorrhage. More frequently,
however, it is the caufe of a flower, though equally fa¬
tal difeafe. Nay, a frequent and troublefome cough,
without any great haemorrhage, or even without any
haemorrhage at all, may damage the lungs to fuch a
degree, efpecially if they be of a more tender ftruc-
ture than ufual, as to lay the foundation of a phthifis
almoft always incurable.
Again, by a long-continued and violent cough, the
paffage offthe blood through the lungs being impeded,
it muft neceffarily flow through the veins towards the
head: hence rednefs and lividnefs in the countenance,
haemorrhages, palfies, apoplexies, and fometimes mor¬
tal convulfions. Laftly, by a violent cough the abdo¬
minal vifeera are perpetually compreffed with remark¬
able violence; and if any part happens to be weaker
than ufual, hernia, a prolapfus uteri, abortion, or fi-
milar accidents, may happen.
Even when the cough is more gentle, if it happens
to be importunate and frequent, although we have no¬
thing of this kind to fear, yet the patient is by no
means free from danger; as he is thereby agitated, fa¬
tigued, has his conftitution broken, is deprived of reft,
has a fever brought upon him, his lungs are ffiaken
and irritated, digeftion and all the other fun&ions are
impeded, till at laft he finks under a complication of
maladies. Sneezbl [
Sneezing is fomewhat akin to the cough, as confid¬
ing
fart I. M E D I
Lory. Ing of a very full infpiration, to which fucceeds a mod
violent exfpiration, by which' the air is driven out
through the noftrils with immenfe violence, and fvvecps
the pafiage through them as it goes out. It is a
convuHion much more violent than a cough, and is
befides very difficult to be flopped when once a pro-
penfity to it hath taken place. As a cough proceeds
from an irritation of the glottis, trachea, bronchia, and
lungs, fo doth fneezing arife from an irritation of the
• membrane of the noflrils, but rarely from fympathy
with any diftant part. It is fometimes of fervice, as
well as a cough; though it is alio fometimes prejudi-
m cial, for the reafons which have been already affigned.
cafes The lafl part of the Doctor’s treatife neceffary to
11 a bad be taken notice of here, is that which confiders dif-
r ujn‘ eafes arifing from a bad digeftion, difordered motion
of the inteftines, and fome of the principal fecretions.
The firft of thefe, he fays, are fometimes very trouble-
fome, though feldom dangerous. The principal fymp-
toms are oppreffion, anxiety, pain at the flomaeh ;
eru&ations, by reafon of air extricated from the fer¬
menting aliments, and irritating the ftomach; naufea
and vomiting, from the irritation and diftenfion of the
fame organ ; the belly fometimes too coftive, and fome¬
times too loofe ; a defe& of nouriihment; a general
debility; relaxation of the folid parts; too great thin-
nefs of the fluids; all the funftions impeded ; pain of
the head; vertigo, fyncope, afthma, palpitation ; great
finking of the fpirits, efpecially if the patient hath
been of a peculiar conftitution ; fometimes the gout,
fometimes a dropfy, or a flow fever which may prove
2n mortal.
coflive- motion of the inteftines may be either too great
*'j. or too little; and hence proceeds either coftivenefs, or
loofenefs. The former is frequently not to be account¬
ed morbid ; but, when it is, it may arife from the
ftruflure of the inteftines being injured, or from their
being (hut up or obftru£led by fpafm or otherwife, or
from a deficiency of thofe humours which moiften the
inteftines; or it may arife from mere debility, from a
palfy of the fibres perhaps, or from a deficiency of the
ufual ftimulus, of the gall, for inftance, or from too
dry or flender a diet.
The confequences of long-continued coftivenefs, are
firft an affection of the alimentary canal, and then of
the whole body. The ftomach is difeafed, and does
not digeft the aliments properly; the whole body is
left deftitute of its ufual ftimulus; the blood is cor¬
rupted, perhaps from the reforption of the putrid mat¬
ter into it. The circulation through the abdominal
vifcera is impeded ; hence frequent and irregular con-
geftions, varices of the veins, haemorrhoids, &c. Nay,
the inteftines themfelves being overloaded, diftended
and irritated by an heavy, acrid, and putrid load of
aliment or other matters, are excited to new and un-
ufual contra&ions, which, if they do not get the bet¬
ter of the obftru&ion, bring on tormina, colic, or an
iliac paflion, inflammation and gangrene, fatal in a
very ftiort time.
diarrhoea Loofenefs, ordiarrhcea, is a malady extremely com-
loofe- mon ; being fometimes a primary difeafe, and fome-
w times only a fymptom or an effe£t of others. Some¬
times it is a falutary effort of nature, fuch as the
phyfician ought to imitate and bring on by art. It
is alfo familiar to infants, and to people of a certain
C I N E. 4629
conftitution, and to them coftivenefs is very prejudi- Theory
cial. It may arife, in the firft place, from fomething
taken into the body, or generated in the inteftines;
from a fermentation and corruption of the mafs of ali¬
ments; from the gall being too abundant and acrid, or
from blood or pus poured into the inteftines; from the
inteftines themfelves being eroded, or deprived of their
natural mucus ; from the humours being driven from
the furface of the body towards the inward parts, as
by cold, efpecially when applied to the feet; or from
a general corruption of the whole body, as in the phthi-
fis, heflic, or putrid fever, efpecially towards the end
of thefe diforders. In fevers it is fometimes falutary,
or even puts an end to the difeafe altogether, or at leaft
renders it milder: more frequently, however, deriving
its origin from putrefcency, it is of no fervice, but ra¬
ther exhaufts the ftrength of the patient. A diarrhoea
likewife, almoft incurable, and often mortal in a ftiort
time, frequently arifes after the operation for the fi-
ftula in ano. Some have their inteftines fo extremely
weak and moveable, that from the flighteft caufe, fuch
as catching cold, any violent commotion of the mind,
&c. they are fubjeft to a violent diarrhoea. Laftly,
whatever be its origin, if it hath continued for a long
time, the vifcera are rendered fo weak and irritable,
that the difeafe, though often removed, ftill returns
from the flighteft caufes, and even fuch as are not eafily
difcovered.
A diarrhoea proves very pernicious, by hindering
digeftion and the nouriftiment of the body ; for the
ftomach is commonly affe&ed, and the aliments pafs
thro’ the inteftines fo quickly, that they can neither be
properly digelled, nor are the la&eals able to abforb
the chyle from them as they go along. Such a violent
evacuation is alfo hurtful by exhaufting the body, and
carrying off a great quantity of the nutritious matter
from the blood. Neither, indeed, is it only the ali¬
mentary mafs which is thrown out fooner than it ought
to be; but at the fame time a great quantity of the
fluids fecreted in the inteftines, fo that the whole body
quickly partakes of the debility. ^
Sometimes a violent and long-continued diarrhoea Coeliac paf-
rifes to fuch a height, that the aliment is difcharged fion.
with little or no alteration. Sometimes alfo, though
rarely, from a fimilar caufe, or from the obftruftion
of the mefenteric glands, and its other paffages into the
blood, the chyle itfelf is thrown out like milk along
with the excrements ; and this difeafe is called the
cosliac pajjion.
A dyfentery is attended with very fevere gripes in Dyfentery.
the belly, a frequent defire of going to ftool, and
vain efforts which excrete nothing befides the mucus
of the inteftines mixed with a little blood ; and is ac¬
companied with exceflive debility, and frequently
with putrefcency and fever. It is thought to arife
from the conftridlion of fome part of the inteftines,
of the colon efpecially : by which means the bowels,
though ever fo much irritated, can pafs nothing ; nei¬
ther can the difeafe be removed until the belly hath
been well purged by proper medicines. m?
A tenefmus is a frequent and infatiable propen-TenefiTn,s*
fity to ftool, without being able to pafs any thing,
notwithftanding the moft violent efforts. It may be oc-
cafioned by any kind of irritation, either of the rec¬
tum itfelf or of the neighbouring parts, by acrid
fub-
4630 M E D I
Theory, fubflances taken into the body'; by Tome of the ftronger
' purges, efpecially aloes, which is very difficult of folu*
tion, and will pafs even to the redtum with very little
alteration ; by a violent and obftinate diarrhoea, dyfen-
tery, haemorrhoids, worms, fiflula, calculus, ulcer
in the bladder, urethra, &c. It is often very perni¬
cious, both from the exceffive uneafinefs it occafions to
the patient, and from its exhaufting his ftrength, by the
frequent and vain efforts bringing on a prolapfus ani,
and communicating the violent irritation to the neigh-
217 bouring parts, as the bladder, &c.
Naui.ea and A naufea and vomiting are diforders very common,
vomiting. owing to almoft innumerable caufes ; not only to
affe&ions of the ftomach itfelf, but alfo to affedtions and
irritaiions of the remoteft parts of the body which
may adt upon the ftomach by fympathy. Every irri¬
tation and diftention of that vifcus therefore, a load
of crude aliment, an obftrudtion about the pylorus,
all acrid fubftances taken into it, difeafes of the liver,
inteftines, kidneys, uterus, the head, the feet, of the
whole (kin, or indeed the whole body, inflammation, the
ftone, king’s evil, fcirrhus, apoplexy, compreffion of
the brain, fradlure of the fltull, vertigo, fyncope,
violent pain, the gout, efpecially when repelled, fe¬
vers, paffions of the mind, difagreeable imaginations
or difcourfes, frequently induce naufea and vomiting.
Thefe affedtions are often ferviceable by freeing the
ftomach from fomething with which it was overloaded;
promoting fpitting in fome cafes where the lungs are
overcharged with mucus, blood, pus, or water; pro¬
ducing fweat, and a free and proper diftribution of
blood to the furface of the body ; partly, perhaps, by
the great (training which accompanies vomiting, but
rather by that wonderful fympathy which takes place
between the ftomach and (kin: and hence, in many
difeafes, vomiting is a mod excellent remedy. It is
however in fome cafes hurtful, if too violent or too fre¬
quently repeated, partly by debilitating and making
the ftomach more eafily moved ; and partly by fati¬
guing the patient with violent drainings, which occafion
n8 hernias, abortions, &c.
Iliac paf- Sometimes we find the motion of the inteftines
on* totally inverted, from the anus to the mouth; a
moft dangerous diftemper, which hath obtained the
name of the iliac paflion. It moft frequently arifes
From fome obftru&ion in the alimentary canal hinder¬
ing the defcent of the excrements, as fcirrhus, fpafm,
inflammation, &c.: though the mod perfect iliac paf-
fion takes place without any obftru&ion, fo that cly-
fters will be vomited ; and even after this has conti¬
nued for feveral days, the patients have at length re¬
covered.
A (lighter degree of the iliac paffion, namely the
inverfion of the periftaltic motion of the duodenum,
always takes place in long continued and violent vo¬
miting, as in fea-ficknefs, or when a perfon hath
taken too large a dofe of an emetic ; by which means a
waft quantity of bile frequently afcends into theftomach,
229 and is difcharged by vomit.
Cholera. An exceffive vomiting with loofenefs is called a cholera.
It arifes from a very great irritation of the alimen¬
tary canal without any obftnxftion ; and is for the
moft part occafioned by too great a quantity, or
from an acrimony of the bile, from whence it takes
its name. It may originate from feveral caufes, as
CINE. par^.
too ftrong a dofe of an emetic and cathartic medicine,Theol#
eating too great a quantity of fummer-fruits, &c. r
and is a very violent malady, often killing the pa¬
tient in a few hours, unlefs proper remedies be ap¬
plied in time. i ■
From a fuppreffion of any of the fecretions, or aDifordll
diforder of any of the fecretory organs, many mif- from di >i
chiefs may arife. A diminution of perfpiration pro-K
duces plethora, laffitude, languor, depreffion of mind, ratia 31
bad digeftion,' lofs of appetite, and even a general cor¬
ruption of the humours from the retention of fuch a
quantity'of putrefcent matter.—The more fuddenlythe
diminution or fuppreffion of the perfpiration takes
place, the fooner the mifchief is produced, and the
greater it is; not only by retaining the matter which
ought to be thrown out", but by repelling the humours j
from the furface of the body, and dire&ing them to
other parts ; whence fevers, inflammations, conge-
ftions of the blood, &c. frequently take place.
This fuppreffion of perfpiration may arife from many
different caufes; as from cold fuddenly applied to the
body when very hot; fometimes from very violent
paffions of the mind ; or from fpafmodic difeafes, as the
hyfterics, &c. It may be fupprtffed alfo by that
kind of conftriftion of the veffels of the (kin which is
produced by various kinds of fevers, and the nature
of which hath hitherto been but little known.
Exceffive perfpiration or fweatingis injurious by de- From?« in
bilitating the body, relaxing the (kin, and expofingthe ceffive j >v
patient to all the evils which arife from catching cold. ^Piratic?,i£
It may even be carried to fuch a height as to produce
fainting and death ; though it muft be owned that we
cannot eafily bring examples of people having from
this caufe their blood infpiffated, corrupted, or being
thence made liable to inflammations and fevers. j
A fuppreffion of urine is ftill more dangerous than Ifchurarm
that of perfpiration, and unlefs relieved in a (hort f«PPrs( fn
time will certainly prove fatal. This diforder, which of urmi11
is called may arife from various difeafes of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, &c. Thus any
obftrudlion or irritation of one or other of the kidneys
or ureters, by a ftone, gravel, mucus, blood, inflam¬
mations, fpafm, fuppuration, fcirrhus, fwellings of
the neighbouring parts, &c. may either prevent the
urine from being fecreted, or may change its nature j
in fuch a manner as to prevent it from entering the jl
bladder.
The urine alfo, after it hath entered the bladder, j
is there frequently fuppreffed, by reafon of various jl
diforders to which that organ is liable, as an irritation
or inflammation, fpafm, acrid fubftances injefted,
or fympathy with the neighbouring parts; or by 1
reafon of the texture of the bladder itfelf being de-
ftroyed, or from a palfy, fcirrhus, ulcer, &c. in the (I
bladder. Or, laftly, the urine may be retained in
the bladder from a general ftupor, as from a difeafe
of the brain, which happens in fome fevers, when
the patient is neither fenfible of the ufual ftimulus, j,;
nor even of one much greater, fo that the fibres can
fcarcely be excited to contra&ion by any means what¬
ever. This, in fevers, is always a bad fign, and fome¬
times even mortal.
A fuppreffion of urine for any length of time
produces an immenfe diftenfion of the bladder, op-
preffion, uneafinefs, and pain, not only of the part
itfelf.
Part I.
s'heory. itfelf, but of the furrounding ones, and even of the
I" whole body; a fpafm, or infuperable conftri&ion of
the fphinfter; an inflammation, gangrene, or lacera¬
tion of the bladder itfelf; a violent irritation of the
whole habit ; then a naufea, vomiting, vertigo, ge¬
neral ftupor, and an oppreffion of the whole mafs of
4 blood, with a humour of an urinous nature, which at
laft being poured out into various cavities of the body,
efpecially of the head, foon brings op a deep fleep,
^ convulfions, and death.
yfuria. From the fame caufes, but afting with lefs force,
proceeds that difeafe called a dyfuria, when the urine
pafles with difliculty and pain, and is frequently
red, black, bloody, purulent, mucous and fandy;
the reafon of all which appearances is very much un¬
known.—The moft frequent complaint, however, in
making water, is where the patient has a continual and
violent defire of palling his urine, while at the fame
time only two or three drops can be pafied at once,
and that not without fome pain. This is occafioned,
even in healthy people, by fome acrid fubftance taken
into the ftomach ; and is very common to old people
who are generally fubjeft to diforders of the kidneys
and bladder. It arifes alfo frequently from a ftoue
irritating the bladder, or from an inflammation of it,
or its being deprived of its mucus, or this laft being
fomehow or other corrupted ; or laftly, from certain
difeafes or fome particular ftate of the neighbouring
parts, as of the uterus, vagina, urethra, proftate
gland, &c.
,Strangury. Akin to the ftrangury is an incontinence of urine,
when the patient’s water either comes away againft
his will, or altogether without his knowledge. This
diforder may arife from debility, palfy, an ulcer or
wound, or any long-continued and violent irritation
of the bladder, efpecially of its fphin&er, as from a
ftone, a general palfy, or difficult labour injuring the
neighbouring parts.—This fymptom occurs in a great
number of difeafes, efpecially in the hydrocephalus.—
Sometimes the urine is expelled with violence, either
by reafon of univerfal fpafms, or by violent contrac¬
tions of the mufcles of refpiration, as in fneezing,
I laughter, &c.
fCalculi. Among the diforders incident to the urine we
may reckon the produftion of calculi, which frequently
bring on the moft excruciating and dangerous difeafes.
—The urine, befides the water and falts, contains no
fmall fhare of the glutinous part of the blood already
fomewhat corrupted, and ftill inclined to farther cor¬
ruption. Hence the urine even of the moft healthy
people depofits a fediment after it has flood for fome
time ; and though none of this fediment is formed in
an healthy body, yet if the fmalleft particle of foreign
matter is introduced into the bladder, a cruft foon
gathers round it, and it is fure to become the bafis of
a ftone, which by degrees grows to a very great
fjze. It is not unlikely, alfo, that fome unknown
fault of the fluids may contribute to the produ&ion
of thofe calculi, as the ftone is well known to be an
hereditary difeafe, and to be born with the patient.
Calculous perfons alfo are commonly fubjedt to com¬
plaints of the ftomach, efpecially to an acidity of it;
.and many have received no little relief from aklalefcent
or alkaline medicines.—From the fame caufes may
calculi be formed in the kidneys, from which proceed
Vol. VI. 2
4631
a horrid train of fymptoms defcribed in the fubfequentTheory.
part of this treatife.
The laft diforder here to be taken notice of is a
diforder of the glands themfelves, owing to fome kind
of obftru&ion, and is one of the moft dreadful dif¬
eafes incident to human nature. Hence happens a
great fwelling and furprifing hardnefs, not only
without pain, but fometimes even with a diminution
of fenfation in the part affefled ; and when the
gland is thus affefted, it is called a fcirrkus. Some¬
times it remains in this ftate for a long time ; but
fooner or later produces the moft excruciating tor¬
ment. By degrees it is infe&ed with a flow and ma¬
lignant fuppuration, degenerating into an horrid ulcer,
confuming not only the part itfelf, but eating away
the neighbouring ones, and corrupting the whole body
with the moft acrid and incurable poifon. This difeafe
is called a cancer, of which the caufes are very little
known.
Sect. IV. Of Nofology.
Nosology is the general hiftory or defcription of
difeafes, arranged in a fyftematic order.
The difeafes defcribed by medical writers are fo ex¬
tremely numerous, that unlefs they were arranged ac¬
cording to fome regular plan, we (hould never be able
to retain their defcriptions, nor remember how they
are to be treated.
Different writers have adopted different fchemei;
but the moft ufeful and fatisfaftory of all is that
which was firft propofed by Sydenham.
By this, which is termed the JyJlematic method, the
hiftories of difeafes, like the fubje&s of natural hi¬
ftory, are arranged into claffes, orders, genera, and
fpecies.
The claffes are marked by certain fymptoms and
circumftances, which are common to each ; the orders
all agree in having the fame marks with the clafs to
which they belong, together with fome additional
ones peculiar to the order: the genera have all the
marks and circumftances of the clafs and the order,
and befides have fome which diftinguilh the genus;
and the fpccies have all the marks and tokens of
clafs, order, and genus, with the ftill further additioa
of fymptoms or circumftances which give the fpecific
ch a rafter.
There are people who, probably, have not been at
the trouble to make themfelves mafters of it, and yet
pretend to decry the fyftematic way of arranging the
hiftories of difeafes : but if fuch as have capacity ta
underftand it will take the pains of examining, they
will fee that this method is more fatisfaftory than any
that has yet been adopted, and tends to eftablilh
praftice on the moft rational foundations; fince, by
bringing thofe difeafes together which agree in the
greater number of circumftances, and demand nearly
fimilar remedies, it Ihews, that though there may be
great variety in the names, there needs not much in
the methods of treatment.
This, as hath been already mentioned, is the
fcheme which Sydenham recommends in the preface to
hisjuftly celebrated works, where he infifts ftrongly
on the neceffity and advantage of “ reducing difeafes
to a certain and determinate fpecies with the fame ex-
26 F aftnefs
MEDICINE.
4632
Tkeor
M E D I
adnefs that we fee it done by botanic writers in their
' hiftories of plants.”
Sauvages was the firft who ottempted to execute
this great tafk. Linnseus, Vogel, Sagar, and Cullen,
have iince endeavoured to improve his method. Sau¬
vages enumerates 315 genera, Linnaeus 326, Vogel
560, Sagar 350, and Cullen 150. The bare infpec-
tion of thefe numbers, it mull be acknowledged, fhews
that phyficians are far from being agreed with regard
to what conftitutes the generic or fpecihc chara&ers of
a difeafe. Nor is it perhaps probable that they ever can
agree in this point: The diagnoftic fymptoms of dif-
eafes are not fo eafily difcovered as the llamina or petals
of a flower, or the number of teeth or toes in a quadru¬
ped. At the fame time, as the utility of a fyftematic
arrangement is indifputable, there can be no helitation
in preferring a method chargeable with fome defefts,
to no method at all. To give our readers there¬
fore an idea of the fcheme of clafling difeafes, we (hall
lay before them the (horteft diftribution, being that of
Dr Cullen. To exhibit the others would be fuperfluous
to the medical reader, who is-already acquainted with
them, or can at pleafure confult the Synopjis Nofologia:
Methodic# publiflied by the laft-mentioned learned
profeflbr ; and to ordinary readers, the detail would be
equally ufelefs and uninterefting. In the fubfequent
or pra£lical part of this treatife, however, the fynonyma
of different nofologifls will be carefully noted at the
beginning of each difeafe, and referred to their re-
fpe&ive clafles, orders, &c.
Cullen’/ Arrangement.
CLASS I. Pyrexia. A frequent pulfe coming on
after an horror ; confiderable heat ; many of the func¬
tions injured; the (Length of the limbs efpecially di-
miniftied.
Order I. Febres. Pyrexia without any primary
local affection, following the languor, laffitude, and
other fymptoms of debility.
Se<ft. I. Intermittentes. Fevers arifing from the
miafma of marlhes; with an ap-yrexia,or at lead a very
evident remiflion ; but the difeafe returns conftantly,
and for the mod part with a horror or trembling.
There is only one paroxyfm in a day.
Genus I. Tertiana. Similar paroxyfms at an inter¬
val of about 48 hours, coming on at mid-day. A ter¬
tian hath either,
I. An apyrexia interpofed ;
1. Varying the duration of the paroxyfm.
A. The tertian whofe paroxyfms are not extended
beyond 12 hours.
B. The tertian with paroxyfms extended beyond
12 hours.
2- Varying in the return of the paroxyfms.
C. The tertian returning every day with unequal
paroxyfms alternately fimilar to one another.
D. The tertian returning every third day, with two
paroxyfms on the fame day.
E. The tertian returning every day, with two pa¬
roxyfms on every third day, and only one on the in¬
termediate ones.
F. The tertian returning every day, with a notable
remiffion interpofed between the odd and the even
days, but a lefs remarkable one between the even and
the odd one.
3. Varying in its fymptom?.
CINE. Part
G. The tertian accompanied with a difpofition to Theo
deep.-  *
H. Accompanied with fpafms and convulfive mo¬
tions.
I. Accompanied with an efflorefcence on the fkin.
K. With phlegmafia.
4. Varying in being complicated with other dif¬
eafes.
5. Varying as to its origin.
II. With the interpofition only of a remiflion be¬
tween the paroxyfms.
Genus II. Quartana. Similar paroxyfms, with
an interval of about 72 hours, coming on in the af¬
ternoon.
I. With the interpofition of an apyrexia.
1. Varying in the type.
A. The quartan with Angle paroxyfms, returning
every fourth day, none on the other days.
B. With two paroxyfms every fourth day, and
none on the other days.
C. With three paroxyfms every fourth day, and
none on the intermediate days.
D. Of the four days having only the third free
from fever, with Amilar paroxyfms every fourth day.
E. The quartan coming ou every day, with Amilar
paroxyfms every fourth day.
2. Varying in its fymptoms.
3. Varying in being complicated with other dif¬
eafes.
II. With a remiflion only between the paroxyfms.
Genus III. Quotidiana. Similar p^roxyfras with
an interval of about 24 hours, coming on in the
morning.
1. With the interpoAtion of an apyrexia.
t. Varies in being folitary.
A. Univerfal.
B. Partial,.
2. Complicated with other difeafes.
II. With a remiffion only between the paroxyfms,
SeCL II. Continue. Fevers without any intermif-
Aon, and not occaAoned by marfli miafmata ; attended
with exacerbations and remiffions, though not very
remarkable.
Genus IV. Synocha. Great heat ; a frequent,
ftrong,and hard pulfe; high coloured urine; the func¬
tions of the fenforium a little ditlurbed.
Genus V. Typhus. A contagious difeafe; the
heat not greatly above the natural ; the pulfe fmall,
weak, and for the mod part frequent ; the urine little
changed ; the functions of the fenforium very much,
difturbed, and the ftrength greatly diminiffied.
The fpecies are,
I. Typhus petechialis. Typhus for the mod part
with petechke.
Varying in degree. 1. Mild typhus. 2. Malignant
typhus.
LL Typhus ifieredcs. Typhus with a yellownefs
of the (kin.
Genus VI. Synochus. A contagious difeafe. A
fever cbmpofed of a fynocha and typhus ; in the begin-
ning a fynocha, but towards the end a typhus.
Order II. PhlegmaAoe. A.fynocha fever, with in-
Aammation or topical pain, the internal funftionof the
part being at the fame time injured ; the blood cover¬
ed with fize.
Genus VII. PhlogoAs. Pyrexia ; rednefs, heat,
xnd
; Part I. M E D I
r'heory. and painful tenfioh, of fome external part.
  — The fpecies are,
I. Phlogofis {phlegmcme) of a vivid red colour; a
fwelling well defined, for the mod part elevated to a
point, and frequently degenerating into an abfeefs,
with a beating or throbbing pain.
The variations are, i. In the form. 2. In the fi-
tuation.
II. Phlogofis {erythema} of a reddifh colour, va-
nilhing by preflure ; of an unequal and creeping cir¬
cumference, with fcarce any fwelling; ending in the
Tcaling off of the cuticle, in phly&enas, or blifters.
The variations are, 1. In the degree of violence.
2. In the remote caufe. 3. In being complicated
with other difeafes.
The confequences of a phlogofis are, an impoft-
hume, gangrene, fphacelus.
Genus VIII. Ophthalmia. A rednefs and pain of
the eye, with an inability to bear the light j for the
moft part with an effufion of tears.
The fpecies and varieties of the ophthalmia, are,
I. Idiopathic.
1. Ophthalmia {of the membranes'), in the tunica
f adnata, and the membranes lying under it, or the coats
of the eye.
A. Varying in the degree of the external inflam¬
mation.
B. In the internal coats affefted.
2. Ophthalmia (of xhztarfus or cartilaginous edge)
of the eye-lids, with fwelling, erofion, and glutinous
exfudation.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From a difeafe of the eye itfelf.
2. From difeafes of other parts, or of the whole
body.
Genus IX. Phrenitis. Violent pyrexia; pain of
the head; rednefs of the face and eyes; inability to
endure the light or any noife j watchfulnefs; a fierce
delirium, or typhomania.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus X. Cynanche. Pyrexia fometimes inclining
to a typhus; difficulty of fwallowing and breathing;
with a fenfation of narrownefs in the fauces.
The fpecies are,
I. Cynanche (tov/f/Zr/m) affe&ing the mucous mem¬
brane of the fauces, but efpecially the tonfils, with red-
nefs and fwelling, accompanied with a fynoeha.
II. Cynanche {maligna) affeftingthe tonfils and mu¬
cous membrane of the fauces with fwelling, rednefs, and
mucous crufts of a whitifh or afh-colour, creeping,
and covering ulcers; with a typhous fever and exanthe¬
mata.
III. Cynanche {trachealis) Men&eA with difficult re-
fpiration,noify and hoarfe infpiration,loud cough, with¬
out any apparent tumour in the fauces, fome what dif¬
ficult deglutition, and a fynocha.
IV. The pharyngaea, attended with rednefs in the
bottom of the fauces, very difficult and painful deglu¬
tition, refpiration fufficiently free, and a fynocha.
V. The parotidasa; with great fwelling of the pa¬
rotids and maxillary glands appearing on the outfi.de;
the refpiration and deglutition but little injured; a
fynocha, for the moft part mild.
Difeafes of this genus are fymptomatic, either-from
2
CINE. 4633
external or internal catifes. Theor v.
Genus XI. Pneumonia. Pyrexia, with a pain’
in fome part of the thorax, difficult refpiration, and
cough. The fpecies are,
I. Peripneumony, with a pulfe not always hard, but
fometimes foft; an obtufe pain of the breail ; the -re-
fpiration always difficult; fometimes the patient can¬
not breathe unlefs in an upright pofture ; the face fwell-
ed, and of a livid colour ; the cough for the moft part
moift, frequently bloody.
1. Simple idiopathic peripneumonies.
Varying in degree.
2. Idiopathic peripneumonies complicated with
fever.
3. Symptomatic peripneumonies.
II. Pleurify, with a hard pulfe ; for the moft part
attended with a pungent pain of one fide, augmented
chiefly during the time of infpiration ; an uneafinefs
when lying on the fide ; a moft painful cough, dry in
the beginning of the difeafe, afterwards moift, and
frequently bloody.
1. Simple idiopathic pleurifies.
2. Pleurifies, complicated (1.) With fever. (2.)
With catarrh.
3. Symptomatic pleurifies.
4. Falfe pleurifies.
The confequences of pleurify are a vomica or em¬
pyema.
Genus XIII. Carditis. Pyrexia ; pain about the
heart; anxiety ; difficulty of breathing ; cough ; un¬
equal pulfe; palpitation of the heart, and fainting.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XIV. Peritonitis. Pyrexia; pain of the
belly, exafperated by an upright pofture, without the
proper figns of other abdominal phlegmafiae. If the
diagnoftics of the following difeafes are given, they
may be reckoned as fo many fpecies of this genus.
I. Peritonitis {propria) fituated in the peritonaeum,
properly fo called, furrounding the infide of the abdo¬
men.
II. Peritonitis {omentalis} in the peritonasum ex¬
tended through the omentum.
III. Peritonitis {mefenterica) in the peritonaeum
fpread through the mefentery.
Genus XV. Gaftritis. Pyrexia inclining to a ty¬
phus ; anxiety ; pain and heat of the epigaftrium,
augmented when any thing is taken into the ftomach ;
an inclination to vomit, and an immediate rejedlion
of every thing fwallowed ; an hickup.
I. Idiopathic.
1. From internal caufes.
A. Gaftritis {phlegmonodea) attended with acute
pain and violent pyrexia.
2. From external caufes.
B. Gaftritis {eryfpelatofa), with a lefs violent fever
and pain ; an erylipelatous rednefs appearing on the
fauces.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XVI. Enteritis. Pyrexia of a typhous na¬
ture ; pungent pain of the belly, ftretching arid
twilling round the navel; vomiting ; the belly obfti-
nately bound.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Enteritis (jhlegmonodcea), with acute pain, vio-
26 F 2 lent
4634
Theory.
M E D I
lent fever, vomiting, and conftipation of the belly.
2. Enteritis [eryjipelatofa) with lefs acute fever and
pain, without vomiting; but accompanied with a
diarrhoea.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XVII. Hepatitis. Pyrexia ; tenfion and pain
of the right hypochondrium ; fometimes pungent like
that of a pleurify, but more frequently obtufe; a pain
reaching to the clavicle and top of the right fhoulder ;
a difficulty of lying on the left fide ; dyfpnoea; dry
cough, vomiting, and hickup.
Genus XVIII. Splenitis* Pyrexia; tenfion, heat
and fwelling of the left hypochondrium, the pain in-
creafing byprefiure; without the figns of nephritis.
Genus XIX. Nephritis. Pyrexia ; pain in the re¬
gion of the kidney, often following the courfe of the
ureter; frequent making of water, either thin and co-
lourlefs, or very red ; vomiting ; ftupor of the thigh ;
with a retradtion or pain of the tefticle of the fame
fide. The fpecies are,
I. Idiopathic. Spontaneous.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XX. Cyftitis. Pyrexia; pain and fwell¬
ing of the hypogaftrium ; frequent and painful making
of water, or ifchuria ; and tenefmus. The fpecies are,
I. Thofe arifing from internal caufes.
II. Thofe from external caufes.
Genus XXI. Hyfteritis. Pyrexia ; heat, tenfion,
fweliing, and pain, of the hypogaftrium; the os uteri
painful when touched ; vomiting.
Genus XXII. Rheumatifmus. A difeafe arifing
from an external and frequently very evident caufe;
pyrexia ; pain about the joints, frequently purfuing
the courfe of the mufcles ; infefting the knees and other
large joints rather than thofe of the feet or hands; in-
creafed by external heat.
The fpecies are either idiopathic or fymptomatic.
The former varies in fituation.
A. In the mufcles of the loins.
B. In the mufcles of the coxendix.
C. In the mufcles of the breaft.
CINE.
receding; an inflammation of the joints. The;
Genus XXV. Arthropuofis. Deep, obtufe, and 
long-continued pains of the joints or mufcular parts,
frequently following contufions; with either no fwell¬
ing, or a moderate and diffufed one ; no phlogofis ;
pyrexia, at firft gentle, afterwards heftic, and at length
an impofthume.
Part ifl
Genus XXIIL Odontalgia ; a rheumatifm of the
jaws from a caries of the teeth.
Genus XXIV. Podagra. An hereditary difeafe,
arifing without any evident external caufe, but for the
xnoft part preceded by an unufual affe&ion of the fto-
raach ; pyrexia; pain of a joint for the mod part of
the great toe of the foot, but certainty infefting chief¬
ly the wrifts and ankles ; returning by intervals; and
often alternated with affe&ions of the ftomach and other
internal parts.
I. Podagra (rtgularis) with a pretty violent in¬
flammation of the joints remaining for fome days, and
by degrees going off with fwtlling, itching, and de-
fquamation of the affefted part.
II. Podagra (atoniea) with an atony of the fto¬
mach, or fome other internal part; and either with¬
out the ufual inflammation of the joints, or only with
flight and wandering pains; and frequently alternated
with dyfpepfia, or other fymptoms of atony.
III. Podagra (retrograda) with the inflammation
of the joints fuddenly receding, and an atony of the
ftomach and other parts immediately following.
IV. Podagra (aberrans) with the inflammation of
an internal part either preceding or not, and fuddenly
Order III. Exanthemata. Contagious difeafes ;
affe&ing a perfon only once in their life ; beginning
with fever ; after a certain time appear phlogofes, for
the moft part fmall and in confiderable number, and
difperfed over the Ikin.
Genus XXVI. Eryfipelas. A fynocha of two or
three days, for the moft part attended with drowfinefs,
often with a delirium. In fome part of the (kin, moft
frequently the face, appears a phlogofis erythema.
(G. VII. Sp. 2.) The fpecies are,
I. Eryfipelas [yeftculofum'), with erythema, rednefs
creeping, occupying a large fpacc, and in fome parts
ending in large blifters.
II. Eryfipelas [phlyttanodes), with an erythema
formed of a number of papulae, chiefly occupying the
trunk of the body, ending in phly&enas or fmall
blifters.
The difeafe is alfo fymptomatic.
Genus XXVII. Peftis. An exceedinglycontagioua
typhus, with the higheft debility. On an uncertain
day of the difeafe buboes and carbuncles break forth.
It is various in degree, but the fpecies are uncertain.
Genus XXVIII. Variola ; a contagious fynocha,
with vomiting, and pain on preffing the epigaftrium.
On the third day begins, and on the fifth is fini(hed»
the eruption of inflammatory puftules, which fuppu-
rate in the fpace of eight days, and at laft go off in
crufts ; frequently leaving depreffed cicatrices or pock-
pits in the Hein. The fpecies are,
I. Variola (difereta) with few, diftinfl, turgid pu¬
ftules, having circular bafes; the fever ceafing imme¬
diately after the eruption.
II. Variola (confluens) with numerous, confluent,,
irregularly fhaped puftules, flaccid, and little eleva¬
ted ; the fever remaining after the eruption.
Genus XXIX. Varicella. Synocha ; papulae
breaking out after a (hort fever, fimilarto thofe of the
fmall-pox, but hardly ever coming to fuppuration; af¬
ter a few days going off in fmall feales, but never lea¬
ving any mark.
Genus XXX. Rubeola. A contagious fynocha,
with fneezing, epiphora, and dry hoarfe cough. On
the fourth day, or a little later, break forth fmali,
eluftered, and fcarce elevated papula:; after three daya
going off in very fmall branny feales.
I. Rubeola [vulgaris) with very fmall confluent,
corymbofe papulae, fcarce rifing above the flein.
Varying,
1. In the fymptoms being more fevere, and the courfe
of the difeafe lefs regular.
2. In being accompanied with a quinfey*
3. With a putrid diathefis.
II. Rubeola [varielodes) witlh diftinft papulae, rai¬
led above the fkin.
Genus XXXI. Miliaria. Synochus with anxiety,
frequent fighing, feetid fweat, and points on the fltin.
On an uncertain day of the difeafe, break out red,
fmall, diftinft papulae, fpread over the whole body as
well
; Part I. M E D I
sheory. well as the face ; the apices of which, after one or
ft- — two days, become very ftnall, white puftules, remaining
for a fhort time.
Genus XXXII. Scarlatina. A contagious fynocha,
On the fourth day; of the difeafe the face fwells a little;
at the fame time an univerfal rednefs occupies the fkin
in large fpots, at length running together; after
three days, going off in branny fcales ; frequently fuc-
ceeded by an anafarca. The fpeciesare,
I. Scarlatina (Jittiplex), not accompanied with cy-
nanche.
II. Scarlatina (cynanchica), with an ulcerous cy-
nanche.
Genus XXXIII. Urticaria. An amphemerina fever.
On the fecond day of the difeafe, red fpots refembling
the flinging of nettles, almoft vanifhing during the
day, but returning in the evening with the fever,
and after a few days going off altogether in very fmall
fcales.
Genus XXXIV. Pemphigus. A contagious ty¬
phus On the firfl, fecond, or third day of the difeafe,
blitters break out in feveral parts of the body, of the
bignefs of a bean, remaining for many days, and at
latt pouring out a thin ichor.
Genus XXXV. Aphtha. Synochus; the tongue
fomewhat fwelled and of a livid colour, as well as the
fauces; efchars firft appearing in the fauces; but at
length occupying the whole internal part of the mouth,
of a white colour, fometimes diftind, often running
together ; quickly growing again when taken off; and
remaining for an uncertain time.
The fpecies are, i. Idiopathic. 2. Symptomatic.
Order IV. Haemorrhagise. Pyrexia, with a profu-
fion of blood, without any external violence ; the blood
drawn from a vein hath the fame appearance as in
phlegmafiae.
Genus XXXVI. Epiftaxis. Pain or weight of
the head, rednefs of the face ; a profufion of blood
from the nofe.
I. Idiopathic.
Varying according to the time of life.
1. Epiftaxis of young people, with fymptoms of an
arterious plethora
2. Epiflaxis of old people, with fymptoms of a ve¬
nous plethora.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From internal caufes.
2. From external caufes.
Genus XXXVII. Hsemoptyfis. Rednefs of the
cheeks; a fenfation of uneahnefs, or pain, and fome¬
times of heat,.in the breaft; difficulty of breathing;
tickling of the fauces ; either a fevere or lefs vio¬
lent cough, bringing up florid and frequently frothy
blood.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Haemoptyfis [plethorica), without any external
'violence, and without being preceded by any cough or
fuppreffion of a cuftomary evacuation.
2. Haemoptyfis (violenta), from external violence
applied.
3. Haemoptyfis {phthijlca), after a long-continued
cough, with leannefs and debility.
4. Haemoptyfis {calculofa), in which fame calculous
molecules, for the mottpartof a calcareous nature, are
thrown upv
CINE. 4^35
5. Harmoptyfis (v/Vd/va), after the fupprefllon ofa TnEORVi
cuflomary evacuation. *
Befides thefe, there are a number of fymptomatic
fpecies mentioned by different authors. The confe-
quence of an hasmoptyfis is, a
Phthijis. A wafting and debility of the body, with
a cough, heftic fever, and for the moft part a purulent
expeftoration. The fpecies are,
I. An incipient pthifis, without any expettoration
of pus.
II. Aconfirmedphthifis, withan expe&orationof pus.
Both fpecies vary, t. As to their remote caufe.
2. As to the origin of the purulent matter.
GenusXXXVIII. Haemorrhois. Weightand pain of
the head; vertigo; pain of the loins; pain of the anus ;
livid painful tubercles, from which for the moft part
blood flows out; which fometimes alfo drops out of the
anus, without any apparent tumour. The fpecies are,
1. Haemorrhois \tuinens), external from marifcis.
Varying.
A, Bloody.
B, Mucous.
2. Haemorrhois (procidens), external from a proci¬
dentia ani.
3. Haemorrhois (fluent), internal, without any
fwelling or procidentia ani.
4. Haemorrhois (ceeca), with pain and fwelling of
the anus, without any profufion of blood.
Genus XXXIX. Menorrhagia. Pains of the back,
belly, and loins, like thofe of child-birth ; an unufual-
ly copious flux of the menfes or blood from the vagina.
The fpeciesare,
1. Menorrhagia (rubra), bloody in women neither
with child nor in child-birth.
2. Menorrhagia(«^ijr/«r) bloody in women with child.
3. Menorrhagia (lochialis) bloody in child-bed
women.
4. Menorrhagia (vitiorum) bloody from fame lo¬
cal difeafe.
5. Menorrhagia (alba) ferous, without any local
difeafe, in women not with child.
6. Menorrhagia (Nabothi) ferous in w’omen with
child.
Order V. Profluvia. Pyrexia, with an increafed fir-
cretion, naturally not bloody.
Genus XL. Catarrhus. Pyrexia frequently con¬
tagious ; an increafed excretion of mucus, at leaft effort*
to excrete it.
The fpeciesare for the moft part fymptomatic.
1. From cold.
2. From contagion.
Genus XLI. Dyfenteria. Contagious pyrexia
frequent mucous or bloody ftools, while the alvine
fseces are for the moft part retained ; gripes; tenefmns.
Varying :
1. Accompanied with worms.
2. With the excretion of fmall flelhy or febaceoue
bodies.
3. With an intermittent fever.
4. Without blood.
5. With a miliary fever.
CLASS II. Neuroses.—An injury of the fenle
and motion, without an idiopathic pyrexia or any
local afTeftiou.
Order
4636 M E D I
Theory. Order I. Comata.—A diminution of voluntary mo-
tion, with fleep, or a deprivation of the fenfes.
Genus XLII. Apoplexia.—Almoft all voluntary
motion diminiflied, with fleep more or lefs profouftd;
the motion of the heart and arteries remaining.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
t. Apoplexia {{anguinea) with fymptoms of uni-
verfal plethora, efpecially of the head.
2. Apoplexia (ferofa) with a leucophlegmatia over
the whole body, efpecially in old people.
3. Apoplexia (hydro cephalic a) coming on by de¬
grees $ affefting infants, or thofe below the age of
puberty, firft with laffitude, a flight fever and pain of
the head, then with flownefs of the pulfe, dilatation
of the pupil of the eye, and drowfinefs.
4. Apoplexia {atrabiliaria) taking place in thofe
®f a melancholic conftitution.
5. Apoplexia {trautnatica) from fome external in¬
jury mechanically applied to the head.
6. Apoplexia {veneneta) from powerful fedatives
taken internally or applied externally.
7. Apoplexia {mentalis) from a paffion of the mind.
8. Apoplexia{cataleptica)\n thecontradfile mufcles,
with a mobility of the limbs by external force.
9. Apoplexia {fuffocata) from fome external fuffo-
cating power.
The apoplexy is frequently fymptomatic.
1 Of an intermitting fever. 2 Continued fever.
3 Phlegmafia. 4 Exanthema. 5 Hyfteria. 6 Epilepfy.
7 Podagra. 8 Worms. 9 Ifchuria 10 Scurvy.
Genus XLIII. Paralyfis. Only fome of the vo¬
luntary motions diminifhed, frequently with fleep.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1 Paralyfis {partialis} of fome particular mufcles
only.
2. Paralyfis {hemiplegica) of tine fide of the body.
Varying according to the conflitution of the body.
a. Hemiplegia in a plethoric habit.
b. In a leucophlegmatic habit.
3. Paralyfis [paraplegica) of one half of the body
taken tranfverfely.
4. Paralyfis {venenata") from fedative powers applied
either internally or externally.
A fymptom either of an Afthenia or Palfy is,
Tremor ; an alternate motion of a limb by frequent
ftrokes and intervals.
The fpecies are, 1 AHhenic. 2 Paralytic. 3 Con-
vulfive.
Order II. Adynamiae. A diminution of the invo¬
luntary motions whether vital or natural.
Genus XLIV. Syncope; a diminution, or even a
total ftoppage, of the motion of the heart for a little.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Syncope {cardiaca), returning frequently with¬
out any manifed caufe, with violent palpitations of
the heart during the intervals. — From a fault of the
heart or neighbouring veflels.
2. Syncope {occajionalis) arifing from fome evi¬
dent caufe.—From an affe&ion of the whole fyftem.
II. Symptomatic ; or fymptoms of difeafes either
of the whole fyftem, or of other parts befides the
heart.
Genus XLV. Dyfpepfia. Anorexia, naufea, vo¬
miting, inflation, belching, rumination, cardialgia,
gaftrodynia, more or fewer of tbofe fymptoms at lead
CINE. Part I
concurring; for the moft: part with a conftipation ofTHEOR!|»
the belly, and without any other difeafe either of the— ■■■■■■; —
Itomach itfelf or of other parts.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From a difeafe of the ftomach itfelf.
2. From a difeafe of other parts, or of the whole ; 1
body.
Genus XLVL Hypochondriafis. Dyfpepfia with
languor, fadnefs and fear without any adequate caufes,
in a melancholic temperament.
Genus XLVII. Chlorofis. Dyfpepfia, or a de¬
fire of fomething not ufed as food; a pale or difco-
loured compledtion; the veins not well filled; a foft
tumour of the whole body; afthenia; palpitation;
fuppreffion of the menfes.
Order III. Spafmi. Irregular motions of the muf¬
cles or mufcular fibres.
Sed. I. In the animal funit ions.
Genus XLVIII. Tetanus;—a fpaftic rigidity of
almoft the whole body.
Varying according to the remote caufe, as it arifes j
cither from fomething internal, from cold, or from a
wound. It varies likewife, from whatever caufe it
may arife, according to the part of the body af-
fedfed.
Genus XLIX. Trifmus. A fpaftic rigidity of the
lower jaw. — The fpecies are,
1. Trifmus {nafcentium) feizing infants under two
months old.
2. Trifmus {traumaticus) feizing people of all ages
either from a wound or cold.
Genus L. Convulfio.—An irregular clonic con¬
traction of the mufcles without fleep.
1. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LI. Chorea, attacking thofe who have
not yet arrived at puberty, moft commonly within
the toth or 14th year, with convulfive motions for
the moft part of one fide in attempting the volun¬
tary motion of the' hands and arms, refembling the
gefticulations of mountebanks; in walking, rather
dragging one of their feet after them than lifting it.
Genus LII. Raphania. A fp'aftic contra&ion of
the joints, with a convulfive agitation, and moft vio¬
lent periodical pain. •
Genus LIII. Epilepfia. A convulfion of the mufcles,
with fleep.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
X. Epilepfia {cerebralis) fuddenly attacking without
any manifeft caufe, without any fenfe of uneafinefs
preceding, excepting perhaps a flight vertigo or fco-
tomia.
2. Epilepfia {fympathica) without any manifeft
caufe, but preceded by the fenfation of a kind of air
rifing from a certain part of the body towards the
head.
3. Epilepfia (occafionalis) arifing from a manifeft
irritation, and ceafing on the removal of that irri¬
tation.
Varing according to the difference of the irritating
matter. And thus it may arife.
From injuries of the head ; pain; worms; poifon ;
from the repulfion of the itch, or an effufion of any
other acrid humour ; from crudities in the ftomach.;
from
Part I.
M E D I
r• from pafilons of the mind; from an immoderate ha>
— morrhage ; or from debility.
Setft. II. In the vitalfunttions.
In the a£tion of the heart.
Genus UV. Palpitatio. A violent and irregular
motion of the heart.
In the a&ion of the lungs.
Genus LV. Afthma. A difficulty of breathing
returning by intervals, with a fenfe of ftraitnefs in
the bread, and a noify refpiration with luffing. In
the beginning of the paroxyfm there is either no cough
at all, or coughing is difficult; but towards the end
the cough becomes free, frequently with a copious
fpitting of mucus.'—The idiopathic fpecies are,
x. Afthma {Jpontancum) without any manifeft caufe
or other concomitant difeafe.
2. Afthma (exantbematicum) from the repulfion of
the itch or other acrid effufion.
3. Afthma (pletboricum) from the fuppreffion of
fome cuftomary fanguineous evacuation, or from a
fpontaneous plethora.
Genus TVI. Dyfpnoea. A continual difficulty
of breathing, without any fenfe of ftraitnefs, but
rather of fullnefs and infanftion in the bread ; a fre¬
quent cough throughout the whole courfe of the
difeafe.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
t. Dyfpnoea, (catarrhaiis) with a frequent cough,
bringing up plenty of vifcid mucus,
2. Dyfpnoea (Jicca), with a cough for the moft part
dry.
3. Dyfpnoca (aerea), increafed by the lead change
cf weather.
4. Dyfpnoea (terrea), bringing up with the cough
an earthy or calculous matter.
5. Dyfpncea (aquofa), with fcanty urine and cede-
matous feet; without any fluctuation in the bread, or
other figns of an hydrothorax.
6. Dyfpnoea (pinguedinofa), in very fat people.
7. Dyfpnoea {thoracica')^ from an injury done to the
parts furrounding the thorax, or from fome bad con¬
formation of them.
8. Dyfpncea [extrinfeca), from evident external
caufes.
The fymptomatic fpecies of dyfpncea are fymp-
toms,
x. Of difeafes of ihe heart or large veflels,.
2. Of a fwelling in the abdomen.
3. Of various difeafes.
Genus LVII. Pertuffis. A contagious difeafe; con-
vulfive ftrangulating cough reiterated with noify infpi-
ration; frequent vomiting.
Sedt. III. /« the naturalfunftiom.
Genus LVIIT. Pyrofis. A burning pain in the epi-
gaftfium with plenty of aqueous humour, •for the moft
part infipid, but fometimes acrid, belched up.
Genus LIX. Colica. Pain of the belly, efpecially
twifting round the navel; vomitings a conftipation.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Colica {fpafmodka), with retra&ion of the navel,
and fpafms of the abdominal mufcles.
Varying, by reafon of fome fymptoms fuperadded.
Hence.
a, Colica, with vomiting of excrements, or of mat¬
ters injedted by the anus*
CINE.
b, Colica, with inflammation fuperveuing.
2. Colica (pi(knu)n), preceded by a fenfe of weight
or uneafinefs in the belly, efpecially about the navel;
then comes on the colic pain, at firft flight and inter¬
rupted, chiefly augmented after meals; at length more
fevere and aimed continual, with pains of the arms and
back, at lad ending in a palfy.
Varying according to the nature of the remote caufe
and hence,
a, From metallic poifon.
b, From acids taken inwardly.
c, From cold-
d, From a contufion of the back.
3. Colica [Jlercorea)t in people fubjedf to coftive-
nefs.
4. Colica (accidentalis), from acrid matter taken in¬
wardly.
5. Colica (?7ieconialis), in new-born children from a
retention of the meconium.
6. Colica (callofa), with a fenfation of ftridture in
fome part of the inteftines, and frequently of a collec¬
tion of flatus with fome pain before the conftrifted
part; which flatus alfo paffing through the part where
the ftridbxre is felt, gradually vanilhes; the belly flow,
and at lad paffing only a few liquid fasces.
7. Colica (.calculofa), with a fixed hardnefs in fome
part of the abdomen, and calculi fometimes paffing by
the anus.
Genus LX. Cholera. A vomiting of bilious mat¬
ter, and likewife a frequent excretion of the fame by
ftool; anxiety 5 gripes; fpafms in the calves of the
legs.
1. Idiopathic.
t. Cholera (fpontanea) arifing in a warm feafon,
without any manifeft caufe.
2. Cholera (accidentalis) from acrid matters taken
inwardly.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXI. Diarrhoea. Frequent ftools; the dif¬
eafe not infedious; no primary pyrexia.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Diarrhoea (crapulofa), in which the excrements
are voided in greater quantity than naturally.
2. Diarrhoea {biliofa), in which yellow faeces are
voided in great quantity.
3. Diarrhoea [mucofa), in which either from acrid
fubftances taken inwardly, or from cold, efpecially ap¬
plied to the feet, a great quantity of mucus is voided.
4. Diarrhoea (coeliaca), in which a milky humour of
the nature of chyle is pafled.
5. Diarrhoea [lienteria), in which the aliments are
difeharged with little alteration foon after eating.
6. Diarrhoea (bepatirrhoea), in which a bloody fe-
rous matter is difeharged without pain.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXII. Diabetes. A chronical profufion of
urine, for the moft part preternatural, and in immode¬
rate quantity.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Diabetes [mellitus), with urine of the fmell, co¬
lour, and tafte of honey.
2. Diabetes [injipidus), with limpid, but not fweet
urine.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXIII. Hyfteria. Rumbling of the bowels;.
4637
*3 HE QRY.
4638
theory. a fenfation as of a globe turning itfelf in the belly,
afcending to the ftomach and fauces, and there threat¬
ening fuffocation; deep; convulfions; a great quantity
of limpid urine; the mind involuntarily fickle and mu¬
table.
The following are by Sauvages reckoned diflinft
idiopathic fpecies ; but, by Dr Cullen, only varieties
of the fame fpecies.
A, From a retention of the menfes.
B, From a menorrhagia cruenta.
C, From a menorrhagia ferofa, or floor albus.
D, From an obftru&ion of the vifcera.
E, From a fault of the ftomach.
F, From too great falacity.
Genus LXIV. Hydrophobia. A diflike and hor¬
ror at any kind of drink, as occafioning a convulfion
of the pharynx ; induced, for the moft; part, by the
bite of a mad animal. The fpecies are,
I. Hydrophobia (rabiofa), with a defire of biting
the byftanders, occafioned by the bite of a mad a-
■imal.
II. Hydrophobia (/implex), without madnefs, or
any defire of biting.
Order IV. Vefania;. Diforders of the judgment,
without any pyrexia or coma.
Genus LXV. Amentia ; an imbecillity of judge¬
ment, by which people either do not perceive, or do
not remember, the relations of things. The fpecies
are,
I. Amentia (congenita)y continuing from a per-
fon’s birth.
II. Amentia (fenilis), from the diminution of the
perceptions and memory through extreme old age.
III. Amentia (acquijita), occurring in people
formerly of a found mind, from evident external
caufes.
Genus LXVI. Melancholia; a partial madnefs,
without dyfpepfia.
Varying according to the different fubje&s con¬
cerning which the perfon raves; and thus is
1. With an imagination in the patient concerning
his body being in a dangerous condition, from flight
caufes. ; or that his affairs are in a defperate ftate.
2. With an imagination concerning a profperous
ftate of affairs.
3. With violent love, without fatyriafis or nym¬
phomania.
4. With a fuperftitious fear of a future ftate.
5. With an averfion from motion and all the offi¬
ces of life.
6. With reftleffnefs, and an impatience of any fitu-
ation whatever.
7. With a wearinefs of life.
8. With a deception concerning the nature of the
patient’s fpecies.
The Doftor reckons that there is no fuch difeafe
as that called dcemonomania, and that the difeafes
mentioned by Sauvage under that title are either
t. Species of melancholy or mania ; or
2. Of fome difeafe by the fpe&ators falfely afcribed
to the influence of an evil fpirit; or
3. Of a difeafe entirely feigned; or
4. Of a difeafe partly true and partly feigned.
Genus LXVII. Mania; univerfal madnefs.
1. Mania (mentalis), arifing entirely from paflions
Part I.
of the mind. Theory
2. Mania (corporea), from an evident difeafe of |
the body.
Varying according to the different difeafe of the
body.
3. Mania (obfcura), without any paffion of mind,
or evident difeafe of the body preceding.
The fymptomatic fpecies of mania are,
1. Paraphrofyne from poifons.
2. Paraphrofyne from paffion.
3. Paraphrofyne febrilis.
Genus LXV1II. Oneirodynia. A violent and
troublefome imagination in time of (leep.
1. Oneirodynia (aftiva), exciting to waking and
various motions.
2. Oneirodynia (gravans), from a fenfe of fome
weight incumbent, and preffing on the breaft efpe-
cially.
CLASS III. Cachexia; a depraved habit of the
whole or greateft part of the body, without primary
pyrexia or neurofis.
Order I. Marcores; a wafting of the whole body.
Genus LXIX. Tabes. Leannefs, afthenia, hettic
pyrexia. The fpecies are,
1. Tabes (purulenta), from an external or internal
ulcer, or from a vomica.
Varying in its fituation; hence,
2. Tabes (fcrophulofa), in fcrophulous conftitu-
tions.
3. Tabes (venenata), from poifon taken in¬
wardly.
Genus LXX. Atrophia. Leannefs and afthenia,
without heftic pyrexia. The fpecies are,
x. Atrophia (inanitorum), from too great evacua¬
tion.
1. Atrophia (famelicorum), from a deficiency of
nourifhment.
3. Atrophia (cacochymica), from corrupted nou-
rifhment.
4. Atrophia (debilium), from the fun&ion of nutri¬
tion being depraved, without any extraordinary eva¬
cuation or cacochymia having preceded.
Order II. Intumefcentias. An external tumour of
the whole or greateft part of the body.
Se<ft. I. Adipofae.
Genus LXXI. Polyfarcia; a troublefome fwelling I
of the body from fat.
Seft. II. Flatuofae.
Genus LXXII. Pneumatofis ; a tenfe elaftic fwel¬
ling of the body, crackling under the hand. The
fpecies are,
1. Pneumatofis (fpontanea), without any maniftft
caufe.
2. Pneumatofis (traumatica), from a wound in the
breaft.
3. Pneumatofis (venenata), from poifon injedted or
applied.
4. Pneumatofis (hyjlerica), with hyfteria.
Genus LXXIII. Tympanites; a tenfe, elaftic,
fonorous fwelling of the abdomen; coftivenefs; a de¬
cay of the other parts. The fpecies are,
1. Tympanites (inteftinalis), with a tumour of the
abdomen frequently unequal, and with a frequent eva¬
cuation of air relieving the tenfion and pain.
MEDICINE.
2.
MEDICINE.
jjpart I,
JIieory. 2. Tympanites (aldominallt), with a more evident
 noife, a more equable tumour, and a lefs frequent e-
miffion of flatus, which alfo gives lefs relief.
Genus LXXIV. Phyfometra; a flight elaftic fwell-
ing in the epigaflriumy having the figure and fituation
of the uterus.
Se&. III. Aquofx or Hydropes.
Genus LXXV. Anafarca. A foft, inelaftic fwelling
of the whole body, or fome part of it. The fpecies are,
1. Analarca (fercfa) from a retention of ferum on
account of the fuppreffion of the ufual evacuations, or
from an increafe of the ferum on account of too great
a quantity of water taken inwardly.
2. Anafarca {oppilata) from a compfeffion of the
veins.
3. Anafarca {exanthematica) arifing after exanthe¬
mata, efpecially after the eryfipelas.
4. Anafarca (ancemia) from the thinnefs of the
blood produced by hsenurtrhage.
5. Anafarca {dehiliuni) in weak people after long
difeafeS, or from other caufes.
Genus L.XXVI. Hydrocephalus. A foft inelaftic
fwelling of the head* with the futures of the cranium
opened.
Genus LXXVII. Hydrorachitis. A foft, (lender
tumour above the vertebrae of the loins ; the vertebrae
gaping from each other.
Genus LXXVIII. Hydrothorax. Dyfpncea ; pale-
nefs of the face; oedematous fwellings of the feet;
fcanty urine ; lying down difficult; a fudden and fpon-
taneous waking out of deep, with palpitation; water
flufluating in the bread.
Genus LXXlX. Afcites. A tenfe, fcarce eladic,
but fluftuating fwelling of the abdomen. The fpe¬
cies are,
1. Afcites (abdominalis), with unequal fwelling of
the whole abdomen, and with a fluftuation diffidently
evident.
Varying according to the caufe.
A, From an obdru&ion of the vifcera.
B, From debility.
C, From a thinnefs of the blood.
2. Afcites (faccatus), with a fwelling of the abdo¬
men, in the beginning at lead, partial, and with a lefs
evident flu&uation.
Genus LXXX. Hydrometra. A fwelling of the
hypogadrium in women, gradually increafing, keeping
the fliape of the uterus, yielding to preffure, and fluc¬
tuating; without ifehuria or pregnancy.
Genus LXXXI. Hydrocele. A fwelling of the
ferotum, not painful; increafing by degrees, foft, fluc¬
tuating, and pellucid.
Sed. IV. Solidae.
Genus LXXXII. Phyfconia. A fwelling chiefly
occupying a certain part of the abdomen, gradually
increafing, and neither fonorous nor flu&uating. The
fpecies are,
Phyfconia hepatica.
Phyfconia fplenica.
Phyfconia renalis.
Phyfconia uterina.
Phyfconia ab ovario.
Phyfconia mefenterica.
Phyfconia intedinalis.
. Phyfconia omentalis.
Vol. VI. 1
Phyfconia polyfplachna.
Phyfconia vifceralis.
Phyfconia externa lupialis.
Phyfconia externa feirrhodea.
Phyfconia externa hydatidofa.
Phyfconia ab adipe fubcutaneo,
Phyfconia ab excrefcentia.
Genus LXXXIII. Rachitis. A large head, fwelling
mod in the forepart; the ribs deprefled; abdomen
fwelled, with a decay of the other parts.
Varying.
1. Simple, without any other difeafe.
2. Joined with other difeafes.
Order III. Impetigines. Cachexies chiefly deform¬
ing the (kin and external parts of the body.
Genus LXXXIV. Scrophula. Swellings of the con¬
globate glands, efpecially in the neck; fwelling of the
upper lip and fupport of the nofe; the face florid, (kin
thin, abdomen fwelled. The fpecies are,
1. Scrophula {.vulgaris), Ample, external, and per¬
manent.
2. Scrophula {mefenterica), Ample, internal, with
palenefs of the face, want of appetite, fwelling of the
abdomen, and unufual fxtor of the excrements.
3. Scrophula {fugax), mod Ample, appearing on¬
ly about the neck ; for the mod part proceeding from
the reforption of the matter of ulcers in the head.
4. Scrophula {Americana), joined with the yaws.
Genus LXXXV. Syphilis. A contagious difeafe,
after impure venery, and a diforder of the genitals ;
ulcers of the tonfils ; of the (kin, efpecially about the
margin of the hair; corymbofe papulae, ending in
cruds and crudy ulcers; pains of the bones; exo-
dofes.
Genus LXXXVI. Scorbutus; in cold countries, at¬
tacking after putrefeent diet, efpecially fuch as is
fait and of the animal-kind, where no fupply of freflt
vegetables is to be had; adhenia; domacace; fpots
of different colours on the (kin, for the mod part li¬
vid, and appearing chiefly among the roots of the
hair.
Varying in degree.
a. Scorbutus incipiens.
b. Scorbutus crefcens.
c. Scorbutus inveteratus.
Varying alfo in its fymptoms.
d. Scorbutus lividus.
e. Scorbutus petechialis.
f. Scorbutus pallidus.
g. Scorbutus ruber.
h. Scorbutus calidus.
Genus LXXXVII. Elephantiafis; a contagious
difeafe ; thick, wrinkled, rough, undtuous (kin, de-
flitute of hairs, anxdhefia in the extremities, the face
deformed with pimples, the voice hoarfe and nafal.
Genus LXXXVIII. Lepra ; the (kin rough, with
white, branny, and chopped efehars, fometimes moilt
beneath, with itching.
Genus LXXXIX. Framboefia ; fwellings refem-
bling fungi, or the fruit of the mulberry or rafpberry,
growing on various parts of the (kin.
Genus XC. Trichoma; a contagious difeafe; the
hairs thicker than ufual, and twiffed into inextricable
knots and cords.
Genus XCI. Iderus; yellownefs of the (kin and
26 G eyes;
4639
Theory.
4640
Theory.
M E D I
■ eyes; white faeces; urine of a dark red, tinging what
'is put into it of a clay colour.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Ifterus (calculofus), with acute pain in the epi-
gaftric region, increafrag after meals ; biliary concre¬
tions voided by {tool.
2. Icterus (fpafrmdktts), without pain, after fpaf-
modic difeafes and paffionsof the mind.
3. Idterus (hepaticus), without pain, after difeafes
of the liver.
4. Idterus [gravidarum), arifing during the time of
pregnancy, and going off after delivery.
5. Idterus [infantum), coming on in infants a few
days after birth.
CLASS IV. Locales. An affeftion of fome part,
but not of the whole body.
Order I. Dyfethefise. The fenfes depraved or de-
ftroyed, from a difeafe of the external organs.
Genus XCII. Caligo. The fight impaired or to¬
tally deftroyed, on account of fome opaque fubftance
interpofed between the objects and the retina, inhe¬
rent in the eye itfelf or the eye-lids. The fpecies are,
1. Caligo [lentis), occafioned by an opaque fpot
behind the pupil.
2. Caligo [come#), from an opacity of the cornea.
3. Caligo [pupilla), from an obftruftion of the
pupil.
Varying according to the different caufes from which
it proceeds.
4. Caligo [humorum), from a difeafe or deleft of
the aqueous humour.
Varying according to the different ftate of the hu¬
mour.
5. Caligo [palpebrarum) from a difeafe inherent in
the eye-lids.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe in
the eye-lids.
Genus XCIII. Amaurofis. The fight diminifhed,
or totally abolifhed, without any evident difeafe of the
eye ; the pupil for the moft part remaining dilated and
immoveable. The fpecies are,
1. Amaurofis [comprejfionis), after the caufes and
attended with the fymptoms of congeftion in the brain.
Varying according to the nature of the remote caufe.
2. Amaurofis (atonica), after the caufes and ac¬
companied with fymptoms of debility.
3. Aaizurotis [fpafmodica), after the caufes and
with the figns of fpafm.
4. Amaurofis {venenata), from poifon taken into
the body or applied outwardly to it.
Genus XCIV. Dyfopia. A depravation of the
fight, fo that objefts cannot be diftinftly perceived
except at a certain diftance and in a certain fituation.
The fpecies are,
1. Dyfopia [tenebrarum), in which objefts are not
feen unlefs they are placed in a ftrong light.
2. Dyfopia [luminis), in which objefts are not di¬
ftinftly feen unlefs by a weak light.
4. Dyfopia [difitorum), in which djftant objefts
are not perceived.
4. Dyfopia {proximorum), in which the neareft ob¬
jefts are not perceived.
5. Dyfopia [lateralis), in which objefts are not
perceived unlefs placed in an oblique pofture.
CINE. Part
Genus XCV. Plendbblepfis; when the fight is dif Theo
eafed in fuch a manner that the perfon imagines he 
fees things which really do not exift, or fees things
which do exift after fome other manner than they real¬
ly are. The fpecies are,
1. Pfeudoblepfis [imaginaria), in which the perfoa
imagines he fees things which really do not exift.
Varying according to the nature of the imagination.
2. Pfeudoblepfis [mutans), in which objefts really
exifting appear fomehow changed.
Varying according to the change perceived in the
objefts, and according to the remote caufe.
Genus XCVI. Dyfeccea. A diminution or total
abolition of the fenfe of hearing. The fpecies are,
1. Dyfeccea {organica), from a difeafe in the or¬
gans tranfmitting founds to the internal ear.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe and
of the part affefted.
2. Dyfecoea {atonica), wuthout any evident difeafe
of the organs tranfmitting the founds.
Varying according to the nature of the caufe.
Genus XCVII. Paracufis; a depravation of the
hearing. The fpecies are,
1. Paracufis [imperfefta), in which though founds
coming from external objefts are heard, yet it is nei¬
ther diftinftly nor in the ufual manner.
Varying,
a, With a dulnefs of hearing.
b, With an hearing too acute and fenfibhe.
c, When a fingle external found is doubled by fome
internal caufes.
d, When the founds which a perfon defires to hear
are not perceived, unlefs fome other violent found re
raifed at the fame time.
2. Paracufis {imaginaria), in which founds not ex¬
ifting externally are excited from internal caufes.
Varying according to the nature of the found per¬
ceived, and according to the nature of the remote
caiife.
Genus XCVIII. Anofmia; a diminution or aboli¬
tion of the fenfe of fmell. The fpecies are,
1. Apofmia {organica), from a difeafe in the mem¬
brane lining the internal parts of the noftrils.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe.
2. Anofmia {atonica), without any evident difeafe
of the membrane of the nofe.
Genus XCIX. Agheuftia; a diminution or abolition
of the fenfe of tafte.
1. Agheuftia {organica), from a difeafe in the mem¬
brane of the tongue, keeping off from the nerves thofe
fubftances which ought to produce tafte.
2. Agheuftia [atonica), without any evident dif¬
eafe of the tongue.
Genus C. Anaefthefia ; a diminution or abolition of
the fenfe of feeling. The fpecies from Sauvages, ad¬
opted by Dr Cullen, are,
1. Ansefthefia a fpina bifida.
2. Anasfthefia plethorica.
3. Anasfthefia nafcentiuvn.
4. Anaefthefia melancholica.
Order II. Dyforexia; error or deleft of appetite.
Seft. I. Appetitus erronei.
Genus Cl. Bulimia ; a defire for food in greater
quantities than can be digefted.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. BuH-
;Part I. M E D I
o iheory. I. Bulimia {helluonum), an unufual appetite for food,
H without any difeafeof the ftomach.
2. Bulimia (fyncopalis), a frequent defire of meat
on account of a fenfation of hunger threatening fyn-
cope.
3. Bulimia (etnetica), an appetite for a great quan¬
tity of meat, which is thrown up immediately after it
is taken.
Genus CII. Polydipfia ; an appetite for an unufual
quantity of drink.
The polydipfia is almoft always fymptomatic, and
varies only according to the nature of the difeafe
which accompanies it.
Genus CIII. Pica; a defire of fwallowing fubftan-
ces not ufed as food.
Genus CIV. Satyriafis; an unbounded defire of ve-
nery in men. The fpecies are,
1. Satyriafis {juvenilis), an unbounded defire of
venery, the body at the fame time being little dtfor-
dered.
2. Satyriafis ( furens), a vehement defire of venery,
with a great diforder of the body at the fame time.
Genus CV. Nymphomania ; an unbounded defxre
of venery in women.
Varying in degree.
Genus CVI. Noftalgia; a violent defire in thofe
who are abfent from their country of revifiting it.
1. Noftalgia {/implex), without aify other difeafe.
2. Noftalgia {coinplicata), accompanied with other
difeafes.
Se&. II. Appetitus deficientes.
Genus CVII. Anorexia. Want of appetite for food.
Always fymptomatic.
1. Anorexia {humoralis), from fame humour load¬
ing the ftomach.
2. Anorexia {atonica), from the tone of the fibres
of the ftomach being loft.
Genus CVIII. Adipfia ; a want of thirft. Always
a fymptom of fome difeafe affe&ing the fenforium
commune.
Genus CIX. Anaphrodifia ; want of defire for, or
impotence to venery.
The true fpecies are,
1. Anaphrodifia paralytica.
2. Anaphrodifia gonorrhoica.
| The falfe ones are,
1. Anaphrodifia a marifeis.
2. Anaphrodifia ab urethrae vitio.
Order III. Dyfcinefiae. An impediment, or depra¬
vation of motion from a diforder of the organs.
Genus CX. Aphonia; a total fuppreffion of voice
without coma or fyncope. The fpecies are,
1. Aphonia [gutturalis), from the fauces or glottis
being fwelled.
2. Aphonia from a comprefiion of the
trachea.
3. Aphonia {atonica), from the nerves of the larynx
being cut.
Genus CXI. Mutitas ; a want of power to pro-
flounce words. The fpecies are,
1. Mutitas {organica), from the tongue being cut
out ®r deftroyed.
2. Mutitas {atonica/ from injuries done to the
nerves of the tongue.
3. Mutitas {furdorum), from people being born
2
CINE. 4641
deaf, or the hearing being deftroyed during child- Theory.
hood.
Genus CXII. Paraphonia ; a depraved found of the
voice. The fpecies are,
j. Paraphonia {puberum), in which, about the time
of puberty, the voice, from being acute and fweet, be¬
comes more grave and harfh.
2. Paraphonia {rauca), in which, by reafon of the
drynefs or flaccid tumour of the fauces, the voice be¬
comes rough and hoarfe.
3. Paraphonia {refonans), in which, by reafon of
an obftruftion in the noftrils, the voice becomes hoarfe,
with a found hilling through the noftrils.
4. Paraphonia {palatina), in which, on account of
a defect or divifion of the uvula, for the mod part
with an hare-lip, the voice becomes obfeure, hoarfe,
and unpleafant.
5. Paraphonia {clangens), in which the voice is
changed to one acute, Ihrill, and fmall.
6. Paraphonia {comatofa), in which, from a relaxa¬
tion of the velum palati and glottis, a found is produ¬
ced during infpiration.
Genus CXIIT. Pfellifmus; a defedt in the articula¬
tion of words. The fpecies are,
1. Pfellifmus [jhnefitans), in which the words, espe¬
cially the firft ones of a difeourfe, are not eafily pro¬
nounced, and not without a frequent repetition of the
firft fyllable.
2. Pfellifmus {ringens), in which the found of
the letter R is always afpirated, and, as it were,
doubled.
3. Pfellifmus {lallans)t in which the found of the
letter L becomes more liquid, or is pronounced in-
ftead of R.
4. Pfellifmus {emolliens), in which the hard letters
are changed into the fofter ones, and thus the letter S
is much ufed.
5. Pfellifmus {balbutiens), in which, by reafon of
the tongue being large or fwelled, the labial let¬
ters are better heard, and often pronounced inftead of
others.
6. Pfellifmus {acheilos), in which the labial letters
cannot be pronounced at all, or with difficulty.
7. Pfellifmus [logojlomatum), in which, on account
of the divifion of the palate, the guttural letters are lefs
perfeftly pronounced.
Genus CXIV. Strabifmus; the optic axes of the
eyes not converging. The fpecies are,
1. Strabifmus {babitualis), from a bad cuftom of
ufing only one eye.
2. Strabifmus {commodus), from the greater debi¬
lity or mobility of one eye above the other; fo that
both eyes cannot be conveniently ufed.
3. Strabifmus {necejfarius), from a change in the
fituation or ftiape of the parts of the eye.
Genus CXV. Contra&ura ; a long-continued and
rigid contradlion of one or more limbs. The fpecies
are,
1. Contraftura {primaria,) from the mufcles beco¬
ming contrafted and rigid.
a, From the mufcles becoming rigid by inflamma¬
tion.
b, From mufcles become rigid by fpafm.
c, From mufcles contra&ed by reafon of their anta-
gonifts having become paralytic.
26 G 2 d, From
4^4 2
Theory,
MEDICINE. Part h
. d, From mufcles contraaed by an irritating acri- 4. Ifchuria {urethralis,} with a fwelling of the by. Th»o»
' mony. pogaftrinm, frequent ftimulus to make water, and pain 
e, Contraftura {articularis), from (tiff joints. in feme part of the urethra.
Order IV. Apocenofes. A flux either of blood or
fome other humour flowing more plentifully than ufuaJ,
without pyrexia, or an increafed impulfe of fluids.
Genus CXVI. Profufio; a flux of blood.
Genus CXVII. Ephidrofis; a preternatural evacu¬
ation of fweat.
Symptomatic ephidrofes vary according to the na¬
ture of the difeafes which they accompany, the diffe¬
rent nature of the fweat itfelf, and fometimes the dif¬
ferent parts of the bod^ which fweats moft.
Genus CXVIII. Epiphora; a flux of the lacrymal
humour.
Genus CXIX. Ptyalifmus; a flux of faliva.
Genus CXX. Enurefis; an involuntary flux of urine
without pain. The fpecies are,
1. Enurefis (atonica), after difeafes injuring the
fphin&er of the bladder.
2. Enurefis (irritata), from a comprefflon or irri¬
tation of the bladder.
Genus CXXI. Gonorrhoea; a preternatural flux of
humour from the urethra in men, with or without a
defire of venery. The fpecies are,
1. Gonorrhoea (pura), in which, without any im¬
pure venery having preceded, a humour refembling
pus, without dyfuria or propenfity to venery, flows from
the urethra.
2. Gonorrhoea [impura), in which, after impure ve¬
nery, an humour like pus flows from the urethra with
dyfuria. The confequence of this is,
Gonorrhoea {muccfa}, in which, after an impure go¬
norrhoea, a mucus humour flows from the urethra with
little or no dyfuria.
3. Gonorrhoea (laxorutx), in which an humour for
the moft part pellucid, without any eredtion of the
penis, but with a propenfity to venery, flows from the
urethra while the perfon is awake.
4. Gonorrhoea (Jormientium), in which the feminal
liquor is thrown out, with ere&ion and defire of venery,
in thofe who are afleep and have lafeivious dreams.
Order V. Epifchefes; fupprefiions of evacuations.
Genus CXXII. Obftipatio; the ftools either fup-
prefled, or flower than ufual. The fpecies are,
1. Obftipatio (debilitim), in lax, weak, and for the
moft part dyfpeptic perfons.
2. Obftipatio (rigidortwi), in people whofe fibres
are rigid, and frequently of an hypochondriac difpofi-
iion.
3. Obftipatio (ohjlruftorum), with fymptoms of the
colica 1 ft, 2d, 4th, and 7th, abovementioned.
Genus CXXIII. Ifchuria; an abfolute fupprefiion
of urine. The fpecies are,
x. Ifchuria (renalis), coming after a difeafe of the
kidneys, with pain, or troublefome fenfe of weight in
the region of the kidneys, and without any fwelling
of the hypogaftrium, or defire of making water.
2. Ifchuria (ureterica), coming after a difeafe of
the kidneys, with a fenfe of pain or uneafinefs in fome
part of the ureter, and without any tumour of the hy¬
pogaftrium, or defire of making water-
' 3. Ifchuria (vejicalis,) with a fwelling of the hypo¬
gaftrium, pain at the neck of the bladder, and a fre¬
quent ftimulus to make water.
All theft fpecies are fubdivided into many varieties, M
according to their different caufes.
Genus CXXIV. Dyfuria; a painful, and fomehow
impeded emifiion of urine. The fpecies are,
1. Dyfuria gardens), with heat of water, without :9
any manifeft diforder of the bladder.
2. Dyfuria (Jpafnwdica.) from a fpafm communi¬
cated from other parts to the bladder.
3. Dyfuria [cotnpreJJJenis,) from the neighbouring
parts prefling upon the bladder.
4. Dyfuria (phlogiJUca,) from an inflammation of |l
the neighbouring parts.
5. Dyfuria (irritata,) with figns of a ftone in the
bladder.
6. Dyfuria [mucofa,) with a copious excretion of
mucus.
Genus CXXV. Dyfpermatifmus; a flow, impeded,
and infufficient emiflion of femen in the venereal aft. 11
The .fpecies are,
1. Dyfpermatifmus (urethraiis), from difeafes of ||
the urethra.
2. Dyfpermatifmus (nodofus), from knots on the ca¬
vernous bodies.
3. Dyfpermatifmus (praputialis), from too narrow
an orifice of the prepuce.
4. Dyfpermatifmus (muccfus), from mucus infarc-
ting the urethra.
5. Dyfpermatifmus (hypertonicus), from too ftrong
an ereftion of the penis.
6. Dyfpermatifmus (epilepticus), from a fpafmodic
epilepfy happening during the time of coition.
7. Dyfpermatifmns (apraftodes^, from an imbecil-
lity of the parts of generation.
8. Dyfpermatifmus (rejluus), in which there is no
emiflion of femen, becaufe it returns from the urethra
into the bladder.
Genus CXXVI. Amenorrhcea. The menfes either
flowing more fparingly than ufual, or not at all, at their ' , |
ufual time, without pregnancy. The fpecies are,
1. Amenorrhoea (eman/ionis), in thofe arrived at
puberty, in whom, after the ufual time, the menfes
have not yet made their appearance, and many differ¬
ent morbid affeftions have taken place.
2. Amenorrhcea (fupprejjionis) in adults, in whom
the menfes which had already begun to flow are fup-
preffed.
3. Amenorrhcea (difficilis), in which the menfes flow
fparingly and with difficulty.
Order VI. Tumores; an increafed magnitude of any
part without phlogofis.
Genus CXXVII. Aneurifma; a foft tumour, with
pulfalion, above an artery.
Genus CXXVIII. Varix ; a foft tumour, without
pulfation, above a vein.
Genus CXXIX. Ecchymoma; a diffufed, and fcarce
eminent, livid tumour.
Genus CXXX. Scirrhusp an hard tumour of fome
part, generally of a gland, without pain, and difficult¬
ly brought to fuppuration.
Genus CXXXI. Cancer. A painful tumour of a.
feirrhous nature, and degenerating into an ill-condi¬
tioned Ulcer.
Ge-
rjPart IL
neonv. Genus CXXXII. Bubo; a fuppurating tumour of
H— a conglobate gland.
Genus CXXXIII. Sarcoma; a foft fwelling, with-
t cut pain.
GenusCXXXIV. Verruca; a harderfcabrous fwel¬
ling.
Genus CXXXV. Clavus; a hard, lamellated thick-
11 nefs of the fkin.
Genus CXXXVI. Lupia. A moveable, foft tu¬
mour below the ikin, without pain.
Genus CXXXV1I. Ganglion. An harder, move-
able fwelling, adhering to a tendon.
Genus CXXXV 111. Hydatis ; a cuticular veficle
filled with aqueous humour.
Genus CXXXIX. Hydarthrus; a moft.painful fwel¬
ling of the joints, chiefly of the knee, at firft fcarce
elevated, of the fame colour with the fkin, diminilhing
the mobility.
Genus CXL. Exoftofis; a hard tumour adhering to
a bone.
Order VII. Eftopiae; tumours occafioned by the
removal of fome part out of its proper fituation.
Genus CXLI. Hernia; an eftopia of a foft part as
4643
yet covered with the {kin and other integuments. Theory.
Genus CXLII. Prolapfus ; a bare tdopia of fome  
foft part.
Genus CXLIII. Luxatio ; the removal of a bone
from its place in the joints.
Order VIII. Dialyfes. A folution of continuity,
manifeft to the fight or touch.
Genus CXLIV. Vulnus ; a recent and bloody fo-
lution of the unity of fome foft part by the motion of
fome hard body.
Genus CXLV. Ulcus. A purulent or ichorous fo-
lution of a foft part.
Genus CXLVI. Herpes ; a great number ofphlyc-
tenae or fmall ulcers, gathering in clufiers, creeping,
and obftinate.
Genus CXLVII. Tinea; fmall ulcers among the
roots of the hair of the head, pouring out a humour
which changes to a white friable fcurf.
Genus CXLVIII. Pfora. Itchy puftules and little
ulcers of an infectious nature, infefting the hands.
Genus CXLIX. Fraflura; bones broken into
large fragments.
Genus CL. Caries; an exulceration of a bone.
MEDICINE.
Part II. PRACTICE of MEDICINE; or the Description and
Cure of mod Difeafes incident to Human Nature, arranged according to
Dr Cullen’s Nosology.
SALVAGES, as has been already obferved, was
the firft who attempted to arrange difeafes accord-
ding to the plan fuggefted by Sydenham; and his
Work ftill continues the only one that merits the title
of Methodical Nojohgy. For though Linnaeus, Vo¬
gel, Cullen, and Sagar, have fuceeffively endeavoured
to improve his method of claffification, they have con¬
tented themfelves with an enumeration and arrange¬
ment of the different genera, without entering into
their hiftory and cure : fo that, though we have fince
had various Schemes of Arrangement, me have had, pro¬
perly fpeaking, no complete Syftem of Nofotogy; that
is, no complete Courfe of Medicine according to any
of thefe arrangements. Prefuming, therefore, that a
Prasftice formed upon the moft approved Clafiification,
in imitation of the work of Sauvages, might be efteem-
ed an acquifition by our medical readers, we have en¬
deavoured to execute that talk in the prefent part of
this treatife : Wherein the Praftice is modelled by the
arrangement of Dr Cullen ; and the outline is filled up
from the beft authors, fo as to exhibit the moft appro¬
ved methods of treatment, with the lateft difcoveries
and improvements in the healing art.
Class I. PYREXUE, (the Febrile Difeafes
of other Authors.)
Order I. F E B R E S.
S&uvog' Clafs II. Vog. ClafsI. iSagYrr. Oafs XII.
Morbi Febriles Critici, Lin. Clafs II.
Sect. I. INTERMITTENT S.
Intermittentes of fome authors ; Snuvv Clafs II. Or¬
der III. Lin. Clafs II. Order II. Fog. Clafs I. Or¬
der I. Sag. Clafs XII. Order III.
The remittentes of others, Sauv. Clafs II. Or¬
der II. Sag. Clafs XII. Order II.
Exacerbantes, Z;'«. Clafs II. Order III.
Continuas, Vog. Clafs I. Order II.
Genus I. TERTIANA ; the Tertian Fever.
[ffertiana, Sauv. G. 88. Lin. 16. Hoffm. Stahl. Cleg-
horn. Senac.)
I. The Genuine Tertian.
(Tertiana legitima, Senert. Hoffm. Cleghorn, Minore.
Sauv. Sp. I.)
1. Defcription. This difeafe comes on in the morn¬
ing, or from breaftfaft tu dinner-time. It begins with
a remarkable fhivering, increafing frequently to a kind
of convtilfive (baking of the limbs. The extremities
are always cold, fometimes remarkably fo. The cold
for the moft part is firft perceived about the lumbar
regions, and from thence afcending along the fpine
turns towards the pit of the ftomach. Sometimes it
begins in the firft joint of the fingers and tip of the
nofe. Sometimes attacks only a particular part of
the body, as one of the arms, the fide of the head,
&c. This cold is preceded by a heavy and fleepy tor¬
por, languor and laflitude, which we are partly to
afcribe to real weaknefs, and partly to mere lazinefs.
To thefe fymptoms fucceed yawning and ftretching-;
after which the cold comes on as above defcribed, not
unfrequently with a pain of the back, and a trouble-
fome fenfation of tenfion in the precordia and hypo¬
chondria. To this fucceed naufea and vomiting ; and
the more genuine the difeafe, the more certainly does
the
4644 M E D I
Practice the vomiting, come OB, by which a great deal of tough
' mucous matter, and fometimes bilious ftuff or indi-
gefted food, Is evacuated during the firft paroxyftns. In
fome there is only a violent {training to vomit, without
bringing up any thing : fometimes, inftead of thefe
fymptoms, a diarrhoea occurs ; and this chiefly in
weak, phlegmatic, and aged people, or where an in-
digefted mucous faburra has long remained in the pri¬
me vie.
When thefe fymptoms have continued for an hour
or two, the cold begins to go off, and is fucceeded by
a laffitude, languor, and flaccidity of the whole body,
but chiefly in the limbs, with an uneafy forenefs as if
the parts had been bruifed; excepting in thofe cafes
where the naufea continues for a longer time. After
this languor a heat comes on, the increafe of which is
generally flow, but fometimes otherwife, with pain of
the head, thirit, and bitternefs in the mouth. The
pulfe is quick and unequal; fometimes beating 130
ftrokes in a minute. As foon as this heat hath aba¬
ted, a little moifture or fweat is obferved to break forth ;
not always indeed in the firft, but always in the fuc-
ceeding paroxyfms, and the urine lets fall a quantity
lateritious fediment. The whole paroxyfm is fcarce
ever over in lefs than fix hours, more frequently eight,
and in violent cafes extends to 12 hours; but that
which exceeds 12 hours is to be reckoned a fpurious
kind, and approaching to the nature of continued fe¬
vers. All thefe fymptoms, however, are repeated every
third day, in fuch a manner that the patient is quite
free from fever for at leaft 24 hours. The paroxyfms
return much about the fame time, though fometimes a
little fooner or later.
3. Caufes of this difeafe, and perfons fubjefl to it. The
genuine tertian attacks men rather than women, young
people rather than old; the latter being more fubjeft.
to anomalous tertians. It likewife fejzes the lufty
and a&ive, rather than the lazy and indolent. Thofe,
however, who are very fenfible and apt to naufeate
their meat, fall eafily into a tertian fever. The
caufe, according to Dr Cullen, is the miafma of
marlhes, and that only. Other phyficians have ta¬
ken in many more caufes, almoft every thing in¬
deed which debilitates the body : but the Doftor de¬
nies that any of thefe, though they may difpofe the
body for receiving the difeafe, or may augment it, can
by any means produce it without the concurrence of
the marfh miafma.
3. Prognofs. The genuine Ample tertian, unlefs
improper medicines are adminiftered, is generally very
eafily cured ; nay, the vulgar reckon it of fuch a falu-
tary nature, that after it they imagine a perfon be¬
comes more ftrong and healthy than before. Hippo¬
crates hath juftly obferved, that thefe fevers terminate
of their own accord after feven or nine paroxyfms.
Juncker tells us, that it frequently terminates before
the feventh paroxyfm, but rarely before the fourth.
He alfo denies that any thing critical is to be obferved
in its going off; but in this he differs from Vogel,
who tells us, that the urine, for fome days after the
fever is quite gone off, appears flimy, and lets fall much
fediment. The latter alfo informs us, thatbefides the
common crifis by fweat and urine, the tertian hath one
peculiar to itfelf, namely, dry fcabby ulcers breaking
out upon the lips. Thefe fometimes appear about the
CINE. Part
the third or fourth paroxyfm ; and then We may ven-PRA
ture toforetel that the difeafe will go off fpontaneouf- "
ly after the feventh. But though the difeafe is never
dangerous, in cold climates at leaft, when properly
treated ; yet the improper ufe of hot and ftimulating
medicines may change it into a continued fever, more
or lefs dangerous according to the quantity of medi¬
cines taken and the conftitution of the patient; in
which cafe the prognofis muft be regulated by the par¬
ticular fymptoms which occur.
Cure. The treatment of all genuine intermittents,
whether tertians, quotidians, or quartans, being pre-
cifely the fame, the general method of cure applicable
to them all may be here given, to which it will be
eafy to refer when we come to defcribe the others.
In treating intermittent fevers, phyficians have
formed indications of cure according to their dif¬
ferent theories. The followers of Boerhaave, Stahl,
&c. who imagined that the dife^fe proceeded from
a lentor or other diforder in the blood and juices,
always thought it neceffary to correft and evacuate
thefe peccant humours by emetics and purgatives be¬
fore they attempted to flop the difeafe by the bark or
any other medicine. The bark indeed feems to be
held in very little eftimation by them ; fince Vogel af¬
firms, that this medicine, inftead of deferving to have
the preference of all other febrifuge medicines, ought
rather to be ranked among the loweft of the whole ;
and for this reafon he afcribes the cures hereafter men¬
tioned, by the external applisation of the bark, en¬
tirely to nature.
According to Dr Cullen, the indications of cure in
intermitting fevers may be reduced to the following.
1. In the time of intermiflion, to prevent the re¬
turn of the paroxyfms.
2. In the time of paroxyfms, to conduit thefe in
fuch a manner as to obtain a final lolution of the dif¬
eafe.
3. To take off certain circumftances which might
prevent the fulfilling of the two firft indications.
The firft indication may be anfwered in two ways.
1. By increafing thea&ion of the heart and arteries fome
time before the period of acceflion, and fupporting that
increafed aftion till the period ofacceflion be over, and
thus to prevent the recurrence of that atony and fpafm
of the extreme veffels which give occafion to the re¬
currence of paroxyfms. 2. By fupporting the tone of
the vefftls, and thereby preventing atony and the con-
fequent fpafm, without increafing the adtion of the
heart and arteries, the recurrence of paroxyfms may
be prevented.
The aftion of the heart and arteries may be increa-
ed, 1. By various ftimulant remedies internally given
or externally applied, and that without exciting fweat.
2. By the fame remedies, or others, managed in fucli
a manner as to excite fweating, and to fupport that
fweating till the period of acceffion be for fome time
paft. 3. By emetics, fupporting for the fame time
the tone and a&ion of the extreme veffels.
The tone of the extreme veffels may be fupported
without increafing the a&ion of the heart and arteries,
by various tonic medicines; as, 1. Aftringents alone.
2. Bitters alone. 3. Aftringents and bitters conjoin¬
ed. 4. Aftringents and aromatics conjoined. 5. Cer¬
tain metallic tonics; and, 6. Opiates. A good deal
IT. M E D I
"e of exercife, and as full a diet' as the condition of the
patient’s appetite and digeftion may allow of, will be
proper during the time of intermiffion, and may be
confidered as belonging to this head.
Of all the tonic remedies mentioned, the moll ce¬
lebrated, and perhaps the moll certainly effedlual, is
the Peruvian bark : but it mud be obferved, that good
effedts are only to be expedled from this medicine
when given in fubdance and in large quantity ; and
for its ufe the following rules or obfervations have
been given.
1. The bark may with fafety be employed at any
period of intermitting fevers, providing that at the
fame time there be neither a phlogillic diathefis pre¬
vailing in the fyllem, nor any confiderable or fixed
congellion prefent in the abdominal vifeera,
2. The proper time for exhibiting the bark in in¬
termittent fevers is during the time of intermifiion, and
it is to be abliained from in the time of paroxyfms.
3. In the cafe of genuine intermittents, while a
due quantity of bark is employed, the exhibition of
it ought to be brought as near to the time of acceffion
as the condition of the patient’s ftomach will allow.
5. In all cafes of intermittents, it is not fufficient
that the recurrence of paroxyfms be flopped for once
by the ufe of the bark; a relapfe is commonly to be
expedted, and Ihould be prevented by the exhibition
of the bark repeated at proper intervals.
Our fecond indication for condudting the paroxyfms
of intermittent fevers, fo as to obtain a final folution
of the difeafe, may be anfwered, 1. By exhibiting
emetics during the time of the cold flage, or at the
beginning of the hot. 2. By opiates given during
the hot ftage.
The circumftances which may efpecially prevent the
fulfilling of thefe two indications, and therefore give
oecafion to the third, are, a phlogiftic diathefis pre¬
vailing in the fyftem, and congeftions fixed in the ab¬
dominal vifeera. The firft muft be removed by blood¬
letting and the antiphlogiftic regimen; the fecond, by
vomiting and purging.
It is not, however, very common for intermittents
to be cured by medicines given during the time of
the paroxyfm. The bark is the medicine to which
we are chiefly to trull. Our phyficians are now
generally agreed, that very little preparation of the
body is reqnifite previous to the adminiftration of
the bark, in intermitting fevers. It is fufficient to
cleanfe the ftomach and alimentary canal by an
emetic or cathartic. Where the difeafe is attended
with fieknefs or naufea, fix or eight grains of ipeca¬
cuanha may be given : but where there are no fymp-
toms of this kind, it is better to give a ftomachic
purge, as an ounce or two of tinftura facra, or a few
grains of pil. Rufi. Thefe are to be adminiflered in
the intermiffion, immediately after the paroxyfm hath
ceafed, fo that their operation may be over before its
return ; and after their operation is completed, the
bark may be given with perfe& fafety. If the paroxyfm
be moderate, we need not have recourfe to the bark till
another fit hath manifefted the true nature of the dif¬
eafe : but if it proves fevere, there is often an abfo-
lute neceffity for adminiftering the bark on the firft in¬
termiffion of the fever, and even with hardly any pre¬
paration of the patient.
CINE. 4
The advantage of auminiftering the bark as early as P*
poffible, was fully afeertained by Dr Lind in the years
1765, 66, and 67, during an uncommon prevalence
of intermittents. When the difeafe was flopped by the
bark immediately after the firft or fecond fit, which
was the cafe with 200 of the Doiflor’s patients as well
as himfelf, neither a jaundice nor dropfy enfued;
whereas, when.the bark could not be adminiftered, on
account of the imperfect remiffion of the fever, or
when the patient had negleded to take it, either a
dropfy, jaundice, or conftant headach, were the certain
confequences; and the violence of the difeafe was in
proportion to the number of the preceding fits, or to
the continuance of the fever. By every paroxyfm the
dropfical fwellings were vifibly increafed, and the co¬
lour of the fkin rendered of a deeper yellow. When
the fever continued a few days without remiffion, the
belly and legs generally fw'elled; a violent head-ach,
likewife, and vertigo, for the moft part diftrefled the
patient j fo that fome, even after the fever had left
them, were not able to walk acrofs their chamber for
a fortnight or three weeks. When the return^ of the
fever were regular and even, but flight, four or five fits
of a Ample tertian were fometimes followed by thq
moft dangerous fymptoms ; efpecially in the year 1765*
when thefe fevers raged with the greateft violence. If,
as frequently happened, a droplical patient relapfcd in¬
to the ague, there was an abfolute neceffity for putting
aa immediate flop to it by the bark; and in upwards of
70 fuch patients, Dr Lind obferved the moft beneficial
effedls to accrue from this pra&ice. He never preferi-
bed the bark until the patient was free from all fymp¬
toms of the fever; but in that cafe, without regard to
a cough, or any other chronical indifpofnion, he or¬
dered it to be given in large dofes, but never preferi-
bed it during the continuance of the paroxyfm.
The bark hath been often obferved to fail in remo¬
ving intermittents, from not continuing the ufe of it
for a fufficient length of time, from adminiftering it in
too fmall a dofe, or from giving it in an improper form.
It was a prevailing opinion, that an ounce, or an ounce
and an half, of the bark, taken during one intermiffion,
is fufficient to prevent the return of another paroxyfm.-
But this is not always the cafe; for a fevere fit will
often attack a patient who hath taken fuch a quantity.
When this happens, the patient ought to perfevere du¬
ring the following intermiffions, with an increafe of the
dofe, till five or fix ounces at lead have been taken.-
The medicine alfo ought not to be omitted as foon as
one fit is Hopped, but ftiouid be continued in a fmaller
dofe for at leaft ten days or a fortnight. Even for fe-
veral months after the difeafe is entirely removed, it
would be advifeable to take a little bark occafionally
in damp weather, or during an eafterly wind, to pre¬
vent a relapfe. Where the intervals between the fits
are fhort, as in quotidians and double tertians, from
one to two drachms of it ought to be taken every two
or three hours.
The form in which this medicine is adminiftered is
of fome confequence. Mucilages and fyrups have
been recommended to conceal the tafte of it; but,
from various experiments, Dr Lind found nothing
more effectual for this purpofe than fmall-beer or
milk, efpecially the latter. A drachm of bark mixed
with two ounces of milk, and quickly drank, may
464^
l?n ACT,ICE
MEDICINE.
Part II
eafily be taken by a perfon of tbe moil delicate tafte,
and by wafting the mouth afterwards with milk
there will not remain the leaft flavour of the bark ;
but if the mixture is not drank immediately, the bark
will impart a bitter tafte to the milk. This.medicine
is commonly given in eleftuaries or bolufes ; but Dr
Lind obferves, that in thefe forms it proves much
lefs efficacious than when adminiftrated in juleps or
draughts, with the plentiful addition of wine or
fpirits. He has remarked, that fix drachms of pow¬
dered bark, given in a julep, confiding of one fourth
or one third of brandy, is as effe&ual as an ounce of
the powder in the form of an ele&uary, and proves
lefs difagreeable to the ftomach. For patients tin-
accuftomed to wine or fpirits, each draught ftould be
warmed with fpiritus fall’s ammoniac!, or tindf. myrrh,
by both of which the efficacy of the bark is in-
creafed. The Doftor is alfo fully convinced that
wine or fpirits improve the virtues of the bark much
more than elixir vitrioli, tindf. rofar. or fuch other
medicines as have been recommended by other phy-
iicians.
For thofe who naufeate the bark from a weaknefs
of the ftomach or other caufe, he advifes it to be
given in clyfters, in which form it is as efficacious
as when taken by the mouth. For this purpofe the
extradt is moft proper with the addition of a fufficient
quantity of the tindiura thebaica in order to its being
•longer retained. For children labouring under in¬
termitting fevers, Dr Lind orders the fpine of the
back to be anointed, at the approach of the fit, with
a liniment compofed of equal parts of tindlura the¬
baica and liniment fapon. which has often prevent¬
ed it. If this ftould not produce the defired effedt,
he informs us, that two or three tea-fpoonfuls of
fyrup. e mecon. given in the hot fit, will generally
mitigate the fymptoms. But for the entire removal
of the difeafe, after purging with magnefia alba, he
prefcribes a drachm of the extradh cort. Peruvian,
with a few drops of tindl. thebaic, in a clyfter, to be
repeated every three hours for a child of about a year
old. When the ftomach is opprefted with phlegm,
the magnefia frequently occafions vomiting, which
ftould be promoted with warm water. The conftant
heavinefs of the head occafioned by thofe fevers in
fuch tender conftitutions is beft relieved by the appli¬
cation of a blifter to the back.
The bark hath alfo proved efiedlual for the cure of
intermittents in children, even when externally applied,
by putting the powder of it into a quilted waiftcoat.
Of its efficacy in this way feveral inftances are related
by Dr Samuel Pye in the fecond volume of Medi¬
cal Obfervations and Inquiries. In ftort, fo effec¬
tual was the bark found in removing thefe fevers
when properly applied, that of between four and five
hundred afflifted with them in the year 1765, Dr
Lind loft only two, neither of whom had taken this
medicine.
In all thefe fevers, a vomit was adminiftered when¬
ever the patient complained of a ficknefs and reaching
to vomit, or was feized with a fpontaneous vomiting ;
and the bark was never given till this ficknefs was
removed, or a purgative taken to clear more perfectly
the whole alimentary canal; In thofe patients who
were troubled with a cough, attended with a pain
in the fide affe&ing the breathing, when the pain Pr act.r
was not relieved by warm fomentations, the balfamum ^
anodynum Batsei, or by a blifter, the Doftor gene¬
rally ordered a few ounces of blood to be taken
away, and endeavoured to ftop the fever as foon as
poffible by the adminiftration of the bark ; having
found that every return of the fever increafed all fuch ;
pains.—When the headach was very violent, and
harraffed the patient during the intermiffions, the fuc-
cefs of the bark was, rendered more complete by the
application of a blifter to the back.—A giddinefs of
the head, which is the fymptom moft commony re¬
maining after even a flight intermitting fever, was ge¬
nerally relieved by the fal C. C. and the bark in wine.
The former of thefe was adminiftered in the following
manner.
Aq. Alex. Simp. ^vii.
Sal. C. C. 3fs.
Syr. e Cort. Aurant. ^i. M. f. julep. Cap.
cochlear, ij. fubinde.
If from the continuance of the fever the patient was
diftreffed with flatulence, a diftention of the abdomen,
and a fwelling of the legs, a fpoonful of tindtuia fa-
cra, with the addition of 30 drops of the fpirit lavend.
compof. was ordered to be taken every night.—A
continuance of the bark, a change of air, and the
cold bath, were often found requifite to prevent a
relapfe.
Such is the method of cure recommended by this
experienced author, who has alfo difeovered the effica¬
cy and fuccefs of opium in intermitting fevers. He
informs us, that he hath preferibed an opiate to up¬
wards of 300 patients labouring under this difeafe ;
and he obferved, that, if taken during the intermffion,
it had not the leaft effedf either in preventing or mi¬
tigating the fucceeding paroxyfm : when given in. the
cold fit, it once or twice feemed to remove it; but
when given half an hour after the commencement of
the hot fit, it generally gave immediate relief.—
When given in the hot fit, the effefts of opium are
as follow. 1. It ftortens and abates the fit; and
this with more certainty than an ounce of the bark : | ]
is found to remove the difeafe. It generally gives a
fenfible relief to the head, takes off the burning heat
of the fever, and occafions a profufe fweat. This
fweat is attended with an agreeable foftnefs of the
flein, inftead of the burning fenfation which affe&s
patients fweating in the hot fit, and is always much
more copious than in thofe who have not taken opium.
3. It often produces a foft and refrefting fleep to a
patient tortured in the agonies of the fever, from which
he awakes bathed in fweat, and in a great meafure free
from all complaints.
The Doftor has always obferved, that the effefts of
opium are more uniform and conftant in intermitting
fevers than in any other difeafe, and are then more
quick and fenfible than thofe of any other medicine.
An opiate thus given foon after the commencement of
the hot fit, by abating the violence andJeffening the
duration of the fever, preferves the conftitution fo en¬
tirely uninjured, that, fince he ufed opium in agues, a
dropfy or jaundice has feldom attacked any of his pa¬
tients in thofe difeafes. When opium did not imme¬
diately abate the fymptoms of the fever, it never in¬
creafed their violence. On the contrary, moft pa¬
tients I ; ‘
Part II. M E D I
a act ice tients reaped fome benefit from an opiate given in the
~ hot fit, and many of them bore a larger dofe at that
time than they could do at any other. The Doftor
allures us, that even a delirium in the hot fit is not
increafed by opium, though'opium will not remove it.
Hence he thinks it probable, that many fymptoms
attending thefe fevers are fpafmodic; but more efpe-
cially the head-ach. However, if the patient is deli¬
rious in the fit, the adminiftration of the opiate ought
to be delayed until he recovers his fenfes, when it will
be found greatly to relieve the weaknefs and faintnefs
which commonly fuoceed the delirium. Dr Lind is
of opinion, that opium in this difeafe is the belt pre¬
parative for the bark; as it not only produces a com¬
plete intermiffion, in which cafe alone that remedy can
be fafely adminiftered ; but occafions fuch a falutary
and copious evacuation by fweat, as generally to render
a much lefs quantity of bark requifite. He commonly
prefcribes the opiate in about two ounces of tin&ura
facra, when the patient is coftive, who is to take the
bark immediately after the fit. By thefe means the
paroxyfm is (hortened, and the inteftines are cleanfed,
previous to the adminiftration of the bark ; as the
opiate doth not prevent, but only fomewhat retard,
the operation of the purgative. When a vomit is
given immediately before the paroxyfm, the admini¬
ftration of the opiate (hould be poftponed till the hot
fit is begun.
237 II. The Irrtgular or Spurious Tertian.
Sp. I. var. 1. B.
Tertiana notha five fpuria, Sauv. fp. 2. Sennert.
Cleghorn. Hoffman.
The chara&eriftic marks of this fever are, that its
paroxyfms laft longer than 12 hours, and confequently
it inclines more to the quotidian or continued fever than
the former. Its paroxyfms have no ftated hour of
attacking. The cure, however, is precifely the fame
with that above defcribed, obferving the proper cau¬
tions already mentioned with regard to the ufe of the
bark.
238 III. The Double Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. C.
Tertiana duplex, Sauv.fy- I3- Vog.G. 12. Stnnert.
Cleghorn.
Duplicana, lAn. 18.
The double tertian comes on every day; but differs
from the quotidian in fo far, that its paroxyfms do not
anfwer to each other fingly, but alternately. The
firft day, for inftance, the fit will come on in the
forenoon, the fecond in the afternoon, the third in the
forenoon, &c.
Of thefe fevers we (hall give the following defcrip-
tion from Clegbarn’s treatife on the difeafes of Mi¬
norca : “ They are called double tertians when there
are two fits and two intervals within the time of each
period. But commonly there is fome difference between
the two fits, either in refpecl of the hour they come
at, the time of their duration, or the nature and vio¬
lence of their concomitant fymptoms. Some double
tertians begin in this manner.—On the evening of
Monday, for example, a flight fit comes on, and goes
off early next morning; but on Tuefday, towards the
middle of the day, a more fevere paroxyfm begins,
and continues till night. Then there is an interval to
Wednefday evening, when a flight fit commences a
Voe. VI. 1
CINE. 4647
new period of the fever, which proceeds in the fame peaceiuc
manner as the firft ; fo that (according to the way
phyficians calculate the days of difeafes, by beginning
to reckon from the firft hour of their invafion,) both
paroxyfms happen on the odd days, while the greateft
part of the even days is calm and undilturbed. But
in moft double tertians the patient has a fit every day
of the difeafe; the fevere one commonly appearing at
noon upon the odd days, the flight one towards even¬
ing on the even days; though fometimes the worft of
the two fits happen on the even days.
“ There is a tertian fever f fometimes to be metfs<!e
with, during each period of which there are three n0l4°*
different fits, and as many intervals. For example,
towards Monday noon the patient is feized with a pa¬
roxyfm, which declines about five or fix o’clock the
fame evening; a few hours after, another fit begin*,
and continues until morning: from which time there
is an interval to Tuefday evening, when a third fit
comes on, and lafts moft part of the night. On
Wednefday there are again two paroxyfms, as on
Monday and on Thurfday, like that of Tuefday ; and
thus the fever goes on with a double fit on each of the
odd days, and a Angle fit on the even days.
“ In double tertians, that interval is the moft con-
fiderable which follows the fevere fit; for the flight fit
oftener ends in a remiflion than intermiflion, and fre¬
quently lingers till the other approaches: Hence it
is, that the night preceding the vehement fit is much
more reftlefs than that which comes after it, as has
been obferved by Hippocrates. In double tertians,
the vehement fit often comes on a little earlier in
each period, while the flight fit returns at the fame
hour, or perhaps later and later every other day: fo
that the motions of one have no influence on thofe of
the other ; from whence it appears, that each of thefe
fits hath its own proper independent caufes.”
IV. Duplicated Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. D.
Tertiana duplicata, Sauv. fp. 14. Jones, River.
This hath two fits on the fame day, with an iriter-
mediate day bn which there are none. This alfo doth
not differ in any remarkable particular from thofe al¬
ready defcribed.
V. The Triple Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. E.
Tertiana triplex, Sauv. fp. 15. Cleghorn.
Semitertiana, Hoffman.
Semitertiana primi ordinis, Galen. Spig.
This differs from the former in having a fingle and
double fit alternately : thus, for inftance, if there are
two fits the firft day, there is only one the fecond,
two the third, one the fourth, &c. Its cure the fame as
before.
VI. The Semi-Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. F.
Hemitritseus, Celf.
Semitertiana, Cleghorn.
Semitertiana fecundi ordinis, Galen. Spig.
Amphimerina hemitritaeus, Sauv. fp. 8.
Amphimerina pfeudo hemitritseus, Sauv. fp. 9.
The femitertian is defcribed by Dr Cullen as having
only an evident rentiffion between its paroxyfms; more
remarkable between the odd and even day, but lefs
fo between the even and odd one. For this reafon,
he adds, that pofiSbly fome femitertians ought rather
to be claffed among the remittents; and owns that it is
26 H diffi-
239
240
4648 M E D I
Practice difficult to fettle the boundaries between them. But
Cleghorn, whom he quotes, defcribes it in the follow¬
ing manner. “ A fit begins on Monday noon, for
example, and goes off the fame night. On Tuefday
afternoon a fecond fit comes on, and gradually in-
creafes till Wednefday night, when it terminates. On
Thurfday morning there is fuch another interval as
happened on Tuefday morning: But on Thurfday
afternoon another long fit like the preceding com¬
mences ; and returning regularly every other day, leaves
only a fhort interval of ten or twelve hours during the
eight-and-forty.”
Concerning the cure of thefe fevers Dr Cullen ob-
ferves, that though no entire apyrexia occurs, the bark
may be given during the remiffions; and it fliould be
given even though the remiffions be inconfiderable; if,
from the known nature of the epidemic, intermiffions
or confiderable remiffions are not to be expefled, and
that great danger is apprehended from repeated exa¬
cerbations.
242 VII. The Sleepy Tertian. Sp. I. var. 3. G.
Tertians carotica, Sauv. fp. 10. Werlholf.
Tertiana hemiplegica, Sauv. fp. 20. Wcrtholf.
Quotidiana foporofa, Sauv. fp. 8. Car. Pif.
Febris caput impetens, Sydenham^ ep. ad R. Brady.
This, according to Vogel, is a moft dangerous fpe-
cies, and very commonly fatal; for which reafon he
ranks it among thofe intermittents which he calls »m-
lignant. Sometimes he tells us the alarming fymptom
of a fleepinefs comes on, not at the beginning of the
difeafe, but will unexpe&edly occur during the third,
fourth, fifth, or fixth paroxyfm. It commonly begins
with the cold fit, and continues during the whole time
of the paroxyfm, and, becoming ftronger at every fuc-
ceeding one, at laft terminates in a mortal apoplexy.
Sometimes fevers of this kind rage epidemically. Vo¬
gel relates, that he faw a fimple tertian changed into
one of thefe dangerous fevers. The patient was a wo¬
man of a delicate conftitution, and the fymptom ap¬
peared in confequence of her being put in a violent
paffion: however, it occurred but once, and fhe reco-
* Mei. Uu-vered. Hoffman * mentions a earns in a double ter-
t'-on. Syjiem. tian occurring feven times without proving mortal; tho’
P IV Vogel fays, that the powers of nature arc very feldom
fufficient to conquer the difeafe.
In 1678, Dr Sydenham tells us that intermittents
raged epidemically at London, where none had ap¬
peared before from 1664. Of them “ it is to be noted
(fays he), that though quartans were moll frequent
formerly, yet now tertians or quotidians were mod
common, unlefs the latter be entitled double tertians;
and likewife, that though thefe tertians fometimes
began with chilnefs and fhivering, which were fuc-
ceeded firft by heat, and foon. after by fweat, and
ended at length in a perfeft intermifiion, returning
again after a fixed time, yet they did not keep this
order after the third or fourth fit, efpecially if the
patient was confined to his bed and ufed hot cardiacs,
wdiich inereafe the difeafe. But afterwards this fever
became fo unufually violent, that only a remiffion
happened in the place of an intermiffion ; and ap¬
proaching every day nearer the fpecies of continued
fevers, it feized the head, ai d proved fatal to abun¬
dance of perfons,”
CINE. Part I
From this defeription of Sydenham’s we may havePRAcTicaj)
an idea of the nature of the difeafe. As to its cure, f-
our author ftrongly recommends the bark ; telling us,
that, even in the mojl continued kind of intermit- I
tents, “ the nearer the intermittent approaches to a
continued fever, either fpontaneoufly, or from ufing '
too hot a regimen, fo much the more neceffary is it
to exhibit a larger quantity of the bark ; and that he ‘i^
took advantage of a remiffion, though ever fo fmall.
VIII. The Spafmodic or Convulfive Tertian. 243
Sp. I. var. 3, H.
Tertiana afthmatica, Sauv. fp. 6. Bonet.
Tertiana hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 8. Wedel. A. N. C. f
Dec. I. A. II. obf. 193.
Hyfieria febricofa, Sauv. G. 135. fp. 8. A. N. C. ]
Dec. I. Ann. II.
Tertiana epileptics, Sauv. fp. 16. Calder. Lauttcr*
Quotidiana epileptica, Sauv. Sp. 3. Edinb. Effays, J
vol. 5. art. 49.
Ecclampfia febricofa, S^uv. G. 133. fp. 17.
Epilepfia febricofa, Sauv. G. 134. fp. 9.
Tertiana tetanodes Medici Beobacht I. Band.
Tetanus fcbricofus, G. 122. fp. 10. Stork., I
Ann. Med. II.
Tertians of this kind occur with very different
fymptoma from thofe of the true ones, and fometimes
even with thofe which are very extraordinary. In |
fome they are attended with fymptoms of allhma,
in others with thofe of hyfterics, in others with con- |
vulfions.—Where the fymptoms of afthma occur, the
difeafe muff be treated with diuretics and antifpafmo-
dics joined with the bark.—In the hyfieric allhma
the fit comes on with cold, yawning, cardialgia?.
terror and deje&ion of mind. The difeafe is to be
removed by mild aperients and antihyfterics joined
with the bark.
Of the convulfive tertian we have a moft remarkable
inftance in the Edinburgh Medical Effays, Vol. V.
The patient was a farmer’s fon about 26 years of age,
of a ftrong plethoric habit of body. He had laboured III
under an ague half-a-year, and had taken a great
deal of bark. While he was telling his cafe to the f
furgeon (Mr Baine of Pembroke) he was fuddenly
taken with a violent ftamping of his feet; and the
convulfions gradually afeended from the foies of the
feet, to his legs, thighs, belly, back, and (houldem
His head was then moft violently convulfed, with a 1
total deprivation of fpeech; but he had a moft difmal
vociferation, that might have been heard at a con- I
fiderable diftance, his abdomen and thorax working |
and heaving violently and unufually in the mean time.
This fit having laited half an hour, a profufe fweat j
broke out over all his body, which relieved him ; and
he then became capable of anfwering fuch queftions
as were put. Thefe extraordinary fits, he fa id, had
been occafioned by a fright, and his neighbours had
concluded that he was bewitched. They returned I
fometimes twice a-day, and always at the times the
ague ufed to return. During the paroxyfm his pulfe
was very high and quick, his face much inflamed,
and his eyes ready to ftart out of his head. After
the fit was over, he complained of a moft torturing
pain of the bowels. His tongue was generally moift,
and he had a fuppreffion of urine.—This formidable
difeafe, however, was totally fubdued by the ufe
■
I Part II. M E D I
i^ractice of the bark, mercurials, antifpafmodics, opiates, and
faline draughts.
244 IX. The Eruptive Tertian. Sp. I. var. 3. I.
Tertiana petechialis, Sauv. fp. 3. Donat. Lautter.
Tertiana fcorbutica, Wedel. A. N. C. Dec. I.
A. II. obf. 193.
Tertiana urticata, Sauv. fp. 22. Planchon. Journ.
de Med. 1765. Cleghorn.
Tertiana miliaris, Sauv. fp. 21. Walthier.
This fpecies of tertian is accompanied with red or
livid blotches on the (kin, or an eruption like that oc-
cafioned by the flinging of nettles. In the latter cafe
Dr Cleghorn fays the difeafe is very dangerous; and
as the former indicates an incipient diffolution and
putrefaftion of the blood, it muft alfo be reckoned of
very dangerous tendency.
2^ X. The Inflammatory Te-V-tAka. Sp. I. var. 3. K.
Tertiana pleuritica, Sauv. fp. 4. Valef. Lautt.
Pleuritis periodica, G. 103. fp. 14.
Tertiana arthritica, Sauv. fp. 5. Morton, Lautt.
Sauvages informs us, that he hath feen a true and
genuine pleurify having all the pathognomic figns of
the difeafe, but afluming the^form of an intermittent;
that is, the patient is one day affedled with the pleuri¬
fy, and the next feemingly in perfeft health. He alfo
tells us, that in the month of May 1760 a tertian
raged epidemically, which after the third fit imitated
a pleurify, the pain of the fide and difficulty of
breathing coming regularly on, and the fever from
an intermittent becoming remittent; the blood had
alfo the fame appearance with that of pleuritic perfons,
and the diftemper yielded to bleeding and gentle
cathartics.—Morton alfo informs us, that he has
obferved fimilar diforders an hundred times over,
which were always certainly and fafely cured by the
Peruvian bark.
246 XI. The Tertian complicated with o\\izr Difordert.
Sp. I. var. 4.
Tertiana fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 9. Ettnullcr. Ti-
mxus.
Tertiana fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 17. Deidier.
Tertiana verminofa, Sauv. fp. 18. Stiffen, in aft.
Helmftad. Lancif. de noxis palud. Pringle.
Ramazzini. Van den Bofch.
The fcorbutic tertian, according to Sauvages, is
exceedingly anomalous, its periods being fometimes
much anticipated, and fometimes much poftponed. It
1Y exceedingly obflinate, and will return even feven
times, if the body is not cleared of its fcorbutic taint.
The patient is affefted with lancinating pains of a
wandering nature. The urine lets fall a du(ky red
fediment, or a thick branny matter is copioufly fcat-
tered up and down in it, feemingly tinged with
blood. The ufual fymptoms of fcurvy, viz. livid
fpots, and rotten fetid gums, alfo frequently occur.
For this the Peruvian bark is very ufeful, both as a
febrifuge and antifcorbutic.
i The tertian accompanied with worms is taken no¬
tice of by Sir John Pringle in his treatife on the dif-
cafes of the army. The worms, he tdls us, were of
,the round kind; and though we are by no means to
jreckon them the caufe of the fever, they never failed
.to make it worfe, occafioning obftinate gripings or
ficknef* at ftcmach. In thefe cafes flitches were fre-
C I N E, 4649
quent; but, being flatulent, were not often relieved by Practice
bleeding. The worms were difcharged by vomiting “
as well as by ftool. For difcharging thefe worms, he
commonly gave half a drachm ©f rhubarb with twelve
grains of calomel; without obferving any inconveni¬
ence from fuch a large dofe of mercury. Anthelmin¬
tics, which aft (lowly, had little chance of doing good ;
for, though worms will fometimes lie long in the
bowels, without giving much uneafinefs to a perfon
otherwife well, yet in a fever, efpecially one of a pu¬
trid kind, (to Which his intermittents always feemed
to incline), the worms being annoyed by the increafe
of heat, and the corruption of the humours in the
prima via, begin to move about, and ftruggle to get
out. Lancifius, who makes this remark, adds, that
upon opening the bodies of fome who had died at
Rome of fevers of this kind, wounds were found in
the inteftines, made by the biting of the worms; nay,
that fome of them had even pierced through the coats
of the guts, and lay in the cavity of the abdomen.
Pringle never had any inftance of this; but knew
many cafes in which the worms efcaped by the pa¬
tient’s mouth, though there had been no previous
retching to bring them up. One foldier was thrown
into violent convulfions, but was cured by the above-
mentioned powder.
XII. The Tertian ariflng from various Caufts. 247
Sp. I. var. 5.
Tertiana accidentalis, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham.
Tertiana a fcabic, Sauv. fp. 12. ffuncker, tab. 80.
Hoffman, II. p. 12.
The exiftence of fevers of this kind, as we have al¬
ready obferved, is denied by Dr Cullen; the acci¬
dental fever of Sauvages was faid to arife from any
flight error in the non-naturals, and confequently was
very eafily cured. That which arofe from the repul-
fion of the itch, was cured as foon as the eruption re¬
turned.
XIII. The Tertian with only an intermiffion be- J48
tween the fits. Sp. II.
Tritseophya, Sauv. Gen. 85. Sag. p. 695.
Tritxus, Lin. 21.
Hemitritaea, Lin. 23.
Tertian* remittentes et continue Auftorum.
Tertian* fubintrantes, proportionals, fubcontinuse,
T'orti.
Tertians fubcontinua, Sauv. fp. 19.
Quotidiana deceptiva, Sauv. fp. 2.
Amphimerina femiquintana, Sauv. fp. 24.
Tritaeophya deceptiva, Sauv. fp. 10.
Caufos Hippocratis.
Tritasophya caufus, Sauv. fp. 2.
Febris ardens Boerhaavii, aph. 738?
Tertiana perniciofa, quae fimulata tertiani circuitus
effigie lethalis, et mille accidentibus periculolifli-
mis implicata, exiftit. Lud. Mercatus.
Tertiana peftilens, P. Sal. Diverfus.
Tertiana maligna peftilens, Riverii.
Morbus Hungaricus, Lang. Lemh. Sennert.
Jordan.
Languor Pannonicus, Cober.
Amphimerina Hungarica, Sattv. fp. 10.
Hemitritsus peftilens, Schenck. ex Corn. Gamma.
Febres peftilentes ^Egyptiorum, H/pm.
Febris tertiana epidemia, Barthtlin.
26 H a
Febres
46 so
PRACT1C1
Torti’j
Ttrtian*
ComitatK.
M E D I
Fcbres epltlcnilcsf, autumn! 1657 et 1658, Willis.
tebris fyneches epidemica, ab anno 1658 ad 1664*
et poftea ab anno 1673 1691, Morton.
Febres autumnales incipientes, Sydenham.
Affedlus epidemius Leidenfis, Fr. Sylvii.
Morbus epidemicus Leidenfis, 1669, Fanois.
Tertiana; perniciofae et peftilentes, et febres caftrenfes
epidemias, Lanciji.
Febres intermittentes anomalie et mail moris, Hoff¬
man.
Febris cholerica minus acuta, Hoffman.
Febris epidemica Leidenfis, anno 1719, Koler apud
Haller, Difp. tom. V.
Amphimerina paludofa, Sanv. fp. 19.
Febris paludum illuft. Pringle.
Bononienfis conftitutio hiemalis 1729 Beccari in
A. N. C. Vol. III.
Aphimerina biliofa, Sauv. fp. 22.
Febris caftrenfis, Pringle.
Febris putrida epidemica, Huxham de aere ad ann.
T729*. .
Febris biliofa LaufanenCs, Fiffot.
Tritseophya Wratiflavienfis, Sauv. fp. 3. Hahn.
Epidemia verna Wratiflav. in App. ad. A. N. C.
Vol. X.
Tritasophya Americana, Sauv. fp. 12.?
Febris anomala Batava, Grainger.
Morbus Naronianus, Pujati.
Febris continua remittens, Hillary's difeafes of Bar-
badoes.
Febris remittens Indiae orientalis, Lind. diff. inaug.
3 768.
Febris critica et febr. biliofa astlatis, Pouppe.
Febris remittens regionum calidarum, Lind on the
difeafes-of hot climates,
A. Tertiana cholerica five dyfenterica, Tort. Therap.
Special, lib. iii. cap. x. Lautter, Hift. Med.
caf. 6. 16. 17. 20. Morton, App. ad Exerc. II.
B. Tertiana fubcruenta five atrabilaris, Tort. ibid.
Never feen by Cleghorn.
C. Tertiana cardiaca, Tort. ibid. Lautter, Hift.
Med. caf. 15. 15. 23.
Amphimerina cardiaca, Sauv. fp. 5.
Tritaeophya affodes, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris continua aflbdes, Vog. 27.
D. Tertiana diaphoretica. Tort. ibid.
Tritaeophya typhodes, Sauv. fp. 4.
Trit*ophya elodes, Sauv. fp. 5.
Febris continua elodes, Vog. 21.
E. Tertiana fyncopalis, Tort. ibid. Lautter, caf. 11.
12. 13. 15. 16.
Tritaeophya fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Amphimerina fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Amphimerina humorofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris continua fyncopalis, Vog. 29.
F. Tertiana algida, Tort. ibid. Lautter, caf. 13.
Amphimerina epiala, Sauv. fp. 3.
Amphimerina phricodes, Sauv. fp. 7.
Tritaeophya leipyria, Sauv. fp. 9.
Tertiana leipyria, Saug. fp. 23. Valcarenghi Med.
Ration, p. 18.
Febris continua epiala et leipyria, Vog. 19. et 24.
G. Tertiana lethargica, Tort. ibid.
Tritaeophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 7. Lautter. 1. 7.
14.
CINE.
rous matter from the noftrils, an exceedingtoughfpit-
n r ^ ' ' '[Ujfelfy
ting, an epilepfy, and death. Profefibr Hahn himfe
who gives the hiftory of this difeafe, was attacked by
it, and fuffered in the following manner. On the firft
day was a violent feverifli paroxyfm without rigor, a
(harp pain in the occiput, and immediately an inflamma¬
tory pain over the whole head ; the feet were extremely
cold, and the extremities rigid with fpafms. The pain
continued to increafe daily to fuch a degree, that the
contad of the air itfelf became at laft intolerable; a
de-
249
250
Part II.
Tertisna apopledica, Morion. Exerc. I. cap. i*. Pkactic*
hift. 25.
Tertiana foporofa, Werlhof. de febr. p. 6.
Febris epidemica Urbevetana, Land/, de noxis pal.
effluv. I. II. c. 3.
The remittent fevers are much more dangerous than
the true intermittents, as being generally attended with
much greater debility of the nervous fyftem and ten¬
dency to putrefcency in the fluids than the latter.
Sauvages divides his tritsophya, a remittent tertian,
into the following fpecies.
1. Tritaophya fyncopalis, or that attended with faint¬
ing. It begins like a tertian, with cold fucceeded by
heat and profufe fweating; but attended with much more
dangerous fymptoms, fuch as cardialgia, enormous vo-
miting, great weaknefs, fmall contra&ed pulfe, coldnefs
of the extremities, and, unlefs timely afliftance be given,
kills during the fecond or third paroxyfm.
2. The caufus, or burning fever of Hippocrates,
returns every third day without any new fenfation
of cold; and is attended with great thirft, heat,
but without diarrhoea or fweat, and continues only
for one week or two at the utmoft. It attacks
chiefly young people of a robuft and bilious habit
of body, who have been accuftomed to much exer-
cife, apd expofed to the fun during the heats of fum-
mer, and have alfo ufed a phiogiftic regimen. The
tongue is dry, fometimes black ; the urine of a red or
flame colour; together with pain of the head, anxiety,
and fometimes other fymptoms ftill more dangerous.
3. Tritaophya Vratijlavienjis, wasapeliilential difeafe
occafioned by famine, during which the people fed on
putrid aliments: the air was infe&ed by the vaft num¬
bers of bodies of thofe flain in battle, and the inhabitants
were alfo deje&ed by rcafon of being deprived of their
harveft, and other calamities; to all which was added
^the continuance of a calm in the atmofphere for a long
time. It began with an acute fever, leipyria or cold¬
nefs of the external parts and fenfation of burning heat
inwardly; general weaknefs; pain of the head and prr-
cordia ; ferous or bilious diarrhaa ; a delirium,
in fome furious, and accompanied with a dread of be¬
ing expofed to the air; on the fecond day the thirft;
was violent, attended with a bilious vomiting as well
as diarrhoea, tough vifeid fpitting, fainting, burning
heat in the bowels, the tongue dry and feeming as if
burnt with a hot iron, a fuppreffion of the voice, an¬
xiety, ftupor, after which quickly followed convulfions
and death. In fome fevers a leipyria came on with an
exceeding great cold of the extremities, prefently fol¬
lowed by an intolerable heat of the vifeera, with fymp-
tomatic fweats, violent diarrhoea, followed by a very
itchy miliary eruption. On the fourth day came on
copious fweats, fpafms of the lower jaw, naufea, invo¬
luntary palling of urine, flight delirium, a flux of icho-
251
Tart II. M E D I
ractice deje&ion of mind and incredible weaknefs followed;
"" he paffed reftlefs nights with continual fweating, heavy
and pained eyes, and an univerfal fenfation of rheuma-
tifm over the whole body. On the third day the pains
were affwaged, bat he had a very bad night. On the
fourth day all the fymptoms were worfe, the feet quite
chilled, the hands very red and agitated with convul-
five motions ; he was terrified with apprehenfions of
death, and had a vomiting every now and then : this
day fponges dipped in cold water were applied over the
whole body, and he ufed cold water for Ins drink. On
the eighth day the pulfe was convulfivc; and the pains
were fo violent, that they made him cry out-aim oft con¬
tinually. On the ninth day he was delirious, and threw
up fome grumous blood. On the nth his pulfe was
more quiet, and he had a fweat; a decoftion of the
bark was given: his voice was broken, his fpeech in¬
terrupted, and his teeth chattered upon one another.
On the 12th his jaw was convulfed, he had a rifus far-
donicus, and deafnefs; after which, the paroxyfms re¬
turned lefs frequently, and only towards night. On
the 14th he had a chilling cold over the whole body,
a cold fweat; frequent lotions were applied, and all the
fymptoms became milder. On the 18th he had a quick
delirium, but fainted as foon as taken out of bed; a
fenfation of hunger, followed by copious fweats; pro¬
found fleep ; an averfion from noife ; every thing ap¬
peared new and extraordinary. On the 36th a cholera;
on the 48th a fcaling off of the fkin, and falling off of
the nails.
4. Tritaophya typhodes. The principal fymptom
3 of this fever was a continual fweat with which the pa¬
tients were almoft always wet; with paroxyfms re¬
turning every third day. Sauvages tells us, that he
had twice an opportunity of obferving this fever; one
was in the teacher of an academy, about 40 years of
age, and of a melancholic temperament. He fweated
every other night fo plentifully, that he was obliged to
change his linen nine times; and even on the interme¬
diate days was never perfeftly free of fever, and had
his fkin moiftened with fweat. The other was of a wo¬
man who went about in man’s clothes, and was difco-
vered only after her death. The difeafe began with a
flight fenfation of cold, after which fhe fweated for
eight hours. It was attended with the higheft debili¬
ty, anxiety, and at the fame time an infatiable hunger.
25. Tritxophya elodes, was an inflammatory epide-
mic, but not contagious, terminating about the 14th
or 21ft day. The difeafe came on in the night-time,
with difturbed reft, univerfal weaknefs, watchings,
great heat and fweat, rednefs of the face and almoft
of the whole body, fparkling eyes, the tongue dry
and white; a hard, tenfe, and turgid pulfe: about the
third day a kind of frenzy frequently came on with the
feverifh paroxyfm, the forerunner of an univerfal mi¬
liary eruption ; or, what was worfe, with purple fpots
fo clofe together, that they looked like an eryfipelas
of the whole body. Sometimes blifters of the fize
of fmall pearls, filled with acrid ferum, appeared
on the neck, armpits, and trunk of the body, which
were of all others the moft dangerous. There was a
variety of the difeafe, which our author calls thehumo-
rails, and in which the pulfe was foft and feeble, with
greater weaknefs over the whole body, and the difpofi-
tion to fleep more frequent than in the other; the eyes
languid ; the tongue very white, but not dry; and
CINE. 4651
worms were difcharged. Practice
6. Tritaophya aj'cdts. This fpecies, our author ^54
informs us, arofe from a foulnefs of the prin se vise,
and the effluvia of waters in which hemp had been
fteeped. It began with rigor, followed by great
heats, reftleflhefs, toffing of the limbs, terrible faint-
ings, immoderate thirft, drynefs of tongue, delirium,
and at length exceffive watchings ; thefe laft, how¬
ever, were lefs dangerous than vertigoes or comatofe
difpofitions, which brought on convulfions or apo¬
plexies.
7. Trit&ophya carctica. This had exacerbations 255
every other evening ; and its diftinguifhing fymptom
was an exceffive inclination to fleep, preceded by a fe-
vere headach, and followed by.delirium, and fometimes
convulfions; the tongue was black, and the patient
infenfible of thirft after the delirium came on. In
thofe cafes where the difeafe proved fatal, a fubful-
tus tendinum and other grievous fymptoms came on.
9. Tritaophya leipyria is only a variety of the tri- 256 }
taeophya caufus, already defcribed,
10. Tritaophya deceptiva. This fpecies at firft 257
affumes the appearance of a continued fever; but af¬
terwards degenerates into a remittent, or even an in¬
termittent. It is defcribed by Sydenham, but attend¬
ed with no remarkable fymptoms.
xi. The laft of Sauvages’s fpecies of Tritteophya 258
belonging to the remitting tertian is the Avieri-
cana; and even this feems doubtful to Dr Cullen.
This, according to Sauvages, is the ardent fever with
which the Europeans are ufually feized on their firfl
coming to America, and generally carries off one half
of them. Of this there are two varieties, the very
acute and the acute. The very acute ends before the
feventh day. It comes on a few days after the per-
fon’s arrival, with lofs of appetite, with dyfpncea and
fighing from weaknefs, head-ach, laffitude, pain of the
loins : a pyrexia fucceeds, with great thirft, fweat, and
heat; the ficknefs increafcs, naufea comes on, with vo¬
miting of porraceous bile ; the tongue rough, the ex¬
tremities often cold ; watching, furious delirium ; and
the patient frequently dies on the third day. Copious
fweats, and a plentiful haemorrhage from the nofe on
the fifth day, but not fooner, are ferviceable ; but a bi¬
lious diarrhoea is the beft crifis of all.
The acute kind terminates moft frequently on the
ninth, but very rarely goes beyond the fifteenth.
Death frequently comes on between the fourth and fe¬
venth days. It begins with head-ach, pain in the
loins, and fometimes Ihivering; great laffitude, dyf-
pnoea, thirft ; burning fever, increafing every third day;
inflation of the abdomen, pain at the pit of the fto-
mach, naufea, and bilious vomiting. Such is the ftatc
of the difeafe within twenty-four hours. The eyes are
red, and full of tears; the urine pellucid ; there is a
low delirium, and continual anxiety ; the tongue is dry
and red, and fometimes, though rarely, black, which
is a ftill worfe fign ; the pulfe, formerly ftrong and
full, finks about the fourth day, and becomes tenfe
and fpafmodic: if a carus then comes on, the patient
dies the fifth or fixth day; but if the pulfe keeps up,
and no carus comes on, a crifis is to be expected by
fweat, a copious haemorrhage from the nofe, or, which
is ftill more fafe, by a bilious diarrhoea, which is never
falutary if it comes on before the fifth day.
To the remitting tertian alfo belong the following
fpecies.
4652
Practice fpecies mentioned by Sauvages, viz.
2$g \. Tertiana fubcontinua. This begins like a genuine
tertian, and at firft hath diftindt paroxyfms ; but theie
grow gradually more and more obfeure, the difeafe ac¬
quiring daily more of the appearance of continued fever,
by which it is to be diftinguifhed from the other varie¬
ties of this fpecies. It is not unfrequently joined with
thofe fymptoms which attend the pernicious fever al¬
ready mentioned ; as cardialgia, cholera, fyncope, &c.
but in a much lefs degree. The difeafe commonly be¬
gins with little or no fenfe of cold, but rather a fenfa-
tion of heat : when the tertian is doubled, it has firft
a flighter and then a more fevere fit; and thus goes
on with an exacerbation on the even days: and though
it thould change from a double into a fingle tertian,
we are (till to fufpedt it, if a weak fit is the forerunner
of a very ftrong one. This change of the tertian into
a continued fever is alfo-to be prognofticated if a heat
remarkable to the touch is perceived on the day of in-
termiflion, together with fome difturbance of the puife,
third, and drinefs of the tongue ; all of which Ihew
an univerfal tendency to inflammation : the fame is
foretold by the urine being in fmall quantity, and very
red, or of a faffron colour; alfo an ulcerous or aph¬
thous inflammation of the throat, with difficulty of
fwallowing, or any very fevere fymptom coming on in
the beginning of the difeafe, excepting only a deli¬
rium, which is eafily removed.
.260 2- Quetidiana deceptiva. This is a diforder of an
inflammatory kind, with a ftrong tendency to.putref-
cency, and fometimes aflumes the form of a quotidian.
In it the patient frequently complains of cold when he
really is hot and the remiffion is very indiftinft, and
the difeafe is known by the great languor of the pa¬
tient and the foulnefs of his tongue.
261 3' Amphirncrina cardiaca is an acute malignant fe¬
ver, with daily exacerbations, attended with fainting
and vomiting of green bile. Afterwards, the weak-
nefs increafing, the patient’s extremities grow cold,
and a profufe cold fweat comes on, which is frequently
focceeded by death on the fourth day. Another fpe¬
cies refembling this he calls the fyncopalis; but the
cardiaca differs from it in being attended with cardi-
algia-
262 4. Arnphimerina paludofa. This is the fever deferi-
bed by the Britifli phyficians under many different
names, and appearing under various forms, according
to the different conftitutions of the patients. Its ap¬
pearance in the Eaft Indies, according to Dr Lind of
Edinburgh, generally comes on fuddenly, and begins
with a fenfe of debility and a very great lownefs of fpi-
rits. Thefe fymptoms are attended with a greater or
lefs degree of chillinefs, a dizzinefs, a naufea, very
acute pains in the head and loins, and a trembling of
the hands; the countenance is pale, the fkin commonly
very dry and corrugated, the eyes dull and heavy, the
puife quick and fmall, the breath generally difficult,
and interrupted with hickups.
As the paroxyfm increafes the chillinefs now and
then gives way to irregular heats, which foon become
violent and permanent; the naufea likewife increafes;
and in fome there comes on a vomiting, in which they
throw up a great deal of bile. Sometimes bile is
likewife voided by ftool. The Ikin grows red ; the
eyes fmall, and fometimes not a little inflamed. The
Part III
puife becomes fuller and the breath more difficult, Practi|
attended with great Veftleffnefs and a troublefome 1
thirft ; notwithftanding which (fo great is the naufea)
the patient cannot endure any kind of liquids. The
tongue becomes foul, and the pain of the head and
loins more violent; a delirium then follows; a flight
moifture appears on the face, and from thence fpreadi f
to the other parts; whilft the violence of the other
fymptoms abates, and Ihews the beginning of a re¬
miffion, which is completed by plentiful fweats.
On the fever’s remitting, the puife returns almoft to
its natural ftate ; the pains of the head and loins (till
continue, though fomewhat lefs violent, as likewife I
the naufea and want of appetite. When the difeafe
gains ftrength, the remiffion is fcarcely obvious, and |
is immediately followed by another paroxyfm ; which
begins, not indeed with fo great a ftiivering, but it at¬
tended with a greater pain of the head, the greateft
anxiety, a heartburn, naufea, vomiting, and bilious
ftools. The matter moft commonly evacuated by vo- I
mit and ftool was whitifh like chalk and water, or
curdled milk which is vomited by fucking children,
when the curd is much broke down. A heat, immo¬
derate thirft, and delirium, now come on. The tongue
becomes more foul; the teeth and infide of the lips are
cohered with a black cruft; the breath grows hot and
fetid : another remiffion enfues, attended with a fweat; \
but this remiffion is both fhorter and lefs obvious than
the firft.
This fecond remiffion is fucceeded by a paroxyfm,
in which the fymptoms are far more violent than in
the former; that which the patient difeharges by vo¬
miting and purging is more fetid; the mouth, teeth,
and infide of the lips, are not only covered with a
black cruft, but the tongue becomes fo dry and ftiff,
that the patient’s voice can fcarce be heard. Vio¬
lent delirium, with reftleffnefs and anxiety, come on
chiefly during the paroxyfm ; nor do thefe fymp¬
toms abate till the fever remits, and the patient
fweats.
When the fever becomes fo violent, during the
third fit, as to end in death, which is generally the
cafe, fome of the fick have a coma; in others the de- 1
lirium becomes more violent. The difeharges now
become more fetid, and have a cadaverous fmell; the
ftools are involuntary; the puife is fo quick, fmall, and
irregular, that it is fcarce to be counted, or even felt;
a cold fweat is diffufed over the whole body, efpecially
the head and neck; the face becomes Hippocratic 1
and convulfed ; the patient picks the bed-clothes; a I
fubfultus tendinum comes on; the fick lie conftantly
on their backs, and infenfibly Hide down to the foot
of the bed; their extremities grow cold; they are
then feized with convulfions, with which the feene
clofes.
In this fever, the urine, which at the beginning is
pale, becomes of a deeper colour by degrees, but
without depofiting any fediment. There feldom or
never appear any petechiae, and the prickly heat
which was before on the fkin vaniftres on the firft ap¬
pearance of the fever. But though thefe were the
eneral fymptoms of this diforder, they varied in
ifferent fubjefts, and at different feafons of the fame
year. The puife, for example, in fome, was quick in
the beginning of the diforder; in others, it varied
with
MEDICINE.
IT.
with the other fymptoms. The /kin was generally
dry in the beginning of the fit; but in fome it was
moift, and covered with fweat from the very fir/l
beginning of the difeafe. In the month of September;
when the diforder raged moft, the remifiions were
very imperfeft and obfcure ; but, on the return of
winter and the healthy feafon, they became more re¬
gular, and the difeafe affumed the appearance of an
intermitting fever, to fuch a degree as at length not
to be diftfngui/hed from it. In fome the remiffions
could fcarce be perceived, and the fever continued for
two weeks without any material change for the better
or the worfe. At this time numbers were feized with
it. When the diforder continued for any time with¬
out a change, it generally ended in death : while the
weather grew better, it fometimes, in the fpace of a
few days, from a common fever became an intermit¬
ting one, and the patient recovered, unlefs his liver,
which was fomtimes the cafe, happened to be affe&ed.
The cure of an imflammation of the liver proved un¬
certain, and tedious; as it was generally followed
by a colliquative diarrhoea, which greatly endanger¬
ed the patient’s life.—Every fucceeding paroxyfm
was obferved to be more dangerous than the preced¬
ing ; the third generally proved fatal; fome died du¬
ring the firft. When this happened, the fever, in the
language of the country, was called a puca, that is, a
firong fever.
This difeafe, according to Dr Lind of Hafiar
hofpital, is the autumnal fever of all hot countries,
the epidemic difeafe between the tropics, and the
difeafe moft fatal to Europeans in all hot and un¬
healthy climates. All authors agree that intermit-
tents in general, but particularly this dangerous kind
of them, are produced by heat and moifture. Dr
Cullen, however, is of opinion, that in Scotland the
heat is never fufficiently powerful for this purpofe,
but that intermittents are firft imported from fome
other country, after which they fpread. Dr Lind of
Edinburgh remarks that the European feamcn are
very fubjeft to the fever above-mentioned when they
happen to arrive at Bengal in autumn. They are
predifpofed to it from the nature of their food, their
confinement on board, the very great heats to which
they are expofed during the voyage, and their lying
for hours together expofed to the night colds.
Moft of the meat ufed by the crews of thefe fliips
is faked, and often in a putrid ftate, without any frelh
vegetables, they having only bifeuits, and fome other fa¬
rinaceous matters. The quantity of the vinous or fpiri-
tuous liquors allowed them is by far too fmall to fub-
due the putrefeent difpofition of their animal-food.
Their fluids confequently become, from day to day,
more and more putrefeent, and of courfe the more apt
to breed and contract this diforder. This difpofition
is likewife induced by their being flowed very clofe to¬
gether, and that for a confiderable length of time, and
in a foul air, efpecially when the weather happens to be
too ftormy to permit the hatches and port-holes to be
kept open.
Though the heats they endure in the voyage to In¬
dia are lefs confiderable than thofe of the country itfelf,
yet they are too much for an European conftitution to
bear. The general heat at fea within the tropics is
about 84° of Fahreinheit’s thermometer,, which is fuf-
ficient to relax them, and promote a corruption of their P
humours, efpecially when it coincides with the above
caufes. It likewife creates a languor and indolence,
which alone are fu/ficient to increafe that putrefcence.
Thefe caufes are apt to be confiderably aggravated by
the mens being often expofed, when on duty, for hours
together, to rain, damp, and cold air ; a circumftance
which frequentlyhappens them when working their (hips
up the river Ganges in the night-time. Hence the per-
fpiration is checked, and the excrementitious fluid
which ufed to be difeharged by the flein being retained
in the body, contributes vaftly towards tire predifpofi-
tion to this difeafe.
But the moft powerful of all the remote caufes is
juftly thought to be the effluvia of mar/hes replete with
putrid animal-fubftances. We have not, however,
been able to determine from what kind of putrid ani¬
mal-fubftances thefe effluvia derive their virus. For
that every kind of putrefa£lion Itas not fuch an effeft
appears from this, that neither practical anatomifts, nor
thofe who by their trades are expofed to the putrid ef¬
fluvia of animals, for inftance fuch tanners and butch¬
ers as keep their /hops and ftalls very dirty, are more'
fubjeft than others to putrid difeafes. Nor are the
/hip-ftewards and their fervants, whofe bufinefs it i»-
to deliver out their provifions to the /hips crews, and
who fpend the moft of their time amongft the putrid
and rancid effluvia of the places in which thofe pro¬
vifions are kept, more fubjeft to putrid fevers than
their /hip-mates. But whatever be in this, we are well
a/Tured that fome particular putrid fermentations pro¬
duce noxious vapours, which, united with thofe of
mar/hes, render them more pernicious. Hence evi¬
dently proceeds the extreme unhealthfulnefs of a place
called Culpi, on the eaftern bank of the Ganges. The
/hores hereabouts are full of mud, and the banks co¬
vered with trees. Oppofite to the place where the /hips
He there is a creek, and about a mile from its entrance
/lands the town of Culpi: the /hips lie about a mile
from the fhore. None of the failors on board the /hips
ftationed at this place enjoyed their health. The bury-
ing-ground alfo contributed not a little to fpread the
infpedlion. The ground being marftiy, the putrid wa¬
ter flowed from the old graves into the new ones, which
infedled the grave-diggers and thefe that attended the
fnnerals ; and from this caufe many were fuddenly fei¬
zed while they were performing the laft duty to their
companions. This place has ever been remarkable for
the unhealthfulnefs of its air. It was once cuftomary
to fend fome of the Company’s fervants here to receive
the cargoes of the /hips, and fend them to Cal¬
cutta ; but fo many of them died on this duty, that
the Company was at length obliged to difpenfe with it.
Hence it plainly appears, how apt putrid animal
and vegetable fubftances are to render the effluvia of
fenny places more pernicious than they would other-
wife be. The reafon why great inundations of the
Nile and Ganges are followed by a healthy feafon is,
that by this means the putrid animal and vegetable
fubftances difperfed over the contiguous countries arc
carried off into the fea.—The noxious vapours arifing
from fens fpread but a little way. Dr Lind has often
known /hips crews at a very little diftance from the
/here quite free from this diforder. But altho’thefe
marfii miafmata firft bring on the difeafe, yet conta-
MEDICINE.
4654
Practice
M E D I
gion particularly fpread* it, and renders it more epide¬
mic. Thus the Drake Eaft Indiamah continued free
from the diforder for two weeks together, when fhe
had no communication with the other {hips; whereas,
as foon as the diforder was brought on board, many
were feized with it within a few days in fuch a manner
as to leave no room to entertain the leaft doubt con¬
cerning its peftilential nature.
Dr Lind of Haflar hofpital has given a very curious
and learned account of the appearance of this fever
throughout the various parts of the globe. It was very
common in England in the years 1765 and 1766, one
obvious caufe of which was the prevalence of the ea-
ftern wind. This wind in England is often faid to
bring with it a fog from the fea; but the truth of the
matter is, that in many places of this ifland the eaft-
wind frequently raifes a copious vapour from water,
mud, and all marfhy or damp places. To this exha¬
ling quality of the eaftern wind Dr Lind hath often
been an eye-witnefs. When the wind changes to the
eaft, the mud fometimes fends up a vapour as thick as
fmoke; and thedoftor hath obferved two fifh-ponds in
his neighbourhood, one of frefti and the other of fait
water, which on the approach of an eafterly wind
fometimes alfo emit a denfe vapour as from a pot of
boiling water. In order to view this phenomenon di-
ilin&ly, the perfon (hould ftand at about 100 yards
diftance from the mud or ponds. If the fun fhines
when the wind changes to the eaft, he will obferve a
conftant (team of vapours arifing out of the ponds,
from about five to ten yards in height, while the air
about him remains ferene. As the vapour or fog ari¬
fing from other bodies glides along the furface of the
earth, and is brought by the eafterly wind to the
ponds, he will ftill be able, for fome time, to diftin-
guifh the vapoursafeending perpendicularly out of the
ponds from thofe which are carried in an horizontal di¬
rection by the wind ; efpecially if the fun continues to
fliine, though faintly.
This evaporating quality of the eaft-wind feems to
manifeft itfelf alfo by its effeCts both on the thermo¬
meter and the human body; for a thermometer hung
over a damp piece of ground during the fogs or ex¬
halations arifing ftom it, will often indicate a degree
of cold below the freezing point. The chillnefs of
the body, fo fenfibly perceived when in this fituation,
feems to proceed from the fame caufe, and to produce
nearly the fame fenfations, which the damp arifing
from the wet floor in a chamber communicates to
thofe who happen to be in it.
Winds are not conftant in their effeCls, as we
have fometimes warm weather with a north-wind, and
fometimes very little heat with one blowing from
the fouth; fo the fogs attending an eaft-wind are not
conftant, neither is the evaporation abovementioned at
all times to be perceived. It is poffible, however,
that in all this there may be a deception ; and that,
inftead of fuppofing the quantity of vapours exhaled
to be increafed by an eafterly wind, the coldnefs of
that wind may be only fuppofed to condenfe and
render vifible the vapours in the air at that time. But
even this fuppofition is liable to great objedions, as
our coldeft north-winds fejdom or never produce fuch
an effect, but on the contrary are attended with dry
and ferene weather.
CINE. Part II.
Be this as it will, however, an eaft-wind is ufually Practk
accompanied with a cold, damp, and unwholefome “1
vapour, which is obferved to affeCt the health both of
animals and vegetables, and in many places to produce
obftinate intermitting fevers, as alfo to occafion fre¬
quent relapfes. In particular foots of the low damp
ifland of Portfea, the ague frequently prevails during the
autumnal feafon, and in fome years is much more fre¬
quent and violent than in others. It is alfo cbfervable,
that this difeafe always attacks ftrangers, or thofe who
have formerly lived on a drier foil, and in a more ele¬
vated fituation, with greater feverity than thofe who
are natives of the ifland.
The year 1765 was remarkable, not only for the
long continuance of the eafterly winds, but for an ex-
cefiive degree of heat, which produced a more violent
and general rage of thofe difeafes than had been known
for many years before. In the month of Auguft, the
quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermometer often rofe to
82° in the middle of the day. This confiderable ad¬
dition of heat, together with the want of refrefhing
rains, greatly fpread the fever, increafed its violence,
and even changed its form in many places. At Portf-
mouth, and throughout almoft the whole ifland of Port¬
fea, an alarming continual or remitting fever raged,
which extended itfelf as far asChichefter. At the fame
time, the town of Gofport, though diftant only one
mile from Portfmouth, enjoyed an almoft total exemp- :
tion from ficknefs of every kind; whereas in the neigh¬
bouring villages and farm-houfes, a mild regular ter¬
tian ague diftreffed whole families. The violence of
the fever, with its appearances in a continued remitting
or intermitting form, marked in fome meafure the na¬
ture of the foil. In Portfmouth the fymptoms were
bad, worfe at Kingfton, and ftill more dangerous and
violent at a place called Half-way Houfes\ a ftreet fo call- ;
ed, about half a mile from Portfmouth, where fcarcely
one in a family efcaped this fever, which generally
made its firft attack with a delirium. In the large fub-
urb of Portfmouth called the Common, it feemed to
rage with more violence than in the town, fome parts
excepted; but even whole ftreets of this fuburb, toge¬
ther with the houfes in the dock-yard, efcaped its at¬
tack.
The marines, who were three times a-week exerci-
fed early in the morning on South Sea beach, fuffered
much from the effe£l of the ftagnant water in an ad¬
joining morafs. Half a dozen of them were frequent¬
ly taken ill in their ranks when under arms; fome be¬
ing feized with fuch a giddinefs of their head, that they
could fcarcely ftand; while others fell down fpeechlefs,
and upon recovering their fenfes complsinedJof a vio- <
lent head-ach. When fuch patients were received in¬
to the hofpital, it was obferved that fome few had a
regular ague, but that far the greater number labour¬
ed under a remitting fever, in which fometimes indeed
there was no perceptible remiflion for feveral days. A
conftant pain and giddinefs of the head were the molt
infeparable and diftreffing fymptoms of this difeafe. ;
Some were delirious, and a few vomited up a quantity
of bile ; but in all the countenance was yellow. A
long continuance of the fever produced a dropfy or
jaundice, or both. Even a flight attack reduced the <
moft robuft conftitution to a ftate of extreme debility;
and this weaknefs, together with the giddinefs, conti¬
nued j
S Part II. MEDI
rnued for a long time after the fever. A fcabby eruption
now and then made its appearance on the lips and the
corners of the mouth: but dry itthyfpots over the whole
body, refembling much the common itch, andfeeming
to partake of the nature of that difeafe, were more fre¬
quently obferved in the patients at Portfmouth, where
there was not the lead reafon to fufpeft any infeftton.
Such is the appearance of the remitting fever occa-
fioned by marlh miafmata in England. In the Nether¬
lands its fymptoms are not much different. Dr Wind
i informs us, that at Middleburg, the capital of Weft
Zealand, a ficknefs generally reigns towards the latter
end of Auguft, or the beginning September, which is
(always moil violent after hot fummers. It commences
after the rains which fall in the end of July; the fooner
it begins the longer it continues, and it is only check¬
ed by the coldnefs of the weather. Towards the end
of Auguft and the beginning of September it is a con¬
tinual burning fever, attended with a vomiting of bile,
which is called the gaUftcknefs. This fever, after con¬
tinuing three or four days, intermits, and affumes the
form of a double tertian; leaving the patient in a fort¬
night, or perhaps fooner. Strangers that have been
accuftomed to breathe a dry pure air do not recover fo
quickly. Foreigners in indigent circumftances, fuch
as the Scots and German foldiers, who are garrifoned
* in the adjacent places, are apt after thofe fevers to have
a fwelling in their legs and a dropfy; of which many
die.
Thefe difeafes, the Do£lor obferves, are the fame with
the double tertians common within the tropics. Such
as are feized with the gall-ficknefs have at firft fome
fluihes of heat over the body, a lofs of appetite, a
white foul tongue, a yellow tinge in the eyes, and a
pale colour in the lips. Such as live well, drink wine,
and have warm clothes and good lodgings, do not fuf-
fer fo much during the fickly feafon as the poor peo¬
ple; however, thefe difeafes are not infedlious, and fel-
dom prove mortal to the natives.
Sir John Pringle obferves, that the prevailing epi¬
demic of autumn in all marfhy countries, is a fever of
an intermitting nature, commonly of a tertian form,
but of a bad kind; which, in the dampeft places and
worft feafons, appears as a double tertian, a remitting,
or even an ardent fever. But, however thefe fevers may
vary in their appearance according to the conftitution
of the patient and other circumftances, they are all of
a fimilar nature. For though, in the beginning of the
epidemic, when the heat or rather the putrefaflion in
the air is the greateft, they affume a continued or a
remitting form, yet by the end of autumn they ufually
terminate in regular intermittents.
In Zealand, where the air is more corrupted than in
other parts of the Netherlands, this diftemper, as we
have already obferved, is called the gall ficknefs; and
indeed both the redundance and depravation of the
gall is fometimes fo great, that it has been generally
afcribed to the corruption and overflowing of that hu¬
mour. But though it cannot with juftice be faid to
originate from corrupted gall or bile, it is certain that
the difeafe may be continued, and the fymptotos ag¬
gravated, by an increafed fecretion and putrefadion of
the bile occafioned by the fever. In proportion to the
coolnefs of the feafon, to the height and drynefs of the
ground, this dilleiaper is milder, remits or intermits
Vot. VI. i
CINE. 4655
more freely, and removes further from the nature of a Practice
continued fever. The higher ranks of people in ge-
neral are leaft liable to the difeafes of the marfhes; for
fuch countries require dry houfes, apartments railed
above the ground, moderate exerrife, without labour
in the fun or evening damps, a juft quantity of fer¬
mented liquors, plenty of vegetables, and frefh meats.
"Without fuch helps, not only ftrangers, but the natives
themfelves are fickly, efpecially after hot and clofe fum¬
mers. The hardieft conftitutions are very little ex¬
cepted more than others; and hence the Britifh in the
Netherlands have always been fubjeft to fevers.
By this diftemper the Britifti troops were haraffed
throughout the whole of the war from 1743 to 1747.
It appeared in the month of Auguft 1743; the pa-
roxyfms came on in the evening, with great heat, third,
a violent headach, and often a delirium. Thefe fymp¬
toms lafted moft of the night, but abated in the morn¬
ing, with an imperfedl fweat, fometimes with an hae¬
morrhage of the nofe or a loofenefs. The ftomach
from the beginning was difordered with a naufea and
fenfe of oppreffion, frequently with a bilious and of-
fenfive vomiting. If evacuations were either neglec¬
ted, or too fparingly ufed, the patient fell into a conti¬
nued fever, and fometimes grew yellow as in a jaundice.
When the feafon was farther advanced, this fever was
attended with a cough, rheumatic pains, and fizy blood.
The officers being better accommodated than the com¬
mon men, and the cavalry who had cloaks to keep them
warm, were not fo fubjedk to it: and others who be¬
longed to the army, but lay in quarters, were leaft of
all affefted ; and the lefs in proportion to their being
little expofed to heats, night-damps, and the other fa¬
tigues of the fervice.
In this manner did the remitting fever infeft the
army for the remaining years of the war; and that ex-
aAly in proportion to their diftance from the marfliy
places, of which we have feveral notable inftances in
Pringle’s obfervations. In Hungary the fame difeafe
appears with ftill more violence, and is readily compli¬
cated with fevers of a truly peftilential nature, by
which means it becomes extremely dangerous. This
country is acknowledged to be the moft fickly climate in
Europe, and indeed as bad as any in the world. Here
it was where the crufadera, in only marching through
the country to invade Afia, often loft half their num¬
ber by ficknefs ; and where the Auftrians not long
fince buried, in a few years, above 40,000 of their heft
troops, who fell a facrifice to the malignant difpofition
of the Hungarian air. The reafon of this uncommon
malignity is, that Hungary abounds with rivers, which,
by often overflowing, leave that low flat country over-
fpread with lakes and ponds of ftagnating water, and
with large unwholefome marfties. So great is the im¬
purity of thefe ftagnant waters, that by them the ri¬
vers, even the Danube, whofe courfe is flow, become
in fome places corrupted and offenfive. The air is
moift, and in fummer quite fultry. In the nights of
harveft, Kramer tells us, it was fo very damp, that the
Auftrian foldiers could not fecure themfelves from the
moifture even by a triple tent-covering. Here epide¬
mical diftempers begin conftantly to rage during the
hotteft months of the year; which are July, Auguft,
and September: and thefe complaints, according to
the obfervations of the phyfician above-mentioned, are
26 I the
4656
Practice tire fame with thofe which are epidemic upon the coaftof
‘ Guinea, and in the fickly climates of the Eaft and Weft
Indies, of which malignant fevers of the remitting and
intermitting kind are the moft common and dangerous.
The heat of the fun in Hungary, according to the
fame author, is more intenfe than in any other country
of Europe; and in proportion to the heat is the pefti-
lential quality of the marlhy exhalations. It is con-
ftantly obferved, that the nearer any city or fort is to
a morafs, or a large river with foul and oozy banks,
the more unhealthy are the inhabitants. At fueh
feafons and places, the air fwarms with numberlefs
infefts and animalcules, a fure fign of its malignant
difpolition; and the hotter the fummer, the more fre¬
quent and mortal are the difeafes. In ftiort, this
country, on account of its unhealthinefs, has been
termed the grave of the Germans; and,in Italy, the
Campania of Rome is almoft equally unhealthy. Lan-
cifuis, phyfician to Pope Clement XI. furnilhes us with
a very ftriking inftance of the malignant quality of the
air of Campania. Thirty gentlemen and ladies of the
firft rank in Rome having made an excurfion, upon a
party of pleafure, towards the mouth of the Tyber,
the wind fuddenly Ihifting, blew from the fouth over
the putrid marfhes, when 29 were immediately feized
with a tertian fever, only one efcaping.
The ifland of Sardinia is annually vifited with an
epidemical ficknefs, which rages from June to Sep¬
tember, and is called by the natives the mte?nperies.
In feme years there is a want of rain for four or five
months; and then it is that this ficknefs exerts its
utmoft violence, being always more fatal in fome
places than in others, and in particular to ftrangers.
Of this the Britilh had a fevere proof in 1758. —Ad¬
miral Broderick, in the Prince fhip of war, anchored
in the bay of Oriftane, where 27 of his men, fent a-
ftiore on duty, were feized with the epidemical diftem-
per of this ifland; twelve of them in particular, who
had flept on fhore, were brought on board delirious.
All of them in general laboured under a low fever,
attended with great oppreifion on the bread and at
the pit of the ftomach, a conftant retching, and fome-
times a vomiting of bile; upon which a delirium often
enfued. Thefe fevers changed into double tertians,
and terminated in obftinate quartan agues. It is
worthy of remark, that in this (hip, which lay only
two miles from the land, none were taken ill but fuch
as had been on (hore, of whom feven died. The prior
of a convent, making a vifit to the Englifh officers,
informed them, that the intemperies of the ifland was
a remitting or intermitting fever, and that he himfelf
had fuffered feveral attacks of it. Sardinia was for¬
merly fo remarkable for its unwholefome air, that the
Romans ufed to banilh their criminals thither; and it
is at prefent but thinly peopled, owing to the mor¬
tality occafioned by this annual ficknefs. For although
it is about 140 miles long, and in feveral places 75
miles broad, yet it is computed that the whole number
of its inhabitants does not exceed 250,000: an incon-
fiderable number, when compared with the inhabitants
of the leffer, but comparatively more healthful, ifland
of Corfica; though even there the French loft a num¬
ber of their troops by intermitting and remitting fe¬
vers. In the ifland of Minorca too, Dr Cleghorn in¬
forms us, that fevers of this kind prevail exceedingly;
Part IT.;
that their types are various, their fymptoms violent, P*actici
the intermiffions fallacious, and that they frequently 1
and fuddenly prove fatal. It is more than probable,,
he adds, from the accounts of feveral phyficians and
travellers, that epidemical tertians are not wholly con-
fined to the coafts and iflands of the Mediterranean,
but that they are equally frequent and deftruciive in'
many other parts of the globe ; and perhaps may be
deemed the anniverfary autumnal diftempers of moft
hot countries in the world. And though in the mild
climate of Britain, a tertian may always eafily be
cured when once it is difcovered; yet, in warm cli¬
mates, fuch is the rapid progrefs of the diflemper,
that it is neceffary to know it in the very beginning,
which is very difficult for thofe who have never feen
any but the tertians ufually met with in Britain.
From this gentleman’s account of Minorca, how¬
ever, it doth not appear why that ifland fhould be fo
much infefted with fevers of this kind, feeing it is far
from being a marfliy country; nay, on the contrary,
is very dry. The fouth-wind, he obferves, is very
unhealthy ; and it is the prevalence of this wind which
brings on the fever: but ftill the difficulty is not re¬
moved, becaufe the fea-air is fo far from bringing on
fuch dangerous difeafes, that it is one of the greateft
prefervatives againft them when it can be had. As
to the moifture which muft neceffarily accompany an
infular fituation, that cannot reafonably be admitted
as a caufe of this or any other difeafe. In the Me¬
dical Obfervations we find a paper on a fubjeft very
fimilar to the prefent, namely, the mifchiefs produced
by lying in damp Iheets, or being expofed to moift
vapour. Our author tells us, that he hardly knows a
diltemper the origin of which hath not by fome been
afcribed to lying in a damp bed, or fitting in a wet
room; and yet he does not know any one which will
certainly be produced by thefe caufes, and people
frequently expofe themfelves to fuch caufes without
fuffering any ill effefts. “ It muft be owned indeed,
(fays he), that the vapours arifing from the bilge-water
of Ihips tend to produce the fcurvy. The fwampy
plains alfo near the mouths of great rivers which are
often overflowed, and low grounds which cannot rea¬
dily be drained, and thofe tra&s of land where the
thicknefs and extent of the woods keep the ground
moift and half putrid for want of ventilation, are de-
ftruftive to the neighbouring inhabitants, by occa-
fioning obftinate intermittents in the colder climates,
and peftilential fevers in the hotter regions. But all
this mifchief arifes not merely from moifture, but from
an unventilated and putrid moifture; for the inoffen-
fivenefs of mere wetnefs, untainted with putridity, may
be reafonably inferred from the following confidera-
tions. The air is often fully faturated with moifture,
and could not be more filled by the vapours arifing
from a chamber covered with water ; and yet nei¬
ther is any epidemical diftemper produced by it, nor
are thofe remarkably aggravated with which the fick
happen at that time to be afflifted. The air from
rivers and from the fea is probably more replenifhed
with vapours than inland countries cleared of their
woods: yet the moft celebrated of the ancient phyfi¬
cians recommended the bank of a running river for the
fituation of a houfe, on account of its peculiar health-
fulnefs; and many invalids are fent by the modern
phyficians
MEDICINE.
Part II. M E D I
a actic e phyficiansto the fea- fide,(wily forthe benefit of the fea-air.
1 ' “ Where the failors are cleanly, and not too much
crowded, they are often as healthy during long voy¬
ages at fea, as they would have been upon any part
of the land. Venice is not obferved to be lefs healthy
than London or Paris.
“ Thofe who are much difpofed to fweat, lie many
hours in bed-clothes impregnated probably with a lefs
wholefome moifture than would have been left in the
fheets half-dried after walhing ; and I have not yet
had reafon to think that any remarkable injury
was done to the health by the continuance of fuch
fweats almoft every night for .weeks, and for months,
except what arofe from the too great copioufnefs of
this evacuation.
“ Children, and fuch as are troubled with the ftone,
and thofe who, from other infirmities or age, conftantly
wet their beds with their urine, do not appear to fuffer
in their health on this account.
“ It is a common praftice, in fome diforders, to go
to bed with the legs or arms wrapped in linen cloths
thoroughly foaked in Malvern water, fo that the fheets
will be in many places as wet as they can be; and I
have known thefe patients and their bedfellows receive
no harm from a continuance of this praftice for many
months. Nor can it be faid that the Malvern water is
more innocent than anyother water might be, on account
of any ingredients with which it is impregnated; for the
Malvern water is purer than that of any other fprings
in England which I ever examined or heard of.
“ The greateft valetudinarians do not fcruple to
fprinkle lavender-water upon their fheets; and yet,
when the fpirit is flown off, there is left what is as
truly water, as if it had been taken from the river.
“ -Is it obferved, that laundreffes are peculiarly un¬
healthy above other women, though they live half
their time in the midft of wet linen, in an air fully fa-
turated with vapours ? Many other employments
might be mentioned, the perfons occupied in which
are conftantly expofed to wet floors or pavements, or
to be furrounded with watery vapours, or to have
their clothes often wet for many hours together.
“ Is it the coldnefs of wet linen which is feared?
But fhirts and fheets, colder than any unfrozen water
can be, are fafely worn and lain in by many perfons,
who, during a hard froft, neither warm their fhirts
nor their fheets.—Or does the danger lie in the damp-
nefs? But then how comes it to pafs, that a warm or
cold bath, and long-continued fomentations, can be
ufed, without the deftru&ion of thofe who ufe them ?—
Or is it from both together? Yet we have long beard
of the thicknefs and continuance of the cold fogs in
the feas north-weft of England, but have never yet
been told of any certain ill effedt which they have upon
thofe that live in thefe countrie6.’,
With regard to the caufes of fevers, however, Dr
Lind is of opinion, that noxious vapours arifing
from the earth are for the moft part to be blamed.
Even in countries feemingly dry, and where violent
rains are not frequent, he thinks that the air may
load itfelf with putrid exhalations from the ground ;
and that, except in the burning defarts of Arabia or
Africa, people are nowhere exempt from difeafes oq-
cafioned by putrid moifture. In moft of the hot
countries, however, the pernicious effefts of the pu-
C I N E. 4657
trid vapours are by no means equivocal. In Guinea, Practice
they feem to be more extraordinary than any where
elfe in the world ; neither indeed can it be fuppofed
that a hot and moift atmofphere can be without pu-
trefcency. It may in general be remarked, that in
fultry climates, or during hot weather, in all places
fubjedl to great rains, where the country is not clear¬
ed and cultivated, but is overrun with thickets, fhrubs,
or woods, cfpecially if there are marfhes orftagnating
waters in the neighbourhood, ficknefs may be dread¬
ed, and the remitting fever of which we now treat-
The fens, even in different countries of England, are
known to be very prejudicial to the health of thofe
who live near them, and Hill more fo to ftrangers;
but the woody and marlhy lands in hot countries are
much more pernicious to the health of Europeans.
In all thofe unhealthy places, particularly during fogs
or rains, a raw vapour, difagreeable to the fmell,
arifes from the earth, and efpecially in the huts or
houfes. But of all the vapours which infeft the torrid
zone, the moft malignant and fatal are the harmat-
tans: They are faid to arife from the conflux of fe-
veral rivers in the king of Dornteo's dominions at
Benin, (the moft unwholfome part of Guinea), where
travellers are obliged to be carried on mens backs for
feveral days journey, through fwampy grounds, and
over marfties, amidft (linking ooze, and thickets of
mangrove trees which are annually overflown. Thefe
vapours come up the coaft, to a furprifing diftance,
with the fouth-eaft and north-eaft winds : and it has
been obferved, that, in their progrefs, they have of¬
ten changed both the courfe of the winds and of the
fea currents. The times of their appearance at Cape
Coaft are the months of December, January, or Fe¬
bruary. The north-eaft and fouth-eaft winds are
always unhealthy, but particularly fo during the har-
mattan feafon. Some years this vapour is fcarcely
perceptible ; but in others it is thick, noxious, and
deftru&ive to the blacks as well as whites. The
mortality is in proportion to the denfity and duration
of the fog. It has a raw putrid fmell; and is fome-
times fo thick, that a perfon or houfe cannot be
difcerned though it, at the diftance of 15 or 20 yards :
and it continues fo for 10 or 14 days; during which
it opens the feams of (hips, fplits or opens the crevices
of wood as if (hrunk or dried with a great fire, and
deftroys both man and bead.—In the year 1754
or 1755, the mortality occafioned in Guinea by this
(linking fog was fo great, that in feveral negro towns
the living were fcarce fufficient to bury the dead.
Twenty women brought over from Holland by a new
governor to the Caftle del Mina, periftied, together
with moft of the men in the garrifon. The gates of
Cape Coaft Caftle were (hut up for want of centinels
to do duty ; the blacks dying at this time as well as
the white people. It is lucky that it is only in fome
years that hannattans are fo very thick and noxious,
otherwife that part of the country would be depopu¬
lated. It is obferved that all fogs are extremely un¬
healthy in thofe parts, particularly before and after
the rainy feafon ; but the above account of the har-
jnattans appeared fo very extraordinary and incredible
to fome of Dr Lind’s readers, that he thought pro¬
per to publilh a further corroboration of the fa&s
above-mentioned. “A gentleman, (fays he), who had
26 12 long
4658 M E D I
Practice long reficled at Cape Coaft caftle, informed me, that
during the time of this fog, being in the upper
chambers of the fort, the boards of the floor fhrunk
fo much, that he could difcern the candles burning in
the apartments below him (there are no plafter ceil¬
ings ufed in thefe hot countries), and that he could
then even diftinguifh what people were doing in the
apartments below; the feams of the floor having
opened above half an inch, while the fog lafted, which
afterwards, upon its being difpelied, became clofe and
tight as before.”
In this country the rains and dews feem to be pof-
fefled of qualities almoft equally pernicious with the
fogs. Thus much is certain, that in Guinea, many
of the principal negroes, and efpecially of themulattoe
Portuguefe, take the utmoft precaution to avoid being
wet with thofe rains, efpecially fuch as fall firft. At
the fetting in of the rainy feafon, they generally (hut
themfelves up in a clofe well-thatched hut, where they
keep a conftant fire, fmoke tobacco, and drink brandy,
as prefervatives againfl: the noxious quality of the air
at that time. When wet by accident with the rain,
they immediately plunge themfelves into falt-water if
near it. Thofe natives generally bathe once a-day,
but never in the frefli-water rivers when they are over¬
flown with the rains : at fuch times they prefer for
that purpofe the water of fprings. The firft rains
which fall in Guinea are commonly fuppofed to be the
moft unhealthy. They have been known, in 48
hours, to render the leather of the (hoes quite mouldy
and rotten ; they ftain clothes more than any other
rain ; and foon after their commencement, even places
formerly dry and parched fvvarm with frogs. At
this time fltins, part of the traffic of Senegal,
quickly generate large worms ; and it is remarked,
that the fowls, which greedily prey on other infe&s,
refufe to feed on thefe. It has been farther obferved,
that woollen cloths wet in thofe rains, and afterwards
hung up to dry in the fun, have fometimes become full
of maggots in a few hours.—It is alfo probable, that
as in fome of thofe countries the earth, for fix or
eight months of the year, receives no moifture from the
heavens but what falls in dews, which every night
renew the vegetation, the furface of the ground in
many places becomes hard and incruftated with a
dry fcurf, which pens up the vapours below : until by
the continuance of the rains for fome time, this cruft
is foftened, and the long pent up vapours fet free.
That thefe dews do not penetrate deep into the earth
is evident from the conftant drynefs and hardnefs of
fuch fpots of ground in thofe countries as are not
covered with grafs and other vegetables. Thus the
large rivers in the dry feafon being confined within
narrow bounds, leave a great part of their channel
uncovered, which having its moifture totally exhaled
becomes a folid hard cruft ; but no fooner the rains
fall, than by degrees this long parched up cruft of
earth and clay gradually foftens, and the ground,
which before had not the leaft fmell, begins to emit a
flench, which in four or five weeks becomes exceed¬
ingly noifome, at which time the ficknefs is generally
moft violent.
This ficknefs, however, is not different from the
remitting fever which hath been defcribed under fo
many various forms and names. An inflammatory
CINE. Part II.
fever is feldom obferved, during the feafon of ficknels, Practice:
in this part of the world ; and we fhall conclude our~
defcription of the amphimerina paludofa with fome
extrafts from the furgeon’s journal of a fhipthat failed
up the rivers of Guinea.
“ On the 5th of April we failed up the river of
Gambia, and found all the Englifh in the fort in
perfeft health. The furgeon of the fadlory informed
me, that a relaxation of the ftomach, and confequent-
ly a weakned digeftion, feemed to bring on moft of the-
difeafes fo fatal to Europeans in the fiekly feafon.
They were generally of a bilious nature, attended
with a low fever, fometimes of a malignant, at other
times of a remitting kind.—On the 12th of April,
after failing 30 miles up the river St'Domingo, we
caaje to Catchou, a town belonging to the Portuguefe,
in Lat. 200 N.—In this town were only four white
people, the governor and three friars. The number
of whites in the trading (hips were 51. Oite morning,
towards the latter end of April, a little rain fell. On
the 13th of May there was a fecond fhower, accom¬
panied with a tornado. One the 18th of May it
rained the whole day ; and the rain continued, with
but Ihort intervals, until the beginning of Odober.
“ In the month of June, almoft two thirds of the
white people were taken ill. Their ficknefs could not
be well chara&erifed by any denomination commonly-
applied to fevers : it however approached neareft to
what is called a nervous fever, as the pulfe was always
low, and the brain and nerves feemed principally
affe&ed. It had alfo a tendency to frequent remif-
fions. It began fometimes with a vomiting, but
oftener with a delirium. Its attack was commonly in
the night; and the patients, being then delirious, were
apt to run into the open 'air. I obferved them fre¬
quently recover their fqnfes for a flrort time, by meang
of the heavy rain which fell upon their naked bodies.
But the delirium foon returned : they afterwards be¬
came comatofe, their pulfe funk, and a train of ner*
vous fymptoms followed; their Ikin often became
yellow; bilious vomitings and ftools were frequent
fymptoms. The fever reduced the patient’s ftrength
fo much, that it was generally fix weeks or twa
months before he was able to walk abroad. A con-
fuming flux, a jaundice, a dropfy, or obftrudlions in
the bowels, were the confequences of it. Of 51
white men, being the companies of four (hips which
were at Catchou, one third died of the fever, and one
third more oftheflux, andotherdifeafes confequentupon
it; and of thefe not one was taken ill till the rains began.
“ I believe, on the whole face of the earth, there
is fcarce to be found a more unhealthy country than
this during the rainy feafon : and the idea I then con¬
ceived of our white people was by making a compa-
rifon of their breathing fuch a noxious air, with a
number of river-fi(h put into ftagnating water; where,
as the water corrupts, the fifh grow lefs lively, they
droop, pine away, and many die.
“ Thus fome perfons became dull, inaftive, or (light¬
ly delirious, at intervals; and, without being fo much
as confined to their beds, they expired in that delirious
and comatofe date in lefs than 48 hours, after being
in apparent good health. The white people in general
became yellow ; their ftomach could not receive much
food without loathing and retchings. Indeed it is no
wonder
lart II. M E D I
SjacTice wonder that this ficknefs proved £o fatal, that recove-
■j ries from it were fa tedious, and that they were at¬
tended with fluxes, dropfies, the jaundice, ague-cakes,
and other dangerous chronical dittempers. It feemed
more wonderful tome that any white people ever reco¬
ver, while they continue to breathe fo pehiferous an air
as that at Catchou during the rainy feafon. We were,
as I have already obferved, thirty miles from the fea,
in a country altogether uncultivated, overflowed with
| - water, furrounded with thick impenetrable woods, and
over-run with flime. The air was vitiated, noifome,
and thick ; infomuch that the lighted torches or candles
burnt dim, and feemed ready to be extinguifhed: even
the human voice loft its natural tone. The fmell of the
ground and of the houfes was raw and offenfive ; but the
I vapour arifing from putrid water in the ditches was much
worfe. All this, however, feemed tolerable, when compa¬
red with the infinite numbers of infefts fwarming every
where, both on the ground and in the air; which, as
J as they feemed to be produced and cheriftied by the
putrefa&ion of the atmofphere, fo they contributed
greatly to increafe its impurity. The wild bees from
the woods, together with millions of ants, over-ran
and deftroyed the furniture of the houfes; at the fame
time, fwarms of cockroaches often darkened the air,
and extinguiftied even candles in their flight ; but the
greateft plague was the mufquettos and fand-flies, whofe
inceffant buza and painful ftings were more infupport-
able than any fymptom of the fever. Befides all thefe,
an incredible number of frogs on the banks of the ri¬
ver made fuch a conftant and difagreeable croaking,
that nothing but being accuftomed to fuch an hideous
noife could permit the enjoyment of natural fleep. In
the beginning of October, as the rains abated, the
weather became very hot; the woods were covered
with abundance of dead frogs, and other vermin, left
by the recefs of the river; all the mangroves and
fhruhs were likewife overfpreadwith {linking flime.”
After fo particular a defcription of the remitting fe¬
ver in many different parts of the world, we prefume
it will be needlefs to take notice of any little varieties
which may occur in the warm parts of America, as
both the nature and cure of the diftemper are radically
the fame : neither (hall we lengthen out this article
with further defcriptions of remitting fevers from the
works of foreign authors, as, from what we have al¬
ready faid, their nature cannot well be miftaken.
Cure. The great difficulty in the cure of remitting
fevers arifes from their not being Ample difeafea, but a
complication of feveral others. Fevers, properly fpeak-
ing, have but three or four different appearances which
they can afiume without a complication. One is, when
they are attended with a phlogiftic diathefis ; another
is, when they affume the form of genuine intermit-
tents; a third is, when they produce a great debility of
the nervous fyftem ; and the fourth is, when, along
with this debility, there is alfo a rapid tendency to pu-
trefa&ion. If, therefore, all thefe fpecies happen to
make an attack at once, the moft dangerous fever we
can imagine will be produced ; and however contrary
it may be to our theories to admit the poffibility of
fuch an attack, the truth of the faft is too often con¬
firmed by fatal experience. In the beginning of remit¬
tent fevers, for inftance, the fymptoms indicate a high
degree of inflammation : but if the pra&itioner at-
C I N E.
tempts to remove this inflammation by bloodletting or
other evacuations, the pulfe finks irrecoverably, and'
the perfon dies with fuch fymptoms as fhew that the
nervous fyftem hath been from the beginning greatly
affefted ; at the fame time that the high ftimulants and
cordials, or the bark, which would have conquered
the nervous part of the difeafe, increafe the inflamma¬
tory part of it to fuch a degree, that, by a too early
exhibition of them the patient alfo dies, but after an¬
other manner.
In the remitting fever of the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind
of Edinburgh formed the following indications of cure.
I. To allay the violence of the fever, a. To evacuate
the putrid humours, and take great care to prevent the
body from inclining to putrefaftion. 3. To keep up
the ftrength of the patient as much as pofiible during
the diforder. 4. To Jofe no time in preventing the
return of the paroxyfm.
To allay the violence of the fever, every thing that
can contribute to increafe it ought to be carefully
avoided or removed ; fuch as great heat, too ftrong a
light falling on the eyes, noife, and motion. If du¬
ring the paroxyfm the head and loins are affe&ed with
violent pains, the pulfe is full and hard, and the heat
intenfe, bleeding may be ufed, but with the greateft
caution: for, howeverufeful this operation may be in
cold climates, the fuccefs of it in warm ones is fo far
from being certain, that the lives of the patients have
been often very much endangered, nay even deftroyed,.
by it. Dr Badenoch, and the furgeon of the Ponlborne,
endeavoured each of them to relieve two patients by
blood-letting; and the confequence was, that each of
them loft one patient. Dr Lind bled two patients;
one of whom was Mr Richardfon, the firft mate of
the ftiip, who complained of a moft violent pain in his
head,, with a full hard puife. About four or five ounces
of blood were taken from him, by which he was
greatly relieved : nor was the cure retarded by it 4
nay, the fever afterwards became lefs irregular. At
the time the other patient was bled, the difeafe was
exceedingly frequent and violent. He was fo earneft
for bleeding, that he fired all the reft with the fame
defire, fwearing, that, by refufing them this only re¬
medy, every one of them would be fent to their graves.
To quiet them therefore, and get rid of their importu¬
nities, the Do&or complied with their requeft, and took
about five or fix ounces from him who had been the firft:.
to require it. The confequence was, that he imme¬
diately loft his ftrength ; and in lefs than an hour, du¬
ring which time he made his will, was carried oft’ by
the next fit. It is proper, however, to obferve, and
indeed the Doftor himfelf makes the obfervation, with
regard to this patient, that he was bled at an improper
time, namely, between the fits; whereas, had he been
bled in the hot fit, it is poffible he might have been
relieved: and here he quotes the authority of Cleghorn
and Pringle.
As Dr Cleghorn pradlifed in a very hot country,,
his obfervations muft in the prefent cafe have greater
weight than that of Pringle, who praftifed in a colder
one. The former acquaints us, that if he was called
in early enough, he always ufed to take away fome
blood, unlefs there was a ftrong contra-indication, from
people of all ages; namely, from robuft adults, tea
or twelve ounces; from others a fmaller quantity, ia
pro-
4659
Practice
4660
Practice
M E D I
: proportion to their ftrength and years. And further, if
'a violent head-ach, obftinate delirium, and great heat or
pains of the bowels, were urgent, the bleeding was re¬
peated within a day or two. By this feafonable evacua¬
tion, he found the vehemence of all the paroxyfms
fomewhat diminilhed ; the apyrexies became more com¬
plete ; the operation of emetics and cathartics render¬
ed fafer and more fuccefsful ; and the terrible fymp-
toms which happened about the height of the diftem-
per, fuch as raving fopor, difficulty of breathing, in¬
flammations of the abdominal vifcera, &c. were either
prevented or mitigated. But if the fever had conti¬
nued for fome time before he was called, and the mafs
of blood appeared to be too much melted down or in¬
clined to a putrid diffolution, he either abftained from
bleeding entirely, or took away a very fmall quantity,
though fome importunate fymptoms might feem to re¬
quire a larger evacuation. As to the time of perform¬
ing the operation, he acquaints us, that it is fafe
enough, except when the cold fit lafts or is foon ex-
pe&ed, or while the ikin is covered with critical
fweats; and that he ufually opened a vein in the be¬
ginning of the hot fit; by which means the fick were
relieved, the immoderate heat of the body, which is
often productive of fatal effedts, was diminifhed, and
the critical fweats brought on fooner and in greater
abundance.
But though Dr Lind found venefeftion to be of fuch
pernicious tendency in his patients, cooling acidulated
liquors were of the utmoit fervice, as they correfted
the putrid humours, leffened the heat and thirft, and
of courfe prevented the fever from arriving at fo great
,an height as it would otherwife have done. Thofe
coaling liquids are the beft which are made up with
fome farinaceous fubftance, as they moft eafily unite
with our fluids. Foffile acids too, and cryftals of tar¬
tar, efpecially the latter, are of confiderable ufe,
not only in this but in other fevers. The neutral falts,
prepared with the juice of lemons, were likewife given
with fuccefs during the heat of the fever. They leffen
the naufea, the fits become more regular, and the re-
miffions more full; and they are particularly grateful
when given in a ftate of effervefcence. The good ef-
fefts of thefe draughts we are in a great meafure to
afcribe to the antifeptic quality of the fixed air extri¬
cated from them during the effervefcence ; of which
we fhall fpeak more fully when treating of the typhous
fevers.
During the remiffion, it is proper to evacuate the
putrid humours by fmall dofes of ipecacuanha, or ra¬
ther tartar emetic. The tartar emetic indeed appears
to be endowed with fome kind of febrifuge virtue,
which Dr Cullen thinks is owing to its relaxing the
febrile fpafm taking place in the capillary veffels, as
ftall be fully explained when we come to treat of con¬
tinued fevers. But fhould there appear any fymptoms
of a topical inflammation in fome of the abdominal
vifcera, a thing which never happens unlefs the difor-
der has been of fome Handing, vomiting is to be avoid¬
ed, and we are to depend upon purgatives alone for
the evacuation of the putrid bile, which are always
ufeful in the cure of this diforder. But all acrid and
ftrong purgatives are to be carefully avoided, and only
the mild antifeptic ones made ufe of, fuch as cryftals
of tartar, or tamarinds made up with manna or with
CINE. Part II.
Glauber’s fait. Pract^
Under the article Gall, we have obferved, from
Dr Percival, the effedt which vegetable acids have in
fweetening putrid bile ; whence it feems probable, that
a liberal ufe of thefe acids would be much more fer-
viceable than a repetition of any kind of purgatives.
Though in thefe difeafes there is a great quantity of
putrefcent bile colle&ed in the body, yet it feems
much more probable that this is the effetl rather than the
caufe of the diforder ; and therefore, though we carry off
the quantity colle&ed ever fo often, more of the fame
kind will ftill be produced by the putrefcent difpofition
of the other juices, at-the fame time that the ftrength
of the patient muft neceffarily be diminiffied by re¬
peated evacuations, when it ought rather to be kept
up by all poffible means. We ought well to obferve,
however, that the mineral acids have not that property
of fweetening putrid bile which the vegetable ones
have; and therefore the fame relief will not be given
by them which might reafonably be expedted from vi¬
negar or lemon-juice.
In order to keep up the ftrength of the patient, good
food is abfolutely neceffary. Dr Lind allowed the fick
fmall mefles of panada made with boiled rice and bar¬
ley mixed with currants or raifins and prunes, feafoned
with fugar and a little wine, efpecially claret. During
the paroxyfms, they had gruel made of flour and rice,
with fugar and the juice of acid fruit; and when the
fit went off, a liitle wine was added to this mixture.
The fhirts and bedding muft be very often changed
and well aired ; their ftools, and all filth and naftinefs,
are to be immediately removed ; the places where they
are lodged fttould be well aired and frequently fprink-
led with vinegar ; and, in the laft place, the fick muft
be exceedingly well nurfed. Blifters, according to
Dr Lind, ftiould never be ufed till the fever has been
of long continuance, or the fpirits and pulfe of the pa¬
tient have begun to flag. But here our author has im¬
plicitly followed Dr Huxham, whofe theory concern¬
ing the ufe of blifters is now found to be erroneous.
According to that celebrated author, blifters are ca¬
pable of doing confiderable hurt in all cafes where
there is a tendency to inflammation, by increafing the
motion of the fluids and the ofcillatory power of the
veffels, both of which are already too great. They
are alfo improper, according to him, where there is a
confiderable tendency of the fluids to putrefadlion ;
becaufe he fuppofes the falts of thefe flies to operate
in the fame manner with volatile alkalies, that is, by
diffolving and putrefying the blood ftill farther. But
Sir John Pringle hath ftiown, that, in inflammatory
fevers as well as thofe of the putrid kind, both blifters
and volatile falts may be of fervice ; the latter, parti¬
cularly, he hath experimentally proved to be fo far from
promoting putrefa&ion, that they are exceedingly
ftrong antifeptics.
In the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind found it altogether
neceffary to exhibit the bark in large quantities, and
as early as poffible. By this method he not only fecu-
red the patient from the imminent danger of death to
which he was expofed at every fit, but likewife con¬
quered thofe obftrudtions which were apt to enfue
in the abdominal vifcera, and which are to be attri¬
buted to the continuance of the diforder, and not to
the bark employed to cure it. He always gave the
bark
t. M E D I
bark during the fecond remiffion, as all his care was
during the firft to cleanfe the prinue vise. He obferves,
however, that it is to no purpofe to give the bark till
the neceflary purgations are over; but aflures us, that
it never fails, unlefs, from the coming on of a vomiting
or diarrhoea, it cannot be taken in fufficient quantities
before the return of a paroxyfm. To prevent the me¬
dicine from vomiting or purging, he mixed a few drops
of liquid laudanum with every dofe of it. Half a
drachm was given every half hour in fome convenient
vehicle, beginning as foon as the fever had confider-
ably abated, and the pulfe was returned nearly to its
natural date; both which generally happened before
the fweats were over. An ounce of the bark was
fometimes found too little to check the fever, but an
ounce and a half never failed. It mud be continued
daily in fmall dofes till the patient has recovered his
firength, and then a greater quantity given, efpecially
at the feafon when the rivers overflow the country-
Dr Pringle found the autumnal remittents in the Ne¬
therlands complicated with a great many inflammatory
fymptoms ; for which reafon it was generally found
neceffary to open a vein in the beginning. The ver¬
nal and later autumnal remitting fevers are accom¬
panied with pleuritic and rheumatic pains from the
coldnefs of the weather, and on that account require
more bleeding. A phyfician unacquainted with the
nature of the difeafe, and attending chiefly to the pa-
roxyfms and remifiions, would be apt to omit this eva¬
cuation entirely, and give the bark too foon, which
would bring on a continued inflammatory fever. In
thefe countries a vein may be fafely opened either du¬
ring the remiflion or in the height of a paroxyfm, and
our author alfo found good effeds refulting from bleed¬
ing in the hot fits of the marih-fever, even after it had
almoft come to regular intermiffions. After bleeding, a
purgative was ufually exhibited, of which he gives us
the following formula.
139. Infufi fense common, fiij,
Eled. Lenitiv. Jfs.
Nitr. pur. 3!.
Tind. fen. 3vi. Mi
Gf this only one half was taken at once; and if it
did not operate twice in four hours, the remainder
was then taken; This potion agreed with the fto-
mach, purged plentifully, and therefore was a very
ufeful compofition. Next morning, when there was
almoft always fome remiflion, he gave one grain of eme¬
tic tartar rubbed with twelve grains of crabs-eyes, and
repeated the dofe in two hours, if the firft had little
or no effed ; or at any rate in four hours. This me¬
dicine was intended not only to vomit, but alfo to o-
perate by (tool, and excite a fweat. If thefe evacua¬
tions were procured, the fever generally became eafier,
and was even fometimes cured. This he prefers to the
ipecacuanha, and therefore in the latter years of his
pradice difufed that root entirely. The fame medi¬
cine was repeated next day or the day following ; or if
not, a laxative clyfter was thrown in: and this me¬
thod was continued till the fever either went off altoge¬
ther, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to be cured
by the bark.
A fimilar method was followed by Dr Huck in the
' remitting fevers of the Weft Indies and North Ame¬
rica. In the beginning he let blood; and in the firft
CINE. 4661
remiflion gave four or five grains of ipecacuanha, with Practice
from half a grain to two grains of emetic tartar. This
powder he repeated in two hours, taking care that the
patient fliould not drink before the fecond dofe; for
then the medicine more readily paffed into the bowels
after it had operated by vomiting. If after two hours
more the operation either way was fmall, he gave a
third dofe, which commonly had a good effedf in
opening the firft paffages; and then the fever either
went quite off, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to
yield to the bark. On the continent, he found little
difficulty after the intermiflion ; but in the Weft In¬
dies, unlefs he gave the bark upon the very firft inter¬
miflion, tho’ imperfed, the fever was apt to affume
continued and dangerous form.
In the remitting fevers of hot countries, however,,
it muft be obferved, that the lancet muft in all cafes be
much more fparingly ufed than in fimilar difeafes of
the colder regions; and we muft alfo be fparing of vene-
fedfion in thofe countries where the marfh effluvia are
very ftrong and prevail much. For this reafon Dr
Lind of Haflar greatly condemns the pradtice of in-
difcriminate bleeding when people firft arrive in hot
climates. The firft difeafes indeed which occur in a
voyage to the fouthward are for the moft part of an
inflammatory nature, and owing to a fudden tranfition
from cold to hot weather. This occafions a fulnefs
and diftenfion of the veffcls ; whence all Europeans,
on their firft arrival under the tropic, bear evacuations
much better than afterwards. The pradlice of indif-
criminate bleeding, however, a number of the fhip’s
company when they firft come into a warm latitude, is
by no means found to anfwer the purpofe of a preven¬
tative. In fuch cafes,.indeed, as plainly indicate a ple¬
thoric difpofition brought on by the heat, blood-let¬
ting is; certainly ufeful. The figns of this are a pain
and giddinefs in the head; a heavinefs and dullnefs of
the eyes, which fometimes appear (lightly inflamed:
there is alfo commonly a fenfe of weight and fulnefs
in the bread, the pulfe at the fame time being quick
and oppreffed.
But the cafe is quite different after a longer conti¬
nuance of fultry weather, and when the conftitution is
in fome meafure habituated to the hot climate- For
it is then obferved, that the fymptoms of inflamma¬
tions-in the bowels, even the moft dangerous, are not
near fo fevere in fuch climates as in cold countries
nor can the patients bear fuch large evacuations. The
phyfician, however, muft take care not to be milled
by the apparent mildnefs of the fymptoms ; for he will
find, notwithftanding.fuch deceitful appearances, that
the inflammation makes a more rapid progrefs in hot
countries than in cold, fuppurations and mortifications
being much more fuddenly formed; and that in gene¬
ral all acute diftempers.come fooner to a crifis in the
fouthern than in colder regions. Hence it is an im¬
portant rule of praflice in thofe climates, to feize the
moft early opportunity, in the commencement of all
threatening inflammations, to make frequent, though
not copious evacuations by blood-letting. For by de¬
lay the inflammation fwiftly paffes from its firft to its
laft or fatal ftage ; at leaft an imperfect crifis in fuch
inflammatory fevers enfues, which fixes an obftru&ion
in the vifcera extremely difficult to remove.
It is indeed a general maxim with fome phyficians
in;
?
4662
Practice in the Weft Indies, that in moil acute diftempers bleed-
ing in that country is prejudicial. This is founded
upon a fuppofition that the craflamentum of the blood
is thinned, and the folids greatly weakened, by the
heat of the climate. It is therefore obje&ed, that
bleeding in fuch an habit of body weakens the powers
of nature, and withdraws the ftrength which is re-
quifite to fupport the patient until the crifis of the
fever.
This reafoning is partly juft ; but, like all general
maxims, will admit of exceptions. Firft, with regard
to failors, it is to be remembered, that they are more
expofed to quick viciflitudes of heat, cold, damps, and
to various changes of the air and weather, than moft of
the other inhabitants of the Torrid Zone. Add to
to this, that their intemperance, and the excefles they
are apt to fall into whenever it is in their power to
commit them, render them more liable to inflamma¬
tions than any other fet of people. Hence their dif-
eafes require more plentiful evacuations than the land-
inhabitants of thofe parts of the world, and generally
they bear them better. But with regard to the na¬
tives of the country, or thofe who have remained long
in it, it muft be proper to bleed them very fparingly,
making a fmall allowance for the different feafons of
the year, the temperature of the air, and the fitua-
tion of the places where they refide. Thus, in fome
parts, even on the ifland of Jamaica, at particular fea¬
fons, the weather is cool ; wherefore, in thefe places,
and at fuch feafons, the inhabitants having their fi¬
bres more rigid, and a firmer crafis of their blood, bear
venefe&ion much better.
In cold countries the ftate of the air greatly aflifts
in reftoring the impaired fpring of the fibres ; where¬
as every thing almoft in warm weather, fuch as heat,
moifture, See. concur to relax and weaken the habit
of body. Thus, we may daily fee perfons in Britain,
after having fuffered a moft fevere fit of ficknefs, re¬
cover their ftrength and fpirits in a few days, and in
a very fhort time their natural conftitution. But the
cafe is very different in the fultry regions of the Torrid
Zone, or indeed in any part of the world where the
heat of the feafon caufes the mercury to (land for any
length of time at the 77th degree and upwards of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. During fuch an excefs of
heat, debility after fevers is apt to remain with Eu¬
ropean conftitutions for feveral months. In Jamaica,
the convalefcents are fent to the cool fummits of the
mountains ; but a retreat to a more northern climate
is often abfolutely neceffary to recover their wonted
tone and vigour of body. It is a well-eftablilhed
obfervation, that the negroes, and aborigines of the
Torrid Zone cannot bear plentiful evacuations by the
lancet. They commonly mix the moft ftimulating
poignant fpices with their ordinary light food, and
this is found by experience fuitable to their confti¬
tutions.
As proper preventatives for the dangerous fevers of
which we are treating, Dr Lind on all occafions re¬
commends the avoiding of ftagnant water, or putrid
marflies; the ufe of proper food, cleanlinefs, and fo-
briety. Of the propriety of removing from the neigh¬
bourhood of thofe places whofe peftilential effluvia pro¬
duce the diforders, we cannot pofiibly entertain a
doubt ; and of the efficacy of proper food in prevent-
Part I
ing putrid diforders he gives a remarkable inftance in PraotJ
the Sheernefs man of war, bound to the Eaft Indies.
As they went out, the men being apprehenfive of |
ficknefs in fo long a voyage, petitioned the captain
not to oblige them to take up their fait provilions,
but rather to permit them to live upon the other fpe- i
cies of their allowance. It was therefore ordered, that I
they ftiould be ferved with falt-meat only once a-week; I
and the confequence was, that, after a paffage of five if
months and one day, the {hip arrived at the Cape of
Good Hope without having a Angle perfon fick on
board. As the ufe of Sutton’s pipes had been then
newly introduced into the king’s fhips, the captain
was willing to aferibe part of fuch an uncommon |
healthfulnefs to their beneficial effects; but it was foon
difeovered, that, by the negle<ft of the carpenter, the
cock of the pipes had been all this while kept (hut. |
This ffirp remained in India fome months, where none
of the men, except the boats crews, had the benefit of
going on fhore ; notwithftanding which, the crew con¬
tinued to enjoy the moft perfeft ftate of health ; they |
were, however, well fupplied with frefh meat. On . J
leaving India, knowing they were to flop at the Cape f
of Good Hope, and trufting to a quick paffage, and J
the abundance of refreftiments to be had there, they
eat their full allowance of falt-meats, during a paffage
of only ten weeks; and it is to be remarked the air-pipes
were now open. The effett of this was, that, when they I
were arrived at the Cape, 20 of them were affli&ed in
a moft miferable manner with fcorbutic and other dif¬
orders. Thefe, however, were fpeedily recovered by
the refrefliments they met with on fhore. Being now
thoroughly fenfible of the beneficial effefts of eating,
in thefe fouthern climates, as little fait meat as pof-
fible when at fea, they unanimoufly agreed, in their
voyage home from the Cape, to refrain from their
too plentiful allowance of fait flefti. And thus the
Sheernefs arrived at Spithead, with her full compli¬
ment of 160 men in perfect health and with unbro¬
ken conftitutions; having in this voyage of 14 months
and 15 days buried but one man, who died in a mer- |
curial falivation.
Thus we fee, that a free and pure air is not a fuffi-
cient prefervative againft a putrefeent ftate of the
fluids, without proper food; and, on the other hand,
our author gives a very remarkable inftance of the in¬
efficacy of the moft falutary food to prevent putrid dif-
eafes, in a very noxious ftate of the atmofphere. In
the year 1717, at the fiege of Belgrade in Hungary,
the fever of the country, and the flux, occafioned a
moft extraordinary mortality among the troops. The
dread of thefe difeafes caufed every one, as may na¬
turally be fuppofed, to have recourfe to different pre¬
cautions for felf-prefervation. Prince Eugene, the I
commander in chief, had water and the provifions for
his table fent him twice a-week from Vienna. The 1
pure ftream of the river Kahlenberg was regularly fi
brought to him : he avoided all exceffes, and lived re¬
gularly, or rather abftemioufly ; refreihed himfelf often
by eating a cool melon; and mixed his ufual wine, I:
which was Burgundy, with water. Yet notwithftand- |
ing his utmoft care, he was feized with a dyfentery ;
which would have quickly put an end to his life, had
not the fpeedy conclulion of that campaign permitted ‘ i
him to make quick retreat.
MEDICINE.
’"s' ’art II. M E D I
iJiAcxicE At this unhealthy feafon, when hardly one imperial
“|! officer, much lefs their feveral domeftics, efcaped thofe
malignant difeafes, the renowned Count Bonneval and
his numerous retinue continued-in perfedl health, to the
furprife, or, to ufe the words of Dr Kramer, to the
envy of all who beheld him. The only precaution he
ufed was to take, two or three times a-day, a fmall •
quantity of brandy in which the bark was infufed ; and
he obliged all his attendants and domeftics to follow
his example. It is no lefs remarkable that the count,
placing his certain prefervation in the ufe of this
Angle medicine, lived for many years afterwards in the
moft unhealthy fpots of Hungary, without any attack,
I or apprehenfton of difeafe ; and continued to enjoy a
perfect ftate of health during the hotteft and moft
fickly feafons. And thus, with an unbroken and
found conftitution, which is feldom the cafe of thofe
who refide long in fuch climates, he lived to a great
age. There is an inftance produced by the fame au-
Jthor of a whole regiment in Italy having been pre-
ferved by the ufe of the bark from the attack of thefe
malignant difeafes, viz. the flux and bilious fever, as it
is frequently called, when the reft of the Auftrian
army, not purfuing that method, became greatly an¬
noyed with them.
The intemperance and irregular living of thofe Eu¬
ropeans who vifit the hot climates is frequently accufed
as the caufe of their deftruftion; but, our author
thinks, without fufficient reafon : for though intem¬
perance will make the body more liable to receive fuch
difeafes, it will not, bring them on. It mult by no
means, however, be imagined, that in thefe climates
Europeans may with impunity be guilty of exceffes in
eating or drinking; for the leaft error in that way will
often prove fatal by debilitating the body, whofe ut-
moft ftrength in time of full health was perhaps
fcarce fufficient to refill the peftilential miafmata of
the atmofphere.
It appears, therefore, from the concurrent teftimony
of the moft eminent phyficians, that the moft proper
medicine to be ufed, either as a preventative or cure for
remitting and intermitting diforders is the Peruvian
bark, adminiftered with proper precautions, and after
the prim# via have been evacuated of the putrid bi¬
lious matter colle&ed in them. In thofe fpecies of
tritneophya^ &c. belonging to this clafs, enumerated;
by Sauvages, the fame remedies only were ufeful; but
in that peftilential diftemper which he calls tritaophya
Vratiflavienfis, he tells us, that wafhing the body with
water fometimes hot fometimes cold, watery clyfters,
and plenty of aqueous drink, were likewife of ufe.
This method of treating malignant fevers is but lately
come into pradice, and fhall be more fully cqnfidered
under the cure of continued fevers.
Genus II. QUARTANA ; the Quartan Fever.
Quartana audorum, Sauv. Gen. 89. Lin. 17.
Vog.i,. Sag. 71 x. Hoffm. II. p. 23. Junck. tab. 81.
I 263 XIV. The Genuine Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. A.
Quartana legitima, Sauv. fp. 1. Sydenham de morb.
acut. cap. v.
TLefcription. The genuine quartan, according to
Juncker, keeps its form more exadly than other inter-
roittents; fcarcely coming on at any other time than
four or five in the afternoon. The cold is lefs violent
than in the tertian; but is very perceptible, though it
Vox.. VI. 1
CINE. 4663s
doth not proceed to fuch a height as to make thePRAcTicE
limbs fhake; and continues for about two hours. It is ’
preceded and accompanied by a languor both of body
and mind. There is feldom any vomiting unlefs when
the ftomach is manifeftly overloaded with aliment; nei¬
ther is there any diarrhoea, but the belly in general is
rather bound, not only on the days on which the pa-
roxyfm takes place, but alfo on the intermediate ones.
The heat which flowly fucceeds the cold, is lefs
troublefome to the patient by its violence than by the
uneafy drynefs of the Ikin, which is fcarce ever moi-
ftened with fweat. This heat rarely continues longer
than four or fix hours, unlefs perhaps at thefirft or fe¬
cund paroxyfm. It is accompanied alfo with a giddi-
nefs and dull pain of the head. On the termination
of the paroxyfm, the patient returns to a middling
ftate of health, and continues in the fame for the reft
of the intermediate days; only there remains fome-
what of a loathing, and a deep-feated pain as if the
perfon was all over bruifed or broken, which kind of
fenfation the phyficians are wont to call cjleocopns.
The fit returns every fourth day, and that precifely at
the fame hours, being rarely poftponed.
Caufes oft andperjbns fubjeft to, this diforder. The
fame general caufes concur in producing this as in other
intermittents, namely marfti miafmata, and whatever can
difpofe the body to be eafily affected by them. Stu¬
dious people, and thofe of a melancholic turn, are
faid to be particularly fubjeft to quartans; but what are
the immediate caufes which produce a return of. the
fits every fourth day, in (lead of every day, or every
third day, muft no doubt lie for ever concealed, as
depending upon the fecret and inexplicable mechanifm
of the human body.
Progmfis. A Ample quartan, where there is no
reafon to dread any induration of the vifeera, may very
certainly admit of a cure ; and the prognofis can
never be unfavourable, unlefs in cafes of extreme
weaknefs, or where the diftemper hath been unflcilful-
ly treated.
Cure. This does not in the leaft differ from that
which hath been fully laid down for the Ample ter¬
tian, and which it is therefore needlefs to repeat here.
XV. The Duplicated Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. B. 264:
Quartana duplicata, Sauv. fp. 4. Bonet.
This is entirely fimilar to the duplicated tertian al¬
ready mentioned; proper allowance being made for the
difference between the type of a tertian and quartan.
XVI. The Triplicated Quartan. Sp. I. var. I. C. 265
Quartana triplicata, Sauv. fp. 16.
This hath three paroxyfms every fourth day, while
the intermediate days are entirely free from fever.
XVII. ThtDouble Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. D.
Quartana duplex, Sauv. fp. 3. Vog. fp. 13.
In the double quartan, the fits come on every day
except the third ; but fo that the firft paroxyfm an-
fwers teethe third, the fecond to the fourth, and fo on.
XVIII. The Triple Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. E.
Quartana triplex, Sauv. fp. 5. Vog. fp. 14. Bar¬
tholin. H. anat. c. 1. 95.
This comes on every day, but the quartan type is
ftill preferved by the times of acceffion ; that is, the
time of the fourth paroxyfm’s coming on anfwers to
that of the firft, the fifth to the fecond, the fixth to
26 K the
4664 M E D I
Practice the third, &C.
XIX. The Quartan, accompanied with Symptoms
of other difeafes. Sp. I. var. 2.
Qjnrtana cataleptica, Sauv. fp. 7. Bonet. polyalth.
vol. 1. p. 805.
Quartana comatofa, Sauv. fp. 15. Werlholf. de febr.
C. Pifonis Obferv. de morbis a colluvie ferof.
obf. 166, J67, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174.
Quartana epileptica, Sauv. fp. 8. Schohii Conf.
379, 380.
Quartana hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 10. Morton, Pyret.
exerc. 1. cap. ix. H. 10, 11.
Quartana nephralgica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Quartana metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 17.
Quartana amens, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham de morb.
acut. cap. v.
Quartana fplenetica, Sauv. fp. 2. Etmuller, Coll,
confult. caf. 25.
269 XX. TheQuARTAN complicated with other Difeafes.
Sp. I. var. 3.
Quartana fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 6. Plateri, obferv.
L. III. p. 676. Edin. EfT. art. xlvii. obf. 8.
Quartana arthritica, Sauv. fp. 11. Mufgr. de Arthr.
fympt. cap. ix. H. 4. et. 5.
Arthritis febrifequa, Sauv. fp. IO.
Arthritis febricofa, Sauv. fp. 10. Werlholf. de
febr. Cockburn &z morbis navigantium, obf. 19.
Quartana fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 14. Barthol. de med.
Dan. diff. iv. Tim. L. VIII. caf. 18.
270 XXL The Quartan. Sp. II.
Tetartophya, Sauv. gen. 85. Sag. 699. Lin. 21.
Quartana remittens auftorum.
Var. t. Tetartophya fimplex, Sauv. fp. 1.
2. Amphimerina femiquartana, Sauv. fp. 23.
3. Tetartophya femitertiana, Sauv. fp. 5.
4. Tetartophya maligna, Sauv. fp. 6. Lautter.
Hift. med. caf. 21. M. Donat. L. III.
cap. 14. ex M. Gatenaria Horfl. L. I. obf. 15.
5. Tetartophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 4. Werl¬
holf. de febr. Bianchi Hift. hep. pars III.
conft. ann. 17x8. p.75i.
6. Tetartophya fplenalgica, Sauv. fp. 2.
7. Tetartophya, hepatalgica, Sauv. 3. Car.
Pif in prefat. p. 33.
8. Amphimerina fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 16.
To the tertian or quartan fevers alfobelong the 2?r-
raticee of authors. As all thofe abovementioned dif¬
fer only in the flight circumftance of the type from
the intermitting and remitting tertians already defcri-
bed at length, it is unneceflary here to take up time
in defcribing every minute circumftance related by
phyficians concerning them, efpecially as it could con¬
tribute nothing towards the laying down a better me¬
thod of cure than what hath been already fuggefted.
Genus III. QUOTIDIANA ; the Quotidian
Fever.
Quotidiana au&orum, Sauv. gen. 86. Lin. 15.
Vog. I. lfojf?n. II. 33. jfunck. tab. 79.
XXII. The Gewa/we Quotidian. Sp. I. var. 1. A.
Quotidiana fimplex, Sauv. fp. 1.
Quotidiana legitima, Sennert. de febr. cap. 18.
Defcription. This kind of fever generally comes on
about fix or feven o’clock in the morning, beginning
CINE. Part II.
with a confiderable degree of cold and ihivering, which Pr actk
lafts for about an hour ; and is often accompanied with-" “1
vomiting, or fpontaneous diarrhoea, or both. It is
fucceeded by a pretty ftrong heat, accompanied with
thirft, reftlefsnefs, and pain of the head. When the
heat abates a little, a fpontaneous fweat commonly fol¬
lows, and the whole paroxyfm rarefy exceeds fix
hours. It returns, however, every day almoft al¬
ways at the fame hour, unlefs it is evidently difturbed.
Caufes of andperfons fubjett to, the difeafe. The fame
general caufes are to be afligned for the quotidian as
for other intermittents. This kind occurs but rarely: ^
and is faid to attack people of a phlegmatic tempera¬
ment rather than any other; alfo old people rather |
than young, and women rather than men.
The prognofis and method of cure are not different
from thofe of tertians and quartans.
XXIII. The /W/rf/Quotidian. Sp. I. var. 1. B. 272
Quotidiana partialis, Sauv. fp. 16. Cnoffel, E.N. C.
jD. I. A. III. obf. 205. Edin. Med. Eff. vol. i. '
art. 31. vol. ii. art. 16.
Quotidiana cephalalgica, Sauv. fp. 6. Mort. pyretol.
exerc. i. hift. 27. Van Sivieten in Baerh. p. 534.
Cephalalgia intermittens, Sauv. fp. 7.
Cephalsea febricofa, Saj*v' Ip* 4*
Quotidiana ophthalmica, Morton, ibid. hift. 17.
Van Siuieten, ibid.
Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23.
Thefe diftempers attack only fome particular part of
the body, as the head, the eye, arm, &c. producing
periodical affe&ions of thofe parts returning once in
24 hours; and are to be cured by the bark, as other
intermittents. They are known to belong to this clafs,
by the evident intermiflion of the pain or other affec¬
tion of the part. The quotidiana hyfterica, Sauv.
fp. 3. quotidiana catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 9. and quoti¬
diana ftranguriofa, Sauv. fp. 11. feem to be fymptoma-
tic diforders.
XXIV. The Remitting Quotidian. Sp. II.
Amphimerina, Sauv. gen. 84. Lin. 20.
Quotidiana continua, Vog. 15.
Quotidianas remittentes et continue auftorum.
Amphimerina latica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Febris continua lymphatica, Etmuller, Coll. conf.
caf. 32. River. Obf. cent. I. obf. 57,
Amphimerina fingultuofa, Sauv. fp. 14.
Febris continua Lyngodes, Vog. 26.
Concerning thefe alfo nothing remains neceffary to
be mentioned in this place, having already fo fully dif-
cuffed the remitting fevers in all the different parts of
the world. Many other varieties of thefe fevers men¬
tioned by different authors are to be accounted merely
fymptomatic.
Sect. II. CONTINUED FEVERS.
Continuae, Sauv. clafs ii. ord. 1. Vog. clafs I. ord. 2.
Sag. 666. Boerh. 727.
Continentes, Lin. clafs ii. ord. 1. Stahl. Caf. mag.
35. Caf. min. 87. Junck.5%. Sennert. feidbr.
L. ii. cap. 2. et 10.
XXV. SYNOCHA. Genus IV.
Synocha, Sauv. gen. 80. Lin. 12. funck. 58.
Synocha, five febris acuta fanguinea, Hoffm.ll. 105.
Synochus, Vog. 16.
Continna
273
274.7
Part II. MED]
iapAcTicE Continua non putris, Boerh. 729.
-j: . Epi,ernera> Sauv. g. 79. Boeth. 728. Junck. 57.
Diaria, Lin. 11.
Ftbris inflammatoria auftorum.
Defcription. The moil fimple kind of fynocha is
the ephemera or diary fever. It begins without any
fenfation of cold or fhivering, unlefs there is fome in¬
ternal inflammation, or the fmall pox or mealies hap¬
pen to be prefent. A continual heat without any in-
termiffion conftitutes the effence of this difeafe. The
heat, however, is more tolerable than in the fynocha
properly fo called. In fome the pains of the head are
pungent and throbbing, anfwering to the pulfations
of the arteries ; but in others they are dull and heavy.
The facet's red and bloated; and there is a remarkable
laffitude of the limbs, with a great, full, and frequent
pulfe. The urine is red, and depofits a fediment aimed
of the colour of orange-peel; and in the very fird day
of the difeafe, figns of conco&ion, (according to the
Hippocratic phrafe), appear, in it. The fever com¬
monly goes off with a gentle fweat, but more rarely
with an hasmorrhage of the nofe. Its Ihorted period is
24 hours ; but if it goes beyond the fourth day, it is
then a fynocha properly fo called.
The fimple fynochus, according to Vogel, begins
with cold and fhivering, fucceeded by vehement heat,
rednefs, and drinefs of the fkin. The face, efpe-
cially, is very red, and the third intenfe. The head
is either pained or heavy. The patient either doth
H not fleep at all, or is didurbed with dreams. A
moid fweat then breaks out all over the fkin. The
pulfe is full, quick, and frequent; the judgment is
fometimes a little didurbed : young people are apt to
be terrified with imaginations; and they for the mod
part incline to fleep : the refpiration is difficult, and
the belly codive ; at the fame time that a tenfive kind
of laffitude is perceived over the whole body. A com¬
plete crifis takes place either on the fourth, or at the
farthed on the eleventh day. The charadteriftic marks
of the fimple fynochus, therefore, are, A rednefs of the
face, moidure of the fkin, and great and frequent pulfe.
Caufes of andperfons fubjett to, this difeafe. The cau •
fes of inflammatory fevers affigned by Dr Cullen have
been already largely difeuded in the fird part of this
treatife; and as we have already remarked of inter-
mittents, fo mud we alfo now remark of continued fe¬
vers, that it is impoffible to difeover thofe minute
caufes which occafion the difference of type betwixt
one inflammatory fever and another, though mod au¬
thors pretend to enumerate thefe with great certainty.
Thus Juncker tells us, that the caufe of the fimple
ephemera is plethora, together with any immoderate
agitation and commotion of the fluids while in that
date. Vogel reckons among the caufes of his febris
diaria, paffions of the mind, pain, want, expofure to
the fun, &c.; a repulfion or abforption of certain hu¬
mours; wounds, fraftures, luxations, &e.: fo that in
general we may reckon every thing tending to increafe
the a&ion of the arterial fydem to be in certain cir-
cumflances a caufe of inflammatory fever. Hence we
find thofe are mod fubjeft to the fynocha whofe con-
ditution is either naturally rebuff, or who are expofed
to thofe caufes which tend to produce an increafed ac¬
tion of the arterial fydem; fuch as hard labour, high
living, See.
Pregnofis. The mod fimple kind of fynocha, that
2
: C I N E. 4665
is, the ephemera or diary fever, is commonly cured Pa act ica
without the affidance of medicine; and therefore the —~
prognofis is for the mod part favourable : yet, if it is
improperly treated by heating medicines, it may eafily
be converted into the other kind ; or, if there is a pu¬
trid difpofition of the fluids, into a fever of a very
dangerous nature. The fame thing is to be underdood
even of the mod violent kind ; for fimple inflamma¬
tory fevers are not dangerous unlefs complicated with
an affedlion of fome particular part, as the pleura, do-
mach, &c.
Cure. Here Dr Cullen objefts to the hypothefis of
thofe who are for leaving the cure of continued fevers
to the operations of nature ; becaufe thefe operations
are neither certain in themfelves, nor are they fo well
underdood as to enable us to regulate them proper¬
ly ; and it is likewife poffible to fuperfede them by art.
The plan therefore on which he proceeds is, to form
his indications of cure upon the means of obviating,
the tendency to death in fevers ; and thefe he reduces
to three. 1. To moderate the violence of re-adlion.
2. To remove or obviate the caufes of debility ; and,
3. To obviate or correft the tendency of the fluids to
putrefadrion.
The firjl indication may be anfwered, r. By all
thofe means which diminifh the a&ion of the heart and'"
arteries. 2. By thofe which take off the fpafm of
the extreme veffels, which, according to his theory, is
the chief caufe of violent re-adlion.
I. The aftion of the heart and arteries maybe dimi-
nidied, I. By avoiding or moderating thofe irritations
which, in one degree or other, are almod condantly
applied to the body. 2. By the ufe of certain feda-
tive powers. 3. By diminilhing the tenfion and tone
of the arterial fyftem.
[ r.] The irritations above-mentioned are the impref-
fions made upon our fenfes, the exercife of the body and
mind, and the taking in of aliments. The avoiding
of thefe as much as poffible, or the moderating their
force, makes what is properly called the antiphlogijiic
regimen, proper to be employed in almoji every conti¬
nued fever. This regimen is to be directed in the fol¬
lowing manner.
1. Impreffions on the external fenfes, as ftimulant
to the fyftem, and a chief fupport of its aftivity,,
ftiould be avoided as much as poffible ; efpecially fuch
as are of i. ftronger kind, and which give pain and
uneafinefs. No impreffion is to be more carefully
guarded againft than that of external heat; and at
the fame time every other means of increafing the heat
of the body is to be fhunned. Both thefe precautions-
are to be avoided as foon as a hot ftage is fully formed,-
and to be attended to during its continuance, except
in certain cafes, where a determination to fweating is
neceffary,- or where the ftimulant effe&s of heat may
be compenfated by circumftances which determine it
to produce a relaxation and revulfion.
2. All motion of the body is to be avoided as m-ucli
as poffible, and that pollute only chofen which em¬
ploys the feweft mufcles, and keeps none of them long
in a ftate of contraction. Speaking, as it accelerates
refpiration, is particularly to be avoided. It muft al¬
fo be obferved, that every motion of the body is more
ftimulant in proportion as the patient is weaker.
3. The exercife of the mind is alfo to be avoided
as being a llimulus to the body ; but here an exception
26 K 2 is-
4566
Practice
MEDICINE.
is to be made in the cafe of a delirium coming on,
'when the prefenting of accuftomed objeds may di¬
vert the irregular train of ideas then arifing in the
mind.
4. The prefence of recent aliment in the ftomach
proves always a ftimulus to the fyftem, and ought
therefore to be as moderate as poffible. A total ab-
ftinence for fome time may be of fervice ; but as this
cannot be long continued with fafety, we muft avoid
the ftimulus of aliment by choofing that kind which
gives the leaft. Alimentary matters are alfo to be ac¬
counted moreftimulant in proportion to their alkalefcent
qualities ; and this leads us to avoid all animal, and
ufe only vegetable food. For the fame reafon, aro¬
matic and fpirituous liquors are to be avoided ; and in
anfwering the prefent indication, we muft abftain from
all fermented liquors except thofe of the lowed; qua¬
lity. Other ftimuli are, the fenfation of thirft, cru¬
dities or corrupted humours in the ftomach, a preter¬
natural retention of the faeces in the inteftines, and a
general acrimony of all the humours, which is in moft
fevers to be fufpeded. Thefe are to be removed by
fuch methods as the urgency of the fymptoms require,
by diluting liquors, vomiting, the ufe of acids, laxa¬
tive clyfters, and large quantities of antifeptic drinks.
[2.3 The fecond method of moderating the violence of
re-adion is by the employment of certain fedative powers
with a view to diminirti the a&ivity of the whole body,
and particularly that of the fanguiferous fyftem. The
firft of thefe to be mentioned is the application of cold.
Heat is the chief fupport of the activity of the ani-
mal-fyftem ; and the fyftem is therefore provided with
a power of generating heat in itfelf: but at the fame
time we obferve, that this would go to excefs, were it
not conftantly moderated by a cooler temperature in
the furrounding atmofphere. When, therefore, the
generating power of heat in the fyftem is increafed, as
is commonly the cafe in fevers, it is neceffary not only
to avoid all further means of increafing it, but alfo to
apply air of a cooler temperature; or at leaft to apply
it more entirely and freely than in a ftate of health.
This is fhown, from fome late obfervations, to be a very
powerful means of moderating the violence of re-ac¬
tion ; but what is the mode of its operation, to what
circumftances of fever it particularly applies, or what
limitations it requires, are not yet well afeertained.
Another fedative power very frequently employed
in fevers, is that of certain medicines known in the
materia medica by the name of refrigerants. The
chief of thefe are acids of all kinds when fufficiently
diluted, and which are, in feveral refpedts, remedies
adapted to continued fevers. Thofe efpecially in ufe
are the vitriolic and vegetable; and on many accounts
the latter are to be preferred. Another fet of refrige¬
rants are the neutral falls formed of the vitriolic, ni¬
trous, or vegetable acids, with alkalies either fixed or
volatile. All thefe neutrals, while they are diflblved
in water, generate cold ; but as that cold ceafes foon
after the diflblution is finiftied, and as the falls are ge¬
nerally exhibited in a dilfolved ftate, their refrigerant
power in the animal-body does not at all depend upon
their power of generating cold with water. Nitre is
the refrigerant chiefly employed; but all the others,
compounded as above-mentioned, partake more orlefs
of the fame quality. Befides thefe neutrals, fomc me-
Part H i
tallic falts h^ve alfo been employed in fevers, part?cu-PRACTI<H
lavly the fugar of lead : but the refrigerant powers of """I
this fait are by no means well afeertained, and its de¬
leterious qualities are too well known to admit of its
being freely ufed.
£3.] The third general method of diminifhing the re¬
action of the fyftem, is by leflening the tenfion, tone,
and aftivity of the fanguiferous fyftem. As the acti¬
vity of the fyftem in a great meafure depends upon the
tone, and this again upon the the tenfion, of the vef*
fels, given to them by the quantity of fluids they con¬
tain, it is evident, that the diminution of the quan¬
tity of thefe muft diminifh the aCtivity of the fangui¬
ferous fyftem. The moft efficacious means of dimi¬
nifhing the quantity of fluids is by the evacuations of
blood-letting and purging. The former is evidently ^
one of the moft powerful means of diminifhing the ac¬
tivity of the whole body, and efpecially of the fan¬
guiferous fyftem ; and it muft therefore be the moft; i
effectual means of moderating the re-aCtion in fevers.
When the violence of re-aCtion, and its conftant at¬
tendant a phlogiftic diathefis, are fufficiently evident;
when thefe conftituto the principal part of the difeafe,
and may be expeCted to continue through the whole j
of it, as in the cafes of fynocha ; then blood-letting j
is the principal remedy, and may be employed as far
as the fymptoms of the difeafe may feem to require,
and the conftitution of the patient will bear. It muft,
however, be attended to, that a greater evacuation
than is neceffary may occafion a flower recovery, and
render the perfon more liable to a relapfe, or bring on ]
other difeafes. It is alfo to be obferved, that this eva¬
cuation is the more effeCfual as the blood is more fudden-
ly drawn off, and as the body is at the fame time more
free from all irritation ; and, therefore, when it is in a
pofture in which the feweft mufcles are in aCtion.
With regard to purging, when we confider the
quantity of fluids conftantly prefent in the cavity of
the inteftines, and the quantity which may be drawn
off from the innumerable excretories that open into
this cavity, it will be obvious, that a very great eva¬
cuation may be made by purging : and if this be done ]
by a ftimulus that is not at the fame time communicated
to the reft of the body, it may, by emptying both
the cavity of the inteftines and the arteries which fur-
nifh the excretions poured into it, induce a confider-
able relaxation in the whole fyftem ; and is therefore
fuited to moderate the violence of re-aft ion in fevers.
But it is to be obferved, that as the fluid drawn from
the excretories opening into the inteftines is not all
drawn immediately from the arteries, and as what is
even more immediately drawn from thefe is drawn off
flowly; fo the evacuation will not, in proportion to
its quantity, occafion fuch a fudden depletion of the
red veffels as blood-letting does* and therefore cannot
aft fo powerfully in taking off the phlogiftic diathefis
of the fyftem.
At the fame time, the evacuation may induce a con-
fiderable degree of debility; and therefore, in thofe
cafes in which a dangerous ftate of debility is likely to
occur, purging is to be employed with a great deal of
caution ; and this caution is more difficult to be ob¬
ferved than in the cafe of blood-letting : and it is fur¬
ther to be noticed, that as purging takes off in fome
meafure the determination of the blood to the veffels
on |
Tart II. M E D I
Ir act ice on the furface of the body, it feems to be an evacua¬
tion not well adapted to the cure of fevers.
II. The other method of moderating the violence of
re-a&ion in fevers is by the exhibition of thofe remedies
fuit'ed to take off the fpafm of the extreme veffels, fup.
pofed to be the irritation which chiefly fupports the
re-a&ion. The means to be employed for this pur-
pofe are either internal or external.
Firjl) The internal means are, I. Thofe which de¬
termine the force of the circulation to the extreme veffels
on the fqrface of the body, and, by reftoring the tone and
aftivity of thefe vefiels, overcome the fpafm on their
extremities. 2. Thofe medicines which have the power
of taking off fpafm in any part of the fyftem, and
which are known under the title of Antispasmodics.
( i.) Thofe remedies which are fit to determine to the
furface of the body are, i. Diluents. 2. Neutral falts.
3. Sudorifics. 4. Emetics.
x. Water enters, in a large proportion, into the com-
pofition of all the animal-fluids, and a large quantity
of it is always diffufed through the whole of the com¬
mon mafs. In a found ftate, the fluidity of the whole
mafs depends upon the quantity of water prefent in it.
Water therefore is the proper diluent of our mafs of
blood, and other fluids are diluent only in proportion
to the quantity of water they contain.
In a healthy ftate alfo, the fullnefs of the extreme
veffels and the quantity of excretion are in proportion
to the quantity of water prefent in the body. But in
fever, though the excretions are in fome meafure inter¬
rupted, they continue in fuch quantity as to exhale
the more fluid parts of the blood; and, while a por¬
tion of them is at the fame time neceffarily retained in
the larger veffels, the fmaller and the extreme vef¬
fels, both from the deficiency of fluid and their own
contradted ftate, are lefs filled, and therefore allowed to
remain in that condition. To remedy this contradted
ftate, nothing is more neceffary than a large fupply of
water or watery fluids taken in by drinking or other-
wife ; for as any fuperfluous quantity of water is for¬
ced off by the feveral excretories, fuch a force applied
may be a means of dilating the extreme veffels, and of
overcoming the fpafm affedting their extremities. Ac¬
cordingly, the throwing in of a large quantity of wa¬
tery fluids has been, at all times, a remedy much em¬
ployed in fevers; and in no inftance more remarkably
than by the Spanifli and Italian phyficians, in the ufe of
what they call the diata aquca. This pradtice confifts
in taking away every other kind of aliment and drink,
and in giving, in divided portions, every day for feve¬
ral days together, fix or eight pounds of plain water,
generally cold, but fometimes warm. All this, how¬
ever, is to be done only after the difeafe has continued
for fome time, and at leaft for a week.
2. A fecond means of determining to the furface of
the body, is by the ufe of neutral falts. Thefe neutrals,
in a certain dofe, taken into the ftomach, produce foon
after a fenfe of heat upon the furface of the body;
and, if the body be covered clofe and kept warm, a
fweat is readily brought out. The fame medicines ta¬
ken during the cold tlage of a fever, very often put an
end to it, and bring on the hot one; and they are alfo
remarkable for flopping the vomiting which fo fre¬
quently attends the cold ftage of fevers. All this (hows,
that neutral falts have a power of determining the
e i n e. 4667
blood to the furface of the body, and may therefore PRACTICE
be of ufe in taking off the fpafm which fubfifts there “
in fevers. The neutral moft commonly employed in
fevers, is that formed of an^lkali with the native acid
of vegetables. But all the other neutrals have more
or lefs of the fame virtue; and perhaps fome of them,
particularly the ammoniacal falts, poffefs it in a ftrong-
er degree. As cold water taken into the ftomach of¬
ten fhews the fame diaphoretic effefts with the neutral
falls, it is probable that the effedt of the latter depends
upon their refrigerant powers above-mentioned.
3. A third method of determining to the furface of
the body, and taking off the fpafm fubfifting there, is
by the ufe of fudorifics and of fweating. The propriety
of this remedy hath been much difputed ; and many
fpecious arguments may be adduced both for and
againft the praftice. In its favour may be urged,
1. That in healthy perfons, in every cafe of increafed
aftion of the heart and arteries, a fweating takes place,
and is, feemingly, the means of preventing the bad
effe&s of fuch increafed a&ion. 2. That, in fevers,
their moft ufual folution and termination is by fponta-
neous fweating. 3. That, even when excited by art,
it has been found ufeful at certain periods, and in cer¬
tain fpecies of fever.—On the other hand, it may be
urged againft the pra&ice of fweating, 1. That in
fevers, as a fpontaneous fweating does not immediately
come on, there are fome circumftances different from
thofe in the ftate of health, and which may render it
doubtful whether the fweating can be fafely excited
by art. 2. That in many cafes the praftice hath been
attended with bad confequences. The means com¬
monly employed have a tendency to produce an inflam¬
matory diathefis; which, if not taken off by the fweat
fucceeding, muft be increafed with much danger. Thus
fweating employed to prevent the acceffions of inter¬
mitting fevers has often changed them into a continued .
form, which is always dangerous. 3. The utility of
the pra&ice is doubtful, as fweating, when it happens,
does not always give a final determination, as muft be
manifeft in the cafe of intermittents, and in many con¬
tinued fevers which are fometimes in the beginning at¬
tended with fweatings which do not prove final; and,
on the contrary, whether they be fpontaneous or exci¬
ted by art, feem often to aggravate the difeafe.
From thefe confiderations, it is doubtful if the prac¬
tice of fweatifig can be admitted very generally ; but,
at the fame time, it is alfo very doubtful if the failure
of the pradice, or the mifehiefs faid to arife from it,
have not been owing to the improper condud of the
praditioner. With refped to the laft, it is almoft
agreed among phyficians, 1. That fweating has been
generally hurtful when excited by ftimulant, heating,
and inflammatory medicines. 2. That it has been hurt¬
ful when excited by much external heat, and conti¬
nued with a great increafe of the heat of the body,
3. That it is always hurtful when it does not relieve;
and rather increafes the frequency and hardnefs of the
pulfe, the anxiety and difficultyof breathing, the head-
ach, and delirium. 4. That it is always hurtful if it is
urged when the fweat is not fluid, and when it is par¬
tial and on the fuperior parts of the body only.
In thefe cafes, it is probable, that either an inflam¬
matory diathefis is produced, which increafes the fpafm
on the extreme veffels; or that, from other caufes, the
fpafm
4668 M E D I
Practice fpafm is too much fixed to yield eafily to the increaf^d
adlion of the heart and arteries; and upon either fup-
pofition it mull be obvious, that urging the fweat may
produce determinations t6* fome of the internal parts,
with very great danger.
Notwithftanding thefe doubts, however, it ftill re¬
mains true, i. That fweating has certainly been often
ufeful in preventing the acceffions of fevers when they
have been certainly forefeen, and a proper condudl em¬
ployed. 2. That even after fevers have in fome mea-
fure come on, fweating has interrupted their progrefs
when properly employed, either at the very beginning
of the difeafe, or during its approach and gradual for¬
mation. 3. That even after pyrexise have continued
for fome time, fweating has been fuccefsfully employed
in curing them, as particularly in the cafe of a rheu-
matifm. 4. That certain fevers produced by a very
powerful fedative contagion, have been generally treat¬
ed mod fuccefsfully by fweating.
Thefe inftances are in favour of fweating, but give
no general rule; and it mud be left to farther experi¬
ence to determine how far any general rule can be eda-
blilhed in this matter. In the mean time, if the prac¬
tice of fweating is to be attempted, the following rules
may be laid down for the conduA of it. 1. That a
fweat fiiould be exhibited without the ufe of dimulant
inflammatory medicines. 2. That it fliould be exci¬
ted with as little external heat, and with as little in-
ereafe of the heat of the body, as poffible. 3. That,
when excited, it fnould be continued for a due length
of time; not lefs than 12 hours, and fometimes for 24
or 48 hours; always, however, ftippofing that it pro¬
ceeds without the dangerous circumdances already
mentioned. 4. That for fome part of the time, and
as long as the perfon can eafily bear, it fhould be
carried on without admitting of fleep. 5. That it
fhould be rendered univerfal over the whole body; and
therefore particularly that care be taken to bring the
fweating to the lower extremities. 6. That the prac¬
tice fhould be rendered fafer by moderate purging ex¬
cited at the fame time. 7. That it fhould not be fud-
denly checked by cold any how applied to the body.
When attention is tobegiven to theferules,the fweat¬
ing may be excited, r. By warm bathing, or a fomenta¬
tion of the lower extremities. 2. By frequent draughts
of tepid liquors, chiefly water, rendered more grateful
by the addition of a light aromatic, or more powerful
by that of a fmall quantity of wine. 3. By giving
fome dofes of neutral falls. 4. Moll effe&ually, and
perhaps mod fafely, by a large dofe of an opiate, join¬
ed with a portion of neutral falls, and of an emetic.
The fourth mean of determining to the furface of the
body, and thereby taking off the fpafm affe&ing the
extreme veffels, is by the ufe of emetics. Thefe, par¬
ticularly of the antimonial kind, have been employed
in the cure of fevers ever fince the introduction of che¬
mical medicines; and though of late their ufe has be¬
come very general, their efficacy is ftill difputed, and
their manner of operating is not commonly explained.
Vomiting is in many refpe&s ufeful in fevers; as it e-
vacuates the contents of the ftomach, as it emulges the
biliary and pancreatic dufts, and evacuates the contents
of the duodenum, and perhaps alfo of a larger portion
of the inteftines; as it agitates the whole of the abdo¬
minal vifcera, it expedes the circulation in them, and
CINE. Part II.
promotes their feveral fecretions; and laftly, as it agi- Pr actk
tales alfo the vifcera of the thorax, it has like effedla ~—
there.
It is not to this caufe, however, that we are to im¬
pute the effeft vomiting has in determining to the fur-
face of the body. This muft be attributed to the par¬
ticular operation of emetics upon the mufcular fibres
of the ftomach, whereby they excite the adlion of the
extreme arteries on the furface of the body, and there¬
by effe&ually determine the blood to thefe veflels, re¬
move the atony, and take off the fpafm affefting therm
For this purpofe they are exhibited in two different
ways ; that is, either in fuch dofes as may excite full
and repeated vomitings, or in fuch dofes as may excite
ficknefs and naufea only, with little or no vomiting at all.
Full vomiting is well fuited to determine to the fur¬
face of the body, and thereby to obviate the atony and
fpafm which lay the foundation of fever. Thus, vo¬
miting excited a little before the expefted acceflion of
the paroxyfm of an intermittent, has been found to pre¬
vent the paroxyfm altogether. It has been obferved al¬
fo, that when contagion has been applied to a perfon*
and firft difcovers its operation, a vomit given will pre¬
vent the fever which otherwife was to have been ex-
pedled.
Thefe are the advantages to be obtained by exciting
vomiting at the firft approach of fevers, or of the pa¬
roxyfm of fevers ; and they may alfo be applied after
fevers are formed, to take off, perhaps entirely, the
atony and fpafm, or at leaft to moderate thefe, fo that,
the fever may proceed more gently and fafely. It is
feldom, however, that vomiting is found to produce a
final folufion of fevers; and after they are once form¬
ed, it is commonly neceffary to repeat the vomiting fe¬
veral times ; but this is attended with iticonveniency,
and fometimes with difadvantage. The operation of
full vomiting is tranfitory, and the exercife of vomit¬
ing is a debilitating power; and therefore, when the
vomiting does not remove the atony and fpafm very
entirely, it may give oecafion to their recurrence with
greater force. For thefe reafons, after fevers are fully
formed, phyficians have thought proper to employ
emetics in naufeating dofes only. Thefe are capable
of exciting the adlion of the extreme veffels, and their
operation is more permanent. At the fame time they
often Ihow their power by exciting fome degree of
fweat, and their operation is rendered more lafe by
their commonly producing fome evacuation by ftool.-
The emetics chiefly in ufe at prefent are, ipecacu¬
anha and antimony. The former may be employed for
determining to the furface of the body: but, even in
very fmall dofes, it fo readily excites vomiting, that it
is with difficulty employed for the purpofe of naufea¬
ting only; and in whatever manner employed, there is
reafon to fufpeft that its effe&s are lefs permanent,
and lefs powerfully communicated from the ftomach to
the reft of the fyftem, than thofe of antimony. This
laft is therefore generally preferred ; and its prepara¬
tions, feemingly various, may all be reduced to two
heads ; one comprehending thofe in which the regu-
line part is in a condition to be afted upon by acids,
and therefore on meeting with acids in the ftomach it
becomes aftive; and another, comprehending thofe
preparations in which the regulinepart is already join¬
ed with an acid, rendering it aftive. Of each kind there
are
part II. M E D I
|actice are great numbers, but not differing efientially from
r" ‘ one another; the two moil worthy of notice are, the
cah nitrata antimoriri and emetic tartar of the Edin¬
burgh difpenfatory. Both thefe are very efficacious
medicines; but the latter feems preferable, becaufe its
dofe is capable of being better afcertained ; though the
former, on account of its flower operation may have
fome advantages, and in certain cafes be more efficaci¬
ous as a purgative and fudorific.
The time moft proper for exhibiting thefe medicines
is a little before the acceffion, when that can be cer¬
tainly known. In continued fevers the exacerbations
are not always very obfervable ; but there is reafon to
believe, that one commonly happens about noon or
foon after it; and that thefe, therefore, are the moft
proper times for exhibiting emetics.
With refpeft to the manner of adminiftration, that
of the calx nitrata is Ample, as the whole of what is
thought a proper dofe may be given at once; and no
more can be properly given till the next acceffion.
The adminiftration of the emetic tartar is different. It
is to be given in fmall dofes, not fufficient to excite vo¬
miting; and thefe dofes are to be repeated, after fhort in¬
tervals, for feveral times, till flcknefs, naufea, and fome,
though not much, vomiting come on. The difference
of adminiftration muft depend upon the dofe, and the
length of the interval at which it is given. If it is in¬
tended that the medicine fhould certainly operate by
ftool, the dofes are made fmall, and the intervals long.
On the contrary, when vomiting is proper, or when
much purging ought to be avoided, and therefore
fome vomiting muft be admitted, the dofes are made
larger, and the intervals fhorter. With refpeft to both
kinds of preparations, the repetition is to be made at
the times of acceffion, but not very often : for if the
firft exhibitions, duly managed, have little effedt, it is
feldom that the after exhibitions have much ; and it
fometimes happens that the repeated vomiting, and
efpecially repeated purging, does harm by weakening
the patient.
(2.) The other fet of internal medicines which are fup-
pofed ufeful in taking off the fpafm of the extreme vef-
fels, are thofe named antifpafmodic. But whatever may
be the virtues of fome of them in this way, fuch is
their power of ftimulating at the fame time, that very
few of them can with fafety be adminiftered in fevers
of an inflammatory nature. Almoft the only one which
can with fafety be exhibited in thefe cafes is camphire;
and the operations of this are by no means well afcer¬
tained. Dr Huxham mentions it as a correftor of the
acrimony of cantharides; and affures us, that it very
effedtually promotes a diaphorefis. But from the re¬
marks of other pra&itioners, we have no juft reafon to
fuppofe that it aCts perceptibly in a dofe of flve or Ax
rains, though in 15 or 20 it produces a particular
ind of intoxication.
Secondly, The external means fuited to take off the
fpafm of the extreme veffels, are bliftering and warm
bathing.
1. What are the effeCts of blifterin" fo frequently
employed in fevers, is not yet agreed upon among phy-
licians. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the fmall quan¬
tity of cantharides abforbed from a bliftering plafter,
is not fufficient to change the conflftence of the mafs
of blood; and therefore, that fuch a quantity can net-
CINE. 4669
ther do good by refolving phlogiftic lentor if it exifts, PRACT1CE
nor do harm by increaftng the diffolution of the blood
ariflng from a putrid tendency in it. The effeCts of
cantharides upon the fluids, therefore, may be entirely
negleCted. The inflammation produced by the appli¬
cation of cantharides to the (kin, affords a certain proof
of their ftimulant power: but in many perfons the ef-
feCt of that ftimulus is not conflderable; in many it is
not communicated to the whole fyftem; and even when
it does take place in the whole fyftem, it feems to be
taken off very entirely by the effuflon and evacuation of
ferum from the bliftered part. It may be concluded,
therefore, that neither much good is to be expeCted,
nor much harm to be apprehended, from the ftimnlant
power of bliftering; and the certainty of this conclu-
fion is eftablifhed by the great beneftt ariflng from the
proper pra&ice of bliftering in inflammatory difeafes.
Much has been imputed to the evacuation made by
bliftering ; but it is never fo conflderable as to affeCI
the whole fyftem; and therefore can neither by a fud-
den depletion relax the fanguiferous fyftem, nor by any
revulflon affed the general diftribution of the fluids.
The evacuation, however, is fo conflderable as to affcCt
the neighbouring veffels; and the manifeft utility of
bliftering near the part affeCled in inflammatory difeafes
leads us to think, that bliftering, by deriving to the
fkin, and producing an effufion there, relaxes the fpafin
of the deeper feated veffels. It is in this manner, moft
probably, that the tumour of a joint, from an effufion
into the cellular texture under the fkin, takes off the
rheumatic pain formerly affeCting that joint. Analo¬
gous to this, probably, is the good effeft of bliftering
in continued fevers; and arifes from the relaxation of
the fpafm of the extreme veffels by a communication
of the bliftered part with the reft of the fkin. A blifter
may be employed at any period in continued fevers;
but it will be of moft advantage in the advanced ftate
of fuch fevers, w’hen, the reaftion being weaker, all am¬
biguity from the ftimulating power of bliftering is re¬
moved, and when it may beft concur with other cir-
cumftances tending to a final folution of the fpafm.
From this view of the matter it will appear, that
the part of the body to which blifters ought to be
applied is indifferent, except upon the fufpicion of
topical affe&ion, when the bliftering is to be made
as near as poffible to the part affected. Whether fi-
napifms and other rubefacientia aft in a manner ana¬
logous to what we have fuppofed of bliftering, maybe
doubtful; but their effefts in rheumatifm and other
inflammatory difeafes render it probable.
2. The other external means of taking off the fpafm
of the extreme veffels is warm bathing. This was
frequently, and in different circumftances, employed
by the ancients ; but has, till very lately, been ne-
lefted by modern phyficians. As the heat of the
ath ftimulates the extreme veffels, and, with the
concurrence of moiftufe, alfo relaxes them, it feems to
be a fafe ftimulus, and well fuited. to take off the
fpafm affefting thefe veffels. It may be applied to
the whole body by immerfion : but this is in many
refpefts inconvenient; and whether fome of the in-
conveniencies of immerfion might not be avoided by
a vapour*bath, we have not yet learned by experience;
but we know from much experience, that moft of the
purpofes of warm bathing can be obtained by a fo¬
mentation
4670
Practice mentation of the legs anil feet, if properly admini-
ttered, and continued for a due length of time, not
lefs than an hour. The marks of the good effefls of
fuch a fomentation are, the patient’s bearing it eafily,
its relieving delirium, and inducing fleep.
Thus doth the learned profeflbr lay down the cure
of inflammatory fevers in fo full a manner, that no¬
thing further feems neceffary to be added on the fub-
je&. His other two indications, namely, removing
the debility, and correfting the putrefcent difpofition
of the fluids, {hall be taken notice of under the fol¬
lowing genus.
Genus V. TYPHUS; the Typhus
Typhus, Sauv. Gen. 82. Sag. 677.
275 XXVI. The Slow Nervous Fever. Sp. I. var. t.
Febris maligna he£lica convulfiva, five lues
Willis, de morb. convulfiv. cap. 8.
Febris peftilens, Fracajlor. de morb. contag. L. II.
cap. 4.
Febris peftilens fine charaftere veneni, Forejl, L. VI.
obf. 26.
Febris heftica peftilens, L. VI. obf. 32.
Febris nova ann. 1685, Sydenham, Sched. monitor.
Febris putrida nervofa, Wintringh. Com. Nofolog.
ad ann. 1720, 1721.
Febris lenta nervofa, Huxham on fevers, chap. 8.
Febris contagiofa, Lind on fevers and infection,
pafm.
Typhus nervofus, Sauv. fp. 2.
Typhus comatofus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Tritaeophya typhodes Mangeti, Sauv. fp. 11. Raym.
Fort, de febribus.
Defcription. Of all the defcriptions we have of the
nervous fever, that of Dr Huxham is the beft. Ac¬
cording to him, the patient at fifft grows fomewhat
liftlefs, and feels flight chills and ftiudders, with un¬
certain flufhes of heat, and a kind of wearinefs all
oVer, like what is felt after great fatigue. This is
always attended with a fort of heavinefs and dejeftion
of fpirit, and more or lefs of a load, pain, or giddi-
nefs of the head; a naufea and difrelifli of every thing
foon follows, without any confiderable thirft, but fre¬
quently with urging to vomit, though little but in-
fipid phlegm is brought up. Though a kind of lucid
interval of feveral hours fometimes intervenes, yet the
fymptoms return with aggravation, efpecially towards
night; the head grows more giddy or heavy; the heats
greater; the pulfe quicker, but weak; with an op-
preflive kind of breathing. A great torpor, or obtufe
pain and coldnefs, affedls the hinder-part of the head
frequently, and oftentimes a heavy pain is felt on the
top all along the coronary future; this, and that of
the back-part of the head, generally attend nervous
fevers, and are commonly fucceeded by fome degree
of a delirium. In this condition the patient often
continues for five or fix days, with a heavy, pale, funk
countenance ; feemingly not very fiek, and yet far
* from being well ; reftlefs, anxious, and commonly
quite void of fleep, though fometimes very drowfy and
heavy; but although he appears to thofe about him
aftually to fleep, he is utterly infenfible of it, and
denies that he doth fo. The pulfe during all this
time is quick, weak, and unequal; fometimes flutter¬
ing, and fometimes for a few moments flow ; nay, even
Part IT.
intermitting, and then, with a fudden flufti in the face, Practic^
immediately very quick, and perhaps foon after fur-   ^
prifingly calm and equal; and thus alternately. The
heats and chills are as upcertain and unequal; fome¬
times a fudden colour and glowarife in the cheeks, while
the tip of the nofe and ears is cold, and the forehead
at the fame time in a cold dewy fweat. Nay, it is
very common, that a high colour and heat appear in
the face, when the extremities are quite cold. The
urine is commonly pale, and often limpid; frequently
of a whey colour, or like vapid fmall-beer, in which
there is either no manner of fediment, or a kind of
loofe matter like bran irregularly fcattered up and
down in it. The tongue at the beginning is feldom
or never dry or difcoloured, but fometimes covered
with a thin whitifti mucus: at length, indeed, it often
appears very dry, red, and chapped, or of the colour
of pomegranate-rind; but this moftly at the Jlate or
clofe of the difeafe: yet, however dry the tongue and
lips feem, the patient fcarce ever complains of thirft,
though fometimes of a heat in the tongue. About
the feventh or eighth day, the giddinefs, pain, or hea¬
vinefs of the head become much greater, with a dOn-
ftant noife in it, or tinnitus aurium; which is very
difturbing to the Tick, and frequently brings on a de¬
lirium. The load on the prsecordia, anxiety and faint-
nefs, grow much more urgent; and they often fall into
an aftual deliquium, efpecially if they attempt to fit up; v
coldifh fweats fuddenly come out on the forehead, and
on the backs of the hands, (though at the fame time
there is too much heat in the cheeks and palms,) and
as fuddenly go off. If the urine now grows more
pale and limpid, a delirium is certainly to be expefted,
with univerfal tremors and fubfultus tendinusn; the
delirium is feldom violent, but as it were a confufion
of thought and aftion, muttering continually to them-
felves, and faultering in their fpeech. Sometimes
they awake only in a hurry and confufion, and pre-
fently recolledi themfelves, but forthwith fall into a
muttering dozy ftate again. The tongue grows often
very dry at the Jlate, efpecially in its middle-part, with *
a yellowifli lift on each fide, and trembles greatly when
the fick attempts to put it out. Frequently profufe
fweats pour forth all at once about the ninth, tenth,,
or twelfth day, commonly coldifti and clammy on the
extremities; oftentimes very thin ftools are difeharged -
and then nature finks apace; the extremities grow
cold, the nails pale or livid; the pulfe may be faid to
tremble and flutter, rather than to beat, the vibrations
being fo exceeding weak and quick that they can
fcarce be diftinguiflied; though fometimes they creep
on furprifingly flow, and very frequently intermit.
The fick become quite infenfible and ftupid, fcarce
affefted with the loudeft noife or the ftrongeft light
though, at the beginning, ftrangely fufceptible of the
impreflions of either. The delirium now ends in a
profound coma, and that foon in eternal fleep. The
ftools, urine, and tears, run off involuntarily, and de¬
nounce a fpeedy diffolution, as the ^aft tremblings and
twitchings of the nerves and tendons are preludes to a
general convulfion, which at once fnaps off the thread
of life. In one or other of thefe ways are the fick
'carried off, after having languiftied for fourteen, eigh¬
teen, or twenty days ; nay, fometimes much longer.
All perfons grow deaf and ftupid towards the end of ,
MEDICINE.
(Part II. M E D I
wactice this difeafe (fome extremely deaf), though too quick
ij- and apprehenfive at the beginning; infomuch that the
leaft noife or light greatly offended them. Many
from their immoderate fears feem to hurry themfelves
out of life, where little danger is apparent at the
beginning: nay, fome will not allow themfelves to
fleep, from a vain fear of dozing quite away ; and
others from the vaft hurry, anxiety and confufion
| i they are fenfible of in it, or at their awaking.
Caufes oft and perfons fubjeft to, the diforder. The
nervous fever is a confequence of contagion received
by means of fome corrupted animal-fubftance. It
moft commonly attacks^ perfons of weak nerves, a lax
habit of body, and a poor thin blood; thofe who have
fuffered great evacuations, a long dejedtion of fpirits,
immoderate watchings, ftudies, fatigue, &c.; alfo
thofe who have ufed much crude unwholefome food,
ij vapid impure drinks, or who have been confined long
in damp foul air; who have broken the vigour of their
conftitutions by falivations, too frequent purging, im¬
moderate venery, &c. Hence we fee that the difeafe
confifts principally in an extreme debility of the ner¬
vous fyftem ; for, when people are prepared for this
fever by having their nerves already weakened, the
fl contagious particles immediately attack the nervous
fyftem, without fo much affedting the ftate of the
blood or juices, though the latter are greatly affedled
in the putrid malignant fevers.
Prognofts. In nervous fevers, the prognofis is very
much the fame with that of the putrid malignant
kind. See below.
Cure. As this fever is produced by a contagion
affedting the nervous fyftem of a perfon already debi¬
litated, and thus producing weaknefs in an extreme
degree, we have now occafion to confider Dr Cullen’s
lx tnuo indications of cure omitted under the Sfnocha;
namely, to remove the caufe and obviate the effedls of
debility, and to corredl the putrefcent tendency of
the fluids; for though, in the beginning of nervous
fevers, the tendency to putrefadfion is not remark¬
able, it becomes exceedingly great towards their con-
clufion.
[i.] Inanfwering the firft indication. Dr Cullen ob-
ferves, that moft of the fedative powers inducing de¬
bility ceafe to adt foon after they have been firft ap¬
plied ; and therefore the removing them is not an
objedt of the prefent indication. There is only one
which may be fuppofed to continne to adl for a long
time, and that is the contagion applied; but we
know nothing in the nature of contagion that can
lead us to any meafures for removing or corredling it.
We know only its effedts as a fedative power inducing
debility, or as a ferment inducing a tendency to putre-
fadfion in the fluids, the former of which at prefent
falls under our confideration.—The debility induced
in fevers by contagion, or other caufes, appears, ef-
pecially in the weaker energy of the brain; but in
what this confifts, or how it may be reftored, we do
not well know ; but as nature, feemingly for this pur-
pofe, excites the motion of the heart and arteries, we
muft aferibe the continuance of the debility to the
weaker re-adHon of the fanguiferous fyftem t the
means, therefore, which we employ for obviating de¬
bility, are immediately diredled to fupport and in-
" creafe the adtion of the heart and arteries; and the re-
Voi. VL 2
CINE. 4671
medics employed are tonics or ftimulants. Practice
In contagious difeafes we know, both from the "    
effedts which appear, and from difiedtions, that the
tone, of the heart and arteries is confiderably dimi-
nilhed ; and that tonic remedies are therefore pro¬
perly indicated. We are to confider thefe remedies
as of two kinds; 1. The power of cold; 2. That of
tonic medicines.
The power of cold as a tonic in fevers may be em¬
ployed in two ways ; either as thrown into the ftomach,
or as applied to the furface of the body. As we have
already obferved that the power of cold may be
communicated from any one part to every other part of
the fyftem, fo it will be readily allowed that the ftomach
is a part as fit as any other for this communication, and
that cold drink taken into the ftomach may prove an
ufeful tonic in fevers.—This the experience of all ages
has confirmed; but at the fame time it has been fre¬
quently obferved, that, in certain circumftances, cold
drink taken into the ftomach has proved very hurtful;
and therefore that its ufe in fevers requires fome limi¬
tations. What thefe limitations fhould be, and what
are all the circumftances which may forbid the ufe of
cold drink, it is difficult to determine ; but *it feems
clearly forbidden in all cafes where a phlogiftic dia-
thefis prevails in the fyftem, and more efpecially
when there are topical affe&ions of an inflammatory
nature.
The other method of employing cold as a tonic,
is by applying it to the furface of the body, as a re¬
frigerant power fit to moderate the violence of re-
adtion ; but probably it may here alfo be confidered
properly as a tonic, and ufeful in cafes of debility.—
Not only cool air, but cold water alfo, may be applied
to the furface of the body as a tonic. The ancients
frequently applied it with advantage to particular
parts as a tonic; but it is a difeovery of modern
times, that, in the cafe of putrid fevers attended with
much debility, the body may be wafhed all over with
cold water. This was firft praftifed at Breflaw in
Silefia, as appears from a diflertation under the title
of Epidemia Verna, qua Wratifaviam anno 1737 af-
flixit, to be found in the Ada Nat. Curiof. vol. x.
And from other writers it appears, that the praftice
has paffed into fome of the neighbouring countries;
but in this ifland it doth not appear that we have
yet had any experience of it.
The medicines which have been employed in fevers
as tonics are various. If the faccharutn faturni hath
been found ufeful, it is probably as a tonic rather
than as a refrigerant; and the ens veneris, or other
preparations of iron which have been employed, can
aft as tonics only. The preparations of copper, from
their effefts in epilepfy, are prefumed to poflefs a
tonic power; but whether their ufe in fevers be
founded on their tonic or emetic powers, is uncertain.
And upon the whole there may no doubt occur fome
inftances of fevers being cured by tonics taken from
the foffile kingdom ; but the vegetable tonics are the
moft efficacious, and among thefe the Peruvian bark
certainly holds the firft place.
The bark has commonly been confidered as a fpe-
cific, or a remedy of which the operation was not
underftood. We muft obferve, however, that, as in
many cafes the effefts of the bark are perceived foon
26 L after
4672
Practice
M E D I
: after Its being taken Jnta the ftomach, and before it
' can poflibly be conveyed to the mafs of blood, we may
conclude, that its effedls do not arife from its opera¬
ting on the fluids ; and mull: therefore depend upon
its operating on the nerves of the ftomach, and being
thereby communicated to the reft of the nervous
fyftem. This operation feems to be a tonic power,
the bark being a remedy in many cafes of debility,
particularly in gangrene : and if its operation may be
explained from its poflefling a tonic power, we may
eafily perceive why it is improper when a phlogiftic
diathefis prevails ; and from the fame view we can
afcertain in what cafes of continued fever it may be
admitted. Thefe cafes are either where confiderable
remiffions have appeared, when it may be employed
to prevent the return of exacerbations, on the fame
footing as it is ufed in intermitting fevers ; or in the
advanced ftate of fevers, when all fufpicion of an in¬
flammatory ftate is removed, and a general debility
prevails in the fyftem ; and its -being then employed
is fufficiently agreeable to the prefent pra&ice.
Another fet of medicines to be employed for ob¬
viating debility and its effefts, are the direft ftimu-
lants. Thefe, in fome meafure, increafe the tone of
the moving fibres ; but are different from the tonics,
as they more diredlly excite and increafe the aftion of
the heart and arteries. This mode of their operation
renders their ufe ambiguous ; and when an inflamma¬
tory diathefis is prefent, the effe&s of thefe ftimulants
may be.very hurtful; but it ftill remains probable,
that in the advanced ftate of thefe fevers, when de¬
bility prevails, they may be ufeful.
Of all the ftimulants which may be properly em¬
ployed, wine feems to be the moft eligible. It has
the advantage of being grateful to the palate and
ftomach, and of having its ftimulant parts fo much
diluted, that it can be conveniently given in fmall
dofes; and therefore it may be employed with fuffi-
cient caution ; but it is of little fervice unlefs taken
pretty largely.—It may be fufpe&ed that wine has an
operation analogous to that of opium ; and on good
grounds. But we can diftinftly remark its ftimulant
power only; which renders its effefts in the phrenitic
delirium manifeftly hurtful; and in the mild delirium
depending on debility, as remarkably ufeful.
£2.3 We muft now proceed to the other indication
of cure, namely, to correA or obviate the tendency in
the fluids to putrefaAion. This may be done, 1. By
avoiding any new application of putrid or putrefcent
matter. 2. By evacuating the putrid or putrefcent
matter already prefent in the body. 3. By correc¬
ting the putrid or putrefcent matter remaining in the
body by diluents and antifeptics. 4. By fupporting
the tone of the velfels, and thereby refifting further
putrefa&ion, or obviating its effe&s. 5. By modera¬
ting the violence of re-aAIon, confidered as a means of
increafing putrefa&ion.
The further application of putrid or putrefcent
matter may be avoided, 1. By removing the patient
from places filled with corrupted air. By preventing
the accumulation of the patients own effluvia, by a
conftant ventilation, and by a frequent change of
bed-clothes and body-linen. 3. By the careful and
fpeedy removal of all excremental matters from the
patient’s chamber. 4. By avoiding animal-food»
CINE. Part II.
The putrid or putrefcent matter already prefent Pr actich
in the body, may be evacuated partly by frequent    
evacuations of- the contents of the inteftines ; and
more effedtually ftill by fupporting the excretions of
perfpiration and urine by the plentiful ufe of diluents.
That which remains in the body may be rendered
more mild and innocent by the ufe of diluents, or
may be corre&ed by the ufe of antifeptics. Thefe
laft are of many and various kinds; but which of them
are conveniently applicable, or more particularly fuited
to the cafe of fevers, is not well afcertained. Thofe
moft certainly applicable and ufeful are acefcent ali¬
ments, acids of all kinds, and neutral falls.
The progrefs of putrefa&ion may be confiderably
retarded, and its effedls obviated, by fupporting
the tone of the veffels ; and this may be done by
tonic medicines, of which the chief are Cold, and the
Peruvian bark, as already mentioned. The violence
of re-a&ion increafing the tendency to putrefaAion,
may be moderated by the means already mentioned
under fynocha.
Thefe are the proper indications to be obferved in
the cure of the flow nervous fever. Dr Huxham
obferves, that evacuations (efpecially bleeding) are
improper at the beginning. Even a common purge
given at this time hath been followed by furprifing
languors, fyncope, and a train of other ill fymptoms.
However, it may fometimes be neceffary to cleanfe the
ftomach and primas vise by a gentle emetic, or a
little rhubarb, manna, &c. Indeed, where naufea/
ficknefs, and load at ftomach, are urgent, as is fre¬
quently the cafe in the beginning of this fever, a
vomit is neceflary. Clyfters of milk, fugar, and fait,
may be inje&ed with fafety and advantage every
fecond or third day, if nature wants to be prompted
to ftod.—The temperate, cordial, diaphoretic medi¬
cines are certainly, according to our author, moft
proper in thefe fevers ; and a well-regulated, fup¬
porting, diluting diet is neceflary. The latter of
itfelf, judicioufly managed, will go a great way in the
cure, efpecially aflifted by well-timed and well-ap¬
plied blifters, and a due care to keep the patient as
quiet as poflible both in body and mind. But it
fflould be noted, that anyftrong opiates are commonly
very pernicious, however much the want of fleep and
reftleffnefs may feem to demand them. Mild dia¬
phoretics, as pulv. contrayerv. comp, with a little
caftor and faffron, and fmall quantities of theriac.
Andromachi or elixir paregoricum, have much better
effe&s; which, by raifing a gentle eafy fweat, or at
leaft a plentiful perfpiration, calm the hurry of the
fpirits, and a refrefhing fleep enfues. Where the con-
fufion and dejeftion of fpirits are very confiderable,
galbanum or filphium fhould be added, and blifters
forthwith applied to the neck, occiput, or behind the
ears; and during all this a free ufe of thin wine-whey,
fome pleafant ptifan or gruel, with a little foft wine,
muft be indulged. Indeed the patients, in this cafe,
fhould drink frequently : though fuch quantities may
not be neceflary as in the ardent, or even putrid ma¬
lignant fevers; yet they fhould be fufficient to carry
on the work of dilution, fupport the fweats, and
fupply the blood with frefh and wholefome fluids, in
place of that noxious matter which is continually
palling off. In this view alfo a thin chicken-broth is
of
Part II.
actice of fervlce, both as food and phyfic, efpecially towards
“ the decline of the difeafe ; and for the fame reafon
thin jellies of hart (horn, fago, panada, are ufeful, ad¬
ding a little wine to them, and the juice of Seville
orange or lemon.
It is obfervable, that the fick are never fo eafy as
when they are in a gentle fweat; for this foon removes
the hurry of fpirits, exacerbations of heat, See. But
profufe fweats Ihould never be encouraged, much lefs
attempted, by very ftrong heating medicines, efpecial¬
ly in the beginning or advance of the fever; for they
too much exhauft the vital powers, and are followed
by a vaft dejeftion of fpirits, tremors, ftartings of the
tendons, and fometimes end in rigors, cold clammy
fweats, fyncope, or a comatofe difpofition. Some¬
times irregular partial heats and flulhes fucceed, with
great anxiety, reftleffnefs, delirium, difficulty ofbrea-
thing, and a vaft load and oppreffion in the proccor-
dia, fo as to incline the lefs cautious obferver to think
there may be fomething peripneumonic in it ; but even
here we muft beware of bleeding, as the pulfe will be
found very fmall and unequal, tho’ very quick. Nor
is bleeding contra-indicated only by the weaknefs and
fluttering of the pulfe, but alfo by the pale, limpid,
and watery urine which is commonly attendant. Thefe
fymptoms denote the load, anxiety, and oppreffion on
the prsecordia to proceed from an affe&ion of the ner¬
vous fyftem, and not from a peripneumonic obftruc-
tion or inflammation. The breathing, in this cafe,
though thick and laborious, is not hot, but a kind of
fighing or fobbing refpiration, nor is there often any
kind of cough concomitant; fo that it evidently pro¬
ceeds from fome fpafm on the vitals. Here there¬
fore the nervous cordial medicines are indicated, and
blifters to the thighs, legs, or arms. Our author
commonly ufed the following bolus and faline draught.
5= Pulv. contrayerv. c. gr. xv.
Croc. Angl. gr. iij.
Confeft. Ralegh. 9j.
Syr. Croci q. f. M. /i Bolus.
R> Sal. C. C. 9fs.
Succ. limon. 3iij.
Aq. alexit. fimpl. M. Perafla effervefeen-
tia, adds fp.lavend. c. fyr. croc, ana jifs. M.f.
Haujl.
If great tremors and fubfultus tendinum come on, he
fubftitutes half a fcruple of mufk inftead of the con-
trayerva in the bolus, with advantage. One or other
of thefe, or fimilar preferiptions, are to be taken every
fifth, fixth, or eighth hour, and a temperate cordial
jnlep; fpiritus volatilis aromaticus or fktidus, may
be now and then given out of thin wine, or cyder-
whey, or, which is in many cafes better, out of mu-
ftard-whey; which laft is by no means a contemptible
medicine. The faline draught made as above is much
more apt to pafs thro’ the pores of the fkin than when
made with fait of wormwood, which rather moves thro’
the urinary paflages.
The above-mentioned difficulty of breathing, anxie¬
ty, and oppreffion, many times precede a miliary
eruption, which often appears on the feventh, ninth,
or eleventh day of the fever, and fometimes later. In¬
deed great anxiety and oppreffion on the praecordia al¬
ways precede puftular eruptions of any kind in all
4^73
forts of fevers. This eruption (hould be promoted by Practice
foft eafy cordials, and proper diluents ; to which fliould
be fometimes added a little theriaca andromachi or
elixir afthmaticum. Thefe tend to calm the univerfal
uneafinefs commonly complained of, and alfo very ef-
fedtually promote a diaphorefis, or breathing kindly
fweats, with which the miliary eruptions freely and
eafily advance. But however advantageous thefe com¬
monly are, profufe fweats are feldom or never fo, even
though attended with a very large eruption. Two
or three crops of thefe miliary puftules have been
known to fucceed one another, and large fweats, not
only without advantage, but with great detriment to
the patients, as they were thereby reduced to an ex¬
treme degree of weaknefs; fo that they mayjuftly be
reckoned fymptomatical rather than any thing elfe,
and the confequent eruption is often merely the fymp-
tom of a fymptom ; for the miliary glands of the fkin
appear very turgid, and mimic a rafh, after profufe
fweating, even in the moft healthy.
In thefe profufe colliquative fweatings a little gene¬
rous red wine (diluted fomewhat, if neceflary) may be
given with the greateft advantage; as it prefently mo¬
derates the fweats, fupports the patient, and keeps up
the miliary papulx if they happen to attend. Towards
the decline of the fever alfo, where the fweats are a-
bundant and weakening, fmall dofes of the tindfure of
the bark with faffron and fnake-root were given with
the greateft advantage, frequently interpoung a dofe
of rhubarb to carry off the putrid colluvies in the firft
paffages ; which withal makes the remiffions or inter-
miffions that often happen in the decline of nervous
difeafes more diftinft and manifeft, and gives a fairer
opportunity of throwing in the bark ; for in the pro¬
per exhibition of this medicine we are to place our
chief hope of curing both the nervous and putrid ma¬
lignant fevers.
XXVII. The putrid^ pejlikntial, or malignant 277
Fever. Sp. I. var. 2.
Febris peftilens, P. Sal. Diver/, de febre pefti-
lenti.
Febris peftilens JEgyptiorum, dlpin. de med. ISL~
gypt. 1. i. cap. 14.
Typhus iEgyptiacus, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris peftilens maligna, Sennert. de febribus, I. iv.
cap. 10.
Febris maligna peftilens, River. 1. xvii. fedl. iii.
cap. 1.
Febris peftilens maligna, ann. 1643. Willis, de fe¬
bribus, cap. 14.
Typhus carcerum, Sauv. fp. i.
Febris nautica peftilentialis, Huxhatn de acre ad
ann. 1740.
Miliaris nautica, Sauv. fp. g.
Febris putrida contagiofa in carceribus genita, Hux*
ham de acre ad ann. 1742.
Miliaris purpurata, Sauv. fp. h.
Febris carcerum et nofocomiorum. 111. Pringle,
Difeafes of the army, p. 294. Ill, FanSwieten,
Maladies des armees, p. 136.
Typhus caftrenfis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Febris caftrenfis, quam vulgo cephalalglam epide-
micam vocant, Henr. Maii et A. Ph. Koph. Diff.
apud Halterum, tom. v.
Febris Hungarica five caftrenfis, Juncker. 74. et
26 L 2 plu-
MEDICINE,
4674
Practice
M E D I
plurium auftorum.
Febris caftreniis Gallorum in Bohemia, ann. 1742.
Scrinci. Diff. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis, Senncrt. 1. iv. cap. 13. River.
prax. 1. xvii. fed. iii. cap. x. Hoffm. II. p. 84.
'Juncker. 73. Huxham on fevers, chap. 8. Lud¬
wig; Inft. med. clin. n° 146. Schreiber von er-
kentnefs, und cur der Krank heiten. p. 126.
Monro, Difeafes of military hofpitals, p. 1.
Febris catarrhalis maligna petechizans, Juncker 72.
Hoffm. II. 75. Eller de cogn. et cur. morb.
fed. vi.
Febris quae lenticulas, pundicula, aut peticulas vo-
cant, Fracajlorius de morb. contag. lib. ii. cap. 6.
Febris peticularis Tridenti, ann. 1591. Roboretus Ac
febr. peticul.
Febris petechialis epidemica Coloniae ann. 1672.
Donckers, Idea febris petechialis.
Febris petechialis epidemica Pofonii 1683, C. F.
Loeu in App. ad A. N. C. vol. ii.
Febris petechialis epidemica Mutinae, 1692. Ra-
mazzini. Conft. Mutinenfis, oper. p. 187.
Febris maligna petechizans, ann. 1698. Hoffm. II.
p. 80.
Febris petechialis Wratiflaviae ann. 1699. Hel-
wick, Ephem. Germ. D. III. A. VII. et VIII.
obf. 132. p. 616.
Ftbris epidemia Lipfias 1718. M. Hdolph. A.
N. C. III. obf. 131. p. 296.
Febris endemica et epidemica Corcagienfis ann.
1708, 1718, etfeq. Rogers, Eifay on epidemic
difeafes.
Febris continua epidemica Corcagienfis ann. 1719.
et feq. M. 0 Connel Obf. de morbis.
Febris petechialis epidemica Cremonse 1734. Val-
charengki Med. ration, fed. iii.
Febris petechizans Petropoli 17$^- JVeitbrecbt,
Diff. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis, ann. 1740, 1741, in Haflia,
Ritter. A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 4.
Febris maligna petechialis Rintelii 1741. Furjle-
nau. A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 5.
Febris petechials epidemica Silifiae 1741 et feq.
Brandhorji. Diff. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis epidemica Viennae 1757. -Hafe-
nobrl. Hift. med. cap. z.
Febris petechialis epidemica Lipfiae 1757. Ludu-
vig. Adverfar. tom. i. pars 1.
Febris petechialis epidemica variis Germanise locis
ab. ann. 1755 ad 1761. Strack de morbo cum
petechiis.
Defcription. This is a difeafe of the mod danger¬
ous nature, as, befides the extreme debility of the ner¬
vous fyftem, there is a rapid tendency of the fluids to
putrefa&ion, which fometimes cuts off the patient in
a few days, nay, in the warm climates, in 12 or 14
hours; or if the patient recovers, he is for a long time,
even in this country, in an exceedingly weak date,
and requires many weeks to recover his former health.
The putrid fevers, according to Huxham, make
their attack with much more violence than the flow
nervous ones; the rigors are fometimes very great,
though fometimes fcarce felt; the heats much flxarper
and permanent; yet, at firff, fudden, tranfient, and re¬
mittent : the pulfe more tenfe and hard, bpt common-
CINE. Part
ly quick and fmall; though fometimes flow, and feem- Px
ingly regular for a time, and then fluttering and une-
qua!. Thehead ach, naufea, and vomiting, are much
more confiderable even from the beginning. Some¬
times a fevere fixed pain is felt in one or both temples,
or over one or both eye - brows ; frequently in the
bottom of the orbits of the eyes. The eyes al¬
ways appear very dull, heavy, yellowifh, and very of¬
ten a little inflamed. The countenance feems bloated,
and more dead-coloured than ufual. Commonly the
temporal arteries throb much, and a tinnitus aurium is
very troublefome : a drong vibration alfo of the caro¬
tid arteries frequently takes place in the advance of the
fever, though the pulfe at the wrid may be fmall, nay
even flow : this is a certain fign of an impending de¬
lirium, and generally proceeds from fome confiderable
obdruftions in the brain.
The prodration of fpirits, weaknefs, and faintnefs,
are often furprifingly great and fudden, though no in¬
ordinate evacuation happens ; and this too fometimes
when the pulfe feems tolerably drong. The refpira-
tion is mod commonly laborious, and interrupted with
a kind of fighing or fobbing, and the breath is hot
and offenfive.
Few or none of thefe fevers are without a fort of
lumbago, or pain in the back and loins ; always an uni-
verfal wearinefs or forenefs is felt, and often much
pain in the limbs. Sometimes a great heat, load, and
pain, affeA the pit of the domach, with perpetual vo¬
miting of porraceous or black choler, and a mod
troublefome fingultus; the matter difcharged is fre¬
quently of a very naufeous fmell. The tongue, tho*
only white at the beginning, grows daily more dark
and dry ; fometimes of a fhining livid colour, with a
kind of dark bubble at top ; fometimes exceeding
black ; and fo continues for many days together ; nor
is the tinge to be got off many times for feveral days,
even after a favourable crifis: at the height of the
difeafe, it generally becomes vadly dry, diff, and
black, or of a dark pomegranate colour. Hence the
fpeech is very inarticulate, and fcarce intelligible. The
third in the increafe of the fever is commonly very
great, fometimes unquenchable; and yet no kind of
drink pleafes, but all feem bitter and mawkifh ; at
other times, however, no third is complained of, tho*
the mouth and tongue are exceedingly foul and dry ;
this is always a dangerous fymptom, and ends in a
frenzy or coma. The lips and teeth, efpecially near
the date, are furred up with a very black tenacious
fordes. At the onfet of the fever, the urine is often
crude, pale, and vapid, but grows much higher-co¬
loured in the advance, and frequently refembles a
drong lixivium, or citrine urine, tinged with a fmall
quantity of blood ; it is without the lead fediment or
cloud, and fo continues for many days together: by de¬
grees it grows darker, like dead drong high-coloured
beer, and fmells very rank and offenfive. In petechial
fevers, the urine hath often been feen almod black and
very fetid. The flools, efpecially near the date, or
in the decline of the fever, are for the mod part into¬
lerably fetid, green, livid, or black, frequently with
fevere gripes and blood. When they are more yellow or
brown, the lefs the danger ; but the highed when they
run off infenfibly, whatever their colour may be. It is
likewife a very bad fymptom when the belly continues
tenfe,
art II. M E D I
itcTicE tenfe, fwollen, and hard, after profufe ftools ; for this
l is generally the confequence of an inflammation or
mortification of the inteftines. A gentle diarrhoea is
often very beneficial, and fometimes feems to be the
only way which nature takes to carry off the morbific
matter.
Sometimes black, livid, dun, or greenifh fpots ap¬
pear, which always indicate a high degree of malig¬
nity ; however, the more florid the fpots are, the lefs
danger is to be feared. It is alfo a good fign when
the black or violet petechise become of a brighter co¬
lour. The large, black, or livid fpots, are almoft al¬
ways attended with profufe haemorrhages; and the
fmall, dulky, brown fpots, like freckles, are not much
lefs dangerous than the livid or black; though they
are feldom accompanied with fluxes of blood: ex-
ceffively profufe, cold, clammy fweats are often con¬
comitant, by which alfo they fometimes vanifh, though
without any advantage to the patient. The eruption
of the petechia? is uncertain 5 fometimes they appear
on the fourth or fifth day, though fometimes not till
the eleventh, or even later. The vibicesy or large,
dark, greenilh marks, feldom appear till very near the
fatal period. Frequently alfo we meet with an efflo*
refeence like the meafles in malignant fevers, but of a
much more dull and livid hue; in which thefkin, efpe-
eially on the bread, appears as it were marbled or va¬
riegated. This in general is an ill fymptom, and is
often attended with fatal confequences.
Sometimes about the nth or 14th day, on the
1 coming on of profufe fweats, the petechia? difappear,
and vaft quantities of white miliary puftules break out.
This is feldom found of any confiderable advantage; but
an itching, fmarting, red ralh, commonly gives great
relief; and fo do the large, fretting, watery bladders,
which many times rife upon the back, bread, flioul-
ders, &c. A fcabby eruption likewife about the lips
and nofe is certainly one of the falutary fymptoms 5
and the more hot and angry it is, fo much the better.
But of much more uncertain and dangerous event are
the brown-coloured aphtha?; nor are thof? that are
exceeding white and thick like lard, of a very pro-
i mifing alped. They are foon fucceeded by great
difficulty of fwallowing, pain and ulceration of the
fauces, cefophagus, &c. and with an inceflant fingul-
tus: the whole prim* via become at lad affe&ed; a
bloody dyfentery comes on, followed by a fphacela-
tion of the intedines; as is evident from the black,
fanious, and bloody flools, extremely fetid and infec¬
tious. Vibices, or large, bkck, and bluifli marks re-
fembling bruifes, are frequently feen towards the clbfe
of the fever ; and, when attended with lividity and
coldnefs of the extremities, are certain tokens of ap¬
proaching death. In fome cafes, the blacknefs hath
been known to reach almod to the elbows, and the
hands have been dead-cold for a day or two before the!
death of the patient.
Such are the general appearances of the putrid ma¬
lignant fever in this country, among thofe who enjoy
a free air, and are not crowded together, or expofed
to the caufes of infe£Vion: but in jails, hofpitals, or
other places where the fick are crowded, and in fome
meafure deprived of the benefit of the free air, the
fymptoms are, if polfible, more terrible. Sir John
Pringle, who had many opportunities of obferving it,
CINE. 4675
tells us, that the jail or hofpital fever, in the begin-Practice
ning, is not eafy to be diftinguilhed from a common-
fever. The firft fymptoms are flight interchanges of
heat and cold, a trembling of the hands, fometimes a
fenfe of numbnefs in the arms, weaknefs of the limbs,-
lofs of appetite; and the diforder increafing towards
night, the body grows hot, the fleep is interrupted;
and not refrefliing. With thefe fymptoms, for the
moft part, there is fome pain or confufion in the head
the pulfe at firft is a little quicker than natural, and
the patients find themfelves too much indifpofed to go
about bufinefs, though too well to be wholly confined;
When the fever advances, the above-mentioned fymp¬
toms are in a higher degree ; and in particular the
patient complains of a laflitude, naufea, pains in his
back, a more conftant pain and confufion in his head,
attended with an uncommon dejedion of fpirits. At
this time the pulfe is never funk, but beats quick, and
often varies in the fame day both as to ftrength and
fulnefs. It is little affe&ed by bleeding once, if a
moderate quantity of blood is taken away; but if the
evacuation is large, and efpecially if it is repeated, to
anfwer a falfe indication of inflammation, the pulfe,
increafing in frequency, is apt to fink in force,
and often irrecoverably, whilft the patient becomes
delirious. But withal we muft obferve, that, in every
cafe, independent of evacuations, the pulfe fooner or
later finks, and then gives certain intelligence of the
nature of the difeafe. The appearance of the blood
is various; for though it is commonly little altered;
yet fometimes it will be fizy, not only on the firft at¬
tack, but after the fever is formed. The word ap¬
pearance is when the craflamentum is diflblved; though
this does not happen till the advanced ftate of the
fever: though indeed this feems not eafy to be afcer-
tained, as blood has been fo feldom taken away at
that time. The urine is alfo various. Sometimes it
is of a reddifh or flame colour, which it preferves a
long time; but it is oftener pale, and changes from
time to time in colour as well as crudity, being fome¬
times clear, fometimes clouded: towards the end,
upon a favourable crifis, it becomes thick, but does
not always depofit a fediment. If the ficfe lie warm,
and have had no preceding flux, the belly is generally
bound; but when they lie cold, as they often do in
field-hofpitals, the pores of the fkin being fhut, a di¬
arrhoea is a common fymptom, but is not critical;
In the worft cafes, a flux appears in the faft ftage;
then the ftools are involuntary, colliquative, ichorous,
or bloody, and have a cadaverous fmell; the eflfe&s of
a mortification of the bowels, and the fign of ap¬
proaching death. When the hofpitals are filled with
dyfenteric patients, fome of the nurfes will be infedted
with the flux only, and others with this fever, ending
in thefe bloody and gangrenous ftools.
In the beginning the heat is moderate; and even in
the advanced ftate, on firft touching the fkin, it feems
inconfiderable; but upon feeling the pulfe for fome
time, we are fenfible of an uncommon ardour, leaving
an unpleafant fenfation on the fingers for a few mi¬
nutes after. A day or two before death, if care is
not taken, the extremities become cold, and the pulfe
is then hardly to be felt. The fkin is generally dry
and parched; though fometimes there are longer or
fhorter fweats, efpecially in the beginning. Such as
are
4676 M E D I
Practice are produced by medicine are of no ufe, except on the
 attack, at which time they will often remove the
fever ; and natural fweats are never critical till the
diftemper begins to decline. Thefe laft are rarely
profufe, but gentle, continued, and equally diffufed
over the body: fometimes the difeafe will terminate
by an almoft imperceptible moifture of the fkin; the
fweats are ufually fetid, and offenfive even to the pa¬
tient himfelf.
The tongue is commonly di-y; and, without conftant
care of the nurfe, becomes hard and brown, with deep
chops: but this fymptom is common to moft fevers.
At other times, though rarely, the tongue is foft and
moilt to the latt, but with a mixture of a greenifh or
yellowifh colour. The third is fometimes great, but
more frequently moderate. In the advanced date, the
breath is offenfive, and a blackilh furring gathers about
the roots of the teeth.
Some are never delirious, but all lie under a dupor
or confufion; few retain their fenfes till death : many
lofe them early, and from two caufes; either from im¬
moderate bleeding, or the premature ufe of warm and
fpirituous medicines. They rarely deep; and, unlefs de¬
lirious, have more of a deje&ed and thoughtful look
than what is commonly feen in other fevers. The face
is late in acquiring either a ghadly or a very morbid
appearance; yet the eyes are always muddy, and ge¬
nerally the white is of a reddidi cad as if inflamed.
The confufion of the head generally rifes to a delirium,
efpecially at night; but, unlefs by an unfeafonable hot
regimen, it feldom turns to rage, or to thofe high
flights of imagination common in other fevers. When
the delirium comes to that height, the face is fluflied,
the eyes red, the voice is quick, and the patient druggies
to get up. But when that fymptom is owing to large
evacuations, or only to the advanced date of the dif¬
eafe, the face appears meagre; the eye-lids in flumbers
are only half fliut; and the voice, which is commonly
low and flow, finks to a degree fcarce to be heard.
From the beginning there is generally a great dejec¬
tion and failure of drength. A tremor of the hands is
more common than a darting of the tendons ; or if the
fubfultus occurs, it is in a leffer degree than in many
other fevers. In every dage of the difeafe, as the pulfe
finks, the delirium and tremor increafe ; and in pro¬
portion as the pulfe rifes, the head and fpirits are re¬
lieved. Sometimes in the beginning, but for the mod
part in the advanced date, the patient grows dull of
hearing, and at lad almod deaf. When the fever is
protrafted, with a flow and low voice, the fick have a
particular craving for fomething cordial, and nothing
is fo cordial or fo acceptable as wine. They long for
no food, yet willingly take a little panada if wine be
added. But fuch as are delirious, with a quick voice,
wild looks, a fubfultus tendinum, or violent aftions,
though their pulfe be funk, yet beer neither hot medi¬
cines, wine, nor the common cordials.
Vomiting, and complaints of a load and ficknefs at
flomach, though ufual fymptoms, are not effential to
the difeafe ; nor are pleuritic ditches, difficulty in
breathing, or flying pains, to be referred fo much to it
as to the conditution of the patient, or to a preceding
cold.
A petechial efflorefcence is a frequent, though not
an infeparable, attendant of this fever. It fometimes
CINE. Part II. :
appears of a brighter or paler red, at other times of aPRACT!«
livid colour, but never rifes above the flun. The fpots ^
.are fmall; but generally fo confluent, that at a little di-
dance the Ikin appears only fomewhat redder than or¬
dinary, as if the colour was uniform; but upon a nearer
infpedion there are interdices feen. For the mod part
this eruption is fo little confpicuous, that unlefs it is
looked for attentively it may efcape notice. The fpots
appear thicked on the back and bread, lefs on the legs
and arms, and our author never remembers to have
feen any on the face. As to the time of their appear¬
ance, he agrees entirely with Dr Huxham. Thefe
fpots are never critical, nor are they reckoned among
the mortal fymptoms; but only concur with other
figns to afeertain the nature of the difeafe. The nearer
they approach to purple, the more they are to be
dreaded. In a few cafes, indead of fpots, purple dreaks
and blotches were obferved. Sometimes the petechias
did not appear till after death; and there was one cafe
in which, after bleeding, the petechias were feen only d|
on the arm below the ligature, and nowhere elfe on the
fkin.
The hofpital-fever, though accounted one of the con¬
tinued kind, yet has generally fome exacerbation at
night, with a remiffion and often partial fweats in the
day ; and after a long continuance it is apt to change
into a he&ic, or an intermitting form. The length of
the difeafe is uncertain. Sometimes it will terminate,
either in death or recovery, in feven days after the pa¬
tient took to his bed; but in the hofpitals it generally
continued from 14 to 20, and fome died or recovered
after four weeks. From the time of the finking of the
pulfe until death or a favourable crifis, there is per¬
haps lefs change to be feen from day to day in this
than in moft other fevers. When its courfe is long, it
fometimes terminates in fuppurations of the parotid
or axillary glands; and when thefe do not appear, it
is probable that the fever is kept up by the formation
of fome internal abfeefs. The parotid glands themfelves |
do not fuppurate, but only fome ofthe lymphatic glands |
that lie over them. Our author obferved one in-
ftance of a fwelling of this kind on both fides, with¬
out any previous indifpofition, when the perfon, not
fufpe&ing the caufe, and applying difeutient cata-
plafms, was, upon the tumour fubfiding, feized with
the hofpital-fever. Many patients after the crifis of
this fever complain of a pain in the limbs, and want of
reft; and almoft all of them mention great weaknefs,
confufion in their head, vertigo, and a noife in their
ears.
Ten of the bodies of thofe who died of this diftem¬
per in Houghton’s regiment were opened. In fome, all
the cavities were examined ; in others, only the brain
or the bowels. In fome of them, the brain appeared
to be fuppurated. The firft of this kind our author
met with at Ghent; but the man being brought into
the hofpital from the barracks no earlier than two
days before he died, he could only conje&ure from the
fymptoms and the imperfeft accounts he had of him,
that his death was owing to a fever of this kind, after
lingering near a month in it. About three ounces of
purulent matter were found in the ventricles of the
brain, and the whole cortical and medullary fubftance
was uncommonly flaccid-and tender; nay, fome of
the fame kind of matter was found in the fubftance of
the
nart II. M E D I
.I^ictice the upper part of the cerebellum: yet this perfon, with
 fome ftupor and deafnefs, had his fenfes till the night
before he died ; fo far, at lead, that he anfwered di-
ftinctly when roufed and fpoken to ; but about that
time the mufcles of his face began to be convulfed. Of
two other inftances of men who undoubtedly died of
this fever, in one the cerebrum was fuppurated, in the
other the cerebellum. In the former cafe, the patient
was under a ftupor, with deafnefs from the beginning;
but was never delirious, nor altogether infenfible. His
pulfe funk early: and about ten days before his death
his head began to fwell, and continued very large till
within two days before he died, when it fubfided a little.
For feveral days before his end, he would tafte nothing
but cold water, and during his illnefs he lay conftantly
upon one fide. The head being opened, an abfcefs as
large as an egg was found in the fubftance of the fore¬
part of the right hemifphere of the brain, full of thin
matter like whey. At that time five more, ill of the
fame fever, had the like fwelling of their heads, but
recovered. In the other cafe, the abfcefs in the cere¬
bellum was about the fize of a fmall pigeon’s egg, and
contained alfo a thin ichorous matter ; nor had this
patient ever been fo thoroughly infenfible as not to an-
fwer reafonably when fpoken to. Two days before he
died his urine turned pale.
Thefe fuppurations, however, were not conftant;
for another who died about the fame time, and had
been ill about the fame number of days with the like
fymptoms, the pale water excepted, had no abfcefs ei¬
ther in the brain or cerebellum. And two were open¬
ed afterwards, in whom the cortical fubftance of the
brain had an inflammatory appearance, but no fuppu-
ration. In one of them the large inteftines were cor¬
rupted: that man went off with a loofenefs; and juft
before he died, an ichorous matter was difcharged from
his nofe. In the military hofpital at Ipfwich, one
who unexpeftedly died of this fever after having been
feemingly in a fair way of recovery, had no fuppura-
tion in his brain ; but in another, who died after an
abfccfs in both orbits, the brain was found flaccid,
and about two ounces of a thin ferum in the ventri¬
cles.
Caufes of, and pirfons fuljeft to, this diforder. The
caufe of this fever, as well as that of the flow nervous
fever, is an infe&ion or contagion from fome difeafed
* animal-body, or from corrupted vegetables; and there¬
fore is very little, if at all, different from thofe pefti-
H lential diforders which have arifen after battles, when
great numbers of dead bodies were allowed to lie above
ground and infett the air with their effluvia. This is
confirmed by an obfervation of Foreftus, who was eye-
witnefs to a diftemper of this kind, (which indeed he
calls a plague), owing to the fame caufe, attended with
buboes and a high degree of contagion. The fame au¬
thor alfo gives an account of a malignant fever break¬
ing out at Egmont in North-Holland, occafioned by
the rotting of a whale which had been left on the Ihore.
We have a like obfervation of a fever affefting the
crew of a French ftiip, by the putrefaftion of fome
cattle which they had killed on the ifland of Nevis in
the Weft Indies. Thefe men were feized with a pain
in their head and loins, great weaknefs, and a difor¬
der of the ftomach, accompanied with fever. Some
had carbuncles; and on others purple fpots appeared
CINE. 4677
after death. Practice
Galen afligns two caufes for peftilential fevers: '
1. The great heat of the weather, when the humours
happen to be in a more putrefcent ftate than ufual.
2. A putrid ftate of the air, arifing either from a
multitude of dead bodies left unburnt, as after a
battle, or from the evaporation of corrupted lakes and
marfhes.
One of the mod remarkable difeafes incident to an
army is related by Diodorus, as breaking out among
the Carthaginians at the fiege of Syracufe. That au¬
thor not only relates fome of its moft diftinguifhing
fymptoms, but reafons well about its caufe. He ob-
ferves, that pains in'the back and eruptions (pxvxtkivi*))
were common ; that fome had bloody ftools ; that o-
thers were feized with a delirium, fo as to run about
and beat all that came in their way; that the phyfi-
ciansknew no cure ; and that it was the more fatal as
the fick were abandoned by every body on account of
the contagion. As to the caufe, the author takes no¬
tice of the multitude of people confined within a nar¬
row compafs ; of the fituation of the camp in a low
and wet ground ; of the fcorching heats in the middle
of the day, fucceeded by the cold and damp air from
the marfhes in the night-time; he adds, the putrid fleams
arifing firft from the marfhes, and afterwards from the
bodies of thofe who lay unburied. This diftemper
feems to have been a compound of the marfh and pe¬
ftilential fever.
Foreftus remarks, that, from the putrefaftion of
the water only, the city of Delft, where he pra&ifed,
was fcarce ten years together free from the plague or
fome peftilential diftemper. He adds, that the ma-
giftrates, upon his reprefentation of the caufe, ereft-
ed a wind-mill for moving and refrefhing the water.
At that time Holland was much more fubjedl to inun¬
dations and the ftagnation of water than at prefent.
In t 694, a fever broke out at Rochfort in France,
which, on account of the uncommon fymptoms and
great mortality, was at firft believed to be the plague.
But M. Chirac, who was fent by the court to inquire
into its nature, found the caufe to arife from fome
marfhes that had been made by an inundation of the
fea ; and obferved, that the corrupted fleams, which
fmelled like gun-powder, were carried to the town by
the wind, which had long blown from that quarter.
About two-thirds of thofe who were taken ill died.
In fuch as were opened, the brain was found either in¬
flamed or loaded with blood; the fibres of the body
were uncommonly tender; and the bowels had either
fuppurated or were mortified.
It is needlefs to mention more inftances of peftilen¬
tial fevers being brought on by the fleams of corrupt¬
ed fubftances, whether animal or vegetable. In ge¬
neral it may be remarked, that the putrefaftion of
thefe fubftances in a dry air is more apt to bring on a
fever of the continued form; but in a moift air hath
a greater tendency to produce remitting fevers. But
it muft alfo be obftrved, that, even in cafes where the
moft malignant fevers prevail, all perfons are not
equally difpofed to receive the infeftion, tho’ equally
expofed to it with others. Some, through mere vi¬
gour of body and mind, cannot be infefted with the
moft contagious difeafes; while, on the other hand,
thofe whole bodies are debilitated by a former difeafe.
4678 M E D I
Practice by (ludy, low diet, or want, or thofe who have la-
 boured under any of the depreffing paffions, of the
mind for fome time, feldom or never efcape. Men,
therefore, who have been weakened by accidents (as
thofe who have undergone a mercurial falivation) are
very apt to fall into this diftemper. Thofe who are
taken into crowded hofpitals, ill of the fmall-pox,
however good the fort may be, fall readily into this
fever, and run a greater rifle of dying of it than others.
The fecond fever is attended with double danger, fee¬
ing the patient has been fo much weakened by the firft.
A fure fign of the corruption of the air in an hofpi-
tal is when many of the nurfes fall fick.
Progmjis. In thefe fevers we cannot draw a prog-
noftic from any fymptom by itfelf; and perhaps all of
them together are more fallible than in others. Ge¬
nerally the following are good: To have little deli¬
rium ; the ftrength little impaired ; turbid urine in the
decline of the difeafe ; and at that time a gentle fweat
or moifture diffufed over the body, or even the fkin
foft and the tongue moift; or to have fome loofe ftools
fucceeded by a diaphorefis t the pulfe to rife by wine
or cordials, with an abatement of the ftupor, tremor,
and other affeftions of the brain. Deafnefs is rather
a good fign. A fediment in the urine, without other
changes to the better, is no fure fign of recovery ; and
fome have recovered in whofe water there was no fedi¬
ment.—The bad figns are, a fubfultus tendinum ; the
eyes much inflamed and flaring ; the fpeech quick, and
the found of the voice altered ; a high delirium ; per¬
petual watchfulnefs; conflant ficknefs at the ftomach,
and vomitings; frequent ftools, with a finking pulfe,
and the diforder of the head increafed; coldnefs of the
extremities, and a tremulous motion of the tongue.
It is obferved to be among the worft figns when the
patient complains of blindnefs; when hefwallows with
difficulty, or cannot put out his tongue when defired
to do it ; when he can lie on his back only, and pulls
up his knees; or when infenfible he endeavours to
uncover his breaft, or makes frequent attempts to get
out of bed without affigning any reafon. If to any
of thefe are added ichorous, cadaverous, and involun¬
tary ftools, it is a fign of a mortification of the bowels
and approaching death. It will not feem ftrange to
find moft of thefe prognoftics common to the advanced
Hate of other fevers, when we confider, that from
whatever caufe fevers begin, by a long continuance
the humours are corrupted, and the brain and nerves
affe&ed much in the fame manner as in thofe which
grife from infe&ion.
Prevention and cure. As diftempers of the putrid
kind never arife without an infection received from
fome quarter or other, the methods of prevention muft
evidently be reduced to two general heads. 1. To
avoid receiving the infeftion into the body; and,
2. To put the body in fuch a fituation as may enable
it to refill the infedlion when received. On both thefe
methods fcarce any writer hath equalled Dr Lind of
Haflar, whofe opinions and dire&ions therefore we
fhall give pretty fully.
As putrid difeafes are very common and violent in
. the hot countries, it is very neceflary for Europeans
who vifit thefe climates to be well informed, in the firft
place, of the figns of an unhealthy country, that they
may be upon their guard as foon as they enter any ft)-
CINE. Part II.
reign region. Thefe figns are by our author enume- Pr act ten i
rated as follows.   
1. A fudden and great alteration in the air, at fun-
fet, from intolerable heat to a chilling cold. This is
perceived as foon as the fun is down, and is for the moll
part accompanied with a very heavy dew: it (hews an
unhealthy fwampy foil, the nature of which is fuch,
that no fooner the fun-beams are withdrawn, than the
vapours emitted from it render the air damp, raw, and
chilling, in the moft fultry climates; fo that even
under the equator, in fome unhealthy places, the night-
air is very cold to an European conftitution.
2. Thick noifome fogs, chiefly after funfet, arifing
from the valleys, and particularly from the mud, flime,
or other impurities. In hot countries; the fmeil of
thefe fogs may be compared to that of a new-cleaned
ditch. Difeafes therefore, arifing from this caufe, ge¬
nerally take place in the night, or before fun-rifing.
3. Numerous fwarms of flies, gnats, and other in¬
fers which attend ftagnated air and unhealthy places
covered with wood.
4. When all butchers meat foon corrupts, and in a
few hours becomes full of maggots; when metals are
quickly corroded on being expofed to the air; and
when a corpfe becomes intolerably offenfive in lefs than
fix hours; thefe are proofs of a clofe, hot, and un-
unwholefbme country. And in fuch places, during
exceffive heats and great calms, it is not altogether
uncommon for Europeans, efpecially fuch as are of a
grofs habit of body, to be feized at once with the
moft alarming and fatal fymptoms of what is called
\htyellow fever, without even any previous complaint
of ficknefs or other fymptoms of the difeafe. There
has firft been perceived an uneafy itching fenfation,
commonly in the legs; and upon pulling down the
dockings, ftreams of thin diflblved blood followed, a
ghaftly yellow colour quickly diffufed itfelf over the
whole body, and the patient has been carried off in
lefs than forty-eight hours.
5. A fort of fandy foil, commonly a fmall, loofe,
white fand, as that at Penfacola, Whydah, and the
ifland of Bonavifta, which isr found by experience to
be injurious to health. The peftiferous vapour ari¬
fing, during the fummer months and in the heat of I
the day, from fuch a fandy foil, is beft charafterifed
by its effefts in the extenfive defarts of Afia and Africa.
It there conftitutes what is called the Samiel wind; a
blaft which, in the parched defart, proves inftantly
fatal both to man and bead : but when it paffes over
a foil well covered with grafs and vegetables, has its
effe£ts greatly mitigated ; it is, however, even then,
produAive of ficknefs: thus the foutherly winds, while
they blow from the defarts of Libya during the fum¬
mer, at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, produce an un- i
healthy feafon; and at Madrafs the winds, which, in
the months of April and May, pafs over a large tra&
of fand, are always hot, difagreeable, and unwhole-
fome.
During thefe land-winds, fudden gufts of a more
hot and fuffocating nature are often obferved to come
from thofe fands once or twice, or even more frequent- ||
ly, in a day, which feem to be this vapour in a purer I
form. Thefe gufts pafs very quickly, and affeA per-
fons who happen to ftand with their faces towards j|
them in the fame manner as the hot air which iffues
from
if>art IT. M E D I
ra|iAcTicE from 3" burning furnace, or from a heated oven, and
obliges them immediately to turn away from it in or¬
der to recover breath. The effedl of this hot fuifoca-
ting blaft or vapour on the human body, even when
mitigated by palling through a moift atmofphere, is
the fame as that of intenfe cold; it (huts up every pore
of the (kin, and entirely Hops the perfpiration of fuch
as are expofed to it. Thefe blafts come only in the day¬
time, and always from the defarts. Water is the-only
knowncorredor or antidote againftthem : hence, coarfe
thick clothes, kept conftantly wet, and hung up at
the windows, or doors, greatly mitigate their violence.
A houfe fo built as to have no windows or doors to¬
wards the defarts, is an excellent protedion againft
their pernicious eft'eds. The hot land-winds conitantly
blow at Madrafs, and other places on the coaft of Co¬
romandel, at that feafon, from midnight till noon ;
the fea-breezes then begin, which relieve the difficulty
in breathing and the obftruded perfpiration which
the former occafioned.
That the heat of thefe land-winds, as alfo of the
fudden gufts which accompany them, proceed from
large trads of fand heated by the fun, is evident from
the increafed heat and fuffocating quality of thofe
winds, in proportion as the day advances, and as the
heat of the feafon is increafed. The oppofite winds
1 blowing from each fide of the Balagate-mountains,
are a farther proof of this. Thefe mountains, run¬
ning from north to fouth, divide the hither Penin-
fula of India into two unequal parts, and feparate
what is called the Malabar from the Coromandel
coaft. To the former they are very near, but at a
I great diftance from the latter. The winds blowing
from thofe hills are on the, Malabar-coaft always re¬
markably cool; but on the coaft of Coromandel, in
the months of April, May, June, and July, are ex¬
tremely hot and fuffocating, as they pafs over a large
trad of intermediate fand, heated during thofe months
by an almoft vertical fun. Hence the Malabar coaft is
always covered with an agreeable verdure ; whereas
the Coromandel-coaft, during the continuance of thefe
hot winds, feems a barren wildernefs, nothing appear-
ing green except the trees. On the contrary, the
winds that pafs over thefe fands after being wet with
the rains, are the coldeft which blow at Madrafs. Bottles
of liquor inclofed in bags of coarfe cloth, kept con¬
ftantly wet, and fufpended in the (hade, where thofe
hot winds may have accefs to them, become as cold
a.s if they had been immerfed in a folution of nitre;
an effed owing undoubtedly to the conftant evapora¬
tion of water from the furface. See Cotn and Eva¬
poration.
It is an obfervation of the natives on the coaft of
Coromandel, which is confirmed by the experience of
many Europeans, that the longer the hot land-winds
blow, the healthier are the enfuing months ; thefe
winds, as they exprefs it, purifying the air. Are not
the winds therefore the caufe why the air on the coaft
of Coromandel, except during their continuance, is
more healthy than in other parts of India where thefe
winds do not blow ? Does not this alfo fugged a very
probable reafon, why the plague in Egypt generally
ceafes in the beginning of June; the periodical hot
winds which come from the defarts of Nubia and E-
thiopia having then rendered the air of Egypt pure
Vot. VI. i
CINE. 4679
and wholefome ? Many have afcribed that effed toPRAcne
the north-winds ; as the plague not only ceafes when
they blow, but all infeded goods, houfehold-furni-
ture, and wearing apparel, are then faid to become en¬
tirely free from the contagion : thefe, however, can¬
not be the caufe, as the mod deftrudive plague is a-
bated in its violence, if not wholly eradicated, before
they fet in. With equal propriety we may rejed the
opinion that the overflowing of the Nile is produdive
of that falutary effed, as the plague generally ceafes
before the increafe of that river is perceptible.
* Thus the plague,' the greateft calamity which can
afflid mankind, feems to be deftroyed by thefe hot
winds, which are otherwife fo pernicious to animal
and vegetable life. And although, during the conti¬
nuance of thefe winds, the moft fruitful fields wear the
afped of a parched defart, yet no fooner the rains fall,
but vegetation is reftored, the plants revive, and a beau¬
tiful verdure is again fpread over the face of the country.
Having thus given an account of the fignsof an un¬
healthy country, our author next proceeds to mention
fuch employments as are particularly dangerous to Eu¬
ropeans on their firft arrival. One of thefe is the cut¬
ting down of trees, (hrubs, &c. or clearing the ground
as it is called. Of the unhealthinefs of this employ¬
ment he gives two inftances. At the conclufion of the
late peace, the captain of a (hip of war went on (hore
at the ifland of Dominica, with 12 of his men, to cut
down the wood, and to clear a piece of ground
which he intended to have purchafed: but, in a few
days, ficknefs obliged him to defift from this danger¬
ous work ; the captain and 11 of his men being feized
with violent fevers, which terminated in obftinate in-
termittents, and of which feveral died. The furvivors
fuffered fo much in their conftitutions, that, even after
they came to England, the return of an eaft-wind was
apt to bring on a violent fit of the ague. The Lud-
low-Caftle, a (hip of war of 40 guns, in a voyage to
the coaft of Guinea, alfo loft 25 of her men, at Sierra
Leona, who were employed in cutting down wood for
the (hip. This is an occupation which has often pro¬
ved deftruftive to Europeans in thofe climates, and in
which they ought never to be employed, efpecially du¬
ring the rainy feafon ; there being numberlefs inflan-
ces of white perfons, when cutting down the woods at
that feafon, who have been taken ill in the morning,
and dead before night.
Another evil, lefs known, and lefs fufpedted, but
nolefs dangerous, is the fending of Europeans in open
boats after funfet, where the foil is fwampy, or where
there are great night-fogs. The fingle duty alone of
fetching frefh-killed butchers meat at night for the ufe
of our (hips companies in the Eaft and Weft Indies,
has deftroyed every year feveral thoufand feamen. In
thofe parts of the world, butchers meat muft behrought
on board at night immediately after it is killed, other-
wife it will not be fit for ufe the next day; but a con-
traft made with the natives to fend it on board at that
time, which might be done for a trifling fum, would
be the means of preferring many ufeful lives. During
the fickly feafon at Batavia, a boat belonging to the
Medway, which attended on (hore every night, was
three times fucceffively manned, not one having furvi-
vtd that fervice. They were all taken ill in the night,
when on (hore, or when returning on board; fo that
26 M’ at
4680
Practice
M E D I
at length the officers were obliged to employ none but
'the natives on that bufmefs. Great numbers of men
have perifhed from being employed in this manner at
Bengal, where the European fhips often anchor in the
moft unhealthy fpots of the river; and even when the
great night-fogs arife, after the rainy feafon, the men
are often obliged to perform fuch night-fervices in
boats. Now fince it isfo dangerous for Europeans in
unhealthy countries, particularly during a feafon of
ficknefs, to be expofed in an open boat to the foggy
night-air, it mufl; appear, that fending them unfhel-
tered, in open boats, far up rivers, in unhealthy
fouthern climates, far the fake of wood, water, trade,
or other purpofes, mud be attended with the moftde-
ftruftive and fatal confequences.
Burying the dead in fwampy countries is another
occupation which has proved fatal to many, and which
ought to be entrufted to negroes or the natives of the
country. The effluvia from the ground when newly
opened, whether from graves or ditches, are far more
dangerous than from the fame fwampy foil when the
furface is undifturbed; nay, in fome places, it has been
found almoft certain death for an European to dig a
grave, unlefs long feafoned to the country. In fuch a
place, the attendance of friends at funerals ought to be
difpenfed with.
In all cafes where it is prafticable, the fhips which
vifit thefe unhealthy countries fhc^uld anchor at as great
a diftance as poffible from fhore ; or if obliged to an¬
chor near marfhy grounds or fwamps, efpeciaily during
fummer or in hot weather, and when the wind blows
diredlly from thence, the gun-ports which would ad¬
mit the noxious land-breeze ought to be kept fhut,
efpecially at night. Or if the {hip rides with her head
to the wind, a thick fail ought to be put upon the
fore-maft, along which the fmoke from the fire-place
might be made conftantly to play and afcend. If the
fail fhould occafion a little fmoke between decks, this
inconvenience will be fufficiently compenfated by its
keeping off the direct ftream of the fwampy fhore efflu¬
via ; which now being obliged to form a curve before
they reach the more diftant parts of the veffel, muff
needs be greatly diverted and fcattered.
The beft prefervative againft the mifchievous im-
preffions of a putrid fog, or of a marfhy exhalation,
is a clofe, fheltered, and covered place ; fuch as the
lower apartments in a fhip, or a houfe in which there
are no doors or windows facing the fwamps. If in
fuch places a fire is kept either at the doors and other
inlets to a houfe, or in the chambers, as is praftifed
in fome unhealthy countries during the rainy or foggy
feafon, it will prove an excellent and effectual protec¬
tion againft the injuries of a bad air. On board of fhips
alfo fires may be made at the hatchways ; and of the
good effefts of this, we have the following example.
When the Edgar, a fhip of war of 60 guns, was upon
the coaft of Guinea in the year 1768, her men were
very fickly, and many of them died : whereas it was
obferved, that in a floop of war, which was conftant¬
ly in company with her, few were taken ill, and not
one died during the whole voyage. This could be
afcribed to no other caufe, But that in the floop the
fireplace for cooking victuals was on the fame level
with the deck where the men lay ; and every morning
when the fire was lighted, efpecially when there was
CINE. Part II.
but little wind, the fmoke from the cook-room fpread Practics|»
itfelf all over the fhip, and particularly overthofe parts "
where the men lay; but from the conftruftion of the
fire-place of the Edgar, no fmoke from it ever came
between her decks.
Perfons on board any fhip whatever, are much more
fafe, and their fituation is much preferable to that of
thofe who make diftant inland excurfions in fmall
boats upon the rivers, and who are for the moft part
ignorant of the caufe of thofe maladies which deftroy
them. The intolerable heat at noon often obliges
fuch perfons to go in a manner half-naked ; while a
free and plentiful perfpiration iffues from every pore.
A near approach to putrid fwamps at this time is apt
to produce an immediate ficknefs, vomiting, and
afterwards a low nervous or malignant fever. But if
they happen to pafs them at night, or lie near them
in an open boat, the air from thofe fwamps is per¬
ceived to be quite chill and cold; in fo much that
warm thick clothing becomes abfolutely requifite to
guard the body againft the imperffions of fo great an
alteration in the air, and againft its cold and incle¬
ment quality; for the effe&s of it then, even on the
moft healthy and vigorous conftitution, is frequently a
chilling cold fit of an ague, terminating in a fever with
delirium, bilious vomitings, a flux, or even death
itfelf.
But where fuch expofure becomes unavoidable, the
only method is then to defend the body as much as
poffible againft the pernicious miafmata with which
the air abounds.—All thofe who are employed in
cutting down woods, or in other laborious and dan¬
gerous fervices in hot climates, during the heat of the
day ought to have their heads covered with a bladder
dipt in vinegar, and to wafh their mouths often with
the fame liquor; never to fwallow their fpittle, but
rather to chew a little rhubarb or fome other bitter
and fpit it out frequently; to flop their noftrils with j
a fmall bit of linen, or tow, dipped in camphorated
vinegar; and to infufe fome bark, garlic, and thubarb,
in brandy, of which a dram is to be taken, either by
itfelf or diluted with water, morning and evening.
In the evening before funfet they fhould leave off
work, and not return to their labour in the morning
till the fun has difperfed the unwholefome dews and
vapours. Thofe who muft of neceflity remain on fhore,
and fleep in dangerous places, muft take care not to
fleep upon the ground expofed to the dews, but in
hammocks in a clofe tent, (landing upon a dry fand,
gravel, orchalk, near the fea fhore, and where there is
no fubterraneous water for at lead four feet below the
furface of the ground. The door of this tent fhould
be made to open towards the fea; and the back part
of it which receives the land breeze, muft be well
fecured by double canvafs, or covered with branches
of trees. But in fuch circumftances, a hut, when it
can be procured, is preferable to a tent, efpecially if
it is well thatched, fo as to prove a defence both
againft the exceffive heat of the fun by day, and the
noxious dews which fall at night. Here the men may
be enjoined to fmoke tobacco. When the air is
thick, moift, and chill, the earth being overfpread
with cold dew, a conftant fire muft be kept in and
about the tent or hut, as |the moft excellent means of
purifying fuch unwholefome air, and of preferving the
health
Part II. M E D I
ractice health of thofe who either fleeping or'waking are
expofed to its influence. Thecentinels who guard the
water-cafks, ought likewife at fuch a time to have a
fire burning near them. All old and forfaken habi¬
tations, natural caves and grottoes in the earth,
where the men may be induced to take up their abode,
muft, before their admiffion, be perfectly dried and
purified with fufficient fires. Fire and fmoke are un¬
doubtedly the great purifiers of all tainted and un-
wholefome air, and the moft excellent prefervatives
againft its noxious influence. It is the cuftom of the
negroes in Guinea, as alfo of fome Indians, (who
both fleep for the moft part on the ground), to have
a fire, producing a little fmoke, conftantly burning in
their huts where they fleep. This not only corre&s
the moifture of the night, but alfo, by occafioning
more fmoke than heat, renders the damp from the
earth lefs noxious; of which our author gives the
following remarkable inftance. A Guinea (hip being
up one of the rivers for the fake of trade, it was found
to be very dangerous to fleep on (hore ; without which
their trade could not be fo conveniently carried on.
Firft the captain, then the mate, and two or three of
the feaman, were taken ill; each of them the morning
after they had lain on ftiore. By thefe accidents the
men were greatly intimidated from lying afliore; till the
furgeon boldly offered to try the experiment on him-
felf. Next morning when he waked, he found himfelf
feized, as the reft, with a giddinefs and pain in the
head, &c. He immediately acquainted one of the
negroes with his condition, who carried him to his
hut, and fet him down in the fmoke of it; when his
fhiverings and giddinefs foon left him. He then took
a dram of the bark bitter ; and found himfelf greatly
relieved, efpecially by breathing fome time in the
fmoke.—Thus inftrudted by the negroe, he ordered
a large fire to dry the hut he flept in ; and afterwards
had every night a fmall fire fufficient to raife a gentle
fmoke, without occafioning a troublefome heat: and
by this means he and feveral others, ufing the fame
precautions, flept many nights on ftiore without any in¬
convenience.
Fire and fmoke indeed are found to be certain cor-
reftors, or rather deftroyers, of infection in all cafes,
whether arifing from the noxious effluvia of marfties,
or from the contagion of difeafed bodies. Even thofe
moft extraordinary and fatal damps called harmattans,
formerly mentioned, are unable to refift the falutary
effefts of fmoke. In other cafes, our author remarks,
that, under fome circumftances, the fource of an in-
fe&ion in a fick chamber or any other place, may be
removed or deftroyed by accidental means, for which
we cannot account, and which we often cannot afcer-
tain. But it oftener happens, that it is very difficultly
rooted out; and that exa& cleanlinefs, with the benefit
of a pure air, often proves infufficient to remove the
evil. Smoke, however, hath never been known to
fail. It is not to be doubted, but that, excepting
the true plague, there has been an infe£tion fully as
peftilential and as mortal in fome fhips, as in any
other place whatever ; yet it hath never been heard,
that any (hip, after having been carefully fmoked, did
not immediately become healthy : and if afterwards
they turned fickly, it was eafy to trace that ficknefs from
other infefted fhips, jails, and the like places.
CINE.
There are three methods praftifed for purifying vef-
fels after the men have been removed out of them.
The firft is by burning of tobacco. A quantity of
tobacco is fpread on feveral fires, made with fuch old
pieces of rope as are called junk. Thefe are difperfed
into different places of the fhip, and their heat and
fmoke afterwards clofely confined below for a confide-
rable time.—The fecond method is by charcoal fires
ftrewed with brimftone. The heat and fleam of thefe
burning materials muft alfo be long and clofe (hut up:
but, although this fume, properly applied, hath been
experienced to purify moft effedually tainted apart¬
ments, fhips, clothes, &c. yet there are fome kinds of
vermin which it will not deftroy, particularly lice 
The third method of purification is performed by the
addition of arfenic to the materials of the fecond pro-
cefs, in the following manner. After carefully flop¬
ping up all the openings, and every fmall crevice of the
fhip, (as was alfo heceffary in the preceding proceffes)
a number of iron pots, properly fecured, are to be pla¬
ced in the hold, orlops, gun-deck, See. Each of thefe
are to contain a layer of charcoal at the bottom, then
a layer of brimftone, and fo alternately three or four
layers of each, upon which the arfenic is to be fprink-
led, and on the top of it fome oakum dipped in tar is
to be laid to ferve as a match. The men, upon fel¬
ting fire to the oakum, muft fpeedily leave the place,
(hutting clofe the hatchway by which they came up.
From the known and experienced efficacy of thefe
proceffes, it appears, that fire and fmoke are the moft
powerful agents for annihilating infedlion; and, it may
be prefumed, even the plague itfelf. This is in fome
meafure agreeable to what we learn from the ancient
records of phyfic. But the prepofterous ufe, or rather
abufe, of fire on fuch occafions, has caufed its effedls to
be difregarded by fome, and to be fufpefted of mif-
chief by others. The modern practice of burning
large fires in the open air, in the fireets, and about the
walls of towns infedled with the plague or other con¬
tagion, is founded on principles groundlefs and erro¬
neous; and hath, therefore, been experienced not only
unfuccefsful, but hurtful. But though this muft be
allowed, it doth not thence by any means follow, that
when once a houfe hath been infedted and the patients
removed from it, the doors and windows at the fame
time being fhut, that fuch fires will then prove hurtful;
or that, by this method of purification, all the feeds of
contagion will not be effedlually deftroyed. Whenever,
therefore, perfons die of a fpotted fever, a malignant
fore throat, the fmall-pox, or any diftemper found to
be communicable from the fick to others, the corpfe
ought quickly after death to be removed into another
room ; that in which the perfon died fhould be well
aired, by having the windows opened, till a charcoal-
fire be kindled, with fome rolls of fulphur upon it;
after which, both doors and windows fhould be kept
fhut for a confiderable time, not lefs than eight or ten
hours, till the room be throughly fmoked. In feveral
fhips, where there are the faireft opportunities of try¬
ing and judging things of this nature, the contagion
of the fmall-pox has been entirely flopped by wood-
fires, fprinkled with brimftone, kept burning and clofe¬
ly confined in the infe&ed place. In a word, a judi¬
cious and proper application of fire and fmoke is the
beft means for the deftruftion and utter extindion of
26 M 2 the
4681
Practice
4682 M E D I
Practice tlie mod malignant foil ces of difeafe; and they are
befides the greateft purifiers of all bad and tainted air.
Next to the fmoke of wood ,for purifying a tainted
air, that of gun-powder is to be efteemed the beft; and
hath this further good property, that it is entirely in-
offenfive to the lungs. The cafcarilla-bark, when burn-
ing, gives a moft agreeable fcent to the chamber of the
fick; fo is at leaft an elegant prefervative, and may
prevent bad fmells from taking effedt. The fteam of
camphorated vinegar warmed, is ftill more powerful for
this purpofe. But, befides corre&ing the ill quality
of the air, and purifying the chamber, another good
effeft is produced from fuch (teams and fmoke as are
inoffenfive to the lungs. As foon as the vapour be¬
comes denfe, the nnrfes and patients become defirous
of the admifiion of frefh air by the door or windows.
Now it is certain, that the air in the chambers of the
fick cannot be too often changed, provided the patient
be well covered, and the curtains of his bed, if necef-
fary, be drawn clofe. No argument is fo forcible to
obviate the danger of foul air in a room or ward, (oc-
cafioned by the obftinacy of nurfes or relations), as or¬
dering it to be frequently fumigated or fmoked : A
practice more frequent in other countries than in this,
but of great benefit to the fick.
Laftly, with regard to the method of purifying
goods, moveables, clothes, &c. which are fuppofed to
harbour infe&ion, it mud be obferved, that the ufual
cuftom of only unpacking and expofing fuch materials
to the open air, is in many inftances infufficient to de-
llroy the latent feeds of difeafe. It is certain indeed,
that in mod cafes the contagious particles are more
readily and fatally communicated from the clothes of
a fick perfon, than from his body. The fpreading a-
broad, therefore, of contaminated cYJdies to dry or to
be aired, without a previous fumigation of them, may
be of dangerous and fatal confequence. All fuch fuf-
pefted fubdances (hould be fird fumigated in a clofe
place, and in the fame manner as an infedted chamber,
after which they may be fpread abroad and expofed to
the air. In infe&ious difeafes, efpecially fevers, the
linen of the fick, or fuch clothes about them as will
admit of being walhed, ought never at fird to be put
in warm water, as it is dangerous to receive the deam
that may hence arife. It is neceffary to deep them
fird either in cold water, or in cold foap-lees, for feve-
ral hours, that the filth may be wafhed off.
We mud now proceed to give an account of the me¬
thod of cure, after thefe methods of preventing the in¬
fection from being received into the body have either
been negledted or proved ineffedtual. Here it is of
the utmod importance to take the difeafe in the very
beginning, before it hath time to corrupt the fluids to
fuch a degree as to endanger life. In thefe (light de¬
grees of infedtion, a vomit properly adminiftered, e-
fpecially if fucceeded by a blider, never fails to re¬
move the diforder, and prevent the fever which would
otherwife unavoidably follow. Of this Dr Lind
gives the following indances. A lady afflidfed with
the bilious cholic, had intolerably fetid difcharges of
corrupted matters upwards and downwards. A gen¬
tlewoman, only in palling the room, was immediately
feized with a retching and ficknefs, which continued
14 hours. The nurfe who attended, was fuddenly fei-
md with a giddinefs. and vomiting from the bad fmell.
CINE. Part
which, as (lie exprefied it, reached into her domach.
The vomiting became more fevere at night, accompa¬
nied with a purging and frequent (hiverings. By
means of an emetic both evacuations were dopped :
notwithdanding which, for fome days afterwards, (lie
continued to have frequent tremors, and a violent head-
ach, with a low irregular pulfe j and did not recover
fo foon as the patient.
Such flight degrees of infedlion have been often ob¬
ferved to be derived from patients of a grofs habit of
body, when labouring under inflammatory diltempers,
and even other complaints. A man was fent to Haf-
lar Hofpital, fuppofed to have a fever. He was fu-
rioufly delirious, with a quick full pulfe. Notwith-
ftanding plentiful evacuations, this delirium continued
for two months with fhort intervals; when the cafe
was found to be plainly maniacal. A nurfe, upon rai-
fing this perfon up in her arms, perceived an intole¬
rably bad fmell, and was indantly feized with (hiver¬
ings, ficknefs, and head-ach. Finding herfelf very ill,
(he took a vomit in fix hours afterwards, and pafled the
night in profufe fweats by means of a fudorific draught.
Next morning the violence of the head-ach was but
little abated ; upon every attempt to move, (lie com¬
plained of a burning heat and pain in her forehead,
and became giddy. Her inclination to drink was fre¬
quent, and her pulfe low and quick. A blifter was im¬
mediately applied to the back : as foon as the blifter
took effeft, the head-ach and third entirely left her,
and the pulfe wa^ calm. Next day (he arofe and was
well.
Many fimilar inftances of infe&ion have been obfer¬
ved from putting the dead into their coffins. In par¬
ticular, one man, who, from performing that duty to
his meffmate, was fo ill, even after the operation of the
vomit, as to. require a- blifter. In the courfe of one
week two nurfes were infefted by a perfon in the fmall-
pox. Both were feized in like manner with (hiverings,
ficknefs, and head-ach ; the one upon receiving the
patient’s breath, the other upon making his bed. In
one, a pain darted into her bread; in the other, into
the bread and in the fmall of the back. The com¬
plaints of the former were fpeedily removed by a vo¬
mit, though (he continued to have irregular returns of
(hiverings for three days afterwards. But in the latter,
though the head-ach, ficknefs, and rigors, were great¬
ly abated by the vomit, yet a conftant heat and third,
with a low pulfe, and a violent pain in the bread, in¬
dicated the neceffity of applying a blifter to the affec¬
ted parts which next morning removed all her com¬
plaints.
A perfon is often immediately fenfible of his having
received an infe&ion from the firft attack: they gene¬
rally compare the firft impreffioo to an earthy, difa-
greeable fmell, reaching down, as they exprefs it, into
their ftomach, as from a grave newly opened, but not
quite fo raw as the cadaverous ftench ; and the effefts
of it, (hivering and ficknefs, are inftantaneous. It is
a fmell difficult to defcribe ; but is well known to the
nurfes and attendants about the fick, as it ufually ac¬
companies fevers of extreme malignity, and, with the
peculiar difcharges from the bliftered parts, may be
reckoned among the moft conftant fymptoms of a bad
fever. Some compare the fmell to that of rotten ftraw.
It often refembles the difagreeable fmell of a perfon,
labouring
MEDICINE.
•fart II.
^utice labouring under the confluent fmall-pox at their turn,
1 though not fo ftrong. One perfon, on receiving the in-
feftion, was fenfible of fomething like an eleftric fhock
through his body. But many are not fenfible of any
effedf from an infe&ion at firft; and an infection from
a fever will fometimes continue for many days, nay
weeks, difcovering itfelf chiefly by irregular fliiverings,
fometimes fo fevere as to oblige the patients to have
recourfe to their beds once or twice a-day; fometimes
every other day. Among a number thus affeded, it
alfo appears, that fuch as are put into unfeafoned cham¬
bers, or have fat down on the cold ground, lain in raw
damp apartments, &c. are immediately feiztd with a
ficknefs at ftomach, fometimes with a dangerous pur-
Iging, and often with feversaccompanied with bad fymp-
toms, which others have entirely efcaped.
It now remains to confider the proper method of
curing putrid fevers, on the fuppofition that the infec¬
tion hath been allowed to operate till the blood be-
I1 comes radically tainted, and of confequence the ner¬
vous fyftem affedted to fuch a degree, that its power
cannot be reftored by any of the fimple medicines
above-mentioned. Here all authors agree, that a
change of air, when it can be effe&ed, is abfolutely ne-
ceffary, and often csntributes more towards the remo¬
ving of the difeafe than all the medicines that can be
exhibited. The utility of this change will appear from
what hath been formerly faid; and we (hall only fur¬
ther allege one inftance from Dr Lind, in which the
effedls of bad air appear to a degree almoft incredible.
“ It is remarkable, (fays he), that in the laft war, the
Englidi (hips which touched at Batavia fuffered more
by the malignant and fatal difeafes of that climate,
than they did in any other part of India, if we except
a fatal fcurvy which once raged,in that fleet at fea.
Soon after the capture of Manila, the Falmouth, a fhip
of 50 guns, wTent to Batavia, where fhe remained from
the latter end of July to the latter end of January;
during which time fhe buried too foldiers of the 79th
regiment, and 75 of the fhips company; not one per¬
fon in the fhip having efcaped a fit of ficknefs, except
her commander Captain Brereton. The Panther, a
fhip of 60 guns, was there in the years 1762 and 1764;
and both times during the rainy feafon. In the former
of thefe years, fhe buried 70 of her men ; and 92 of
them were very ill when fhe left the place. In the
year 1764, during a fhort flay, 25 of her men died.
The Medway, which was in company with her, loft
alfo a great number of men. Nor was the ficknefs at
that time confined to the fhips; the whole city afford¬
ed a fcene of difeafe and death r flreets crowded with
funerals, bells tolling from mowing to night, and
horfes jaded with dragging the dead in herfes to their
graves. At that time a flight cut of the fkin, the lead
fcratchof a nail, or the moft inconfiderable wound, turn¬
ed quickly to a fpreading putrid ulcer, which in 24
hours confumed the flefh even to the bone. This fa6l
is fo extraordinary, that, upon a fingle teftimony, cre¬
dit would hardly be given to it ; yet on board the
Medway and Panther they had the moft fatal experi¬
ence of it, and fuffered much from it.”
But where this change of air is impra&icable or
ineffeflual, and where the fever hath already made fome
progrefs, Sir John Pringle generally took away fome
Mood if the pulfe was full. When the fymptoms run
high, a plentiful evacuation of that kind feemed indi¬
cated ; yet it was obferved that large bleedings gene¬
rally did harm, by finking the pulfe, and affeding the
head. Nor was a moderate bleeding to be repeated
without caution; even thofe whofe blood was fizy, tin-
lefs their lungs were inflamed, were the worfe for a fe-
cond bleeding. If the head only fuffered, it was much
fafer to ufe leeches than to open a vein in the arm ; but
in the delirium with a funk pulfe, even leeches were
hurtful. Many recovered without letting blood, but
few who loft much of it.
Vomits alfo muft be ufed with caution; for though
they may be of ufe by way of prevention, yet in the
advanced ftate of the difeafe, when the patient has all
along complained of a ficknefs at ftomach, they are
evidently unfafe. Here the antifeptic quality of fixed
air is of much ufe, and the neutral draughts given in
the aft of effervefeence are generally attended with
happy effefts. Nay, clyfters of fixed air itfelf have
been found very ferviceable. Even in very bad ftages
of the diftemper, where a putrid and colliquative loofe-
nefs hath taken place, clyfters of fixed air have been
known to alleviate the fymptoms. We muft not, how¬
ever, put too much confidence in medicines of this
kind. Mild aftringent cordials, efpecially the wine and
Peruvian bark, are the only refources in thefe difor-
ders. Concerning the former, Sir John Pringle ob-
ferves, in the low ftate of thefe fevers, and in great fink-
ings, which either come after unfeafonable bleedings*
or long want of nouriftiment, it was a moft grateful
and efficacious cordial, to which nothing was compa¬
rable. The common men had an allowance, from a
quarter to half a pint in a day, of a ftrong kind, made
into whey, or added to the panada which was their or¬
dinary food. But to others out of the hofpital, he
ufually preferibed Rhenifti, or a fmall French wine,
whereof fome confumed near a quart per day, and part
of that undiluted. Nay, fo great was the virtue of
wdne in this ftage of the fever, that feveral were known
to recover from the Iqweft condition, when, refufing the
bark on account of its tafte, they took nothing but a
little panada with wine and a volatile diaphoretic mix¬
ture every two or three hours by turns. Perhaps there
is no rule more neceflary in this ftate, than not to let
the patient when low remain long without taking fome¬
thing cordial and nourilhing; as many have been ob¬
ferved pail recovery, by being fuffered to pafs a whole
night without any fupport about the time of the crifis.
In the advanced (late of this fever the fickare remark¬
ably low; and therefore Hoffman advifes in fuch cafes,,
that they ftiould be conftantly kept in bed, and not
permitted even to fit up in it. In the laft ftage of this
fever, as well as in that of the fea-fcurvy, it would feem.
that the force of the heart was too fmall to convey the
blood to the brain, except when the body is in an ho¬
rizontal pofture.
But, however neceflary wine and the bark may be in
the low ftage of this fever, we muft remember, that
thefe remedies are to be adminiftered only as antifep-
tics and fupporters of the vis vita, without aiming at
thoroughly raifing the pulfe or relieving the head, or
at forcing a fweat by them before nature points that
way, and which Sir John Pringle feldom obferved be¬
fore the 14th day. For though the patient may die
before that time if he has been largely bled, or if the
cordial;
4683:
Pr Act ics.
4684
Practice
M E D I
cordial medicines have been given him too freely, yet
fuch means as our author made ufe of were not power¬
ful enough to bring on a crifis fooner.
In the low Rate of the hofpital-fever, a ftupor was
a conftant attendant, which was very apt, in the even¬
ing, to change to a flight delirium. If this was all,
as being in the common courfe, nothing was done.
But if the delirium increafed upon ufing wine, if the
eyes looked wild or the voice became quick, there
was reafon to apprehend a phrenitis; and accordingly
it wasobferved, that at fuch times all internal heating
medicines aggravated the fymptomsi and in thefe cafes
blitters were of the greateft fervice. Fomentations of
vinegar and warm water for the feet, our author is of
opinion, would anfwer better than either finapifms or
blitters, provided they were long enough and often e-
nough applied. In the inflammatory fevers, he has
known thefe fomentations have little effedl for the firft
hour, and yet fucceed afterwards. For internal me¬
dicine, the bark was omitted for fome time, but the
patient was continued with an acidulated drink, viz.
barley-water and vinegar; and treated alfo with cam-
phire, pulvis contrayerva compofitus, and nitre, as was
ufual in the beginning of the fever. If the delirium
was of the low kind, a deco&ion of the bark and wine
were the only remedies ; for in no inftance was the de¬
lirium perfedtly removed till the time of the crifis. It
mutt alfo be obferved, that a delirium may arife in pu¬
trid fevers from two oppofite errors; one from large
and repeated bleedings, and the other from wine and
the cordial medicines being taken too early. It ap¬
pears therefore how nice the principles are that regard
the cure; as neither a hot nor a cool regimen will an¬
swer with every patient, or in every ftate of the dif-
eafe.
If a diarrhoea came on in the decline of the fever, it
was moderated, but not fupprefled, by adding an opiate
to the ufoal medicines. For though the loofenefs
may be confidered as critical; yet as the fick were too
low to bear evacuations, there was a neceffity for re¬
training it in fome meafure; and it has often been ob¬
ferved, that when it has been treated in this manner,
about the ufual time of the crilis, the patient has fallen
into a gentle fweat, which has carried off the difeafe.
•In the worft cafes of this fever, and efpecially when it
coincides with the dyfentery, the ftools are frequent¬
ly bloody ; in which dangerous ftate, if any thing
could be done, it was attempted by medicines of the
fame kind. In proportion to the putrid nature of the
fools, opiates and aftringents were ufed with the
greater caution.
If the difeafe terminated in a fuppuration upon one
of the parotid glands (for the gland itfelf does not
fuppurate), the abfcefs was opened without waiting
for a fluftuation, which might never happen; the
pus being often here fo vifcid, that after it was ripe
the part felt nearly as hard as if the fuppuration had
not begun.
Almoft every patient, after the fever, complained
of want of reft, frequently of a vertigo or confufion
of the head, of a continuation of the deafnefs, or of
other fymptoms commonly called nervous. An o-
piate was then given at night; and in the day fome
ftrengthening medicines, fuch as the bark and the
jeliidr of vitriol. In thefe cafes, the bark was found
CINE. Part II.
not only to be the beft ftrengthener, but the fureftPRACTic
prefervative againft a return of the difeafe. For this ■
laft intention the cotivalefcent was ordered about three
drachms a-day for fix or feven days together; and af¬
terwards, if he remained longer in the hofpital, fome
fmaller quantity daily. But if there was any appear¬
ance of a heftic fever from an inward abfcefs, the cafe
was treated accordingly. Upon comparing fome of 1
the remaining fymptoms of tbofe who recovered, with
the condition of the brain in thofe who died and were
opened, our author was induced to think, that fome
part even of that fubftance might fuppurate, and yeti
the perfon recover.
Sometimes the patient falls into an irregular inter¬
mittent; which, if not of a he&ic nature from an inter¬
nal abfcefs, may proceed from negle&ing to clear the
prim# vice. For it is eafy to conceive, that after a
long fever of fuch a putrid nature, often attended
with languor of the bowels, the faeces may be fo much
accumulated, and fo corrupted, as to occafion new
diforders. In fuch cafes, after proper evacuation by a
purge, the bark was almoft an infallible remedy.
XXVIII. The Tellonv Fever. Sp. II. 278 '
Typhus i&eroides, Sauv. fp. 7.
Febris flava Indice Occidentalism Warren. Malignant
fever of Barbadoes, Hillary's Difeafes of Bar-
badoes. Lining on the yellow fever of South
Carolina, Edin. phyf. and liter. Eflays, vol. ii.
Mackittrick de febre flava Indiae Occidentalis, E-
din. 1766.
Defcription. This is one of the moft fatal difeafes
to which the inhabitants of warm climates are fubjeA,
and is the fame with that called, from one of its worft
fymptoms, the black vomit, which is fo terribly deftruc-
tive in fome of the wwrm parts of America, particu¬
larly at Carthagena. According to Dr Hillary, the
yellow or putrid bilious fever moft commonly feizesthe
patient at firft with a faintnefs, then a ficknefs at fto-
mach, accompanied moftly with a giddinefs of the head;
foon after with 3 flight chillinefs and horror, very rarely
with a rigor, which is foon followed by a violent heat
and high fever, attended with acute darting pains in
the head and back. A flufhing in the face, with an
inflamed rednefs and a burning heat in the eyes, great
anxiety and oppreflion about the preecordia, are the
pathognomic figns of the diftemper ; efpecially when
attended with ficknefs at ftomach, violent retchings,
bilious yellow vomitings, with frequent fighing. The
pulfe is now generally very quick, high,foft, and fome-
times throbbing, but never hard: in fome it is very quick,
foft. low, and oppre/fed ; the refpiration quick, full,
and fometimes difficult; the fkin very hot, and fome-
times dry, though more frequently moift. Blood
taken from the patient, even at the very beginning of
the difeafe, is often of an exceeding florid red colour;
much rarefied and thin, and without the lead appear¬
ance of fize; and the craffamentum, when it has flood
till it is cold, will fcarce cohere, but flu&uates ; the
ferum is very yellow.
Moft of the abovementioned fymptoms Continually
increafe, and are much aggravated : the retching and
vomiting become almoft inceflant; the anxiety great,
and fighing frequent; great reftlefihefs; continual
toffing ; .no eafe in any pofture j little fleep, and that
difturb-
r art II.
Wctice difturbed and uneafy, and without any refrefliment to
the fick : and when they are fainting, they turn yel¬
low about the face and neck, inftead of turning pale;
and as the fainting goes off, they recover their natu¬
ral colour. Thefe fynnptoms generally continue to the
third day, though fometimes not longer than the firft
or fecond, in others to the end of the fourth : the firft
fliews the greater diflblution of th,e blood, and the
greater malignity of the difeafe; the lad, the contrary;
which the improper manner of treating the difeafe
fometimes haftens and increafes, or the proper method
retards. This may be called the firft ftadium of the
difeafe, and generally ends on the third day.
Blood taken from the fick on the fecond or third
day, is much more diffolved, the ferum more yellow,
and the craffamentum florid, loofe, fcarce cohering,
but undulates like fizy water when fhaken, and fome-
tjmes has dark blackiih fpots on its furface, fhewing a
llrong gangranefcent diathefis.
About the third day, the pulfe, which was quick
and full before, now generally finks greatly, and be¬
comes very low: though fometimes it remains very
quick, yet in others it is not much quicker than when
the patient is in health, but is always low ; the vo¬
miting becomes almoft inceflant if not fo before, and
the matter thrown up is black; the patient then be-
. comes comatofe, with interrupted deliria. The thirft
in fome is very great, in others but little; the pulfe
ftill low and quick, attended with cold clammy fweats,
and fometimes with deliquia. The eyes, which were
inflamed and red before, and began to be of a more
duikifh colour, now turn yellow ; and this yellownefs
alfo foon after appears round the mouth, eyes, temples*
and neck, and in a fhort time diffufes itfelf all over the
body. But this yellownefs is fo far from being always
an encouraging prognoftfc, as fome would have it,
that it moft commonly proves a mortal fymptom.
Sometimes- indeed, though feldom, this fuffufion of
bile upon the furface has proved critical: but then it
did not come on till the eighth or ninth day, nor ap¬
pear till the coma and all the other bad fymptoms be¬
gan to abate; and then in proportion as the yellownefs
increafes, all the bad fymptoms dfecreafe. But the
cafe is moft commonly quite the reverfe; efpecially
when the yellownefs comes foon on: and then it is not
only fymptomatical, but ulhers in the moft fatal fymp¬
toms of the difeafe, viz. a deep coma, a low, vermi¬
cular, and intermitting pulfe, great haemorrhages from
various parts of the body, a delirium with laborious
and interrupted refpiration, great anxiety, deep figh-
ing, reftleffnefs, a fubfultus tendinum, coldnefs of the
extreme parts firft, and then all over the body, a fal¬
tering of the fpeech, tremors, and convulfions, which
are foon after followed by death. So that from the
firft appearance of the yellownefs we may fay the pa¬
tient is in the laft ftage of the difeafe, whether it ter¬
minates in death or recovery.
It has been obferved, that, in fome ftrong fanguine
conftitutions, when the patients have not been bled to
a fufficient quantity in the beginning of the difeafe,
the pulfe has continued fully ftrong, and rapid, but ne¬
ver hard ; the face flufhed, eyes inflamed; the tongue
dry, with great thirft and heat, till the fecond or
laft ftage of the fever is come on, when the pulfe has
fuddenly funk, and death foon after enfued. Yet in
4685
others, who feemed to be of a plethoric habit, the Practice
tongue has been moift all along, though they have
been delirious moft of the time, and the heat of their
fkin and the ftrength and quicknefs of their pulfe have
continued, after the firft ftage of the difeafe was over,
pretty near to that of their natural date in health, till
within a few hours of their death ; and when they
have had a coma on them, one who is not well ac¬
quainted with the nature of this difeafe would, from
their pulfe, heat, breathing, and other fymptoms,
have taken them to be in a natural fleep. Others, when
the pulfe has begun to fink, and the fatal period feem¬
ed to be juft approaching, to the great furprife of all
prefent have recovered their fenfes, fat up, and talk¬
ed pretty cheerfully for an hour or two, and in the
midft of this feeming fecurity have been fuddenly
feized with convulfions, which carried them offimme-
diately.
In the latter ftage of this fever,the blood is fo atte¬
nuated and diflblved, that we frequently fee it flowing-
not only out of the nofe and mouth, but from the
eyes, and even through the pores of the fkin ; alfo
great quantities of black, half-baked, or half-mortified
blood, are frequently voided both by vomiting and by
ftool, with great quantities of yellow and blackifti pu¬
trid bile by the fame ways ; and the urine, which was
before of a high i&eritious colour, is now almoft black,
and is frequently mixed with a confiderable quantity
of half-diffolved blood. The pulfe, which was much
funk before, now becomes very low, unequal, and in¬
termitting ; the breathing difficult and laborious ; and
the anxiety inexpreffible : an oppreffion with a burn¬
ing heat about the praecordia comes on, tho’ the extre¬
mities are cold, and often covered with cold clam¬
my fweats: a conftant delirium follows; and then a
total lofs of the outward fenfes as well as the judg¬
ment, with livid fpots in many parts of the body,
efpecially about the prsecordia ; and fometimes gan¬
grenes in other parts of the body, which are very foon
fucceeded by death.
In a fhorttime after death, the body appears much
more full of livid, large, mortified fpots, particularly
about the pnccordia and hypochondres, efpecially the
right ; which parts feem, even from the firft feizure,
to be the principal feat of this terrible difeafe; and,
upon opening the bodies of thofe who die of it, we
generally find the gall-bladder and biliary duffs tur¬
gid, and filled with a putrid blackifh bile; and the li¬
ver, ftomach, and adjoining parts, full of livid or
blackifh mortified fpots ; and the whole corpfe foon pu-
trifies after death, and can be kept but a few hours-
above ground.
Dr Lind is of opinion, that The remarkable diflb-
lution of the blood, the violent haemorrhages, black
vomit, and the other fymptoms which characterize
the yellow fever, are only accidental appearances in the
common fever of the Weft-Indies; that they are to be
efteemed merely as adventitious, in the fame manner
as purple fpots and bloody urine are in the fmall-pox,
or as an hickupin the dyfentery: like thefe they only
appear when the difeafe is attended with a high de¬
gree of malignity, and therefore always indicate great
danger. This opinion he thinks is confirmed by an
obfervation of Dr Wind’s, that in 1750 the crew of
a Dutch fhip of war were diftreffed by the yellow
fever,.
MEDICINE.
4686 M E D I
.Practice fever, accompanied with the black vomit; but when
the fliip left the harbour, and changed the noxious
land-air for one more healthy, the fever continued, but
was not accompanied with the black vomit.
Difeafes fimilar to this fever, our author informs
us, may arife in any part of the world where the air
is intenfely hot and unwholefome; and therefore he
treats as chimerical the notion of its being imported
from one part of the world to another. An example
of this happened at Cadiz in Spain, in the months of
September and O&ober 1764, when exceffive heat,
and want of rain for fome months, gave rife to vio¬
lent, epidemic, bilious diforders, refembling thofe of
the Weft-Indies, of which 100 perfons often died in
a day. At this time the winds blew moftly from the
fouth, and after funfet there fell an unufual and very
heavy dew.
This difeafe began commonly with alternate flight
chills and heats, naufea, pains of the head, back, loins,
and at the pit of the ftomach. Thefe fymptoms were often
followed, in lefs than 24 hours, with violent retchings,
and vomiting of a green or yellow bile, the fmell of
which was very offenfive. Some threw up an humour
as black as ink, and died foon after in violent convul-
fions and in a cold fweat. The pulfe was fomelimes
funk, fometimes quick, but often varying. After the
firft day, the furface of the body was generally either
cold, or dry and parched. The head-ach and ftupor
often ended in a furious delirium, which quickly proved
fatal. The dead bodies having been examined by
order of the court of Madrid, the ftomach, mefentery,
and inteftines, were found covered with gangrenous
fpots. The orifice of the ftomach appeared to have
been greatly affefted, the fpots upon it being ulce¬
rated. The liver and lungs feemed to be putrid, both
from their texture and colour. The ftomach con¬
tained a quantity of an atrabilious liquor, which, when
poured on the ground, produced a fenfible effervef-
cence; and, when mixed with fpirit of vitriol, a vio¬
lent ebullition enfued. The dead bodies fo quickly
turned putrid, that at the end of fix hours their ftench
was intolerable; and, in fome of them, worms were
found already lodged in the ftomach. His majefty’s
fhip the Tweed being at that time in Cadiz bay, fe-
veral of her men were taken ill when on (hore, but
by being carried on board all of them recovered.
Neither did the black vomit, or any other deadly
fymptom of that fever, make its appearance in any of
the Ihips.
It hath been a matter of much difpute, whether the
yellow fever is of an infedtious nature or not. Not
long ago it became an objedt of confideration before
the Right Hon. the Lords Commiflioners of Trade and
Plantations, where it was urged, among other reafons,
for not removing the feat of government and juftice
in the ifland of Jamaica from Spanifh Town to King-
fton, that there was danger from Greenwich hofpital,
lituated near Kingfton, of an infedlion from the yellow
fever being frequently communicated to that town.
On this affair a phylician was confulted, who had long
pradtifed in that iftand, and who gave it as his opi¬
nion, that from the yellow fever in that ifland there
was no infection. This was the opinion not only of
that gentleman, but of many others who had an op¬
portunity of being well acquainted with this fev«r in
CINE. Part
Jamaica. Neverthelefs Dr Lind gives a remarkable Pr act
inftance of its being of an infedtious nature.—A gen- B
tleman dying at Barbadoes of a yellow fever, his
wearing apparel and linen, packed up in a cheft, were
fent to his friends at Philadelphia; where, upon open¬
ing the cheft, the family was taken ill; and the clothes
being unluckily hung abroad to be aired, they pre-
fently diffufed the contagion of the yellow fever over
the whole town, by which 200 perfons died. Thefe
contradidtions, Dr Lind thinks, can only be reconciled
by fuppofing the yellow fever in the Weft-Indies to
be fometimes of an infedlious nature, and fometimes
not.
In the defcription of the fame fever, as it appears
in South-Carolina, by Dr Lining, there are feveral
particulars confiderably different from that by Dr
Hillary. According to the former, people complained,
for a day or two before the attack, of a head-ach, pain
in the loins and extremities, efpecially in the knees
and calves of the legs, lofs of appetite, debility, and a
fpontaneous laflitude. Some, however, were feized
fuddenly, without any fuch previous fymptoms. After
a chillnefs and horror with which this difeafe gene¬
rally invades, a fever fucceeded. The pulfe was very
frequent, till near the termination of the fever, and
. was generally full, hard, and confequently ftrong: in
fome, it was fmall and hard; in others, foft and ftnall;
but in all thofe cafes, it frequently varied in its full-
nefs and hardnefs. Towards the termination of the
fever, the pulfe became fmaller, harder, and lefs fre¬
quent. In fome there was a remarkable throbbing
in the carotids and in the hypochondria; in the latter
of which it was fometimes fo great, that it caufed a
conftant tremulous motion of the abdpmen. The heat
generally did not exceed 102 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer; in fome it was lefs; it varied frequently,
and was commonly nearly equal in all parts, the heat
about the prsecordia being feldom more intenfe than
in the extremities when thefe were kept covered. In
the firft day of the difeafe, fome had frequent returns
of a fenfe of chillnefs, though there was not any abate¬
ment of their heat. In a few, there happened fo great
a remiflion of the heat for fome hours, when at the
fame time the pulfe was foft and lefs frequent, and
the Ikin moift, that one from thefe circumftances might
reafonably have hoped that the fever would only prove
a remittent or intermittent. About the end of the
fecond day, the heat began to abate. The Ikin was
fometimes (though rarely) dry; but oftener, and in¬
deed generally, it was moift, and difpofed to fweat.
On the firft day, the fweating was commonly profufe
and general; on the fecond day, it was more mode¬
rate: but on both thefe, there happened frequent and
fliort remilBons of the fweatings; at which times the
febrile heat increafed, and the patient became more
uneafy. On the third day, the difpofition to fweat
was fo much abated, that the ikin was generally dry;
only the forehead and backs of the hands continued
moift. The refpiration was by no means frequent or
difficult; but was foon accelerated by motion, or the
fatigue of drinking a cup of any liquid. The tongue
was moift, rough, and white, even to its tip and edges.
On the fecond day, its middle in fome was brown*
On the third day, the whitenefs and roughnefs of the
tongue began to abate. The thirft in very few was
great.
art II. M E D I
ctice great. A naufea, vomiting, or frequent retchings to
vomit, efpecially after the exhibition of either medi¬
cines or food, came on generally the third day, as the
fever began to leffen; or rather as the fulnefs of the
pulfe, heat, and difpofition to fweat, began to abate.
Some indeed, but very few, on the firft day, had a
vomiting, either bilious or phlegmatic. Very few
complained of anxiety or oppreffion about the prsecor-
dia or hypochondria, nor was there any tenfion or
hardnefs about the latter. On the firft day they ge¬
nerally dozed much, but were afterwards very watch¬
ful. Reftleffnefs and almoft continual jaftations came
on the fecond day. A great defpondency attended
the fick, and the ftrength was greatly proftrated from
the firft attack. The pain in the head, loins, &c. of
which they had complained before the attack, were
greatly increafed, and in fome the pain in the fore¬
head was very acute and darting ; but thofe pains
went generally off the fecond day. The face was
flulhed; and the eyes were hot, inflamed, and unable
to bear much light. On the firft day, many of them
at times were a little delirious, but afterwards not
until the recefs of the fever. The blood faved at ve-
nefeftion had not any inflammatory cruft; in warm
weather, it was florid like arterial blood, and conti¬
nued in one foft homogeneous-like mafs, without any
feparation of the ferum after it was cold. When
there was any feparation, the craffamentum was of too
lax a texture. The ftools, after the firft day, were
fetid, inclined to a black colour, and were very rarely
bilious, foft, or liquid, excepting when forced by art;
for an obftinate coftivenefs attended the febrile ftate.
The urine was difcharged in a large quantity,'was
pale, fometimes limpid, and rarely of a higher than a
ftraw colour, except when the weather was very warm,
and then it was more faturated, of a deep colour, and
difcharged in fmaller quantities. It had a large cloud,
except when it was very pale or limpid; but more ge¬
nerally it had a copious white fediment, even on the
firft day of the fever. On the fecond day, the urine
continued to be difcharged very copioufly; in fome,
it was then turbid, and depofited a more copious fedi¬
ment than on the firft day: this fediment was fome¬
times of a brownilh colour; in which cafe it was ge¬
nerally followed by bloody urine, either about the
end of the fecond or beginning of the third day.
The colour and quantity of the urine, difcharged in
equal times, were remarkably variable, being now
limpid, then of a deeper colour, now difcharged in a
larger, then in a fmaller quantity ; which could not
be afcribed to any change made either in the quantity
or quality of the drink, &c.
The fever accompanied with thofe fymptoms ter¬
minated on the third day, or generally in lefs than 72
Vol. VI. 2
CINE. 4687
hours from the firft attack, not by any aflimilation or Practice
coftion and excretion of the morbid matter: for if by
the fatter, there would have been fome critical dif-
charge by fweat, urine, ftool, or otherways, none of
which happened; and if by the former, nothing then
would have remained but greatdebility. This fever, how¬
ever, did not terminate in either of thefe falutary ways,
excepting in fome, who were happy enough to have
the difeafe conquered in the beginning by proper eva¬
cuations, and by keeping up a plentiful fweat, till
the total folution of the fever, by proper mild dia¬
phoretics and diluents. But thofe who had not that
good fortune, however tranquil things might appear
at this period, (as great debility, and a litUe yellow-
nefs in the white of the eyes, feemed then to be the
chief complaint, excepting when the vomiting conti¬
nued/) yet the face of affairs was quickly changed: for
this period was foon fucceeded by the iecon&Jhtdium;
a ftate, though without any fever, much more terrible
than the firft: the fymptoms in which were the follow¬
ing. The pulfe, immediately after the recefs of the fever,
was very little more frequent than in health, but hard
and fmall. However, though it continued fmall, it
became, foon afterwards, flower and very foft; and
this foftnefs of the pulfe remained as long as the pulfe
could be felt. In many, in this ftage of the difeafe,
the pulfe gradually fubfided, until it became fcarce
perceptible; and this, notwithftanding all the means
ufed to fupport and fill it; and when this was the
cafe, the ifteritious-like fuffufion, the vomiting, de¬
lirium, reftleffnefe, &c. increafed to a great degree.
In fome, the pulfe, after being exceedingly fmall and
fcarce perceptible, recovered confiderably its fullnefs ;
but that favourable appearance was generally of but
Ihort continuance. The heat did not exceed the na¬
tural animal-heat; and when the pulfe fubfided, the
flein became cold, and the face, breaft and ex¬
tremities acquired fomewhat of a livid colour. The
fltin was dry when the weather was cold, but was
moift and clammy when the weather was hot. The
refpiration was natural, or rather flow. The tongue
was moift, and much cleaner than in the former ftage ;
its tip and edges, as alfo the gums and lips, were of
a more florid red colour than ufual. Very few com¬
plained of thirft, though they had a great defire for
cold liquors. The vomiting or reaching to vomit
increafed, and in fome was fo conftant that neither
medicines nor aliment of any kind were retained.
Some vomited blood; others only what was laft ex¬
hibited, mixed with phlegm ; and others again had
what is called the black vomit (a). The reaching to
vomit continued a longer or (horter time according to
the ftate of the pulfe ; for as that became fuller, and
the heat greater, the reaching to vomit abated, and
26 N e contra.
(a) That which is called the black vomit, at firft fight appears to be black ; but on a more careful examination,
it was dbferved that this colour proceeded from a great quantity of fmall flakey black fubftances which floated
in the lio-uor thrown up by vomit; but the colour of this liquor was much the fame with that which the patient
had laft drank, and was by no means black. Thofe black flakey ftubftances are the bile mixed with, or ad¬
hering to, the mucus which lined the ftomach. For, upon diffedtion of thofe who died of this difeafe, it was
always obferved that the mucus of the ftomach was abraded, and the bile in its cyftis was black and fometimes
very vifeid. In a lad who died of this difeafe in the beginning of the fourth day, and who was immediately
opened, the bile was not only black, but had the confiftence of thick venice-turpentine, and was exceedingly
tough. On the infide of the ftomach, there were feveral carbuncles or gangrenous fpecks. And in all thofe who
were dlfie&ed, and had died of this difeafe, the fame appearances were not only always obferved, but likewife
the blood was very fluid, and the veffels of the vifeera were much diftended.
4688
Practice £ contra. The inquietude was very obftinate ; and
 when they dozed, their (lumbers were but fhort and
unrefrefhing. There were fome who were drowfy;
but thefe always awaked, after the fhorteft (lumbers,
with a great deje&ion of fpirits and ftrength. The
jaftations or reftleffnefs were furprifing : it was fre¬
quently fcarce poffible to keep the patients in bed;
though, at the fame time, they did not complain of
any anxiety or uneafinefs; but if alked how they did,
the reply was, very ’well. The debility was fo great,
that, if the patient was raifed ereft in the bed, or,
in fome, if the head was only raifed from the pillow,
whilea cup of drink was given, the pulfe funk immedi¬
ately, and became fometimes fofmall,that it could fcarce
be felt; at this time, they became cold, as in a hor-
ripilatio, but without the anferine-like (kin: their
(kin became clammy, the delirium increafed, their
lips and (kin, efpecially about the neck, face and
extremities, together with their nails, acquired a
livid colour. The delirium returned and increafed ;
it was generally conftant in thofe whofe pulfe was
fmall and fubfiding. The inflammation of the tunica
conjundfiva or white of the eyes increafed much, but
without pain. A yellownefs in the white of the eyes,
if it did not appear before in the febrile (late, became
now very obfervable, and that ifteritious-like colour
was-foon diffufed over the whole furface of the body,
and was continually acquiring a deeper faffron-like
colour. In fome indeed no yellownefs was obfervable,
excepting in the white of the eyes, until a little
before death, when it increafed furprifingly quick,
efpecially about the bread and neck. There were
many fmall fpecks, not raifed above the (kin, which
appeared very thick in the bread and neck, but lefs
fo in the extremities, and were of a fcarlet, purple,
or livid colour. In women the mendrua flowed, and
fometimes exceffively, though not at their regular
period.
There was fuch a putrid diffolution of the blood in
this dadium of the difeafe, that, befides the vomiting
of blood formerly mentioned, and the bloody urine
foon to be taken notice of, there were haemorrhagies
from the nofe, mouth, ears, eyes, and from the parts
which were blidered with cantharides. Nay, in the
year 1739 or 1745* there was one or two indances of
an haemorrhage from the (kin, without any apparent
pundture or lofs of any part of the fcarf-(kin.
An obdinate codivenefs continued in fome; in
others, the dools were frequent and loofe ; in fome,
they were black, liquid,, large, and greatly fatiguing;
in others, when the dools were moderate, even tho’
they were black, they gave great relief; in others,
again, the (tools nearly refembled tar in fmoothnefs,
tenacity, colour and confidence.
The urine was difcharged in a large quantity, in
proportion to the drink retained by the patient: it
was pale if the patient was not yellow ; but if yellow,
then it was of a deep faffro.n-colour : in either cafe,
it had a fediment, or at lead a large cloud, which
remained at the bottom of the glafs; in fome, it was
very turbid ; in others, it was bloody: and the quan¬
tity of blood difcharged with the urine bore always
fome proportion to the date of the pulfe ; when that
became fuller, the quantity of blood in the urine was
Part II, ;
diminidied; when the pulfe fubfided, the bloody Practic*1
urine increafed, and even returned after it had ceafed
fome days, foon after the pulfe became fmaller. This
dage of the difeafe continued fometimes feven or eight
days before the patient died.
When this dadium of the difeafe terminated in
health, it was by a recefs or abatement of the vomi¬
ting, haemorrhagies, delirium, inquietude, ja&ations,
and i&eritious-like fuffufion of the (kin and white of
the eyes; while, at the fame time, the pulfe became
fuller, and the patient gained drength, which, after
this difeafe, was very (lowly. But when it termi¬
nated in death, thofe fymptoms not only continued,
but fooner or later increafed in violence, and were
fucceeded with the following, which may be termed
the thirdJladium of the difeafe, which quickly ended
in death. The pulfe, though foft, became exceedingly
fmall and unequal; the extremities grew cold, clam¬
my, and livid ; the face and lips, in fome, were flufh-
ed ; in others, they were of a livid colour; the livid
fpecks increafed fo fad, that in fome the whole
bread and neck appeared livid ; the heart palpitated
drongly; the heat about the praecordia increafed
much ; the refpiration became difficult, with frequent
fighing; the patient now becames anxious, and ex¬
tremely redlefs; the fweat flowed from the face,
neck, and bread ;. blood flowed from the mouth, or
nbfe, or ears, and in fome from all thofe parts at
once; the deglutition became difficult; the hiccoughs j
and fubfultus of the tendons came on, and were fre¬
quent ; the patients trifled with their fingers, and
picked the naps of the bed-clothes ; they grew coma-
tous, or were condantly delirious. In this terrible
date, fome continued eight, ten, or twelve hours be¬
fore they died, even after they had been fo long
fpeechlefs, and without any perceptible pulfation of
the arteries in the wrifls ; whereas, in all other acute
difeafes, after the pulfe in the wrifls ceafes, death
follows immediately. When the difeafe was very
acute, violent' convulfions feized the unhappy patient,
and quickly brought this fladium to its fatal end.
After death, the livid blotches increafed fad, efpe¬
cially about the face, bread, and neck, and the putrefac¬
tion began very early, or rather increafed very quickly.
This was the progrefs of this terrible difeafe thro’
its feveral fladia. But in hot weather, and when the
fymptoms in the firfl flage were very violent, it palled
thro’ thofe flages with fuch precipitation, that there
was but little opportunity of diflinguifhing its different
fladia, the whole tragedy having been finiflied in lefs
than 48 hours. It was remarkable, that, 1. The in-
feftion was increafed by warm and leffened by cold,
weather. 2. The fymptoms in the feveral dadia were
more or lefs violent, according to the heat or coolnefs
of the weather. In hot days, the fymptoms were not
only more violent, but in thofe who feemed, in mode¬
rate weather, to be on the recovery, or at lead in no
danger, the fymptoms were all fo greatly heightened,
when the weather grew confiderably warmer, as fre¬
quently to become fatal. In cool days, the fymptoms I]
were not only milder, but many, who were apparently
in great danger in hot days, were faved from the very
jaws of death by the weather becoming happily cooler.
3. The difeafe was generally more fatal to thofe who
MEDICINE.
impart II. M E D I
^ act ice lay In fmal! chambers not conveniently fituated for the
I admifiion of"fre(h air, to thofe of an athletic and full
habit, to ftrangers who were natives of a cold cli¬
mate, to thofe who had the greateft dread of it, and
to thofe who before the attack of the difeafe had
overheated themfelves by exercife in the fun, or by
excefiive drinking of ftrong liquors ; either of which
indeed feemed to render the body more fufceptible of
the infe<5tion. Laftly, the'difeafe proved moft certain¬
ly fatal to valetudinarians, or to thofe who had been
weakened by any previous difeafe.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjett to, this difeafe. The
yellow fever attacks only Europeans, efpecially thofe
who have but lately arrived in the hot climates. Ne¬
groes are entirely exempt from it, though the mulat-
toes and tawnies are as liable to be feized with it as
I the whites themfelves. The caufe of the difeafe feems
to be a particular kind of contagion ; but Dr Lind
feems to be of opinion, that the immediate caufe of
the fymptoms is a difpofition in the glutinous part of
the blood to feparate from the others, and to become
purulent. In fome perfons who have been bled in the
yellow fever, the blood hath been obferved prodigioufly
vifcid ; the craffamentum covered with a yellow gluten
half an inch in thicknefs, and impenetrable to the finger
unlefs cut by the nail ; the ferum being at the fame
time of the confiftence of a thin fyrup, and of a deep
yellow tinge. This ferum tafted bitter, and was taken
for a compofition of foot. The appearances on diffec-
tion, with his conclufions from them, we fhall give in
his own words: “ In a man who died on the eleventh
day of a yellow fever, whofe body emitted no bad
fmell thirty-fix hours after death, and was ftill yel¬
low, I found all the bowels of the abdomen found;
the liver and fpleen were remarkably fo; as alfo the
ftomach and inteftines. There was no fuffufion of
the bile either in the inteftines or ftomach. The gall¬
bladder, of the natural fize, contained the ufual quan¬
tity of bile, fomewhat thicker than common, and
grumous [b],
“ Upon examining further, his difeafe was found to
have lain wholly on the left fide, where, within the
breaft, was found near a quart of yellowifii water, in
which were many large flakes of yellowifh gluten, ap¬
pearing, by comparifon, precifely the fame with the
thick pellicle which had covered the blood taken from
his arm. Thefe flakes bore in feveral places a refem-
blance to a membranous fubftance beginning to be
converted into a purulent jelly. The pleura, both on
its infide and outfide, as alfo its continuation, the in¬
verting membrane of the lungs, (which in fome parts
was greatly thickened), were covered with cakes of
this gluten, hanging in fome places loofely, in others
adhering more ftrongly ; and all in different ftates of
yellow or purulent corruption. The right cavity of
the breaft, and all the other parts of his body, were
found entirely free from difeafe.
46 His complaints had been chiefly in his breaft ;
and a fmall quantity of blood, taken from him two
days before his death, was covered with an impene¬
trable, yellow, thick gluten ; the red portion below it
being quite loofe.
CINE. 46S9
“ In thofe fevers, I have alfo feen the difeafe entire- Practice
ly confined to the heart and pericardium. In one who
died the tenth day of the fever, without having been
yellow, a quantity of pus and purulent crufts were
found mixed with the water of the pericardium. The
heart in different places was excoriated, and, toge¬
ther with the infide of the pericardium, was lined
with a thick membranous cake, fimilar to that already
mentioned on the lungs and pleura. In fome places,
this cake had a purulent, in others a gelatinous ap¬
pearance, exadtly refembling the coagulum of the
blood. His complaints had been, a great oppreflion
on the breaft, and an extreme difficulty of breathing.
In a third perfon, who died on the thirteenth day
of the fever, above two quarts of pus and purulent
jelly were found in the cavity of the belly. The
fource of fuch an extraordinary quantity of matter
was not from any preceding inflammation, nor any
impofthume, that we could difcover; but from innu¬
merable ulcerations on the furface of the inteftines,
omentum, mefentery, and peritonaeum. Neither did
thofe ulcerations (or excoriations, as they rather ap¬
peared in feveral places) feem to be the primary foun¬
tains of the matter, but to have been occafioned by its
acrimony.
This purulent appearance feems to arife merely
from an extravafation of one of the component parts
of the blood, the gluten or coagulable lymph, blood
taken from perfons in a fever, and frequently even
from perfons in perfeft health, after ftanding in a
clean veflel for a (hort time, commonly feparates into
three diftinift portions ; viz. the ferum, or water of
the blood, the red concreted mafs, and a vifcid pel¬
licle termed the fize, which fpreads itfelf on the top
of the red concretion. Some time ago, when making
experiments with the blood taken from perfons in the
fcurvy, I was furprifed to find it often covered with
that fizy cruft. This induced me to extend my expe¬
riments to large quantities of blood from different
fubjefts, which I had opportunities of infpe&ing at
once in fo large an hofpital. For this purpofe I one
morning ordered ten patients in the fcurvy to be bled,
taking two ounces from each. A larger quantity was
taken, for its infpedtion, from two men in health.
That day I had occafion to prefcribe bleeding to a
woman in labour, two hours before her delivery ; to
a girl of fixteen years of age affli&ed with a lunacy
proceeding from the chlorofis ; to three patients in the
rheumatifm ; and to a perfon labouring under an ob-
ftrudtion of the liver.
“ From a nice comparifon, and an examination of
the different blood, .1 found in general, that the more
fize there was on the top, and the thicker and more
vifcid this white pellicle fhewed itfelf, the concretion
below it was of a more loofe coherence. This was not
fo obfervable when only fome flight white ftreaks ap¬
peared on the top. But when much fize had feparated
itfelf, the red mafs became very foft at the bottom of
the veflel, and lefs compadl in its different parts, in
proportion to their diftanee from the furface, towards
which this whitifh portion had afcended.
From this and from other experiments it appears,
N 2 that
(b) In others who died in this yellow ftate, the bile in the gall-bladder was found of a thick ropy confiftence like
pitch , but the liver never appeared in the leaft affecfted. Dr Lind at firft, in feveral_bodies, opened the head only ;
but afterwards judged that all the cavities ought to be infpedted.
4690 M E D I
Practice that this cruft or pellicle is the natural gluten or ce-
ment of the blood, (called by fome the coagnlable
lymph), which becomes ftrongly difpofed, in certain
circumftances and difeafes, to feparate itfelf. And
whereas the ferum and red concretion are eafily incor¬
porated together, it will be found, that this glue, af¬
ter its reparation, becomes immifcible with either. We
have, by gentle drying, converted it into a perfe&ly
tough elaftic membrane ; and, by the means of a fmall
portion of the red mafs being left adhering to it, into
a fubltance refembling mufcular flefh ; and it is capable
of undergoing various changes into corruption, in the
fame manner as either of thefe.
“ Now, I can fee no reafon why this gluten, in its
morbid ftate, may not feparate itfelf from the circu¬
lating blood, and be depofited in the cavities of the
body, as readily as the ferum does in dropfies ; the
former having always a lefs difpofition than the latter
to incorporate with the mafs.
“In diifefting perfons who died of fevers in Lon¬
don and Minorca, and where no infection was fufpeA-
ed, appearances fimilar to thefe have alfo fallen under
the infpeftion of thofe accurate anatomifts Drs Hun¬
ter and Cleghorn. Hence it may be prefumed very
difficult to diftinguifti fevers that are produced by
infedion, from fome others. I cannot, however, be
induced to think, as thofe gentlemen feem to do, that
thefe preternatural fubftances which were found in the
cavities of the body are the confequence, but rather
that they are the caufe, of the inflammation and ex¬
coriations. I believe thefe fubftances to be at firft dif-
eafed extravafated gluten, and conjedure their differ¬
ent ftates greatly to depend upon the different times
at which they were depofited.
“ I have remarked, in a variety of dead bodies,
three different kinds of extravafation ; thefe occurred
in fuch as had died of the fcurvy, the eonfumption,
and of fevers. In the former of thofe difeafes, red
coagulated blood is found extravafated in almoft all
parts of the body, not only into the tela cellulofa,
but into the bellies of the mufcles, particularly of the
legs and thighs, which often become quite fluffed,
and even diflorted, with large grumous maffes. The
injteftines and mefentery are often fpotted alfo with ex¬
travafated blood ; and I have feen large ecchymofes on
the ftomach. Thofe appearances, at firft fight, re-
fembled fo many diftindt mortifications; and by this
appearance fome anatomifts have been deceived ; but,
upon a nice examination, the texture of the parts is
found to be found and firm. There is likewife, in
that difeafe, fometimes an extravafation of water,
chiefly colledled in, and always, when in the legs,
confined to, the tela cellulofa.
“ But whereas, in the limbs of fcorbutic perfons,
it is extremely difficult to make a good diffedion by
reafon of fuch quantities of extravafated blood that
every-where obftrudt the operator; fo, on the con¬
trary, the lower extremities of thofe who have died
confumptive, with fwelled legs, are, of all other fub-
je&s, in the beft ftate to afford a fatisfaftory view of
the mufcles. The water inclofed in their legs having
infinuated itfelf, by paffing the tela cellulofa, into the
fpaces between the mufcles, the mufcles are' eafily fe-
parated from each other ; and their feveral origins and
infertions may be diftinftly traced by means of their
CINE. • Part II. f
having been cleanfed and waffied by the water in the Practices;
invefting cellular membrane. Thus there are extrava- I
fations of three forts; viz. firft, the grumous mafs in
the fcurvy ; and this I have often remarked where no
ferum was obferved. Secondly, The ferum alone in
anafarcous fwellings. The third and laft is what was
taken notice of in thofe who died of fevers, being the
gluten of the blood, accompanied for the moft part
with fome ferum ; both of them altogether confined
in the large cavities of the body.
“ I conjefture, that in thofe fevers there is always
an ulcerous or purulent difpofition in the blood; and
that this gluten, or coagulable lymph, is greatly dif-
eafed. I have frequently feen it have a true purulent
appearance foon after it was drawn off, when the pa¬
tient feemed not very ill.
“ And I further conje&ure, that the mifehief often
lies within the breaft ; as alfo that the great benefit de¬
rived from the very early application of blifters, in a
great meafure flows from fo many ulcerations and vents
being timely provided for the free difcharge of thofe
purulent and tainted particles from the body.
“ If an infeftion depends, as many have imagined,
on the admiffion of certain foreign particles into the
blood, this gluten feems to be its more immediate
feat, and to be primarily affe&ed by it; and a dif¬
charge of this, as though by waftiing thofe particles
out of the body, tends in a great meafure to remove
the difeafe.
“ It is an obfervation of the beft praftical writers,
that iffues and felons are moft excellent prefervatives
againft receiving an infection, nay, even that of the
plague itfelf. And indeed a fuppuration and plentiful
difcharge from a proper ulcer, whether produced by
nature or by art, feems to open a channel the beft ap¬
propriated for an exit out of the body to fome of the
moft malignant poifons. Thus the moft favourable
crifis in the plague, and in moft peftilential fevers,
happens when nature excites tumours kindly fuppura-
ting in the groin or arm-pits, by whofe beneficial and
plentiful difcharges the deadly poifon is expelled from
the conftitution.
“ I have obferved it to be amongft the moft certain
charadferiftics of the worft fevers, that the blifters ei¬
ther do not rife and fill, or difcharge fuch yellow,
greenifti, fetid, and highly offenfive fluff, that even
experienced nurfes could give a pretty certain conjec¬
ture, from the blifters, of the different degrees of ma¬
lignity in the fever. We have more than once endea¬
voured to conceal the bad ftate of fome patients in the
hofpital; but a difcovery was always made of their
condition in the wafh-houfe, from the linen fent there
ftained with the difcharges from the bliftered parts.
And indeed a careful infpeftion of the ftate and dif¬
charge from the blifters, together with their effefts,
furnifties us, in thofe difeafes, with fome of the moft
certain diagnoftics of their nature, and prognoftics of
their event.”
Prognofis. This diftemper, where it attacks with
violence, is generally fatal; the prognofis therefore
muft be commonly unfavourable, and always uncer¬
tain ; neither can any thing more be faid on this fub-
jeft, than that an abatement of the fymptoms already
enumerated affords a favourable prognoftic, and an in-
creafe of them the contrary.
C
Cure.
ijfart II. M E D I
.rwAcricE Cure. The cure of this terrible difeafe, according
| to Dr Hillary, is very eafy and fi'mple. His indica¬
tions are, i. To moderate the too great and rapid
motion of the fluids, and abate the too great heat and
violence of the fever in the two firft days of the dif¬
eafe, as much and as fafely as we can. 2. To evacu¬
ate and carry out of the body as much of the putrid
bile and other humours, and as expeditioufly anAfafe-
ly, as we poflibly can. 3. To put a flop to the pu-
trefcent difpofition of the fluids, and to prevent the
gangrenes from coming on by fuitable antifeptics.
The firft indication is anfwered by bleeding, which,
in the firft ftage of this fever, is abfolutely neceffary in
fome degree : the quantity to be taken away muft be
determined by the age and ftrength of the patients,
the degree of plethora, fulnefs of the pulfe, &c.
When called in at the beginning, he orders 12, 14,
16, 18, or 20 ounces of blood to be taken away on
the firft or fecond day : and if the patient’s pulfe rifes
after the firft bleeding, or if the fever ftill continue
high and the pulfe full, he repeats the bleeding once
on the days above-mentioned. But bleeding a third
time is feldom or never required ; neither is bleeding
on the third day almoft ever required ; and when it is
performed on that day, it ought to be done with the
greateft caution and judgment: neither fhould a vein
be opened after the third day in this fever,- unlefs fome
very extraordinary fymptoms and circumftances re¬
quire it; which feldom or never happen. On that
day, indeed, the pulfe generally finks, and the blood
is in fuch a difiblved ftate, that bleeding muft be
I accounted highly, pernicious. Neverthelefs, it is in-
difpenfably neceffary m the beginning of the diftem-
per ; and if omitted at that time, the violent heat and
motion of the blood increafe the putrefcence of the
humours to fuch a degree as to bring on the fatal con-
fequenees much fooner than would otherwife have hap¬
pened.
After bleeding, we come to the fecond indication
of cure, namely, to evacuate as much of the bilious
and putrid humours as foon and as fafely as we can.
The great irritation of the ftomach, by the putrid bi¬
lious humours conftantly attending this fever, with
almoft continual retchings and violent vomitings,
feem to indicate the giving of an emetic ; but the coats
of the ftomach are always obferved to be fo violently
ftimulated and irritated, and moft commonly inflamed,
by the acrimony of the putrefcent bile, that any eme¬
tic, even the moft mild and gentle, given in the fmall-
eft dofe, brings on an inceflant vomiting, which con¬
tinues, in fpite of all remedies, till a mortification
and death enfue. Inftead of this, it is proper to give
large draughts of warm water, which, without any
additional ftimulus to the coats of the ftomach, evacu¬
ates its acrid and putrid contents, commonly with
great relief to the patient: the warm water alfo ads
as an emollient fotus to the inflamed coats of the fto-
Imach ; and thus abates the inflammation, and pre¬
vents the gangrene and mortification from coming on.
After the patient Has by this means vomited feven
or eight times or oftener, and difcharged a great
quantity of yellow and blackilh bilious matter as they
often do, a grain or a grain and a half of Thebaic
extract is given in order to procure fome refpite from
the violent reaching, vomiting, and anxiety. The per-
CINE. 4691
fon is defired to take nothing into his ftomach for two Practice
hours after this, by which means it is feldom or never" ,
reje&ed; and thus all the fymptoms are eonfiderably
abated, the reaching and vomiting either totally ceafe
or are very much leffened, fo that medicines may now
be exhibited which the ftomach would not have retain¬
ed before. Thefe are cooling ackl juleps, or other
antifeptic remedies; but neither nitre nor any of its
preparations will commonly be found to ftay on the
ftomach; nor are the nitrous medicines, or even
the common anti-emetic draughts, proper to be given
in this difeafe, even though they Ihould agree with
the ftomach, on account of their attenuating property.
If the patient has not a ftool or two after drinking
the warm water and vomiting, it is neceflary to give a
gentle purging clyfter; and when fix or eight hours
reft have been obtained, a gentle antiphlogiftic and
antifeptic purge, in order to eVacuate by ftool as much
of the bilious matter as we polfibly can. Or if the
patient has a purging before, which fometimes though
very rarely happens, a dofe of toafted rhubarb is given*
and an antifeptic anodyne after it has operated to abate
and check the too great purging, but not to ftopit, as
this evacuation has been always obferved to be of fer-
vice, provided it is not too violent.
After this indication is completely anfwered, the
next is to exhibit fuch proper antifeptic medicines as
may flop the putrefcent difpofition of the fluids.
Here the bark would feem to be the moft pro¬
per remedy; but unluckily the ftomachs of the pa¬
tients in this difeafe are fo much irritated, and fo apt
to rejeft every thing, that the bark cannot be retain¬
ed in any form whatever. In this cafe Dr Percival re¬
commends columbo-ropf, the infufion of which is found
to be a powerful antiemetic and antiputrefcent medi¬
cine, and might perhaps fo far alter the ftate of the
ftomach as to make it bear the bark. Our author,
however, who was ignorant of the virtues of columbo,
fubftituted the radix ferpenlarix Vitginiana with fuc-
cefs. A flight infufion of this root not only fat eafily
on the ftomach of the patients, but moderately raifed
the pulfe and fever, both of which are now too low,.
The following receipt was found the moft agreeable
and efficacious.
IJ>. Rad. ferpent. Virginian. Jii*
Croc. Ang. 3fs. M, et infunde vafe claufo in aq. bul.
q. per horam unam ut col. §vi. Adde aq. menth.
fimp. ^ii. Vin. Maderienf. ^iv. Syr. croc, vel fyr.
e mecon. ^i. Elix. vitriol, acid. q. f. ad grat. aci-
dior. fapor. Exhibe. cochlear, duo vel tria fingulis
m horis vel bihoris, vel faepius pro re nata.
By the ufe of this medicine, and foft light nourifh-
ment taken in fmall quantities, the pulfe is ufually kept
up and the diftemper goes off. But if, after taking
this a little while, we find that the pulfe does not rife*
but on the contrary that a coldnefs of the extreme
parts comes on, the medicines muft be made more
warming, by increafing the quantity of the fnake-root
and faffron, or by adding vinum croceumr onfeflfa
cardiaca, or the like, but not by the ufe of volatile
fpirits and falts, which hurt by their ftimulating and
diffolving qualities. Blifters our author reprobates in
the ftrongeft terms, and affirms that he has feen the
place where a blifter was applied turned perfe&ly black
and fphacelated j fc that if the fpine and end of the
4692 M E D I
Practice riba had not hindered, a large fquare paflage would
” ~ have been opened into the cavity of the thorax, had
the patient lived a few hours after it.
At the fame time that the ftrength of the patient is
Jcept up by the medicines above-mentioned, or by o-
thers fimilar, he gave repeated gentle purgatives every
fecond or third day, and fometimes, when the fymp-
toms are very urgent, every day, for four or five days
fucceffively. But if proper methods be taken in the
beginning of the difeafe, it is feldom that fuch a repe¬
tition of purging is neceflary; and the Doftor gives the
following remarkable inftance of the efficacy of this
method of treating the difeafe: “ A young man
about 24 years of age, furgeon to a Guinea ffiip, was
brought into a houfe where I was vifiting a patient;
he was of a fanguine robuft conftitution, and a lover
of fpirituous liquors, and had been drunk three days
and nights fucceffively, and in that condition had run
feveral races on the hot fea-ffiore, near noon, with the
failors, in the heat of the fun; and to complete his fol¬
ly, lay the laft night after that exercife, in the open
air under a tamarind-tree all the night, where he was
feized in the morning with all the fymptoms of this fe¬
ver, in the moft violent manner that I have ever feen
any one. In this condition he was brought to the houfe
where I was : his retching and vomiting were fo in-
cefiant, that he could not get time to fay yes, or no,
to the queftions which I allied, without waiting fome
time for it, each time ; his eyes were red and inflamed,
attended with a burning heat, as ufual in the begin¬
ning of this fever; and he had all the other fymptoms
which attend the firft attack of this fever, in the moft
violent manner, which I need not repeat. I ordered
§xvi.*of blood to be taken from him, which was very
florid, thin, and much diflblved; and then direfted
him to drink warm water freely, and to vomit eight or
ten times ; and after that to take extratt. Thebaic.
gr. jfs. and take nothing for two hours after it. But I
being gone, and he finding that he vomited with more
eafe, lefs ficknefs and retching, with the warm water,
than he did before, and being much alarmed at his ha¬
ving this fever, he drank three gallons of the water,
and brought up great quantities of yellow and blackifh
bilious matter with it, and waffied his ftomach effec¬
tually. He then took the extr. thebaic, and flept
three or four hours after it ; and the vomiting ceafed:
he took fome panada, and four hours after that the
purge of manna and tamarinds, &c. which gave him
eight ftools, and carried a good deal more of the pu¬
trid bilious matter off downwards; and got fome reft
after it: he then took of an antifeptic julep often, an,d
light nouriftiment, a little acid, at the intervals ; and
repeated the purge on the third day, as diredied. I
being called out of the town, I did not fee him till
the fourth morning after ; he faid that he had follow¬
ed my direttions; and I found him free from the fever
and all its fymptoms, but weak and low, and his fkin
a little yellow, but much lefs fo than ufual, unlefs when
the bilious matter is thus carried off. I ordered him
to take elix. vitrioli acid. gut. lx. three or four times
a-day for a few days, in an infufion of mint-leaves with
a little fnake-root, made as tea; which he did, and
foon recovered perfeftly well in feven or eight days
time.
“ This patient being feized in fo violent a manner,
CINE, Part II
and recovering in fo ffiort a time, and fo near to thePRACTi
rule which the elegant Celfus recommends, Citb, tutb, '
et jucunde, not only confirmed the above manner of
reafoning on the caufe and nature of this difeafe to be
right, but made me determine to follow the fame me¬
thod as near as I poffibly could ever fince, and I muft
add, with the fame good fuccefs alfo, when I am
calk#fo early on in the difeafe that I can ftridtly pur-
fueit: which is too feldom the cafe; for in general
the phyfician is not called in till the fourth or fifth
day, or after, when the putrid acrid bilious matter is
a great part of it carried into the blood, which it has
fo diffolved and brought its whole mafs into a colliqua-
ted, putrid, gangrenefcent ftate, that the belt of me¬
thods, and the moft efficacious medicines, however ju-
dicioufly timed and applied, are precarious and uncer¬
tain ; or fometimes it is fo far advanced, that the ableft
phyfician can do no more than tell the relations of the
fick that it is too late, and that they can live but a
few hours: for I know no difeafe in which the reco¬
very of the patient fo much depends upon the right or
wrong method of treating it, at the very firft attack or
beginning of the difeafe, as this fever does: for by
thus difcharging and carrying the putrid, acrimoni¬
ous, bilious matter, out of the body before much of it
is carried into the blood, not only moft of the bad
fymptoms which attend the fecond ftate of the fever
are prevented from coming, but the haemorrhages, and
the yellownefs of the Ikin, &c. alfo, and the fever foon
taken off too; for I have never feen any haemorrhage
come on, and but little yellownefs, or in fome none,
when they were thus treated.
“ And when the laft ftage of this fever is come on
before we are called in, provided that it is not at the
very latter end of it, I have always found that this me¬
thod of gentle purging, whenever the before-mention¬
ed fymptoms indicate it, and a liberal ufe of the anti¬
feptic medicines in the intervals, has been fo fuccefsful,
that I have feen but two patients that have died in this
fever during the eight years paft in which I treated
it in this manner; and one of them was fo weak that
he could not take a fpoonful of any thing, and fo near
his end that he died about two hours after without
taking any medicine; and the other killed himfelf by
drinking a gallon of cold water in lefs than three hours
time, (after taking half an ounce of manna in the morn¬
ing), which ftruck fuch a coldnefs into his whole body
that he died; though I have vifited feveral every year,
and in fome years a great many: therefore I take the
liberty of recommending this method to others, and
wifh it to be as fuccefsful to all.’’
To the genus of typhus alfo belong all thofe fevers
attended with very profufe and debilitating fweats, and
which have fometimes, not without good reafon, been
accounted plagues; fuch as theEngliffi fweating-fick-
nefs, Miliaris fudatoria, Sauv. fp. 5. Ephemera fu-
datoria, Sauv. fp. 7. Ephemera Britannica, Cains ds
tphem. Britan.
XXX. Synochus. Genus VI. jy-j
Synochus Sauv. gen. 81. Lin. 13.
Lenta Lin. 14.
Phrenitis Vog. 18.
Febris continua putrida Baerh. 730.
This is a contagious diftemper, being a complica¬
tion
Part II. MEDI
'ajtAd'icE tion of a fynoclia and typhus 5 for the defcription and
cure of which, we muft of confequence refer to what
hath been already faid concerning thefe difeafes.
jJj ggo XXXI. The Hettic Fever.
Heflica, Sauv. gen. 83. Lin. 24. Fog. 80. Sag. 684.
Tmsdifeafe is reckoned by Dr Cullen to be merely
fymptomatic ; as indeed feems very probable, fceing
it always accompanies abforptions of pus into the
blood from internal ftippurations, or indeed from fuch
as are external, provided they are very large or t>f a
bad kind.
Defcription. The beft, indeed the only proper de¬
fcription of this diforder we have, is that by Dr Heber-
den. According to him, the appearance of the hedlic
fever is not unlike that of the genuine intermittent;
from which, however, the difeafe is very different in
its nature, as well as infinitely more dang£rous. In
the true intermittent, the three ftages of cold, heat,
and fweat, are far more diftindlly marked, the whole
fit is much longer, the period which it obferves is
more conftant and regular, and the intermiffions are
more perfedl, than in the he&ic fever. For in the lat¬
ter, even in the cleareft remiffion, there is ufually a fe-
verifh quicknefs perceptible in the pulfe, which feldom
fails to exceed the utmoft limit of a healthy one by at
leaf! ten ftrokes in a minute.
The chillnefs of the hedfic fever is fometimes fuc-
ceeded by heat, and fometimes immediately by a fweat
without any intermediate ftate of heat. The heat will
fometimes come on without any remarkable chillnefs
preceding; and the chillnefs has been obferved to go
off without being followed either by heat or fweat.
The duration of thefe ftages is feldom the fame for
three fits together; and as it is not uncommon for one
of them to be wanting, the length of the whole fit
muft vary much more than in the true intermittent j
but in general it is much fhorter.
The hedlic patient is little or nothing relieved by
the coming on of the fweat ; but is often as anxious
and reftlefs under it, as during the chillnefs and heat.
When the fweat is over, the fever will fometimes con¬
tinue t and in the middle of the fever the chillnefs will
return; which is a moft certain mark of this difeafe.
The hedlic fever will return with great exadlnefs,
like an intermittent, for two or perhaps three fits; but
Dr Heberden informs us, that he does not remember
ever to have known it keep the fame period for four
fits fucceffively. The paroxyfm will now and then keep
off"for ten or twelve days; and at other times, efpeci-
ally when the patient is very ill, it will return fo fre¬
quently on the fame day, that the chillnefs of a new
fit will follow immediately the fweat of the former. It
is not unufual to have many threatenings of a ftiiver-
ing return in the lame day; and fome degree of drow-
zinefs is apt to attend the ceflation of a fit.
The urine in a true intermittent is clear in the fits,
and turbid in the intervals; but in the hedlic fever it is
liable to all kinds of irregularity. It will be equally
clear or turbid in both ftages; or turbid in the fits and
clear in the intervals ; and fometimes it will be, as in
a true intermittent, clear during the fever, and thick
a* the going off.
Hedtic patients often complain of pains like thofe
ef the rheumatifm, which either affedt by turns almoft
CINE. 4693
every part of the body, or elfe return conftantly to the Practice
fame part; which is often at a great diftance from the
feat of the principal diforder, and, as far as is known,
without any peculiar connexion with it. Thofe pains
are fo violent in fome patients, as to require a large
quantity of opium. As far as Dr Heberden has olv
ferved, they are more common, where the hedlic arifes
from fome ulcer open to the external air, as in cancers
of the face, breaft, &c. Joined with this fever, and
arifing probably from one common caufe, he has been
furprifed to fee fwellings of the limbs, neck, or trunk
of the body, rife up almoft in an inftant, as if the part
was all at once grown fatter. Thefe fwellings are not
painful, hard, or difcoloured, and they continue for fe¬
ral hours.
Dr Heberden has feen this fever attack thofe who
feemed in tolerable health, in a fudden and violent
manner, like a common inflammatory one ; and like
that, alfo, in a very fhnrt time bring them into im¬
minent danger of their lives; after which it has be¬
gun to abate, and to afford hopes of a perfedl reco¬
very. But though the danger might be over for the
prefent, and but little of a feverremain ; yet that little
has foon fhewed, that it was kept up by fome great
mifchief within, and, proving unconquerable by any
remedies, has gradually undermined the health of the
patient, and never ceafed except with his life. This
manner of its beginning, however, is extraordinary.
It much oftener diffembles its ftrength at firft ; and
creeps on fo flowly, that the fubjefts of it, tho’ they
be not perfedlly well, yet for fome months hardly
think themfelves ill; complaining only of being fooner
tired with exercife than ufual, of want of appetite,
and of falling away. But gentle as the fymptoms
may feem, if the pulfe be quicker than ordinary, fo as
to have the artery to beat 90 times and perhaps 120
times in a minute, there is the greateft reafon to be
apprehenfive of the event. In no diforder, perhaps,
is the pulfe of more ufe to guide our judgment than in
the hedlic fever t yet even here we muft be upon our
guard, and not trull entirely to this criterion; for one
in about 20 patients, with all the word figns of decay
from fome incurable caufe, which irrefiftibly goes on
to deftroy his life, will (hew not the fmalleft degree of
quicknefs, nor any other irregularity of the pulfe, to
the day of his death.
Caufes, &c. This fever will fupervene whenever
there is a great colledlion of matter formed in any part
of the body; but it more particularly attends upon the
inflammation of a fcirrhous gland, and even upon one
that is flight and only juft beginning; the fever grow¬
ing worfe in proportion as the gland becomes more
inflamed, ulcered, or gangrenous. And fuch is the
lingering nature of thofe glandular diforders, that
the firft of thofe ftages will continue for many months,,
and the fecond for fome years.
If this fcirrhous inflammation be external, or in the
lungs, or fome of the abdominal vifcera, where the
difturbance of their fundlions plainly points out the
feat of the diforder, no doubt can be entertained con¬
cerning the caufe of the fever. But if the part affec¬
ted be not obvious to the fenfes, and its precife func¬
tions be not known, the hedlic, which is there only
part of the train of another difeafe, may be miftaken
for the primary or only one.
Ly-
4694
Practice Lying-in women, on account of the violence fu-
" ftained in delivery, generally die of this fever. Wo¬
men of the age of near 50 and upwards are particu¬
larly liable to it. For, upon the celfation of their na¬
tural difcharge, the glands of the breads, ovaries, or
womb, too commonly begin to grow fcirrhous, and
proceed to be cancerous. Not only thefe, but the
glandular parts of all the abdominal vifcera, are dif-
pofed to be affefted at this particular time, and to be¬
come the feats of incurable diforders.
The injuries done to the ftomach and liver by hard
drinking are attended with fimilar fymptoms, and ter¬
minate in the fame manner.
Dr Heberden obferves, that the {lighted wound by
a fine pointed indrument is known upon fome occa-
fions to bring on the greateft didurbances, and the
mod alarming fymptoms, nay even death itfelf. For
not only the wounded part will fwell and be painful,
but by turns almod every part of the body ; and very
didant parts have been known to come even to fuppu-
ration. Thefe fymptoms are condantly accompanied
with this irregular intermittent, which lads as long as
any of them remain.
Prognojis. This anomalous fever is never lefs dan¬
gerous than when it belongs to a kindly fuppuration,
into which all the difeafed parts are melted down, and
for which there is a proper outlet.
The fymptoms and danger from fome fmall punc¬
tures, with their concomitant fever, mod frequently
give way in a few days; though in fome perfons they
have continued for two or three months, and in others
have proved fatal.
The inflammation of internal fcirrhons glands, or of
thofe in the breads, fometimes goes off, and the fever,
which depended upon it, ceafes ; but it much oftener
happens, that it proceeds to cancerous and gangrenous
ulcers, and terminates only in death.
Cure. The fame medicines are not likely always to
fuit a fever which, arifing from very different caufes, is
attended with fuch a variety of fymptoms. A mixture
of afafetida and opium has in fome perfons feemed
Angularly ferviceable in this fever, when brought on
by a fmall wound; but in mod other cafes the princi¬
pal if not the foie attention of the phyfician mud be
employed in relieving the fymptoms, by tempering the
heat, by preventing both codivenefs and purging, by
procuring deep, and by checking the fweats. If, at the
fame time, continues Dr Heberden, he put the body
into as good general health as may be, by air, exer-
cife, and a proper courfe of mild diet, he can perhaps
do nothing better than to leave all the red to nature.
In fome few fortunate patients, nature appears to have
fuch refources, as may afford reafon for entertaining
hopes of cure, even in very bad cafes. For fome have
recovered from this fever attended with every fymptom
of an abdominal vifcus incurably difeafed, after all
probable methods of relief from art had been tried in
vain, and after the flefli and drength were fo exhauded
as to leave fcarce any hopes from nature. In thofe
deplorable circumdances, there has arifen a fwelling
not far from the probable feat of the diforder, and
yet without any difcoverable communication with it.
This fwelling has come to an abfcefs; in confequence
of which the pulfe has foon returned to its natural
date, as have alfo the appetite, flefli, and drength.
Part Hi
What nature has performed in thofe rare cafes, DrPRAcTiel
Heberden acquaints us, he has often endeavoured to f
imitate, by making iffues or applying bliders near
the feat of the difeafe ; but he cannot fay with the
fame fuccefs.
It feems at prefent, Dr Heberden obferves, the
opinion of many praftitioners, that the gangrenes will
be dopped, and fuppuration become more kindly, by
the ufe of bark ; and therefore this remedy is always
either advifed or permitted in the irregular fever joined
with fuppurations and gangrenes. But he affirms he
does not remember ever to have feen any good effeft
from the bark in this fever unattended with an ap¬
parent ulcer; and even in gangrenes it fo often fails,
that in fuccefsful cafes, where it has been adminidered,
there mud be room for fufpicion that the fuccefs
was owing to another caufe. Dr Heberden acknow¬
ledges at the fame time, that he never faw any harm
from the bark, in thefe, or indeed in any other cafes,
except a purging or ficknefs of no confequence, where
it has happened to difagree with the ftomach, or where
the latter has been loaded by taking the medicine
too faft, efpecially in dry bolufes wrapped in wafer-
paper.
In heftic illneffes, where all other means have proved
ineffeftual, a journey to Bath is ufually propofed by
the friends, and wiflied for by the fick; but Dr He¬
berden judly obferves, that, befides the fatigue and
many inconveniencies of a journey to a dying perfon,
the Bath waters are peculiarly hurtful in this fever,
which they never fail to increafe, and thereby ag¬
gravate the fufferings and haden the death of the
patient.
Order II. PHLEGMASIJE.
Phlegmafias membranofas et parenchymatofae, Sauv.
Clafs III. Ord. I. II. Sag. 605.
Morbi febriles phlogidici, Lin. Clafs III.
Febres continue compofitfe inflammatoriae, V.
Morbi acuti febriles, Boerh. 770.
Febres inflammatoriae, Hojfm. II. 105. Junck. 61.
XXXI. Phlogosis. Genus VIII. Sp. I. 281 j
Phlegmone au&orum, Sauv. gen. 15. Lin. 39.
Vog. 351.
Inflammatio, Lin. 231. Boerh. 370. Junck. 20.
This difeafe is a fynocha fever, accompanied with an
inflammation of fome particular part either external or . ;l
internal, and confequently varies very much in its form
and the degree of danger attending it, according to the
fituation and functions of the part affedled with topical
inflammation. To this fpecies, therefore, belong the
following difeafes.
Furunculus, Sauv. gen. 18. Vog. 352.
Terminthus, Pog. 381.
Pupula, Lin. 275. Sauv. p- 6.
Varus, Vog. 436. Lin. 269. Sauv. p. 7. •»
Bacchia, Lin. 270.
Gutta rofea, Sauv. gen. 4.
Gutta rofacea, Vog. 437.
Hordeolum, Sauv, gen. 27. Lin. 276. Vog. 434.
Otalgia, Sauv. gen. 197. Lin. 44. Vog. 148.
Dolor otalgicus, Hojfm, II. 336.
Parulis, Vog. 362.
My-
MEDICINE.
Part II.
ractice Maftodynia, Sauv. Gen. 210. P'og. 153.
" Paronychia, Sauv. Gen. 21. Lin. 258. Feg. 345.
Anthrocace, Sauv. Gen. 78. Lin. 256.
Pasdarthrocace, Fog. 419.
Spina ventofa, Boerb. 526.
Phimofis, Sauv. Gen. 23. Lin. 297. Fog. 348.
Paraphimofis, Fog. 349.
For the cure of inflammations, Dr Cullen lays down
the following indications. 1. To remove the remote
caufes when they are evident and continue to operate.
2. To take off the phlogiftic diathefis affefting the
whole fyllem, or the particular part. 3. To take off
the fpafm of the particular part by remedies applied to
the whole fyftem or to the part itfelf.
The means of removing the remote caufes will readily
occur, from confidering the particular nature and cir-
cumftances of the different kinds. Acrid matters mud
be removed, or their action mud be prevented, by the
application of demulcents. Comprefling and over¬
dretching powers mud be taken away; and, from their
feveral circumdances, the means of doing fo will be
obvious.
The means of taking off the phlogiftic diathefis of
the fyflem are the fame with thofe already mentioned
under the cure for fynocha. The means of taking off
the fpafnt alfo from the particular part, are much the
fame with thofe already mentioned. Only it is to be
remembered, that topical bleedings, fuch as cupping
with fcarification, applying leeches, &c. are in this
cafe much more indicated ; and that fome of the other
remedies are to be diredted more particularly to the
part affedted, as (hall be more fully confidered when we
treat of thofe difeafes attended with particular inflam¬
mations.
When a tendency to fuppuration is perceived, the
proper indication is to promote the produdtion of per-
fedt pus as much as poflible. For this purpofe various
remedies, fuppofed to poffefs a fpecific power, have been
propofed : but it does not appear that any of them are
pofl’effed of a virtue of this kind; and, in our author’s
opinion, all that can be done is to favour the fuppura¬
tion by fuch applications as may fupport a moderate
heat in the part, by fome tenacity confine the perfpi-
ration, and by an emollient quality may weaken the
cohefion of the teguments, and favour their erofion.
As all abfcefles are occafioned by the effufion of fluids,
and as in the cafe of certain effufions a fuppuration be¬
comes not only unavoidable but defireable, it may be
fuppofed that moft of the means of procuring a refo-
lution by diminifhing the force of circulation, &c.
ought to be avoided. But as we obferve on the one
hand, that a certain degree of increafed impetus, or of
the original fymptoms of inflammation, is necefl'ary to
produce a proper fuppuration; fo it is then efpecially
neceffary to avoid thofe means of refolution which may
diminifh too much the force of circulation. And on
the other hand, as the impetus of the blood, when vio¬
lent, is found to prevent the proper fuppuration; fo, in
fuch cafes, though a tendency to fuppuration may have
begun, it may be proper to continue thofe means of
refolution which moderate the force of the circulation.
With refpeft to the opening of abfceffes when com¬
pletely formed, fee the article Surgery.
When an inflammation has taken a tendency to gan¬
grene, that event is to be prevented by every poflible
Vol. VI. 1
4695
means; and thefe muff be different according to the P race
nature of the feveral caufes: but after a gangrene has
in fome degree taken place, it can be cured only by
the reparation of the dead from the living parts. This
in certain circumftances can be performed, and moft
properly, by the knife. In other cafes it can be done
by exciting a fuppuratory inflammation on the verge
of the living part, whereby its cohefion with the dead
part may be every where broken off, fo that the latter
may fall off by itfelf. While this is doing it is pro¬
per to prevent the further putrefaftion of the part, and
its fpreading wider. For this purpofe various antifep-
tic applications have been propofed: but Dr Cullen is
of opinion, that while the teguments are entire, thefe
applications can hardly have any effeft; and therefore,
that the fundamental procedure muft be to fcarify the
part fo as to reach the living fubftance, and, by the
wounds made there, to excite the fuppuration required.
By the fame incifions alfo, ‘we give accefs to anti-
feptics, which may both prevent the progrefs of the
putrefaftion in the dead, and excite the inflammation
neceffary on the verge of the living parts.
When th-. gangrene proceeds from the lofs of tone,
and when this communicated to the neighbouring parts
prevents that inflammation which, as we have faid, is
requifite to the feparation of the dead parts from the
living, it will be neceffary to obviate this lofs of tone
by tonic medicines given internally ; and for this pur¬
pofe the Peruvian bark has been found to be moft ef-
feftual. But when the gangrene arifes from the vio¬
lence of inflammation, the bark may not only fail of
proving a remedy, but may do harm : for its power
as a tonic is efpecially fuited to thofe cafes of gangrene
which proceed from an original lofs of tone, as in the
cafe of palfy and oedema; or in thofe cafes where a
lofs of tone takes place while the original inflammatory
fymptoms are removed.
On the other hand, Mr Bell is of opinion, that inci¬
fions made with a view to admit the operation of anti-
feptic remedies in gangrenes, as well as the remedies
themfelves, muft be pernicious by reafon of the irrita¬
tion they occafion, and by the danger of wounding
blood-veffels, nerves, tendons, &c. alfo by allowing a
free paffage for the putrefeent fluids into the parts not
yet affefted. And unlefs they are carried fo deep as to
reach the found parts, applications of the antifeptio
kind can never have any effedt in anfwering the pur¬
pofe for which they were intended. The fame author
alfo remarks, that all the advantages commonly obferved
from the great number of applications recommended for
gangrene, are obtained with more cafe, and generally
too with more certainty, from the ufe of fome gentle
ftimulating embrocation; which, by exciting a flight
irritation upon the furface, efpecially when aflifted by
a free ufe of the bark, produces, for the moft part, fuch
a degree of inflammation as is wilhed for. With this
view he has frequently known a weak folution of fal
ammoniac, a drachm of the fait to two ounces of vi¬
negar and fix of water, form a mixture of a very pro¬
per ftrength for every purpofe of this kind. But th«
degree of ftimulus can eafily be either increafed or di-
miniftied according to circumftances, by ufing a larger
or fmaller proportion of the fait.
Whenever, either by the means recommended, or by
a natural exertion of the fyftem, a flight inflammation
26 O appears
MEDICINE.
4696
Practice appears between the difeafed and found parts, we may
in genera], with tolerable certainty, expe&, that in due
lime the parts will be feparated; and when a full fup-
puration is once fairly ettablifhed, there can be little
doubt that the mortified parts will be foon and eafily
removed.
A complete feparation being effe&ed, the remaining
fore is to be treated in the manner deferibed under the
article Surgury; with a proper attention, at the fame
time, to the fupport of the general fyftem by the con¬
tinuance of a nourilhing diet, the bark, and fuch quan¬
tities of wine as may feem neceflary.
With regard to the bark, however, it is proper to
take notice of another cafe of mortification in which it
is likewife unfuccefsful, as well as in that attended with
an high degree of inflammation; and that is, in thofe
mortifications of the toes and feet, common in old peo¬
ple, or which arife from any caufe increafing the rigi¬
dity of the velfels to fuch a degree as to prevent the
motion of the fluids through them. In this cafe Mr
Pott has difeovered, that all kinds of warm applications
are very unfuccefsful; but that by the free ufe of opium,
together with fedatives and relaxants externally ap¬
plied, he has frequently feen the tumefa&ion of the feet
and ancles fubfide, the (kin recover its natural colour,
and all the mortified parts feparate in a very (hort time,
leaving a clean fore. But as to fcarifications, or any
other attempt to feparate artificially the mortified from
the found parts, he thinks them very prejudicial, by
giving pain; which is generally of itfelf violent in this
difeafe, and which feems to have a great fliare in pro¬
ducing the other evils.
The other terminations of inflammation either do not
admit of any treatment, except that of preventing them
by refolution, or properly belong to the article Sur¬
gery.
282 XXXII. Phlogofu Erythema. Sp. II,
Erythema, Sauv. gen. 1 r.
Eryfipelas auftorum, Vog. 343.
Hieropyr. N. 344.
Anthrax, Sauv. gen. tp. Lin. 272. Vog. 253-
Carbo et carbunculus au&orum.
Erythema gangrsenofum, Sauv. fp. 7.
Erythema a frigore.
Erythema pernio, Sauv. fp. 4.
Pernio, Lin. 259. Vog. 350.
Erythema ambuftio, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelas ambuftio, Sauv. fp. 4.
Combuftura, Un. 245.
Combuftio, Boerh. 476.
Encaufis, Vog. 347.
Erythema ab acri alieno applicato.
Eryfipelas Chinenfe, Sauv. fp. 7.
Erythema ab acri inquilino.
Erythema intertrigo, Sauv. fp. 5.
Intertrigo, Lin. 247. Vog. 502.
Erythema a compreflione.
Erythema paratrima, Sauv. fp. 6.
Erythema a pun&ura, Sauv. fp. 9.
Eryfipelas a vefpis, Sauv. fp. 19.
Pfydracia a vefpis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Erythema cum phlegmone.
Eryfiptlas phlegmonodes au&orum. -
Part IT.
Erythema cum oedemate. Practic
Eryfipelas fymptomaticum, Sauv. fp. 6.
The word erythema doth not apply to any primary
difeafe, but to a great number of thofe cutaneous in¬
flammations denominated by another general term, viz.
the eryfipelas, or St Anthony's fire; and which being
commonly fymptomatic of fome other inflammation or
diforder, are to be removed only by removing the pri¬
mary difeafe: the erythema is found fcarcely to bear
any kind of warm application to itfelf; and is very apt,
if treated as a primary difeafe, to terminate in a gan¬
grene of the part affe&ed, or other diforder ftill more
dangerous. The difference between the phlegmon or pre¬
ceding fpecies, and erythema, according to Dr Cullen, is,
that, in the former, the inflammation feems particularly
to affeA the veflels on the internal furface of the Ikin,
communicating with the lax adjacent cellular texture;
whence a more copious efl'ufion, and that too of ferum
convertible into pus, takes place. In the erythema the
affeftion is of the veflels on the external furface of the
fkin communicating with \hzrete mucofum, which does
not admit of any effufion but what feparates the cuticle
and gives occafion to the formation of a blifter, while
the fmaller fize of the veffels admits only of the effu-
fion of a thin fluid very feldom convertible into pus.
For the cure of the fever attended with erythema, or
eryfipelas, fee below ; and for the external treatment
of erythema, fee the article Surgery.
XXXIII. OPHTHALMIA, or Inflammation of
the Eyes. Genus VIII. Sp. I. i. A. B. 2. Sp. II.
1. 2.
Ophthalmia, Sauv. gen. 196. Lin. 43. Vog. 341. 283
Sag. 231. Junck. 24.
Chemofis, Vog. 46.
Ophthalmites, Vog. 47.
Inflammatio oculorum, Hofifm. II. 165.
Ophthalmia taraxis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Ophthalmia humida, Sauv. fp. 8.
Ophthalmia chemofis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Ophthalmia eryfipelatofa, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ophthalmia puftulofa, Sauv. fp. 6. *
Ophthalmia phlyftsenodes, Sauv. fp. 2t.
Ophthalmia choroeideas,.fp. 13.
Ophthalmia tenebricofa, Sauv. fp. to.
Ophthalmia trachoma, Sauv. fp. 4.
Ophthalmia ficca, Sauv- fp. 5.
Ophthalmia angularis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Ophthalmia tuberculofa, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ophthalmia trichiafis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Ophthalmia cancrofa, Sauv. fp. 15.
Ophthalmia a fynechia, Sauv. fp. 16.
Ophthalmia a lagophthalmo, Sauv. fp. 17.
Ophthalmia ab elcomate, Sauv. fp. 18.
Ophthalmia ab ungue, Sauv. fp. 19.
Ophthalmia a corneae fiftula, Sauv. fp. 20.
Ophthalmia uveas, Sauv. fp. 22.
Ophthalmia metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 24.
Ophthalmia fcrophulofa, Sauv. fp. 9.
Ophthalmia fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 11.
Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23.
From reading this long lift of diftimftions which
authors have invented in the ophthalmia, it is evident,
that by far the greateft part of them are fymptomatic,
or
MEDICINE.
'1 Part IT. M E D I
i)iPractice or merely the confequences of other diforders prefent
in the habit; and therefore the remedies mud be di¬
rected towards the removal of thefe primary diforders;
and when they are gone the ophthalmia will be remo¬
ved of courfe. Dr Cullen obferves, that the inflam¬
mation of the eye may be confidered as of two kinds;
according as it is feated in the membranes of the ball
of the eye, when it is named ophthalmia menibranarum;
or as it is feated in the febaceous glands placed in the
tarfus, or edges of the eye-lids, in which cafe it may
(■•Seethe be termed ophthalmia tarji*. Thefe two kinds are
H’ 0J° °Sy- very frequently connected together, as the one may
excite the other; but they are ftill to be diftinguifhed
according as the one or the other may happen to be
the primary affeCtion.
i. The inflammation of \he nre ml rants oi the eye af-
fedts efpecially, and moft frequently, the adnata, and
appears in a turgefcence of its veffels ; fo that the red
veflels which are naturally there, become not only in-
creafed in fixe, but many more appear than in a natu¬
ral Hate. This turgefcence of the veflels is attended
with pain, efpecially upon the motion of the ball of
the eye ; and this irritation, like every other, applied
to the furface of the eye, produces an effufion of tears
from the lacrymal gland.
The inflammation commonly, and chiefly, affe&s
the adnata fpread on the anterior part of the bulb of
the eye ; but ufually fpreads alfo along the continua¬
tion of the adnata on the infide of the palpebra;; and
as that is extended on the tarfus palpebrarum, the ex-
cretories of the febaceous glands opening there are
alfo frequently affeded. When the affeCtion of the
adnata is confiderable, it may be communicated to the
fubjacent membranes of the eye, ,and even to the reti¬
na itfelf, which thereby acquires fo great fenfibility,
that every impreffion of light becomes painful. The
inflammation of the membranes of the eye is in diffe¬
rent degrees, according as the adnata is more or lefs
affe&ed, or according as the inflammation is either of
the adnata alone, or of the fubjacent membranes alfo ;
and upon thefe differences, different fpecies have been
eftaShfhedj but they feem all to differ only in degree,
and are to be cured by the fame remedies more or lefs
employed.
The proximate caufe of ophthalmia is not different
from that of inflammation in general ; and the dif¬
ferent circumftances of ophthalmia maybe explained by
the difference of its remote caufes, and by the dif¬
ferent parts of the eye which it happens to affedf ;
as may be underftood from what has been already faid.
We (hall therefore proceed to give an account of the
method of cure.
The ophthalmia membranarum requires the reme¬
dies proper for inflammation in general ; and when the
deeper-feated membranes are affe&ed, and efpecially
when a pyrexia is prefent, large general bleedings may
be neceffary. But this laft is feldom the cafe ; and,
for the mod part, the ophthalmia is an affe&ion pure¬
ly local, accompanied with little or no pyrexia. Ge¬
neral bleedings therefore have little effect upon it, and
the cure is chiefly to be obtained by topical .bleedings,
that is, blood drawn from the veffels near the inflamed
part ; and opening tlje jugular vein, or the temporal
artery, may be confidered as in fome meafure of this
kind. It is commonly fufficientto apply a uumber of
2
CINE. 4697
leeches round the eye ; and it is perhaps ftill better Pbactice
to draw blood by cupping and fcarifying upon the
temples. In many cafes, the moft effectual reme¬
dy is to fcarify the internal furface of the inferior
eye-lid, and to cut the turgid veffels upon the adnata
itfelf.
Befides blood-letting, purging, as a remedy fuited
to inflammation in general, has been confidered as pe¬
culiarly adapted to inflammation in any part of the
head, and therefore to ophthalmia; and it is fometimes
ufeful; but, for the reafons given before with refpedi
to general bleeding, purging in the cafe of ophthal¬
mia does not prove ufeful in any proportion to the eva¬
cuation excited.—For relaxing the fpafm in the part,
and taking off the determination of the fluids to it,
bliftering near the part has commonly been found ufe¬
ful.
Ophthalmia, as an external inflammation, admits of
topical applications. All thofe, however, which in-
creafe the heat and relax the veffels of the part, prove
hurtful; and the admiflion of cool air to the eye, and
the application of cooling and aftringent medicines,
which at the fame time do not produce irritation,
prove ufeful. In the cure of this diftemper indeed,
all irritation muft carefully be avoided, particularly
that of light; and the only certain means of doing
this is by keeping the patient in a very dark chamber.
2. In the ophthalmia tarji, the fame medicines may be
neceffary as are already recommended for the ophthal¬
mia membranarum. However, as the ophthalmia tarfi
may often depend upon an acrimony depofited in the
febaceous glands of the part, fo it may require various
internal remedies according to the variety of the acri¬
mony in fault; for which we muft refer to the confi-
deration of fcrophula, fyphilis, or other difeafes with
which this ophthalmia may be connedted ; and where
thefe (hall not be evident, certain remedies more gene¬
rally adapted to the evacuation of acrimony, fuch as
mercury, may be employed. In the ophthalmia tarfi,
it almoft conftantly happens that fome ulcerations are
formed on the tarfus. Thefe require the application of
mercury and copper, which alone may fometimes core
the whole affedlion ; and they may be ufeful even
when the difeafe depends upon a fault of the whole
fyftem.
Both in the ophthalmia membranarum, and in the
ophthalmia tarfi, it is neceffary to obviate that glueing
together of the eye-lids which commonly happens in
deep ; and which may be done by infinuating a little
of any mild un&uous medicine between the eye lids be¬
fore the patient (hall go to deep.
The dighter kinds of inflammations from the duft
or the fun, may be removed by fomenting with warm
milk and water, adding a fmall portion of brandy ;
and by anointing the borders of the eye-lids with un-
guentum tutine, or the like, at night, efpecially when
thofe parts are excoriated and fore. But in bad cafes,
after the inflammation has yielded a little to evacua¬
tions, the coagiihtrn aluminofum of the London difpen-
fatory fpread on lint, and applied at bed-time, has been
found the belt external remedy. Before the ufe of the
latter, the folution of white vitriol is preferibed with
advantage ; and in violent pains it is of feryice to fo¬
ment frequently tyith a decodtion of white poppy-
heads.
26 O 2
XXXIV.
4698
PR ACTIC1
284
M E D I
f XXXIV. Phrenith, Phrenzy, or Inflammation of the
Brain. Genus IX.
Phrenitis, Sauv. gen. lor. Lin. 25. Sag. gen.301.
Boerh. 771. Hoffm.W. 131. Junck. 63.
Phrenifmus, Vcg. 45.
Cephalitis, Sauv. gen. 109. Sag. gen. 310.
Sphacelifmus, I.in. 32.
Phrenitis vera, Sauv.fy. 1. Boerh. 771.
Phrenitis idiopathica, Junck. 63.
Cephalalgia inflammatoria, Sauv. fp. 9.
Cephalitis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cephalitis firiafis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Siriafis, Vog. 34.
Cephalitis Littriana, Sauv. fp. 5.
Dr Cullen oWerves, that the true phrenitis, or in¬
flammation of the membranes or fubftance of the brain,
is very rare as an original difeafe : but, as a fymptom
of others, much more frequent ; of which the follow¬
ing kinds are enumerated by different authors.
Phrenitis fynochi pleuriticae, Sauv. fp. 2.
Phrenitis fynochi fanguineac, Sauv. fp. 4.
Phrenitis calentura, Sauv. fp. it.
Phrenitis Indica, Sauv. fy. 12.
Cephalitis ^Egyptiaca, Sauv. fp. r.
Cephalitis epidemica anno 1510, Sauv. fp. 6.
Cephalitis verminofa, SaUv. fp. 7.
Cephalitis cerebelli, Sauv. fp. 8.
Phrenitis miliaris, Sauv. fp. 3.
Phrenitis variolofa, Sauv. fp. 5.
Phrenitis morbillofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Phrenitis a plica, Sauv. fp. 8.
Phrenitis aphrodifiaca, Sauv. fp. 9.
Phrenitis a tarantifmo, Sauv. fp. 14.
Phrenitis hydrophobica, Sauv.fy. 15.
Phrenitis a dolore, Sauv. fp. 13.
Cephalitis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcription. The figns of an impending phrenzy
are, Immoderate and continual watchings; or if any
fleep is obtained, it is difturbed with dreams and
gives no refrefliment; acute and lafting pains, efpe-
cially in the hind-part of the head and neck ; little
thirft ; a great and flow refpiratipn, as if proceeding
from the bottom of the bread ; the pulfe fometimes
fmall and flow, fometimes quick and frequent; a fup-!
preflion of urine ; and forgetfulnefs. The diflemper
when prefent may be known by the following figns:
The veins of the head fwell, and the temporal arteries
throb much ; the eyes are fixed, fparkle, and have 3
fierce afpcdf ; the fpeech is incoherent, and the pa¬
tient behaves very roughly to the by-ftanders, with
furious attempts to get out of bed, not indeed conti¬
nually, but returning as it were by paroxyfms ; the
tongue is dry, rough, yellow, or black ; there is a
coldnefs of the external parts; a pronenefs to anger ;
chattering of the teeth ; a trembling of the hands,
•with which the lick feem to be gathering fomething,
and a&ually do gather the naps off the bed-clothes.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjefi to, this diforder. People
©f a.hot and bilious habit of body, and fuch as are of
a paffionate difpolition, are apt to fall into a phrenzy.
The fame danger are thofe in who ufe much fpices, or
are given to hot and fpirituous liquors; who have been
cxpofed more than ufual to the fun, or obliged to un¬
dergo immoderate fludies or watchings ; who are fub-
C I N E. Part If,
jeit to head-achs, or in whom fome cuftomary hsemor- VaAcji,
rhages have been flopped; or the difeafe may arife ~-
from fome injury offered to the head externally. Dr
Pringle obferves, that the phrenitis, when confidered
as an original difeafe, is apt to attack foldiers in the
fummer-feafon when they are expofed to the heat of
the fun, and efpecially when afleep and, in liquor. A
fymptomatic phrenzy is alfo more frequent in the ar¬
my than elfewhere, on account of the violence done to
all fevers when the fick are carried in waggons from
the camp to an hofpital, where the very noife or light
alone would be fufficient, with more delicate natures,
to raife a phrenzy.
Progmfts. Every kind of phrenzy, whether idio¬
pathic or fymptomatic, is attended with a high degree
of danger; and, unlefs removed before the fourth day,
a gangrene or fphacelus of the meninges readily takes
place, and the patient dies delirious. The following
are the moft fatal fyiuptorps: A continual and furious
delirium, with watching; thin watery urine, white
faeces, the urine and ftools running off involuntarily,
or a total fuppreflion of thefe excretions; a ready dif-
pofition to become ftupid, or to faint; trembling, ri¬
gor, chattering of the teeth, convnlfions, lockup, cold¬
nefs of the extremities, trembling of the tongue, flirill
voice, a fudden ceffation of pain, with apparent tran¬
quillity. The following are favourable: Sweats, apr
parently critical, breaking out; a feeming effort of
nature to terminate the difeafe by a diarrhoea; a large
haemorrhage from the nofe ; fwellings of the glands
behind the ears; haemorrhoids.
Cure. This is not different from the cure of in¬
flammation in general ; but here the moft powerful
remedies are to be immediately employed. Large
and repeated bleedings are efpecially neceffary; and
thefe too taken from veffels as near as poffible to the
part affefted. The opening the temporal artery
has been recommended, and with fome reafon: but as
the pradice is attended with fome inconveniencies,
perhaps the opening of the jugular veins may prove
more effedual; with which, however, may be joined
the drawing of blood from the temples by cupping
and fcarifying. It is aifo probable, that purging
may be of more ufe in this than in fome other inflam¬
matory affedions, as it may operate by revulfion. For
the fame purpofe of revulfion, warm pediluvia are a
remedy, but rather ambiguous. The taking off the
force of the blood in the veffels of the head by an
ered pofture is generally ufeful. Bliftering is alfo
ufeful, but chiefly when applied near to the part af¬
fected. In (hort, every part of the antiphlogiftic re¬
gimen is here neceffary, and particularly the admiffion
of cold air. Even cold fubftances applied to the head
have been found ufeful; and the application of fuch
refrigerants as vinegar is certainly proper. Opiates
are hurtful in every inflammatory ttate of the brain.
On the whole, however, it mult be remarked, that
practitioners are, very uncertain with regard to the
means proper to be ufed in this difeafe; and the more
fo, that the fymptoms by which the difeafe is com¬
monly judged to he prefent, appear fometimes with¬
out any internal inflammation; and on ^he other hand,
diffedions have Ihewn that the brain has been inflamed,
where few of the peculiar fyroptoms of inflammation
had appeared before.
Gemus
Genus X. CYNANCHE.
Lin. 33, Sag. gen.
• Cynanche
Cynancbe, Sauv. gen.
300-
Angina, Vog. 49. Hojfm. II. 125. Junck. 30.
Angina infiammatoria, Boerb. 798.,
^‘28? XXXV. The Inflammatory QuinsY]
I Torfdlaris. Sp. I.
Cynanche tonfiUaris, Sauv. Ip. 1.
Angina inflammatpriae Ip. 5. Boerh. 805.
Defcrifition. This is an inflammation of the mu¬
cous membrane of the fauces, affe&ing principally
that congeries of mucous follicles which forms the
tonfiis; and from thence fpreading along the velum
and uvula, fb as frequently to affed every part of the
mucous membrane. The difeafe appears by fome tu¬
mour and. rednefs of the parts; is attended with a
painful and difficult deglutition ; a troublefome clam-
minefs of the mouth and throat; a frequent, but dif¬
ficult, excretion of mucus; and the whole is accom¬
panied with pyrexia. The inflammation and tumour
are commonly at firft moft confiderable in one tonfil;
and afterwards, abating in that, increafe in the other.
This difeafe is not contagious.
Caufes of) andperfons fubjeft to, the diforder. This
dileafe is commonly occafioned by cold externally ap¬
plied, particularly about the neck. It affe&s efpe-
cially the young and fanguine; and a difpofition to it
is often acquired by habit. It occurs efpecially in
the fpring and autumn, when viciffitudes of heat and
cold frequently take place.
Brognofis. This fpecies of quinfy terminates fre¬
quently by refolution, fometimes by fuppuration, but
hardly ever by gangrene; though in fome cafes floughy
fpots appear on the fauces: the prognofis therefore
is generally favourable.
Cure. Here fome bleeding may be neceflary; but
large and general evacuations are feldom beneficial.
The opening of the ranular veins feems to be an in-
fignificant remedy, according to Dr Cullen, but is
recommended as efficacious by Sir John Pringle; and
leeches fet on the external fauces are ferviceable. The
inflammation maybe often relieved by moderate aftrin-
gents, and particularly by acids applied to the parts
affiedled. In many cafes, nothing has been found to
give more relief than the vapour of warm water received
into the fauces.
Befides thefe, bliftering and rubefacient medicines
are applied with fuccefs, as w-ell as antiphlogiftic pur¬
gatives; and every part of the antiphlogiftic regimen
is to be obferved, except the application of cold. Sir
John Pringle recommends a thick piece of flannel
moiftened with two parts of common fweet oil, and
one of fpirit-of-hartfhorn, (or in a larger proportion,
if the fkin will bear it), applied to the throat, and re¬
newed once every four or five boors. By this means
the neck, and fometimes the whole body, is put into a
fweat, which, after bleeding, either carries off or leflens
the inflammation. When the difeafe takes a tendency
to fuppuration, nothing will be more ufeful than the
taking into the fauces the fleams of warm water.
W'hen the abfcefs is attended with much fwelling, if it
break not fpontaneoufly, it ought to be opened by a
lancet; and this does not require much caution, as
MEDICINE. 4699
even the inflammatory ftate may be relieved by fome Pa act ice
fcarification of the tonfiis. Dr Cullen has never feen'”^ 
any cafe requiring bronchotomy.
XXXVI. The tnalignant, putrid, or ulcerous sore 286
Throat, Sp. II.
Cynanche maligna, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cynanche qlcerpfa, Sauv. var. a. Journ. de Med.
i758-
Cynanche gangrasnofa, Sauv. var. b. Journ. de
Med. 1756.
Ulcera faucium et gutturis anginofa et lethalia,
Hifpanis Garrotillo, Lud. Mercat. confult. 24.
Angina ulcerofa, FotbergilPs, Account of the ul¬
cerous fore throat, edit. 1751. Huxham on the
malignant ulcerous fore throat, from 1751 to
Febris epidemica cum angina ulcufculofa, Douglas’s
Practical Hiftory, Bolton 1736.
Angina epidemica, Rujfel, Oecon. Natur. p. 105.
Angina gangrsenofa, Withering’s Diflert. Inaug.
Edinb. 1766..
Angina futfocativa, Bard’s Inquiry, New-York
1771.
Angina maligna, on the malignant Angina,-
Worcefter 1779.
Hijlory and defcription. This diftemper is not par¬
ticularly defcribed by the ancient phyficians t though
perhaps the Syrian and Egyptian ulcers mentioned by
Aretasus Cappadox, and the peftilent ulcerated tonfiis.
we read of in Aetius Amiderus, were of this nature.
Some of the fcarlet fevers mentioned by Morton feem
alfo to have approached near to it. In the beginning
of the laft century, a difeafe exadtly fimilar to this is
defcribed by the phyficians of that time, as raging
with great violence and mortality in Spain and fome
parts of Italy; but no account of it was publiflied in
this country till the year 1748, when a very accurate
one was drawn up by Dr Fothergill, and in 1752 by
Dr Huxham. The latter obferves, that this difeafe
was preceded by long, cold, and wet feafons; by which
probably the bodies of people were debilitated, and
more apt to receive contagion, which poffibly alfo
might be produced by the ftagnant and putrid
waters.
The attack of this difeafe was very different in
different perfons. Sometimes a rigor, with fulpefs.
and forenefs of the thrpat, and painful ftiffnefs of the
neck, were the firft fymptoms complained of. Sometimes
alternate chills and heats, with fome degree of giddi-
nefs, drowfinefs, orhead-ach, uftiered in the diftemper.
It feized others with much more feverifti fymptoms;
great pain of the head, back, and limbs; a vaft op-
preffion of the praecordia, and continual fighing.
Some grown perfons went about for fome days in a
drooping ftate, with much uneafinefs and anxiety, till
at laft they were obliged to take to their beds.
—Thus various was the difeafe, fays our author,,
at the onfet. But it commonly began with chills
and heats, load and pain of the head, forenefs of
throat, and hoarfenefsfome cough, ficknefs at
ftomach, frequent vomiting and purging, in chil¬
dren efpecially, which were fometimes very fevere
though a contrary ftate was more common to the
adult. There was in all a very great deje&ion off
fgirita^
4700
PRACTICI
MEDICINE.
Part II.
i fpirits, very fudden weaknefs, great heavinefs on the
' bread, and faintnefs, from the very beginning. The
pulfe in general was quick, fmall, and fluttering,
though fometimes heavy and undulating. The urine
was commonly pale, thin, and crude; however, in many
grown perfons, it was palled in fmall quantities, and
high-coloured, or like turbid whey. The eyes were
heavy, reddilh, and as it were weeping; the counte¬
nance very often full, flulhed, and bloated, though
fometimes pale, and funk.
How flight foever the diforder might appear in the
day-time, at night the fymptoms became greatly ag¬
gravated, and the feveriih habit very much increafed,
nay, fometimes a delirium came on the very firfl
night; and this exacerbation conflantly returned
through the whole courfe of the difeafe. Indeed,
when it was confiderably on the decline, our author fays
he has been often pretty much furprifed to find his
patient had palled the whole night in a phrenzy, whom
he had left tolerably cool and fedate in the day.
Some few hours after the' feizure, and fometimes
cotemporary with it, a fwelling and forenefs of the
throat was perceived, and the tonfils became very
tumid and inflamed, and many times the parotid and
maxillary glands fwelled very much, and very fud-
denly, even at the very beginning; fometimes fo
much as even to threaten ftrangulation. The fauces
alfo very foon appeared of a high florid red, or rather
of a bright crimfon* colour, very Ihining and glofly;
and molt commonly on the uvula, tonfils, velum pa-
latinum, and back part of the pharynx, feveral whitilh
or afh-coloured fpots appeared fcattered up and down,
which oftentimes increafed very fall, and foon covered
one or both the tonfils, uvula, &c. thofe in the event
proved Houghs of fuperficial ulcers, (which fometimes,
however, eat very deep into the parts). The tongue
at this time, though only white and moilt at the top,
was very foul at the root, and covered with a thick
yellowilh or brown cwat. The breath alfo now be¬
gan to be very naufeous ; which oflenfive fmell in¬
creafed hourly, and in fome became at length intole¬
rable, and that too fometimes even to the patients
themfelves.
The fecond or third day every fymptom became
much more aggravated, and the fever much more
confiderable ; and thofe that had ftruggled with it
tolerably well for thirty or forty hours, were forced
to fubmit. The reftleflhefs and anxiety greatly in¬
creafed, as well as the difficulty in fwallowing. The
head was very giddy, pained, and loaded ; there was
generally more or lefs of a delirium ; fometimes a
pervigilium and perpetual phrenzy, though others lay
very itupid, but often ftarting and muttering to
themfelves. The fkin was very hot, dry, and rough ;
there was very rarely any difpofition to fweat. The
urine was pale, thin, crude ; often yellowilh and turbid.
Sometimes a vomiting was urgent, and fometimes a
very great loofenefs, in children particularly. The
floughs were now much enlarged, and of a darker
colour, and the furrounding parts tended much more
to a livid hue. The breathing became much more
difficult ; with a kind of a rattling ftertor, as if the
patient was a&ually ftrangling, the voice being ex¬
ceeding hoarfe and hollow, exa&ly refembling that
from venereal ulcers in the ianceS: this noife in
fpeaking and breathing was fo peculiar, that any Pjiacti|
perfon in the leaft converfant with the difeafe might S
eafily know it by this odd noife; from whence indeed
the Spanilh phyficians gave it the name of garotillo,
exprdfing the noife fuch make as are ftrangling with
a rope. Our author never obferved in one of them the
Ihrill, barking noife, that we frequently hear in inflam- ;
matory quinfies. The breath of all the difeafed was <
very naufeous; of fome infufferably fetid, efpecially
in the advance of the diftemper to a crifis ; and many
about the fourth or fifth day fpit off a vaft quantity J
of ftinking, purulent mucus, tinged fometimes with
blood; and fometimes the matter was quite livid, and |
of an abominable fmell. The noftrils likewife in
many were greatly inflamed and excoriated, continu¬
ally dripping down a moll lharp ichor, or fanious
matter, fo excelfively acrid, that it not only corroded
the lips, cheeks, and hands of the children that
laboured under the difeafe, but even the fingers and ^
arms of the very nurfes that attended them : as this
ulceration of the noftrils came on, it commonly caufed
an almoft inceffant fneezing in the children; but few
adults were affe&ed with it, at leaft to any confiderable
degree. It was furprifing what quantities of matter
fome children difcharged this way, which they-would
often rub on their face, hands, and arms, and blifter
them all over. A fudden ftoppage of this rheum
from the mouth and noftrils adiually choaked feveral
children ; and fome fwallowed fuch quantities of it,
as occafioned excoriations of the inteftines, violent
gripings, dyfentery, &c. nay, even excoriations of
the anus and buttocks. Not only the noftrils, fauces,
&c. were greatly affedled by this extremely lharp
matter, but the wind-pipe itfelf was fometimes much
corroded by it, and pieces of its internal membrane
were fpit up, with much blood and corruption ; and
the patients lingered on for a confiderable time, and
at length died tabid; though there were more
frequent inftances of its falling fuddenly and vio¬
lently on the lungs, and killing in a peripneumonia
manner.
The Dofior was aftonifhed fometimes to fee feveral
fwallow with tolerable eafe, though the tumour of the
tonfils and throat, the quantity of thick mucus, and the
rattling noife in breathing, were very terrible ; which
he thinks pretty clearly Ihews, that this malignant
quinfy was more from the acrimony and abundance of
the humors than the violence of,the inflammation.
Moll commonly the angina came on before the
exanthemata ; but many times the cuticular eruption
appeared before the fore-throat, and was fometimes
very confiderable, though there was little or no pain
in the fauces: on the contrary, a very fevere angina
feized fome patients, that had no manner of eruption ;
and yet, even in thefe cafes, a very great itching and
defquamation of the fkin fometimes enfued ; but this
was chiefly in grown perfons, very rarely in children.
In general, however, a very confiderable efflorefcence
broke out on the furface of the body, particularly in
children; and it moft commonly happened the fecond,
third, or fourth day: fometimes it was partial, fome¬
times it covered almoft the whole body, though very
feldom the face: fometimes it was of an eryfipela-
tous kind; fometimes more puftular: the puftules
frequently very eminent, and of a deep, fiery, red
colouri
I
ifart II. M E D I
Bactice colour, particularly on the bread and arms; but often-
   times they were very imall, and might be better felt
than feen, and gave a very odd kind of roughnefs to
the (kin. The colour of the efflorefcence was com¬
monly of a crimfon hue, or as if the (kin had been
fmeared over with juice of ra(berries, and this even to
the fingers ends ; and the (kin appeared inflamed and
fwoln, as it were ; the arms, hands, and fingers, were
often evidently fo, and very ftiff, and fomewhat pain¬
ful. This crimfon colour of the (kin feemed indeed
peculiar to this difeafe. Though the eruption feldom
failed of giving feme manifeft relief to the patient, as
to anxiety, ficknefs at ftomach, vomiting, purging,
&c. yet there was obferved an univerfal fiery eruption,
on fome perfons, without the lead abatement of the
fymptoms, nay, almofl every fymptom feemed more ag¬
gravated, particularly the fever, load at bread, anxiety,
delirium ; and our author knew more than one or two
patients die in the mod raging phrenzy, covered with
the mod univerfal fiery ra(h he ever faw : fo that, as in
the highly confluent fmall pox, it feemed only to denote
the quantity of the difeafe, as he terms it.
He had under his care a young gentleman, about
twelve years of age, whofe tongue, fauces, and ton-
fils, were as black as ink, and he fwallowed with ex¬
treme difficulty; he continually fpitoff immenfe quan¬
tities of a black, fanious, and very fetid matter, for
at lead eight or ten days :—about the feventh day, his
fever being fomewhat abated, he fell into a bloody
dyfentery, though the bloody, fanious, fetid expec¬
toration dill continued, with a mod violent cough.
He at length indeed got over it, to the very great
furprife of every one that faw him. Now, in this pa¬
tient, a fevere and univerfal a ra(h broke out upon
him the fecond and third day ; and the itching of
his (kin was fo intolerable, that he tore it all over
his body in a mod (hocking manner : yet this very
great and timely eruption very little relieved his fever
and phrenzy, or prevented the other dreadful fymp¬
toms mentioned.
An early and kindly eruption, however, was mod
commonly a very good omen ; and, when fucceeded by
a very copious defquamation of the cuticle, one of the
mod favourable fy mptoms that occurred ; but when the
eruption turned of a dufky or livid colour, or prema¬
turely or fuddenly receded, every fymptom grew
worfe, and the utmod danger impended, efpecially
if purple, or black, fpots appeared up and down, as
fometimes happened; the urine grew limpid, and
convulfions came on, or a fatal fuffocation foon clofed
the tragedy.
The difeafe was generally at the height about the
fifth or fixth day in young perfons, in the elder not
fo foon ; and the crifis many times was not till the
eleventh or twelfth, and then very imperfeft : fome
adults, however, were carried off in two or three days
the diftemper either falling on the lungs, and killing
in a peripneumonic manner, or on the brain ; and the
patient either died raving or comatofe. In fome, the
difeafe brought on a very troublefome c«. 0u, puru¬
lent expefloration, hsemoptoe, and hedlic ; in which
they lingered on for feveral weeks, and then died
tabid.
If a gentle eafy fweat came on the third or fourth
day; if the pulfe became more (low, firm, and equal j
CINE. 4701
if the (loughs of the fauces cad off in a kindly manner, Practice
and appeared at the bottom tolerably clean and florid; ’
if the breathing was more foft and free, and fome de¬
gree of vigour and quicknefs returned in the eyes; all
was well, and a falutary crifis followed foon by a con¬
tinuance of the fweat, and a turbid, fubfiding, farina¬
ceous urine, a plentiful expefloration, and a very largd
defquamation of the cuticle. But if a rigor come on,
and the exanthemata fuddenly difappeared or turned
livid ; if the pulfe grew very fmall and quick, and the
(kin remained hot and parched as it were, the breath¬
ing more difficult, the eyes dead and glaffy, the urine
pale and limpid, a phrenzy or coma fucceeded, with a
coldifli clammy fweat on the face or extremities; life
was defpaired of; efpecially if a fingultus and choak-
ing or gulping in the throat, attended with fudden,.
liquid, involuntary, livid ftools, intolerably fetid. In
fome few patients our author obferved, fome time be¬
fore the fatal period, not only the face bloated, fallow,.
(hining, and greafy as it were, but the whole neck vaftly
fwoln, and of a cadaverous look ; and even the whole
body became in fome degree cedematous; and the im-
preflion of a finger would remain fixed'in a part, the
(kin not rifing again as ufual ; an indication that the
blood ftagnated in the capillaries,, and that the elafli-
city of the fibres was quite loft.
Prognojis. This may be eafily gathered from the
above defeription. The malignant and putrid tendency
of the difeafe is evident, and an increafe of the fymp¬
toms which arife from that pntrefeent difpofitton of the
body muft give an unfavourable prognoftic; as, on the
contrary, a decreafe of thefe, and an apparent increafe
of the vis vita, are favourable: in general, what is ob¬
ferved to be favourable in the nervous and putrid ma¬
lignant fevers, is alfo favourable in this, vice verfen
Curt. In this the feptic tendency of the difeafe is
chiefly to be kept in view. The debility with which
it is attended renders all evacuations by bleeding and
purging improper, except in a few inftances where the
debility is lefs, and the inflammatory fymptoms more
confiderable. The fauces are to be preferved from the
effedts of the acrid matter poured out upon them, and
are therefore to be frequently waftied out by antifeptic
gargles or injeftions; and theputrefeentftateof the-whole ,
fyftem (hould be guarded againft and corre&ed by in¬
ternal antifeptics, efpecially by the Peruvian bark given
in the beginning and continued through the courfe o£
the difeafe.. Emetics, both by vomiting and naufea-
ting, prove ufeful. When any confiderable tumour oc¬
curs, blifters applied externally will be of fervice, and in
any cafe may be proper to moderate the inflammation..
XXXVII. Cynanche Trachealis, commonly called
the Croup. Sp. III.
Cynanche trachealis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Cynanche laryngea auftorum, Eller de cogn. et cu»
rand. morb. fe<ft. 7.
Anginas inflammatoriae fp. 1. Boerh. 801.
Angina latens et difficilis, Dodon. obf. 18.
Angina interna, Tulp. 1. 1. obf. 51.
Angina perniciofa, Greg. Horjl. Obf. 1. iii. obf. 1.
Suffocatio ftridula, Home on the Croup.
Afthma infantum, Millar on the Afthma and Chin-
cough.
Afthma infantum fpafmodicum, Rujh, Differtation,
Lou.
47°* M E D I
Practice London 1770.
* ’ -Cynanche ftridula, Crawford DifTert. Inaug. Edin.
1771.
Angina epidemica anno 1743. Molloy apud Rutty*
Hiftory of tlie weather.
Morbus ftrangulatorius, Starr> Phil. Tranf. n° 495.
Morbus truculentus Francof. ad Viadrum
et in vicinia graflans ann. 1758. C. a Bergen.
A nova. N. C. tom. ii. p. 157.
Catarrhus fuffocativus Barbadenfis ann. 1758. Hil¬
lary'* Difeafes of Barbadoes.
Angina inflammatoria infantum, Rujfel, Oecon. nat.
p. 7°.
Angina polypofa five membranacea Michaelis, Ar-
gentorati 1778, et auftores ab eo allegati.
The beft defcription of this difeafe we have in Dr
‘Cullen’s Practice of Phyfic. He informs us, that it
conlifts in an inflammation of the glottis, larynx, or
upper part of the trachea, whether it affeft the mem¬
branes of thefe parts or the mufcles adjoining. It
may arife firft in thefe parts, and continue to fubfift in
them alone ; or it may come to affeft thefe parts from
the cynanche tonfillaris, or maligna, fpreading into
them.
In either way it has been a rare occurrence, and few
fnftances of it have been marked and recorded by phy-
cians. It is to be known by a peculiar croaking found
of the voice, by difficult refpiration, with a fenfe of
ftraitening about the larynx, and by 3 pyrexia attend¬
ing it.
From the nature of thefe fymptoms, and from the
difleftion of the bodies of perfons who died of this dif¬
eafe, there is no doubt of its being of an inflamma¬
tory kind. It does not, however, always run the
courfe of inflammatory affeftions; but frequently pro¬
duces fuch an obftru&ion of the paflage of the air, as
fuffocates, and thereby proves fuddenly fatal.
If we judge^.rightly of the nature of this difeafe,
it will be obvious, that the cure of it requires the
tnoft powerful remedies of inflammation to be em¬
ployed upon the very firft appearance of the fymptoms.
When a fuffocation is threatened, whether any reme¬
dies can be employed to prevent it, we have not had
experience to determine.
The accounts which books have hitherto given us
of inflammations of the larynx, and the parts connec¬
ted with it, amount to what we have now faid ; and
the inftances recorded have, almoft all of them, hap¬
pened in adult perfons : but there is a peculiar affec¬
tion of this kind happening to infants, which has been
little taken notice of till lately. Dr Home is the firft
who has given any diftindf account of this difeafe ; but,
fince he wrote, feveral other authors have taken notice
of it, and have given different opinions concerning it.
This difeafe feldom attacks infants till after they
have been weaned. After this period, the younger
they are, the more they are liable to the difeafe. The
frequency of it becomes lefs as children become more
advanced; and there are no inftances of children above
12 years of age being affefted with it. It attacks
children of the midland countries, as well as thofe
who live near the fea. It does not appear to be con¬
tagious, and its attacks are frequently repeated in the
fame child. It is often manifeftly the effeft of cold
CINE. Part II,
applied to the body $ and therefore appears moft fre- PractJ
quently in the winter and fpring feafons. It very i
commonly comes on with the ordinary fymptoms of a
catarrh ; but fometimes the peculiar fymptoms of the
difeafe (hew themfelves at the very firft.
Thefe peculiar fymptoms are the following: A
hoarfenefs, with fome ftirillnefs and ringing found,
both in fpeaking and coughing, as if the noife came
from a brazen tube. At the fame time, there is a
fenfe of pain about the larynx, fome difficulty of re¬
fpiration, with a whizzing found in infpiration, as if
the paffage of the air were ftraitened. The cough
which attends it, is commonly dry ; and if any thing
be fpit up, it is a matter of a purulent appearance, and
fometimes films refembling portions of a membrane.
With all thefe fymptoms, there is a frequency of
pulfe, a reftleffnefs, and an uneafy fenfe of heat.
When the internal fauces are viewed, they are fome¬
times without any appearance of inflammation; but
frequently a rednefs, and even fwelling, appears ; and
fometimes there is an appearance of matter like to that
rejected by coughing, together with the fymptoms
now defcribed, and particularly with great difficulty
of breathing, and a fenfe of ftrangling in the fauces,
by which the patient is fometimes fuddenly taken off.
Many diffe&ions have been made of infants who
had died of this difeafe, and almoft conftantly there
has appeared a preternatural membrane lining the
whole internal furface of the upper part of the trachea,
and extending in the fame manner downwards into
fome of its ramifications. This preternatural mem¬
brane may be eafily feparated, and fometimes has been
found feparated in part, from the fubjacent proper
membrane of the trachea. This laft is commonly
found entire, that is, without any appearance of ero-
fion or ulceration; but it frequently Ihows the veftiges
of inflammation, and is covered by a matter refem¬
bling pus, like to that reje&ed by coughing ; and
very often a matter of the fame kind is found in the
bronchise, fometimes in confiderable quantity.
From the remote caufes of this difeafe; from the
catarrhal fymptoms commonly attending it ; from the
pyrexia conftantly prefent with it; from the fame
kind of preternatural membrane being found in the
trachea when the cynanche maligna is communicated
to it; and from the veftiges of inflammation on the
trachea difcovered upon diffeflion ; we muft conclude,
that this difeafe confifts in an inflammatory affe&ion
of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea,
producing an exudation analogous to that found on
the furface of inflamed vifcera, and appearing partly
in a membranous cruft, and partly in a fluid refem¬
bling pus.
Though this difeafe confifts in an inflammatory af-
fe&ion, it does not commonly end either in fuppuration
or gangrene. The troublefome circumftance of it
feems to confift in a fpafm of the mufcles of the glot¬
tis, threatening fuffocation.
When this difeafe terminates in health, it is by re-
folution of the inflammation, by a ceafing of the fpafm
of the glottis, by an expe&oration of the matter ex¬
uding from the trachea, and of the crufts formed
there, and frequently it ends without any expectora¬
tion, or at leaft with fuch only as attends an ordinary
catarrh.
When
fPart II.
Practice When the difeafe^ends fatally, it is by a fuffocation
|| feemingly depending upon a fpafm affecting the glot¬
tis ; l}ut foraetimes, probably, depending upon a quan¬
tity of matter filling the bronchise.
As we fuppofe the difeafe to be an inflammatory af-
feftion, fo we attempt the cure of it by the ufual re¬
medies of inflammation, and which for the mod part
we have found effectual. Bleeding, both general and
topical, has often given immediate relief, and, by be¬
ing repeated, has entirely cured the difeafe. Blifter-
ing alfo, near to the part affe&ed, has been found ufe-
ful. Upon the firft attack of the difeafe, vomiting,
immediately after bleeding, feems to be of confider-
able ufe, and fometimes fuddenly removes the difeafe.
In every ftage of the difeafe, the antiphtegiftic regi¬
men is neceffary, and particularly the frequent ufe of
laxative glyfters. Tho’ we fuppofe that a fpafm affec¬
ting the glottis is often fatal in this difeafe, we have
not found antifpafmodic medicines to be of any ufe.
1287 XXXVIII. Cynanche Pharyngea. Sp. IV.
Cynanche pharyngea, Sauv. fp. 6. Eller de cogn.
et cur. fedt. 7.
Anginae inflammatorias fp. 4. Boerh. 804.
This is not materially different from the cynanche
|. tonfillaris ; only that the inflammation is faid to begin
in the pharynx, though Dr Cullen fays he never knew
Ian inftance of it. The fymptoms are almoft the fame,
and the cure is precifely fo with that of the cynanche
tonfillaris.
288 XXXIX. Cynanche Parotidjea. Sp. V.
j Cynancheparotidaea, Sauv. fp. 14. Gallis Oreil-
lons et Ourles, Tijfotau peuple, n° 116.
Encyclopedic, au mot Oreillons.
Angina externa, Anglis the Mumps, Rujfel oecon.
natur. p. 114. Scotis the Branks.
Catarrhus bellinfulanus, Sauv. fp. 4.
Offcrvazioni di Girol. Gafpari, Venez. 1731.
Offervazioni di Targ. Tozetti, Racolta ima, p.176.
This is a difeaf* ^ell known to the vulgar, but
little taken notice of by medical writers. It is often
epidemic, and manifeftly contagious. It comes on
with the ufual fymptoms of pyrexia, which is foon af¬
ter attended with a confiderable tumour of the exter¬
nal fauces and neck. The fwelling appears firft as
a glandular movable tumour at the corner of the
lower jaw; but it foon becomes uniformly diffufed
over a great part of the neck, fometimes on one fide
only, but more commonly on both. The fwelling
continues to increafe rill the fourth day ; but from
that period it declines, and in a few days more goes
^ off entirely. As the fwelling of the fauces recedes,
fome tumour affedts the tefticles in the male fex, or
the breafts in the female. Thefe tumours are fome¬
times large, hard, and fomewhat painful ; but are fel-
dom either very painful, or of long continuance. The
pyrexia attending this difeafe is commonly flight, and
goes off with the fwelling of the fauces ; but fometimes,
when the fwelling of the tefticles does not fucceed to
that of the fauces, or when the one or the other has
been fuddenly repreffed, the pyrexia becomes more
confiderable, is often attended with delirium, and has
fometimes proved fatal.
As this difeafe commonly runs its courfe without ei¬
ther dangerous or troublefome fymptoms, fo it hardly
Vou. VI. 1
47°3
requires any remedies. An antiphlogiftic regimen, andPRAcxice
avoiding cold, are all that will be commonly neceffary, ~
But when, upon the receding of the fwellings, the py¬
rexia comes to be confiderable, and threatens an affec¬
tion of the brain, it will be proper, by warm fo¬
mentations, to bring back the fwelling; and by vomit¬
ing, bleeding, or bliftering, to obviate the confequen-
ces of its abfence.
Genus XL. PNEUMONIA.
Febris pneumonica,II. 136.
XLI. Peripneumonia, Peripneumony, or Inflamma-
tion of the Lungs. Sp. I.
Peripneumonia, Sauv. gen. 112. Lin. 34. Vog.
51. Sag. gen. 311. Beerh. 820. Juncker 67.
Peripneumonia pura five veraAu&orum, Sauv. fp. 1.
Peripneumonia gaftrica, Sauv. fp. It. Morgagn.
de cauf. et fed. Epift. xx. art. 30, 31.
Peripneumonia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 6.
Peripneumonia notha, Sydenk. feft. 6. cap. 4.
Boerh. 867. Morgagni de cauf. et fed. Epift.
xxi. 11.—15.
Peripneumonia putrida, Sauv. fp. 2.
Peripneumonia ardens, Sauv. fp. 3.
Peripneumonia maligna, Sauv. fp. 4.
Peripneumonia typhodes, Sauv. fp. 5.
Amphimerina peripneumonia, Sauv. fp. 15.
XLI. Pleuritis, the Pleurify, or Inflammation of 290
the Pleura. Sp. II.
Pleuritis, Sauv. gen. 103. Lin. I’j. Vog. 56. Sag.
gen. 303. Boerh. 875. Junck. 67.
Paraphrenefis, Sauv. gen. 102. Lin. 26.
Paraphrenitis, Vog. 55. Boerh. 907.
Diaphragmitis, Sag. gen. 304.
Pleuritis vera, Sauv. fp. 1. Boerh. 875. Verna
princeps morb. acut. pleuritis, 1. I. cap. 2. 3.
Zeviani della parapleuritide, cap. 3. Morgag.
de fed. et cauf. morb. Epift. xx. art. 56. xxi. 45.
Wendt de pleuritide, apud Sandifort, thef. ii.
Pleuritis pulmonis, Sauv. fp. 2. Zevian. dell.para-
pleur. iii. 28, &c.
Pleurinneumonia, pleuro-peripneumonia, peripneu-
mo||§euritis Au&orum. Baronins de pleuri-pneu-
monia. 111. Halleri opufcul. patholog. obf. 13.
Morgagn. de fed. et cauf. Epift. xx. and xxi. paf-
fim. Cleghorn, Minorca, p. 247. Triller de pleuri¬
tide, aph. 1, 2, 3. cap. i. 8. Huxham, Differt. on
pleurifies, &c. chap. i. 111. Pringle, Dif. of the
army.
Pleuritis convulfiv. Sauv. fp. 13. Bianch. Hift. hep.
vol. i. p. 234.
Pleuritis hydrothoracica, Sauv.fy. 15. Morgag. de
cauf. et fed. xx. 34.
Pleuritis dorfalis, Sauv. fp. 3. Verna, p. iii. cap. 8.
Pleuritis mediaftinb Sauv. fp. 3. P. Sal. Div. de
I affeft. part. cap. 6. Friend, Hift. med. de Aven-
zoare.
Pleuritis mediaftina, Vog. 52.
Pleuritis pericardii, Sauv. fp. 5. Verna, p. iii.
cap. 9.
Parapleuritis, Zeviani della parapleuritide.
Pleurodyne parapleuritis, Sauv. fp. 19.
Paraphreneiis diaphragmatica, Sauv. fp. I. De
Haen. Rat. med. i. 7. iii. p. 31.
26 P Pa-
MEDICINE.
47°4
PRA.XICS
MEDICINE.
Paraphren^fispleuritica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Paraphrenefis hepatica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Under the general head of Pneumonia, Dr Cullen
comprehends all inflammations of the thoracic vifcera,
or membrane lining tho infide of that cavity; as the
fymptoms do not fufficiently diftinguifh the feat of the
affedlion, nor does a difference in the fituation of the
affefted place make any difference in the cure.
Defcription. Pneumonic inflammation, however va¬
rious in the feat, always difcovers itfelf by pyrexia,
difficult breathing, cough, and pain in fome part of
the thorax. It almoft always comes on with a cold
ftage, and is accompanied with the other fymptoms of
pyrexia ; though in fome few inftances the pulfe may
not be more frequent, nor the heat of the body increa-
fed beyond what is natural. Sometimes the pyrexia is
from the beginning accompanied with the other fymp¬
toms ; but frequently is formed fome hours before
them, and particularly before the pain is felt. The
pulfe for the moft part is frequent, full, flrong, hard,
and quick ; but in a few inltances, efpecially in the
advanced ftate of the difeafe, it is weak, foft, and at
the fame time irregular. The difficulty of breathing
is moft confiderable in infpiration, both becanfe the
lungs do not eafily admit of a full dilatation, and be-
caufe the dilatation increafes the pain attending the
^ difeafe. The difficulty of breathing is alfo greater
when the patient is in one pofture of the body rather
than another. It is generally greater when he lies on
the fide affe&ed; though fometimes the contrary hap¬
pens. Very often the patient cannot lie eafy upon ei¬
ther fide, and can find eafe only when lying on the
back ; and fometimes he cannot breathe eafily, except
when in fomewhat of an ere& pofture. The cough, in
different cafes, is more or lefs urgent or painful. It
is fometimes dry, or without any expectoration, efpe¬
cially in the beginning of the difeafe ; but more com¬
monly it is, even from the firft, moift, and the matter
fpit up various both in confiftence and colour, and
frequently it is ftreaked with blood. The pain is al¬
fo different in different cafes, and felt in different parts
of the thorax, but moft frequently in one fide. It has
been faid to affeCt the right fide more frequently than
the left; but this is uncertain, and we are fure that the
left fide has been very often affe&ed. Sometimes it is
felt as if it was under the fternum; fometimeiro the back
between the (houlders; and when in the fides, its place
has been higher or lower, more forward or backward;
but the place of all others moft frequently affe&ed is
about the fixth or feventh rib, near the middle of its
length, or a little more forward. The pain is often
fevere and pungent; but fometimes more dull and ob-
tufe, with a fenfe of weight rather than of pain. It
is moft efpecially fevere and pungent, when occupy¬
ing the place laft mentioned. For the moft part it
continues fixed in one part, but fometimes {hoots from
the fide to the fcapula on one hand, or to the fternum
and clavicle of the other.
Dr Cullen fuppofes that the difeafe is always feat-
ed, or at leaft begins, in fome part of the pleura, ta¬
king that membrane in its greateft extent, as now
commonly underftood; that is, as covering not only
the internal furface of the cavity of the thorax, but al¬
fo as forming the mediaftinum, and as extended over
the pericardium, and over the whole furface of the
Part II.
lungs. But as the fymptoms never clearly indicate P« act rcej
where the feat of the difeafe is, there is but little foun- ' ^
dation for the different names by which it hath been
diftinguilhed. The termpleurify is improperly limited
to that inflammation which begins in and chiefly af-
fe&s the pleura coftalis. This our author thinks is a
rare occurrence ; and that the_pneumonia much more
frequently begins in the pleura invefting the lungs,
producing all the fymptoms which belong to what
hath been called the pleuritis vera. The word perip-
neumony hath been applied to an inflammation begin¬
ning in the parenchyma, or cellular texture of the
lungs, and having its feat chiefly there. But to our
author it feems very doubtful if any acute inflamma¬
tion of thfUfngs, or any difeafe which hath been call¬
ed peripneumony, be of that kind. It feems probable,
that every acute inflammation begins in membranous
parts; and in every diffedtion of perfons dead of perip-
neumony, the external membrane of the lungs, or fome
part of the pleura, has appeared to have been confider-
ably affedted. An inflammation of the pleura cover¬
ing the upper furface of the diaphragm, has been di-
ftinguiftied by the appellation of paraphrenitis, as fup-
pofed to be attended with the peculiar fymptoms of de¬
lirium, rifus fardonicus, and other convulfive motions:
but it is certain, that an inflammation of that portion
of the pleura, and affedling alfo even the mufcularfub-
ftance of the diaphragm, has often taken place with¬
out any of the fymptoms abovementioned; and neither
the diffedlions which have fallen under our author’s ob-
fervation, nor any accounts of diffedlions, fupport the
opinion that an inflammation of the pleura covering
the diaphragm is attended with delirium more com¬
monly than any other pneumonic inflammation. It is
to be obferved, however, that though the inflamma¬
tion may begin in one particular part of the pleura,
the morbid affedtion is commonly communicated to the
whole extent of the membrane.
The pneumonic inflammation, like others, may ter¬
minate by refolution, fuppuration, or gangrene : but
it has alfo a termination peculiar to itfelf; namely,
when it is attended with an effufion of blood into the
cellular texture of the lungs, which, foon interrupting
the circulation of the blood through the vifcus, pro¬
duces a fatal fuffocation. This indeed appears to be
the moft. common termination of pneumonic inflamma¬
tion when it ends fatally ; for upon the diffediion of
almoft every perfon dead of this difeafe, it appears
that fuch-an effufion had happened. From the fame
diffedtions we learn, that pneumonic inflammation
commonly produces an exfudation from the internal fur¬
face of the pleura, which appears partly as a foft vif-
cid cruft, often of a compa<ft membranous form cover¬
ing every where the furface of the pleura, and parti¬
cularly thofe parts where the lungs adhere to the pleu¬
ra coftalis, or mediaftinum ; and this cruft feems al¬
ways to be the cement of fuch adhefion. The fame
exfudation ftiews itfelf alfo by a quantity of a ferous
fluid commonly found in the cavity of the thorax; and
fome exfudhtion or effufion is ufually found to have
been made into the cavity of the pericardium. It
feems likewife probable, that an effufion of this kind
is fometimes made into the cavity of the bronchiae ;
for, in fome perfons who have died after labouring
under a pneumonic inflammation for a few days only,
the
Ipart II. M E D I
iftRAcncE ttie broncViiae have been found filled with a confider-
2 able quantity of ferous and thickifti fluid, which muft
I be confidered rather as the effufion abovementioned,
having had its thinner parts taken off by refpiration,
than as a pus fo fuddenly formed in the inflamed part.
It is, however, not improbable, that this effufion, as
well as that made into the cavities of the thorax and
pericardium, may be a matter of the fame kind with
that which in other inflammations is poured into the
cellular texture of the parts inflamed, and there con¬
verted into pus ; but in the thorax and pericardium it
does not always put on this appearance, becaufe the
cruft covering the furface prevents the abforption of the
(thinner part. This abforption, however, may be
compenfated in the bronchiae, by the drying power of
the air; and therefore the effufion into them may af-
jj fume a more purulent appearance. In many cafes of
pneumonic inflammation, when the expe&oration is
very copious, it is difficult to fuppofe that the whole
proceeds from the mucous follicles of the bronchite,
and itfeems probable that a great part of it may come
from the effufed ferous fluid juft mentioned ; and this
too will account for the appearance of the expe&ora-
tion being fo often purulent. Perhaps the fame thing
will account for that purulent matter found in the
bronchise, which Mr de Haen fays he had often ob-
ferved when there was no ulceration in the lungs,
and which he accounts for in a very ftrange manner,
namely, by fuppofing a pus formed in the circulating
blood.
Dr Culkn is of opinion, that the effufion into the
bronchiae above-mentioned often concurs with the ef-
fufion of red blood into the cellular fubftance of the
lungs to occafion the fatal fuffocation which frequently
terminates peripneumony: that the effufion of ferum
alone may have this effedt: and that the ferum poured
out in a certain quantity, rather than any debility in
the powers of expe&oration, is the caufe of that ceffa-
tion of fpitting which precedes the fatal event; for in
many cafes the expe&oration has ceafed, when no other
fymptoms of debility have appeared, and when, upon
diffedtion, the bronchias have been full of liquid matter.
Nay, it is even probable, that in fome cafes fuch an
effufion may take place without any fymptoms of vio¬
lent inflammation ; and in other cafes the effufion ta¬
king place may feem to remove the fymptoms of in¬
flammation which had appeared before, and thus ac¬
count for thofe unexpeded fatal terminations which
have fometimes happened,
Pneumonic inflammation feldom terminates by refo-
hition, without being attended with fome evident eva¬
cuation. An haemorrhage from the nofe happening on
fome of the firft days of the difeafe has fometimes put
an end to it; and it is faid, that an evacuation from
the haemorrhoidal veins, a bilious evacuation by ftool,
and an evacuation of urine with a copious fediment,
have feverally had the fame effedl; but fuch occur¬
rences have been rare. The evacuation mod frequent¬
ly attending, and feeming to have the greateft effedt in
promoting refolution, is an expeftoration of a thick,
white, or yellowifh matter, a little ftreaked with blood,
copious, and brought up without much or violent
coughing. Very frequently the refolution of this dif¬
eafe is attended with, and perhaps produced by, a fweat
which is warm, fluid, copfous, over the whole body,
2
CINE. 4705
and attended with an abatement of the frequency of Pn aci ice
the pulfe, heat of the body, and other febrile fymp¬
toms.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjett to, the di/brder. The
remote caufe of pneumonic inflammation is commonly
cold applied to the body, obftrudling perfpiration, and
determining to the lungs, while at the fame time the
lungs themfelves are expofed to the adlion of cold.
Thefe circumftances operate chiefly when an inflamma¬
tory diathefis prevails in the fyftem; and therefore up¬
on perfons of the greateft vigour, in cold climates, in
the winter feafon, and particularly in the fpring, when
vicilfitudes of heat and cold are frequent. This difeafe,
however, may arife in any feafon when fuch varieties
take place. Other remote caufes alfo may have a (hare
in producing this diftemper; fuch as every means of
obftrutfting, ftrainfng, or otherwife injuring, the pneu¬
monic organs. The pneumonic inflammation has
fometimes been fo much an epidemic, that it hath been
fufpe&ed of depending on a fpecific contagion; but
Dr Cullen never met with an inftance of its being con¬
tagious.
Prognofs. In pneumonic inflammations, a violent
pyrexia is always dangerous. The danger, however,
is chiefly denoted by the difficulty of breathing. When
the patient can lie on one fide only ; when he can lie
on neither fide, but only on his back; when he cannot
breathe with tolerable eafe, except when the trunk
of his body is eredl; when even in this pollute the
breathing is very difficult, and attended with a turge-
fcence and flulhing of the face, with partial fweats
about the head and neck, and an irregular pulfe, thefe
circumftances mark the difficulty of breathing in dif¬
ferent degrees; and confequently, in proportion, the
danger of the difeafe. A frequent violent cough, ag¬
gravating the pain, is always the fymptom of an obfti-
nate difeafe; and as the difeafe is feldom or never refol-
ved without fome expe&oration, fo a dry cough mufl
always be an unfavourable fymptom.
The proper charadteriftics of the expedloration have
been already laid down; and though an expedloration
which hath not thefe marks muft indicate a doubtful
ftate of the difeafe, yet the colour alone can give no
certain prognoftic. An acute pain, very much inter¬
rupting infpiration, is always the mark of a violent dif¬
eafe; but not of a more dangerous difeafe than an ob-
tufe pain attended with very difficult refpiration.
When the pains, which had at firft affected one fide
only, lhall afterwards fpread into the other; or when,
leaving the fide firft affefted, they pafs entirely into the
other; thefe are always marks of a dangerous difeafe.
A delirium coming on during a pneumonic inflamma¬
tion is always a fymptom denoting much danger.
When pneumonic diforders terminate fatally, it is
on one or other of the days of the firft week, from the
third to the feventh. This is the moft common cafe; .
but, in a few inftances, death has happened at a later
period. When the difeafe is violent, but admitting of
refolution, this alfo happens frequently in the courie of
the firft week ; but in a more moderate difeafe the re¬
folution is often put off to the fecond week. The dif¬
eafe generally fuffers a remiflion on fome of the days
from the third to the feventh : which, however, may
be often fallacious, as the difeafe fometimes returns
again with as much violence as before; and in fuch a
26 P 2 cafe
4706
Practicf
M E D I
cafe with great danger. Sometimes it difappears on
the third day, while an eryfipelas makes its appearance
on fome external part; and if this continues fixed, the
pneumonic inflammation does not recur. If the difeafe
continues beyond the 14th day, it will terminate in a
fuppuration, or Phthisis. The termination by gan¬
grene is much more rare than has been imagined: and
when it does occur, it is ufually joined with the termi¬
nation by effufion ; the fymptoms of the one being
hardly diftinguiihable from thofe of the other.
Cure. This mull proceed upon the general plan
mentioned under Synocha ; but, on account of the im¬
portance of the part aflfe&ed, the remedies muft be em¬
ployed early, and as fully as poffible. Venefe&ion is
chiefly to be depended on; and may be done in either
arm, as the furgeon finds irioft convenient; and the
quantity taken away ought in general to be as large
as the patient’s ftrength will allow. The remiflion of
pain, and the relief of refpiration, during the flowing of
the blood, may limit the quantity to be then drawn;
but if thefe fymptoms of relief do not appear, the
bleeding ftiould be continued till the fymptoms of a
beginning fyncope come on. It is feldom that one
bleeding, however large, will cure this difeafe; and
though the pain and difficulty of breathing may be
much relieved by the firft bleeding, thefe fymptoms
commonly and after no long interval recur, often
with as much violence as before. In this cafe the bleed¬
ing is to be repeated even on the fame day, and per¬
haps to the fame quantity as before. Sometimes the
fecond bleeding may be larger than the firft. There
are perfons who, by their conftitution, are ready to
faint even upon a fmall bleeding; and in fuch perfons
this may prevent the drawing fo much blood at firft as
a pneumonic inflammation may require: but as the
fame perfons are found to bear after-bleedings better
than the firft, this allows the fecond and fubfequent
bleedings to be larger, and to fuch a quantity as the
fymptoms of the difeafe may feem to require.
Bleedings are to be repeated according to the ftate
of the fymptoms, and they will be more effeftual when
praftifed in the courfe of the firft three days than af¬
terwards j but they are not to be omitted though four
days of the difeafe may already have elapfed. If the
phyfician has not been called in time, or the firft bleed¬
ings have not been fufficiently large, or even though
they fhould have procured fome remiffion, yet upon the
return of the urgent fymptoms, bleeding may be re¬
peated at any time within the firft fortnight, or even af¬
ter that period, if a fuppuration be not evident, or if
after a feeming folution the difeafe (hall have returned.
With refpect to the quantity of blood which may
be taken away with fafety, no general rules can be gi¬
ven; as it muft be very different according to the ftate
of the difeafe, and the conftitution of the patient. In
an adult male of tolerable ftrength, a pound avoirdu¬
pois of blood is a full bleeding. Any quantity above
20 ounces is a large, and any quantity below 12 is a
fmall, bleeding. An evacuation of four or five pounds,
in the courfe of two or three days, is generally as much
as fuch patients will bear; but if the intervals between
the bleedings, and the whole of the time during which
the bleedings hav£ been employed, have been long, the
quantity taken upon the whole may be greater.
When a large quantity of blood hath been taken
CINE. Part
from the arm, and it is doubtful if more can be taken Px
in that manner with fafety, fome blood may ftill be'-”’
taken by cupping and fcarifying. This will efpecially
be proper, when the recurrence of the pain, rather than
the difficulty of breathing, becomes the urgent fymp-
tom; and then the cupping and fcarification (hould be
made as near as poffible to the pained part.
An expedloration fometimes takes place very early
in this difeafe; but if the fymptoms continue urgent,
the bleedings muft be repeated notwithilanding the ex¬
pectoration: but in a more advanced ftate, and when
the fymptoms have fuffered a confiderable remiffion, we
may then truft the cure to the expedtoration alone. It
is not obferved that bleeding, during the firft days of
the difeafe, (tops expedtoration ; on the contrary, it
hath been often found to promote it; and it is only in
a more advanced ftate of the difeafe, when the patient
has been already exhaufted by large evacuations and a
continuance of his illnefs, that bleeding feems to put
a flop to expedtoration ; and even then, this ftoppage
feems not to take place fo much from the powers of
expedtoration being weakened by bleeding, as by its
favouring the ferous effufion in the brpncbiae, already
taken notice of.
Befides bleeding, every part of the antiphlogiftic re¬
gimen ought here to be carefully employed : the pa¬
tient muft keep out of bed as much as he can bear j
muft have plenty of warm diluting drinks, impregna¬
ted with vegetable acids, accompanied with nitre or
fome other cooling neutral fait ; and the belly alfo
ought to be kept open by emollient glyfters or cool¬
ing laxative medicines. Vomiting is dangerous; but
it hath been found ufeful to exhibit emetics in naufea-
ting dofes, and in a fomewhat advanced ftate of the
difeafe thefe dofes have been found the beft means of
promoting expedloration. Fomentations and poultices
to the pained part have been found ufeful; but blifter-
ing is found to be much more effectual. A blifter,
however, ought not to be applied till at leaft one bleed¬
ing hath been premifed, as venefedtion is lefs effedhia!
when the irritation of a blifter is prefent. If the dif¬
eafe is moderate, a blifter may be applied immediately
after the firft bleeding ; but in violent cafes, where it
may be prefumed that a fecond bleeding may foon be
neceffary after the firft, it will be proper to delay
the blifter till after the fecond bleeding, when it may
be fuppofed that the irritation occafioned by the blifter
will be over before another bleeding becomes neceffary.
It may frequently be of ufe in this difeafe to repeat
the bliftering ; and in that cafe the plafters (hould al¬
ways be applied fomewhere on the thorax, for when
applied to more diftant parts they have little effedt.
The keeping the bliftered parts open, and making what
is called a perpetual blifter, has much lefs effedl than a
frefti bliftering.
Many methods have been propofed for promoting
expedloration, but none appear to be fufficiently ef-
fedtual; and fome of them, being acrid ftimulant fub-
ftances, are not very fafe. The gums ufually em¬
ployed feem to be too heating: the fquills lefs fo; but
they are not very powerful, and fometimes inconve¬
nient, by the conftant naufea they occafion. The vo¬
latile alkali may be of fervice as an expedlorant, but
it ought to be referved for an advanced ftate of the
difeafe. Mucilaginous and oily demulcents appear to
part IT. MEDI
It act ic>; be ’nfefuls by allBylng that acrimony of the mucus
' which occafions too frequent coughing ; and which
coughing prevents the ({agnation and thickening of
the mucus, and thereby its becoming mild. The re*
ceiving the (learns of warm water into the lungs, im¬
pregnated with vinegar, has often proved, ufeful in
promoting expeftoration ; and, for this purpofe, the
machine called the inhaler, lately invented by Mr
Mudge furgeon at Plymouth, promifes to be of great
See In’ fervice*. But of all others, the antimonial emetics,
i Sr' given in naufeating dofes, promife to be the moll
powerful for promoting expedloration. The kermes
mineral hath been greatly recommended ; but doth
not feem to be more efficacious than emetic tartar
or antimonial wine; and the dofe of the kermes
is much more uncertain than that of the others.
Though this difeafe often terminates by a fponta-
neous fweating, this evacuation ought not to be ex¬
cited by art, unlefs with much caution. When, after
fome'remiffion of the fymptoms, fpontaneous fweats
arife, they may be encouraged ; but it ought to be
without much beat, and without ftimulant medicines.
If, however, the fweats be partial and clammy only,
and a great difficulty of breathing ftill remain, it will
be very dangerous to encourage them.
Phyficians have differed much with regard to the
ufe of opiates in pneumonic affections. It appears,
however, that, in the beginning of the difeafe, and
before bleeding and bliftering have produced fome
remiffion of the pain and of the difficulty of breath¬
ing, opiates have a very bad tendency, by their in-
creafing the difficulty of breathing and other inflam¬
matory fymptoms. But in a more advanced date of
the difeafe, when the difficulty of breathing has abated,
and when the urgent fymptom is a cough, proving the
chief caufe of the continuance of pain and want of
reft, opiates may be employed with great advantage
and fafety. The interruption of the expe&oration
which they feem to occafion, is for a fhort time only;
and they feem often to promote it, as they occafion a
ftagnation of what was by frequent coughing diffi-
pated infenfibly: and therefore give the appearance of
what phyficians have called concofted matter.
291 XLII. Vomica, ox Abfcefi oi tixz Lungs.
Vomica, Boerh, 835. Junck. 35.
Pleurodync vomica, Sauv. fp. 21.
This fometimes follows pneumonia, though the cafe
is not frequent. The fymptoms of it fo much referable
the phthifis, that it can moft properly be treated of
under that head.
292 XLIII. Empyema.
This is another confequence of a pneumonia termi¬
nating unfavourably, and is occafioned by the effufion
of a quantity of purulent matter into the cavity of the
thorax, occafioning a lingering and painful diforder,
very often incurable.
Defcription. The firft fign of an empyema is a
ceffation of the pain in the bread, which before was
continual: this is followed by a fenfation of weight
on the diaphragm ^ and a fiuftuation of matter, fome¬
times making a noife that may be heard by the by-
ftandcrs: the acute fever is changed into ahe&ic, with
an exacerbation at night: a continual andtroublefome
CINE. _ _ 47o7
dry cough remains. The refpiration is exceedingly Practice
difficult, becaufe the lungs are prevented by the mat-—'"
ter from fully expanding themfelves. The patient
can lie eafily on that fide where the matter is efftifed,
but not on the other, becaufe then the weight of the
matter on the mediaftimim produces uneafinefs. The
more the hesftic heat is augmented, the more is the
body emaciated, and its ftrength decayed. In fome
there is danger of fuffocation when they (loop down,
which goes off when they alter that pofture of the
body ; and in fome there is a purulent fpitting.—
Thefe fymptoms are accompanied with great anxiety,
palpitations of the heart, and faintings. Sometimes
the patients have a fenfation like a hot vapour afcend-
ing from the cavity of the thorax to their mouth. Others,
in a more advanced (late of the difeafe, have aputridtafte
in the mouth. At the fame time, profufe night-fweats
wafte the body, and greatly weaken the patients. The
face at firft grows red on that fide where the matter lies,
though fometimes there are only phlogofes; at lall the
Hippocratic face comes on, and the eyes become hollow.
The pulfe, efpecially on the affefled fide, is quick,
but more frequently intermitting. Sometimes the
nails are crooked, and puftules appear on the thorax j
and frequently, according to the teftimony of Hip¬
pocrates, the feet fwell, and, on the affedled fide of the
bread, there is an inflation and fwelling of the (kin.
Caufes, &c. An empyema may arife either from
the burfting of a vomica of the lungs, or from a fup-
puration taking place after the inflammatory ftage of
the pneumonia; or fometimes from a fuppuration in
the cafe of a quinfy, when the inflammation had ex¬
tended to the afpera arteria, from whence arifes a
kind of bloody fpittle, and the patients are afflicled
with an empyema, unlefs they die on the 7th day of
the difeafe, according to the obfervation of Hippo¬
crates. It may arife alfo from external violence, as
wounds of the thorax, &c. blood extravafated, cor¬
rupted, or changed with pus. Like the vomica, it is
a rare diftemper, but may attack all thofe fubjetl to
pneumonia.
Prognofss. Very few recover after an empyema
hath been once formed, efpecially if the operation of
paracentefis hath been negle&ed. After this opera¬
tion is performed, if a great quantity of bloody fetid
pus isdifcharged,if the fever continues, and if the patient
fpits up a purulent, pale, frothy, livid, or green mat¬
ter, with a decay of ftrength, there is no hope. But
when a fmall quantity of pus, of a white colour, not
very fetid, is difcharged ; when the fever and thirit
prefently ceafe, the appetite returns, and faeces of &
good confidence are difcharged, the ftrength; alfo re¬
turning in fome degree; there is then hope of a per¬
fect recovery. If the matter is not dried up in feven
weeks time, the difeafe readily changes to a fiftulous.
ulcer^ which is very difficult to cure. An empyema*
affedling both fides of the thorax, is more dangerous
than that which affedts only one.
Cure. This conlifts in evacuating the purulent
matter contained in the cavity of the thorax, which is
bed done by the operation of paracentefis. See the
article Surgery. Afterwards the ulcer is to be
treated with abftergent and confolidating medicines,,
and the fame internal ones are to be given as in a
Phthisis*
XL IV-
47°8
Practici
~293~
2M
295
296
297
M E D I
- XLIV. CARDITIS, or Inflammation of the Heart.
Gen. XIII.
Carditis, Sauv. gen. III. Vog. 54.
Pericarditis, Vog. 53.
Carditis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac. Traite de
Cceur, lib. iv. chap. 7. Meckel, Mem. de Berlin,
1756-
Tryfipelas pulmonis, Lomm. Obferv. lib. ii.
Defcription. This difeafe is attended with all the
fymptoms of pneumonia, but in a higher degree; it
is befides faid to be accompanied with hydrophobic
fymptoms, fainting, palpitation of the heart, a feem-
ing madnefs, funk and irregular pulfe, watery eyes,
and a dejefted countenance, with a dry and black
tongue. On difle&ion, the heart and pericardium are
found very much inflamed, and even ulcerated, with
many polypous concretions.
Caufes, &c. The fame as in the pneumonia.
Prognojis. In the carditis the prognofis is more
unfavourable than in the pneumonia; and indeed, un-
lefs the difeafe very quickly terminates, it muft prove
fatal, on account of the conftant and violent motion of
the heart, which exafperates the inflammation, and in-
creafes all the fymptoms.
Cure. Here bleeding is neceflary in as great a
degree as the patient can poflibly bear, together with
bliftering, and the antiphlogiftic regimen likewife
carried to a greater height than in the pneumonia ;
but the general method is the fame as in other inflam¬
matory difeafes.
Genus XIV. PERITONITIS, or Inflammation
of the Peritonaeum.
XLV. biflammation of the Peritonaeum properly
fo called. Sp. I.
Peritonitis, Vog. 62. Lieutad. Hift. anat. med.
lib. i. obf. 3. Raygerus apud eund. lib. i. obf. 341.
Morgagn. de fed. LVII. 20.
XLVI. Inflammation of the Peritonaeum extended
over the Ome?itum. Sp. II.
Epiploitis, Sauv. gen. 106. Sag. gen. 308.
Omentitis, Vog. 61.
Omenti inflammatio, Boerh. 938. et 111. Van Sivie-
ten. Comm. Stork. An. Med. I. 132. Hulme on
the puerperal fever.
XLV 11. Inflammation of the Peritonaeum ftretched
over the mefentery. Sp. III.
Mefenteritis, Vog. 60.
Enteritis mefenterica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Genus XV. GASTRITIS, or Inflammation of the
Stomach.
XLVIII. The Gastritis. A.
Gaftritis legitima, Sauv. fp. 1. Eller, de cogn. et
cur. morb. feft. xii. Haller, pbf. 14. hift. 3.
Lieut. Hift. anat. Med. lib. i. 74.
Gaftritis eryfipelatofa, Sauv. fp. 4.
Cardialgia inflammatoria, Sauv. fp. 13. Tralles, de
opio, fed. ii. p. 231.
These difeafes Dr Cullen hath thought proper to
CINE. Part II.
confider all under the general head of Gastritis, as Practic
there are no certain figns by which they may bediftin-
guifhed from each other, and the method of cure muft
be the fame in all.
Defcription. The inflammation of the ftomach is
attended with great heat and pain in the epigaftric
region, extreme anxiety, an almoft continual and pain¬
ful hickup, with a moft painful vomiting of every
thing taken into the ftomach. Sometimes a temporary
madnefs enfues ; and there is an inftance in the
Edinburgh Medical Eflays of the diforder being
attended with an hydrophobia. The pulfe is generally
more funk than in other inflammations, and the fever
inclines to the nature of a typhus. The diforder is
commonly of the remitting kind, and during the re-
miflions the pulfe frequently intermits. During the
height of the difeafe, a mortal phrenay frequently
fupervenes. The difeafe terminates on the fourth,
feventh, ninth day, or from the eleventh to the fifteenth;
and is more apt to end in a gangrene than pneumonic
inflammations, and more frequently in a fcirrhus than
in an abfcefs.
Caufes, &c. The inflammation of the ftomach
may arife from any acrid fubftance taken into it; from
a vehement paffion ; too large draughts of cold liquor,
efpecially when the perfon is very hot; from a furfeit;
a ftoppage of perfpiration ; repulfion of the gout;
opiates; inflammations of the neighbouring vifcera ;
or from external injuries, fuch as wounds, contufions,
&c.— It affects chiefly thofe of a plethoric habit, and
hot bilious conftitution.
Prognojis. This difeafe is always very dangerous,
and the prognofis doubtful, which alfo muft always be
in proportion to the feverity of the fymptoms. A
ceffation of pain, coldnefs about the prsecordia, great
debility, with a languid and intermitting pulfe, with
an abatement of the hickup, denote a gangrene and
fpeedy death. From the fenfibility of the ftomach
alfo, and its great connexion with the reft of the
fyftem, it muft be obvious, that an inflammation of it,
by whatever caufes produced, may be attended with
fatal confequences; particularly by the great debility
it produces it may prove fuddenly fatal, without run¬
ning through the ufual courfe of inflammations.—Its
tendency to admit of refolution may be known by its
having arifen from no violent caufe, by the moderate
ftate of the fymptoms, and by a gradual remiflion of
thefe fymptoms in the courfe of the firft or at moft of
the fecond week of the difeafe. The tendency to
gangrene may be fufpe&ed from the fymptoms con¬
tinuing with unremitting violence notwithftanding the
ufe of proper remedies, and a gangrene already begun
may be known by the fymptoms above-mentioned.
The tendency to fuppuration may be known by the
fymptoms continuing but in a moderate degree for
more than one or two weeks, and by a confiderable
remiflion of the pain while a fenfe of weight and an
anxiety (till remain. When an abfcefs has been
formed, the frequency of the pulfe is at firft abated :
but foon after it increafes with frequent cold (hiver-
ings, and an exacerbation in the afternoon and even¬
ing ; followed by night-fweats, and other fymptoms
of heftic fever. Thefe at length prove fatal, unlefs
the abfcefs open into the cavity of the ftomach, the
pus
iPart II.
ar act ice pus be evacuated by vomiting, and the ulcer foon
healed.
Cure, It appears from difleftions, that the ftomach
may very often be inflamed when the charafteriftic
marks of it have not appeared ; and therefore we
cannot lay down any general rules for the cure of this
difeafe. When the fymptoms appear in the manner
above defcribed, the cure is to be attempted by large
and repeated bleedings employed early in the difeafe;
and from thefe we are not to be deterred by the
weaknefs of the pulfe, for it has commonly become
fuller and fofter after the operation. A blifter ought
alfo to be applied to the region of the ftomach ; and
the cure will be affifted by fomentations of the whole
abdomen, and by frequent emollient and laxative
glyfters. The irritability of the ftomach in this
difeafe will admit of no medicines being thrown into
it; and if any can be fuppofed neceffary, they muft
be exhibited in glyfters. Diluting drinks may be
tried ; but they muft be of the very mildeft kind, and
given in very fmall quantities at a time. Opiates, in
whatever manner exhibited, are very hurtful during
the firft days of the difeafe ; but when the violence of
the difeafe lhall have abated, and when the pain and
vomiting recur at intervals onlyi opiates given in
glyfters may frequently be imployed with advantage.
A tendency to gangrene in this difeafe is to be
obviated only by the means juft now mentioned ;
and when it does aftually fupervene, it admits of
no remedy. A tendency to fuppuration is to be
obviated by the fame means employed early in the
difeafe. After a certain period it cannot be prevent¬
ed by any means whatever j and, whefi aftually begun,
muft be left to nature; the only thing that can be
done by art being to avoid all irritation.
XLIX. The Eryfipelatous Gastritis. B.
Defcription. This fpecies of inflammation takes
place in the ftomach much more frequently than the
former. From difleftions it appears that the ftomach
has been often affe&ed with inflammation, when
neither pain nor fever had given any notice of it ; and
fuch is juftly looked upon to have been of the eryfipe¬
latous kind* This kind of inflammation alfo is efpe-
cially to be expected from acrimony of any kind ap-
plied to the ftomach ; and would certainly occur much
more frequently, were not the interior furface of this
organ commonly defended by mucus exfuding in large
quantity from the numerous follicles placed immedi¬
ately under the villous coat. Oh many occafions,
however, the exfudation of mucus is prevented, or the
liquid poured out is of a lefs vifcid kind, fo as to be
lefs fitted to defend the fubjacent nerves ; and it is in
fuch cafes that acrid matters may readily produce an
eryfipelatous affe&ion of the ftomach.
In many cafes, however, this kind of inflammation
cannot be difcovered, as it takes place without pain,
pyrexia, or vomiting: but in fome cafes it may;
namely, when it fpreads into the oefophagus, and ap¬
pears on the pharynx and on the whole internal fur-
face of the mouth. When therefore an eryfipelatous
inflammation affefts the mouth and fauces, and there
lhall be at the fame time in the ftomach an unufoal
fenfibility to all acrids, and alfo a frequent vomiting,
there can be little doubt of the ftomach’s being affec-
47°9
ted in the fame manner. Even when no inflammation Practics
appears in the fauces, if fome degree of pain be felt""
in the ftomach, if there be a want of appetite, an
anxiety and frequent vomiting, an unufual fenfibility
with regard to acrids, fome thirft, and frequency of
pulfe, there will then be room to fufpeft an inflamma¬
tion in the ftomaeh ; and fuch fymptoms, after fome
time, have been known to difcover their caufe by the
inflammation arifing in the fauces or mouth. Inflam¬
mation of this kind is often difpofed to pafs from one
place to another on the fame furface, and, in doing fo,
to leave the place it had at firft occupied. Such an
inflammation hath been known to fpread fucceffively
along the whole length of the alimentary canal ; occa-
fioning, when in the inteftines, diarrhoea, and in the
ftomach vomitings; the diarrhoea ceafing when the
vomitings came on, and the vomitings on the coming
on of the diarrhoea.
Caufesy &c. An eryfipelatous inflammation may
arife from acrid matters taken into the ftomach ; or
from fome internal caufes not yet well known. It
frequently occurs in putrid difeafes, and in thofe re¬
covering from fevers.
Cure. When the difeafe is occafioned by acrid
matters taken internally, and thefe may be fuppofed
ftill prefent in the ftomach, they are to be waftied out
by drinking a large quantity of warm and mild medi¬
cines, and exciting vomiting. At the fame time, if
the nature of the acrimony, and its proper correftor
be known, this ftiould be thrown in or if a fpecific
corre&or be not known, fome general demulcents
fliould be employed.
Thefe meafures, however, are more foiled to pre¬
vent, than to cure inflammation after it has taken place.
When this laft may be foppofed to have happened, if
it be attended with a fenfe of heat, with pain and py¬
rexia, according to the degree of thefe fymptoms, the
meafores propofed for the cure of the other kind are
to be more or lefs employed. When an eryfipelatous
inflammation of the ftomach hath arifen from internal
caufes, if pain and pyrexia occur, bleeding may be em¬
ployed in perfons not otherwife weakened ; but in cafe
of its occurring in putrid difeafes, or where the pa¬
tients are already debilitated, bleeding is inadmifiible?
all that can be done being to avoid irritation, and only
throwing into the ftomach what quantity of acids and
acefcent aliments it fliall be found able to bear. In
fome conditions of the body in which this difeafe is apt
to occur, the Peruvian bark and bitters may feem to
be indicated; but, an eryfipelatous ftate of the ftomach
will feldom allow them to be ufed.
Genus XIV. ENTERITIS, or Inflammation o£ the
Intestines.
Enteritis, Sauv, gen. 105. Lin. 29. Vog. 57. Sagi
gen. 307.
Inteftinorum inflammatio, Boerh. 959.
Febris inteftinorum inflammatoria ex mefenterioj,
Hoffm. II. 170.
L. The Acute Enteritis. 2
Enteritis Wizca, Sauv. fp. 1.
Enteritis colica, Sauv. fp. 2. Boerh. 963.
Deflcription. This difeafe fliews itfelf by a fixed pain
in
M E D I C T N E.
4710
Practice
300
301
M E D I
in the abdomen, attended with fever, vomiting, and co-
-ftivenefs. The pain is often felt in different parts of
the abdomen, but more frequently fpreads over the
whole, and is particularly violent about the navel.
Caufst, See. Inflammations of the inteftines may
arife from the fame caufes as thofe of the ftomach;
though commonly the former will more readily occur
from cold applied to the lower extremities, or to the
belly itfelf. It is alfo found fupervening on the fpaf-
modic colic, incarcerated hernia, and volvulus.
Prognofis. Inflammations of the inteftines have the
fame terminations with thofe of the ftomach, and the
prognofis in both cafes is much the fame.
Cure. The cure of enteritis is in general the fame
with that of gaftritis: but in the former there is com¬
monly more accefs to the introdu&ion of liquids, of
acid, acefcent, and other cooling remedies, and even of
laxatives; but as a vomiting frequently attends the en¬
teritis, care muft be taken not to excite that vomiting
by the quantity or quality of any thing thrown into
the ftpmach. With regard to the fuppuration and gan¬
grene of the inteftines following the enteritis, the fame
thing is to be underftood as is mentioned under the Ga¬
stritis.
LI. Eryfipetalous Enteritis.
Concerning this nothing farther can be faid, than
what hath been already delivered concerning the ga-
ftritis.
LII. HEPATITIS, or Inflammation of the Liver.
Genus XVII.
Hepatitis, Sauv. gen. 113. Lin. 35. Vog. 58. Sag.
gen. 312. Boerh. 914. Hoffm. II. 14. Junck.
66.
Defcription. The inflammation of the liver is
thought to be of two kinds, acute and chronic: but
the latter very often does not difeover itfelf except by
an abfeefs found in the liver after death, and which is
fuppofed to have been occafioned by fome degree of
inflammation; for this reafon the chronic inflammation
cannot be deferibed, and we fliall here only treat of the
acute hepatitis.
The acute hepatitis is attended with confiderable fe¬
ver; a frequent, ftrong, and hard pulfe; high colour¬
ed urine; an acute pain in the right hypochondrium,
increafed by preffing upon the part. The pain is very
often in fuch a part of the fide as to make it appear
like a pleurify; and frequently, like that, is increafed
on infpiration. The difeafe is alfo commonly attended
with a cough, which is generally dry, but fometimes
moift; and when the pain thus refembles a pleurify, the
patient cannot lie eafily except upon the fide affedled.
The pain is frequently extended to the clavicle, and to
the top of the fhoulder; and is attended fometimes
with hickup, and fometimes with vomiting. Some have
added jaundice, or a yellownefs of the eyes, to the
fymptoms of this diftemper; but experience ftiewsthat
it hath often occurred without any fuch fymptom.
Caufes, Sic. The remote caufes of hepatitis are not
always to be difeerned, and many have been afligned
on a very uncertain foundation. It has been fuppofed
that the difeafe may be an affc&ion either of the ex¬
tremities of the hepatic artery, or thofe of the vena
CINE. Part g
portarum; but of the laft there is no proof, nor is the cractjci
fuppofition at all probable. The acute hepatjtis feems —
rather to be an affeftion of the external membrane of
the liver, and the chronic kind to be an affeftion of the
parenchyma of that vifeus. The acute difeafe may be
feated either on the convex or concave furface of the
liver; and in the former cafe a more pungent pain and
hickup may be produced, and the refpiration is more
confiderably affefted. In the latter there occurs left
pain; and a vomiting is produced, commonly by fome
inflammation communicated to the ftomach. The in¬
flammation on the concave furface of the liver, may be
readily communicated to the gall-bladder and biliary
dufts: and this, perhaps, is the only cafe of idiopathic
hepatitis attended with jaundice.
Prognofis. The inflammation of the liver, like
others, may end by refolution, fuppuration, or gan¬
grene ; and the tendency to the one or to the other of
thofe events may be known from what has been al¬
ready mentioned concerning the prognofis in gaftritis.
The refolution of hepatitis is often the confequence of,
or is attended with, evacuations of different kinds. A
haemorrhage, fometimes from the nofe, and fometimes
from the haemorrhoidal veffels, gives a folution of the
difeafe. Sometimes the fame thing is accomplifhed by
a bilious diarrhoea; and fometimes the refolntion is
attended with fweating, and an evacuation of urine
depofiting a copious fediment. Sometimes it may be
cured by an eryfipelas appearing in fome external part.
When the difeafe hath ended in fuppuration, the pus
collefted may be difeharged by the biliary dufts; or,
if the fuppurated part does not adhere any where
clofely to the neighbouring parts, into the cavity of
the abdomen : but if, during the firft ftate of inflam¬
mation, the affefted part of the liver (hall have formed
a clofe adhefion to fome of the neighbouring parts, the
difeharge after fuppuration may be various, according
to the different feat of the abfeefs. When feated on
the convex part of the liver, if the adhefion be to the
peritonaeum lining the common teguments, the pus
may make its way through thefe, and be difeharged
outwardly : or if the adhefion fliall have been to the
diaphragm, the pus may penetrate through this, and
into the cavity of the lungs ; from whence it may be
difeharged by coughing. When the abfeefs is feated
on the concave part of the liver, in confequence of ad-
hefions, the pus may be difeharged into the ftomach
or inteftines ; and into thefe laft, either direftly, or
by the intervention of the bijiary dufts. Upon a
confideration of all thefe different circumftances there¬
fore, together with the general principles of inflam¬
mation, muft the prognofis of this difeafe be efta-
bliflied.
Cure. For the cure of hepatitis, we muft have re-
courfe to the general means of removing other inflam¬
matory diforders. Bleeding is to be ufed according
to the degree of fever and pain. Blifters are to be
applied: fomentations of the external parts, emollient
glyfters, gentle laxatives, diluents and refrigerants,
are alfo ufeful. But when a fuppuration has been
formed, and the abfeefs points outwardly, the part
muft be opened, the pus evacuated, and the ulcer heal¬
ed according to the ordinary methods in ufe for heal¬
ing abfeeffes and ulcers in other parts.
m art II, MED)
: !:A-CT!- LII. SPLENITIS, or Inflammation of the Spleen.
■IP3 Genus XVIII.
Sple-nitis, Sauv. gen. 114. Lin. 36. Vog. 59.
Junck. 67. Sag. gen. 313.
Lien is inflammatio, Boerh. 958. k III. Van Sfloieten
Comm.
Splenitis phlegtnonoda*a, Sauv. fp. 1. Forejl, 1. xx.
obf. 5. 6. De Haen, apud Van Swieten, p. 958.
Pleuritis fplenica, Sauv. fp. 19.
Splenalgia fuppuratio, Sauv. fp. 3.
Defcriptiou. This difeafe, according to yuiicker,
comes on with a remarkable fhivering, Succeeded by a
moil intenfe heat and very great third ; a pain and
tumour are perceived in the left hypochondrium, and
the paroxyfms for the mod part affume a quartan
form. When the patients expofe themfelves for a little
to the free air, their extremities immediately grow very
cold. If an hsemorrhage happens, the blood flows out
of the left nodril. The other fymptoms are the fame
with thofe of the hepatitis. Like the liver, it is alfo
fubjeft to a chronic inflammation, which often happens
after agues, and is commonly called the ague cake.
Caufles, See. The caufes of this didemper are in
general the fame with thofe of other inflammatory dif-
I orders ; but thofe which determine the inflammation to
that particular part more than another, are very much
unknown. It attacks perfons of a very plethoric and
fanguine habit of body rather than others.
Progmfis. What hath been faid of the inflammation
of the liver applies 4tlfo to that of the fpleen, tho’ the
latter is lefs dangerous than the former. Here alfo a
vomiting of black matter, which in other acute dif-
eafes is fuch a fatal omen, fometimes proves critical,
according to the tedimony of Juncker. Sometimes the
haemorrhoids prove critical; but very often the inflam¬
mation terminates by feirrhus.
Cure. This is not at all different from what hath
been already laid down concerning the hepatitis.
Genus XIX. NEPHRITIS, or Inflammation of
the Kidneys.
! 304 Nephritis, Sauv. gen. 115. Lin. $7. Vog. 6$.
Sag. gen, 314.
LIU. The Nephritis.
Nephritis vera, Sauv. fp. 1.
Defcription. The nephritis has the fame fymptoms
in common with other inflammations; but its didin-
guifliing mark is the pain in the region of the kidney,
which is fometimes obtufe, but fometimes pungent.
The pain is. not increafed by the motion of the trunk
of the body fo much as a pain of the rheumatic kind
affefting the fame region. It may alfo frequently be
didinguifhed by its diooting along the courfe of the
ureter, and is frequently attended with .a drawing up
of the tedicle, and a numbnefs of the limb on the fide
sffe&ed; though indeed thefe fymptoms mod com¬
monly attend the inflammation arifing from a calculus
in the kidney or ureter. The difeafe is alfo attended
with frequent vomiting, and often with codivenefs and
colic pains. The urine is mod commonly of a deep
red .colour, and is voided frequently and in a fmall
quantity at a time. In more violent cafes the urine is
Vol.VI. 1
[CINE. 4711
Comrnotily colourlefs. Practice
Caufes, &c. The remote caufes of this difeafe 
may be various ; as external contufion, violent or long-
continued riding ; drains of the mufcles of the back-
incumbent on the kidneys; various acrids in the courfe
of circulation conveyed to the kidney ; and perhaps
fome other internal caufes not yet well known : the
mod frequent is that of calculous matter obdru&ing
the tubnli utiniferi, or calculi formed in the pelvis of
the kidneys, and either flicking ther or fallen into
the ureter.
Prognojis. This is not different from that of other
inflammatory difeafes.
Cure. This is to be attempted by bleeding, exter¬
nal fomentation, frequent emollient glyders, antiphlo-
giflic purgatives, and by the free ufe of mild and de¬
mulcent liquids. The ufe of bliders is fcarce admilfible,
or at lead will require great care to avoid any confide-
rable abforption of the cantharides.
The other fpecies of nephritis enumerated by au¬
thors are only fymptomatic.
Genus XX. CYSTITIS, or Inflammation of the
Bladder.
Cyditis, Sauv. gen. 108. Lin. 31. Vog. 66.
Sag. gen. 309.
Inflammatio veficae, Hoffm. II. 157.
LIV. The Cystitis from Internal Caufles. 305
Cyditis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 1.
LV. The Cystitis irora External Caufles. 306
Cyditis a cantharidibus, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cyditis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 3.
The inflammation of the bladder from internal caufes
is a very rare didemper ; and when it does at any time
occur, is to be cured in the fame manner with other in¬
flammations, avoiding only the ufe of cantharides.
When the difeafe arifes from the internal ufe of thefe
flies, camphire is recommended, befides other cool¬
ing medicines, and particularly cooling and emollient
glyflers.
LVI. Hysteritis, or Inflammation of the Uterus. 307
Genus XXL
Hyderitis, Lin. 38. Vog. 63.
Metritis, Sauv. gtn. 107. Sag. gen. 313’.
Inflammatio et febris uterina, Hoflflm. II. 156.
Dcfcription. This difeafe is often confounded with
that called the puerperal or child-bed fever; but is very
effentially didinft from it, as will be fhown in its
proper place. The inflammation of the uterus is of¬
ten apt to terminate by gangrene: there is a pain
in the head, with delirium; and the uterine re¬
gion is fo exceedingly tender, that it cannot bear the
mod gentle preffure without intolerable pain. When
the fundus uteri is inflamed, there is great heat, throb¬
bing, and pain, above the pubes ; if its poderior part,
the pain is more confined to the loins and reftum, with
a tenefmus; if its anterior part, it fhoots from thence
towards the neck of the bladder, and is attended with
a frequent irritation to make water, which is void¬
ed with difficulty; and if its fides or the ovaria are
affefted, the pains will then dart into the irtlide of the
thighs.
26 Caufesi
4712
Practice
308
3°9
310
3”
312
M E D I
Canfes, See. Inflammations of the uterus, and in¬
deed of the reft of the abdominal vifeera, are very apt
to take place in lying-in women ; the reafon of which
feems to be the fudden change produced in the habit,
and an alteration in the courfe of the circulating
blood by the contra&ion of the uterus after delivery.
The preffure of the gravid uterus being fuddenly taken
off from the aorta defeendem after delivery, the refift-
ance to the impulfe of the blood paffing through all
the veflels derived from it, and diftributed to the con¬
tiguous vifeera, will be conitderably leflened: it will
therefore rufh into thofe veffels with a force fuperior
to their refiftance; and, by putting them violently on
the ftretch, may occafion pain, inflammation, and fe¬
ver. This eontra&ion of the uterus alfo renders its vef¬
fels impervious to the blood which had freely pafied
through them for the fervice of the child during
pregnancy; and confequently a much larger quantity
will be thrown upon the contiguous parts, which will
Hill add to their diftenfion, and increafe their tenden¬
cy to inflammation.
Prognojls. An inflammation of the uterus general¬
ly may be expe&ed to produce an obftru&ion of the
lochia ; but the fever produced feldom proves mor¬
tal, unlefs the inflammation is violent and ends in a
gangrene.
Cure. This is to be attempted by the fame general
means already recommended, and the management of
this diforder entirely coincides with that of the puerpe¬
ral fever.
Genus XXII. RHEUMATISMUS ; the Rheu-
MATISM.
Rheumatifmus, Sauv. gen. 185. Lin. 62. Vog.
138. Boerh. 1400. Junck. 19.
Dolores rheumatic! et arthritici, Hoffm. II. 317.
Myofitis, Sag. gen. 301.
LVII. The Acute Rheumatism. Sp. I.
Rheumatifmus acutus, Sauv. fp. 1.
Rheumatifmus vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 2.
LVIII. The Lumbago, or Rheumatifm in the Loins.
Var. A.
Lumbago rheumatica, Sauv. gen. 212. Sag. p. I.
Nephralgia rheumatica, Sauv. fp. 4.
LIX. The Sciatica, Ifchias, or Hip-Gout. Var. B.
Ifchias rheumaticum, Sauv. 213. fp. 10.
LX. The Bajiard Pleurisy. Var. 0.
Pleurodyne rheumatica, gen. 148. fp. 3.
Pleuritis fpuria, Boerh. 878.
The other fpecies, which are very numerous, are all
fymptomatic; as,
Lumbago plethorica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ifchias fanguineum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Pleurodyne plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Rheumatifmus hyftericus, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ifchias hyftericum, Sauv. fp. 3.
Pleurodyne hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Rheumatifmus faltatorius, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 4.
Pleurodyne a fpafmate, Sauv. fp. 9.
Rheumatifmus fcorbuticus, Sauv. fp. 4.
! I N E.' Part IIJ
Lumbago fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 5. PracticJ
Pleurodyne fcorbutica, Sauv. Ip. 11.
Ifchias fyphiliticum, Sattv. fp. 7.
Pleurodyne venerea, Sauv. fp. 5.
Lumbago fympathica, Sauv. fp. 13.
a mefenterii glandulis induratis
a pancreate tumido, purulento, feirrhofo, putri
' ab indurdtis pyloro, vena cava, pancreate
a rene feirrhofo, putrefatto
ab dbfeeffu circa vence cavee bifurcationem
a vermibus intra renes.
Lumbago a faburra, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne a cacochylia, Sauv. fp. 7.
Rheumatifmus faltatorius verminofus, Sauv. fp. 8.
Ifchias verminofum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne verminofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Rheumatifmus metallicus, Sauv. fp. 10.
Lumbago a hydrothorace, Sauv. fp. 14.
Lumbago pfeudoifehuria, Sauv. fp. 16.
Pleurodyne a rupto cefophago, Sauv. fp. 20.
Plenrodyne rachitica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Ifchias a fparganofi, Sauv. fp. 5.
Pleurodyne catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Rheumatifmus necrofeos, Sauv. fp, 14.
Rheumatifmus dorfalis, Sauv. fp. 11.
Lumbago a fatyriafi, Sauv. fp. 15.
Rheumatifmus febricofus, Sauv. fp. 9.
Lumbago febrilis, Sauv. fp. 4.
&c. &c.
Defcription. The rheumatifm is particularly diftin-
guifhed by pains affe&ing the joints, and for the moft
part the joints alone ; but fometimes alfo the mufcular
parts. Very often they ftioot along the courfe of the
mufeies from one joint to another, and are always much
increafed by the adb’on of the mufcles belonging to the
joint or joints afte&ed. The larger joints are thofe
moft frequently aft'e&ed, fuch as the hip-joint and
knees of the lower extremities, and the fhoulders and
elbows of the upper ones. The ancles and wrifts are
alfo frequently affe&ed ; but the fmaller joints, fuch as
thofe of the toes or fingers, feldom fuffer. Sometimes
the difeafe is confined to one part of the body, yet
very frequently affe&s many parts of it; and then it
begins with a cold ftage, which is immediately fuc-
ceeded by the other fymptoms of pyrexia, and parti¬
cularly by a frequent, full, and hard pulfe. Some¬
times the pyrexia is formed before any pains are per¬
ceived ; but more commonly pains are felt in particu¬
lar parts before any fymptoms of pyrexia occur.
When no pyrexia is prefent, the pain may be confined
to one joint only ; but when any confiderable pyrexia
takes place, though the pain may chiefly be felt in
one joint, yet it feldom happens but that the pains af-
fe& feveral joints, often at the very fame time, but for
the moft part fhifting their place, and having abated
in one joint become more violent in another. They
do not commonly remain long in the fame joint, but
frequently (hift from one to another, and fometimes re¬
turn to joints formerly affefled ; and in this manner
the difeafe often continues for a long time. The py¬
rexia hath an exacerbation every evening, and is moft
confiderable during the night, when the pains alfo be¬
come more violent; and it is at the fame time that the
pains Ihift their place from one joint to another. Thefe
feem to be alfo increafed during the night by the bo-
IT.
M E D I
actice dy being covered more dofely, and kept warmer.
A joint, after having been for fome time affefted
with pain, commonly becomes alfo affeded with fome
fwelling and rednefs, which is painful to the touch. It
feldom happens that a fwelling coming on does not
take off the pain entirely, or fecure the joint againft
a return of it. This difeafe is commonly attend¬
ed with more or lefs fweating, which occurs ear¬
ly, but is feldom free or copious, and feldom either
relieves from the pains or proves critical. The urine
is high-coloured, and in the beginning without fedi-
ment. This., however, does not prove entirely critidal,
for the difeafe often continues long after fuch a fedi-
ment has appeared in the urine. The blood is always
fizy. The acute rheumatifm differs from all other in¬
flammatory difeafes in not being liable to terminate
in fuppuration : this almoft never happens ; but the
difeafe fometimes produces effufions of a tranfparent
gelatinous fluid into the fheaths of the tendons: but
if thefe effufions are frequept, it is certain that the li¬
quor muft very frequently be abforbed; for it very
feldom happens, that confiderable or permanent tu¬
mours have been produced, or fuch as required to be
opened and to have the contained fluid evacuated.
Such tumours, however, have fometimes occurred,
and the opening made in them has produced ulcers
very difficult to heal.
Sometimes the rheumatifm will continue for feveral
weeks; however, it feldom proves fatal, and it is rare
that the pyrexia continues to be confiderable for more
than two or three weeks. While the pyrexia abates
in its violence, if the pains of the joints continue, they
are lefs violent; more limited in their place, being
confined commonly to one or a few joints only; and are
lefs ready to change their place.
Caufes, &c. This difeafe is fi-equent in cold, and
more uncommon in warm, climates. It appears moft
frequently in autumn and fpring; lefs frequently in
winter, while the froft isconftant; and very feldom
during the heat of fummer. It may, however, occur
at any feafon, if viciffitudes of heat and cold be for the
time frequent. For the moft parti, the acute rheuma¬
tifm arifes from the application of cold to the body
when unufually warm; or when the cold is applied
to one part of the body, whilft the other parts
are kept warm; or laftly, when the application of the
cold is long continued, as when moift or wet clothes
are applied to any part of the body.—Thefe caufes
may affeft perfons of all ages; but the rheumatifm
fddom appears either in very young or in elderly
perfons, and moft commonly occurs from the age of
puberty to that of 35. Thefe caufes may alfo affe&
perfons of any conftitution, but they moft commonly
affeil thofe of a fanguine temperament.
With refpeft to the proximate caufe of rheumatifm,
there have been various opinions. It has been im¬
puted to a peculiar acrimony: of which, however,
there is no evidence; and the confideration of the re¬
mote caufes, the fymptoms, and cure, render it very
improbable, A difeafe of a rheumatic nature, how¬
ever, may be occafioned by an acrid matter applied to
the nerves, as is evident from the tooth-ach, a rheu¬
matic affe&ion generally arifing from a carious tooth.
Pains arifing from deep-feated fuppurations may alfo
referable the rheumatifm ; and many cafes have oc-
c I N E. _ 47*3
curred in which fuch fuppurations occafioned pains Practice
refembling the lumbago and ifchia ; but from what"
hath been already faid, it feems improbable that ever
any rheumatic cafe fhould end in fuppuration.
The proximate caufe of rheumatifm hath by many
been fuppofed to be a lentor in the fluids obftrufting
the veffels of the part; but in the former part of this
treatife, fufficient reafons have been already laid down
for rejecting the doftrine of lentor. While we cannot
therefore find either evidence or reafon for fuppofing
that the rheumatifm depends on any change in the
ftate of the fluids, we muft conclude that the proxi¬
mate caufe of it is the fame with that of other inflam¬
mations not depending upon a diredt ftimulus.
In the cafe of rheumatifm, it is fuppofed that the
moft common remote caufe of it, that is, cold applied,
operates efpecially on the veflels of the joints, thefe
being lefs covered by a cellular texture than thofe of
the intermediate parts of the limbs. It is farther
fuppofed, that the application of cold produces acon-
ftridtion of the extreme veffels, and at the fame time
an increafe of tone or phlogiftic diathefis in the courfe
of them, from which arifes an increafed impetus of
the blood, and at the fame time a refiftance to the
free pafiage of it, and confequently inflammation and
pain. It is alfo fuppofed, that the refiftance formed
excites the vis medicatrix to a further increafe of
the impetus bf the blood ; and to fiipport this, a
cold ftage arifes, a fpafm is formed, and a pyrexia
and phlogiftic diathefis are produced in the whole
fyftem.
Hence the caufe of rheumatifm appears to be exa&ly
analogous to that of inflammations depending on an
increafed afflux of blood to a part while it is expofed
to the action of cold. But there feems to be further
in this difeafe fome peculiar affeftion of the mufcular
fibres.^ Thefe feem to be under fome degree of rigi¬
dity; and therefore lefs eafily admit of motion, and
are pained upon the exertions of it. This alfo feems
to be the affe&ion which gives opportunity to the
propagation of pains from one joint to another, and
which are moft feverely felt in the extremities termi¬
nating in the joints, becaufe beyond thefe the ofcilla-
tions are not propagated. This affe&ion of the muf¬
cular fibres explains the manner in which ftrains and
fpafms produce rheumatic affeftions; and, on the
whole, (hews, that with an inflammatory affe&ion of
the fanguiferoits fyftem, there is alfo in rheumatifm a
peculiar affeftion of the mufcular fibres, which has a
confiderable (hare in producing the phtenomena of the
difeafe.
Cure. Here we muft remember, that in the acute
rheumatifm there is an inflammatory affe&ion of the
parts, and a phlogiftic diathefis of the whole fyftem.
The cure therefore requires, in the firft place, an anti-
phlogiftic regimen, and particularly a total abftinence
from animal-food, and from all fermented orfpirituous
liquors ; fubftituting a mild vegetable or milk diet,
and the plentiful ufe of foft diluting liquors. On
this principle, blood-letting is the chief remedy of
acute rheumatifm. The blood is to be drawn in large
quantity; and the bleeding is to be repeated in pro¬
portion to the frequency, fulnefs, and hardnefs of the
pulfe, and the violence of the pain. For the moft
part, large and repeated bleedings during the firft
days
47t4 M E D I
Practice days of the difeafe feem to be necefiary, and aceord-
ingly have been very much employed : but to this
fome bounds are to be fet; for very profufe bleedings
occafion a flow recovery, and, if not abfolutely ef¬
fectual, are ready to produce a chronic rheuma-
tifm.
To avoid that debility of the fyfttm which ge¬
neral bleedings are apt to occafion, the urgent fymp-
tom of pain may be often relieved by topical bleed¬
ings ; and when any fwelling or rednefs have come
upon a joint, the pain may very certainly be relieved
by topical bleedings: but as the pain and continuance
of the difeafe feem to depend more upon the phlo-
giftic diathefis of the whole fyftem than upon the af¬
fection of particular parts, fo topical bleedings will
not fupply the place of the general bleedings propofed
above.
To take off the phlogiftic diathefis prevailing in
this difeafe, purging may be ufefu), if procured by
medicines which do not ftimulate the whole fyftem, as
neutral falts, and other medicines which have a refri¬
gerant power. Purging, however, is not fo ufeful as
bleeding in removing phlogiftic diathefis; and when
the difeafe has become general and violent, frequent
ftools are inconvenient, and even hurtful, by the mo¬
tion and pain which they occafion.
In this difeafe, external applications are of little
fervice. Fomentations in the beginning of the difeafe
rather aggravate than relieve the pains. The rubefa¬
cients and camphire are more effe&ual; but they
generally only fhift them from one part to another,
and do not prove any cure of the general affec¬
tion. Bliftering may alfo be very effe&ual in re¬
moving the pain from a particular part; but will be
of little ufe, except where the pains are much confined
to a particular place.
The feveral remedies above-mentioned moderate the
violence of the difeafe, and fometimes remove it en¬
tirely; but they fometimes fail, and leave the cure
imperfed. The attempting a cure by large and re¬
peated bleedings is attended with many inconvenien-
cies; and the moft effedual and fafe method of cure is,
after fome general bleedings for taking off, or at leaft
diminifhing, the phlogiftic diathefis, to employ fweat-
ing conduded by the rules laid down when fpeaking
of the cure of fynocha. Opiates, except where they
are direded to procure fweat, always prove hurtful in
in every ftage of this difeafe. The Peruvian bark has
been fuppofed a remedy in fome cafes; but it is fel-
dom found ufeful, and is frequently hurtful. It feems
only fit for thofe cafes in which the phlogiftic dia¬
thefis is much abated, and at the fame time the exa¬
cerbations of the difeafe are manifeftly periodical, with
confiderable remifiions interpofed. Calomel, and other
preparations of mercury, have been recommended ;n
fome cafes of the acute rheumatifm ; but D,r Cullen is
is of opinion that they are only ufeful in cafes ap¬
proaching to the nature of the chronic kind.
313 LXI. ARTHRODYNIA, or Chronic Rheumatism.
Rheumatifmus chronicus Audorum.
Dcfcription. When the pyrexia attending the acute
rheumatifm hath ceafed; when the fwelling and
rednefs of the joints are entirely gone, but pains'
ftiil continue to affed certain joints, which remain
CINE. Part IT,
ft iff, feel uneafy upon motion, changes of weather, Pr Arm
or in the night-time only; the difeafe is then called
t'nt chronic rheumatifm, as it often continues for a very
long time.
The limits between the acute and chronic rheuma-
tifms are not always exadly marked. When the
pains are ftiil ready to fhift their place ; when they
are efpecially fevere in the night-time; when, at the
fame time, they are attended with fome degree of py¬
rexia, and with fome^ fwelling, and efpecially fome
rednefs, of the joints; the difeafe is to be confidered as
partaking of the nature of the acute rheumatifm. But
when there is no longer* any degree of pyrexia re¬
maining; when the pained joints are without rednefs;
when they are cold and ftiff; when they cannot eafily
be made to fweat; or when, while a free and warm
fweat is brought out on the reft of the body, it is only
clammy and cold on the pained joints; and when fur¬
ther, the pains of thefe are increafed by cold, and re¬
lieved by heat, applied to them; the cafe is to be con¬
fidered as that of a purely chronic rheumatifm.
The chronic rheumatifm may affeft different
joints ; but is efpecially apt to affedl thofe which are
furrounded with many mufcles, and thofe of which
the mufcles are employed in the moft conftant and
vigorous exertions. Such is the cafe of the vertebras
of the loins, the affe&ion of which is named lumbago;
or of the hip joint, when the difeafe is named ifchias,
or fciatica.
Violent ftrains and fpafms occurring on fudden and
fomewhat violent exertions, bring on rheumatic af-
fedlions, which at firft partake of the acute, but very
foon change into the nature of the chronic rheumatifm.
—Such are frequently the lumbago, and other af-
fe&ions, which feem to be more feated in the mufcles
than in the joints. The diftin&ion of the rheumatic
pains from thofe refembling them which occur in the
fiphylis and fcUrvy muft be obvious, either from the
feat of the pains, or from the concomitant fymp-
toms peculiar to thofe difeafes. The diftindiion of
the rheumatifm from the gout will be more fully
underftood from what is laid down in the following
geniis.
Caufss, &c. The phenomena of the purely chronic
rheumatifm lead us to conclude, that its proximate
caufe is an atony both of the blood-veffels and of the
mufcular fibres of the part affected, together with
firch a degree of rigidity and contra&ion in the latter
as frequently attend them in a ftate of atony.
Cure. From the view juft now given of the proxi¬
mate caufe of chronic rheumatifm, the indication of
cure muft be, to reftore the adlivity and vigour of the
vital principle in the part.—The remedies are either
external or internal.
The external are, the fupporting the heat of the part,
by keeping it conftantly covered with flannel; the in-
creafing the heat of the part by external heat, applied
either in a dry or humid form; the diligent ufe of the
fled) brufh, or other means of fri&ion; the application-
of eledtricity in fparks or fhocks; the application of cold
wAter by affufion or immerfion; the application of effen-
tial oils of the moft warm and penetrating kind; the ap¬
plication of fait brine; and laftly, the employment ei¬
ther of exereife, of the part itfelf as far as it can eafily
bear, or by riding or other mode of geftation.
The
M E D I C I N E,
It,
The internal remedies are, J. Large dafes of effen-
tial oils drawn from refinous fubftances, fuch as tur¬
pentine. 2. Subftances containing fuch oils, as guaiac.
3. Volatile alkaline falls. 4. Thefe or other medi¬
cines directed to procure fweat; and, 5.. Calomel,
or fome other preparation of mercury, in fmall dofes,
continued for fome time. Befides thefe, there are fe-
veral others recommended; as bleeding, general and
topical; burning, bliitering, and iffues: but thefe, to
Dr Cullen, feem only itfeful when the difeafe ilill par¬
takes of the nature of the acute rheumatifm.
LXII. ODONTALGIA,theTooTH ach.G. XXIV.
Odontalgia, Sauv. gen. 198. Lin. 45. Vog. 145.
Sag. gen. 157. Junck. 25.
Odontalgia five' rheumatifmus odontalgicus, Hoffm.
II. 330-
Odontalgia cariofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Odontalgia fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Odontalgia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 3.
Odontalgia arthritica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Odontalgia gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Odontalgia hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Odontalgia itomachica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Defcription. This well-known difeafe makes its
attack by a moil violent pain in the teeth, moft fre¬
quently in the molares, but more rarely in the indforii,
reaching fometimes up to the eyes, and fotnetimes
backward into the cavity of the ear. At the fame
time there is a manifeft determination to the head,
and a remarkable tenfion and inflation of the veflels
takes place, not only in the parts next to that where
the pain is feated, but over the whole head.
Caufest &c. The toothach is fometimes merely a
rheumatic atTeflion arifing from cold, but more fre¬
quently from a carious tooth. It is alfo a fymptom
of pregnancy, and takes place in fome nervous difor-
ders ; it may attack perfons at any time of life, tho’
it is moft frequent in the young and plethoric.
Cure. Many empirical remedies have been propofed
for the cure of the tooth-ach, but none have in any
degree anfwered the purpofe. When the affe&ion is
purely rheumatic, bliftering behind the ear will aimoft
always remove it ; but when it proceeds from a ca¬
rious tooth, the pain is much more obftinate. In this
cafe it hath been recommended to touch the pained
part with a hot iron, or with oil of vitriol, in order to
deftroy the aching nerve; to hold ftrong fpirits in the
mouth; to put a drop of oil of cloves into the hollow
of the tooth, or a pill of equal parts of opium and
camphire. The Peruvian bark hath alfo been reconv-
mended, and perhaps with more juftice, on account of
its tonic and antifeptic powers; but very often all thefe
remedies will fail, and the only infallible cure is to draw
the tooth. See Surgery.
Genus XXIV. PODAGRA, the Gout.
Podagra, Vog. 175. Boerh. 1254.
Febris podagrica, Vog. 69.
Arthritis, Sauv. gen. 183. Lin. 60. Vog. 139 Sag.
gen. 142.
Dolor podagricus et arthriticus verus, Hoffm. II.
339-
Dolores arthritic!, Hofftn. II. 3x7.
Afftdius fpaftieo-arthritici, Junck. 46.
LXIII. The Regular Gout. Sp. II.
Arthritis podagra, Sauv. fp. I.
Arthritis rachialgica, Sauv. fp. H.
Arthritis aeftiva, Sauv. fp. 4.
LXIV. The Atonic Gout. Sp. II.
Arthritis melancholica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Arthritis hiemalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Arthritis chlorotica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Arthritis afthmatica, Sauv. fp. 9.
LXV. The "Retrocedent Gout.
LXVI. The Mifplaced Gout.
Defcription. What we call a paroxyfm of the gout is
principally conftituted by an inflammatory affedtion of
fome of the joints. This fometimes comes on fudden-
ly, without any warning, but is generally preceded by
fc-veral fymptoms ; fuch as the ceafing of a fweating
which the feet had been commonly affe&ed with be¬
fore ; an unufual coldnefs of the feet and legs; a fre¬
quent numbnefs, alternating with a fenfe of prickling
along the whole of the lower extremities; frequent
cramps of the mufcles of the legs ; and an unufUal tur-
gefcence of the veins.
While thefe fymptoms take place in the lower ex¬
tremities, the body is affe&ed with fome degree of
torpor and languor, and the funftions of the ftomach.
in particular are more or lefs difturbed. The appe¬
tite is diminiftied ; and flatulency, or other fymptoms
of indigeftion, are felt. Thefe fymptoms take place
for feveral days, fometimes for a week or two, before
a paroxyfm comes on ; but commonly, upon the day
immediately preceding it, the appetite becomes greater
than ufual.
The circumftances of paroxyfms are the following.
They come on moft commonly in the fpring; and fooner
or later, according as the vernal heat fucceeds fooner
or later to the winter’s cold ; and, perhaps, fooner
or later alfo, according as the body may happen to
be more or lefs expofed to viciffitudes of heat and cold.
The attacks ate fometimes felt firft in the evening*
but more commonly about two or three o’clock of the
morning. The paroxyfm begins with a pain affe&ing
one foot, moft commonly in the ball or firft joint of
the great toe, but fometimes in other parts of the
foot. With the coming on of this pain, there is.
commonly more or lefs of a cold fhivering; which, as
the pain increafes, gradually ceafes; and is fucceeded
by a hot ftage of pyrexia, which continues for the
fame time with the pain itfelf. From the firft attack*
the pain becomes, by degrees, more violent, and con¬
tinues in this ftate with great reftk-ffnefs of the whole
body till next midnight, after which it gradually re¬
mits ; and, after it has continued for 24 hours from
the commencement of the firft attack, it commonly
ceafes very entirely; and, with the coming on of a
gentle fweat, allows the patient to fall afleep. The pa¬
tient, upon coming out of this fleep in the morning*
finds the pained part affedted with fome rednefs and
fwelling, which, after having continued for fome days*
gradually abate.
When a paroxyfm has thus come on, although the
violent pain after 24 hours be confiderably abated*
the patient is not entirely relieved from it. For fomd
days;
46IV
Practice
3x6
3*7
318
S1^
47l6
Practice
M E D I
days he has every evening a return of more confider-
able pain and pyrexia, and which continue with more
or lefs violence till morning. After continuing in this
manner for feveral days, the difeafe fometimes goes en¬
tirely off, not to return till after a long interval.
When the difeafe, after having thus remained for
fome time in a joint, ceafes entirely, it general¬
ly leaves the perfon in very perfeft health, enjoying
greater eafe and alacrity in the funftions of both bo¬
dy and mind than he had for a long time before ex¬
perienced.
At the beginning of the difeafe, the returns of it are
fometimes only once in three or four years: but as it ad¬
vances, the intervals become (horter, and at length the
attacks are annual; afterwards they come twice each
year ; and at length recur feveral times during the whole
courfe of autumn, winter, and fpring ; and as, when
the fits are frequent, the paroxyfms become alfo
longer, fa, in the advanced ftate of the difeafe, the pa¬
tient is hardly ever tolerably free from it, except per¬
haps for two or three months in fummer.
The progrefs of the difeafe is alfo marked by the
parts which it affeas. At firft, it commonly afFeds
one foot only; afterwards every paroxyfm affeas both
feet, the one after the other ; and as the difeafe pro¬
ceeds, it not only affeas both feet at once, but, after
having ceafed in the foot which was fecondly attacked,
returns again into the firft, and perhaps a fecond time
alfo into the other. Its changes of place are not only
from one foot to another, but from the feet into other
joints, efpecially thofe of the upper and lower extre¬
mities ; fo that there is hardly a joint of the body
that, on one occafion or other, is not affeaed. It
fometimes affeas two different joints at the very fame
time; but more commonly is at any one time fevere in
a fingle joint only, and paffes fucceflively from one
joint to another ; fo that the patient s affliaion is of¬
ten protraaed for a long time.
When the difeafe has often returned, and the pa-
roxyfms have become very frequent, the pains are com¬
monly lefs violent than they were at firft ; but the pa¬
tient is more affeaed with ficknefs, and the other
fymptoms of the atonic gout, which (hall be hereafter
mentioned. . .
After the firft paroxyfm of the difeafe, the joints
which have been affeaed are entirely reftored to their
former fupplenefs and ftrength: but, after the difeafe
has recurred very often, the joints affeaed do neither
fo fuddenly nor entirely recover their former ftate, but
continue weak and ftiff; and thefe effeas at length pro¬
ceed to fuch a degree, that the joints lofe their motion
entirely. „ .
In many perfons* but not in alb after -the diieale has
frequently recurred, concretions of a chaiky nature are
formed upon the outfide of the joints, and for the moft
part immediately under the fkin. The matter feems
to be depofited at firft in a fluid form, afterwards
becoming dry and firm. In their firm ftate, thefe con¬
cretions are a friable earthy fubftance, very entirely
foluble in acids. After they have been formed, they
contribute, with other circumftances, to deftroy the
motion of the joint.
In moft perfons who have laboured under the gout
for many years, a nephritic affe&ion comes^ on, and
difeovers itfelf by all the fymptoms which ufually at-
CINE. Part II.
tend calculous concretions in the kidneys, and which Practice
we (hall have occafion to deferibe in another place.
All that is neceffary to be obferved here is, that the ne¬
phritic affection alternates with paroxyfms of the gout;
and that the two affedions, the nephritic and the
gouty, are hardly ever prefent at the fame time. This
alfo may be obferved, that children of gouty or ne¬
phritic parents commonly inherit one or other of
thefe difeafes ; but whichever may have been the prin¬
cipal difeafe of the parent, fome of the children have
the one, and fome the other. In fome of them, the
nephritic affedion occurs alone, without any gout fu-
pervening ; and this happens to be frequently the cafe
af the female children of gouty parents.
In the whole of the hiftory already given, we have
deferibed the moft common form of the difeafe, and
which therefore, however diverfified in the progrefs of
it, may be ftill called the regular ftate of the gout.
Upon occafion, however, the difeafe affumes different
appearances : but as we fuppofe the difeafe to depend
always upon a certain diathefis, or difpofition of the
fyftem ; fo every appearance which we can perceive
to depend upon that fame difpofition, we ftill confider
as a fymptom and cafe of the gout. The principal
circumftance, in what we term the regular gouty is the
inflammatory affedion of the joints ; and whatever
fymptoms we can perceive to be conneded with, or to
depend upon, the difpofition which produces that in¬
flammatory affedion, but without its taking place
or being prefent at the fame time, we name the irre¬
gular gout.
Of fuch irregular gout there are three different
ftates, which we name the atonic^ the retrocedent^ and
the mi [placed goiat-    . .
The firft is, when the gouty diathefis prevails in the
fyftem; but, from certain caufes, does not produce the
inflammatory affedion of the joints. In this cale, the
morbid fymptoms which appear, are chiefly affections
of the ftomach, fuch as lofs of appetite, indigeftion,
and its various circumftances of ficknefs, nauiea, vo¬
miting, flatulency, acid erudations, and pains in the
region of the ftomach. Thefe fymptoms are frequent¬
ly accompanied with pains and cramps in feveral paits
of the trunk, and the upper extremities of the body,
which are relieved by the difeharge of wind from the
ftomach. Together with thefe affedions of the fto¬
mach, there commonly occurs a coftiyenefs; but
fometimes a loofenefs, with colic pains. Thefe affeci
tions of the alimentary canal 'are often attended with
all the fymptoms of hypochondriafis, as dejedion of
mind, a conftant and anxious attention to the flighted
feelings, an imaginary aggravation of thefe, and an
apprehenfion of danger from them.
In the fame atonic gout, the vifeera of the thorax
alfo are fometimes affeded; and palpitations, faintings,
and afthma, occur.
In the head alfo, occur headachs, giddineis, apo-
pledic and paralytic affedions.
When the feveral fymptoms now mentioned occur
in habits having the marks of a gouty difpofition,
this may be fufpeded to have laid the foundation ot
them ; and efpecially when either, in fuch habits, a
manifeft tendency to the inflammatory affedion has
formerly appeared, or when the iymptoms mentioned
arc intermixed with and are relieved by fome de-
grec
Part IT. M E D I
RACT1CE gree of the inflammatory gout. In fuch cafes there
can be no dout of confidering the whole as a ftate of
the gout.
Another ftate of the dtfeafe we name the retrocedent
gout. This occurs when an inflammatory ftate of the
joints has, in the ufual manner, come on, but without
arifing to the ordinary degree of pain and inflammation ;
or at leaft without thefe continuing for the ufual time,
or without their receding gradually in the ufual man¬
ner ; thefe affe&ions of the joints fuddenly and entirely
ceafe, while fome internal part becomes affe&ed. The
internal part moft commonly affe&ed is the ftomach ;
which then is affe&ed with anxiety, ficknefs, vomit-
ing, or violent pain : but fometimes the internal part
is the heart, which gives occafion to a fyncope fome¬
times it is the lungs, which are affe&ed with afthma ;
and fometimes it is the head, giving occafion to apo¬
plexy or palfy. In all thefe cafes there can be no
.doubt of the fymptoms being all a part of the fame dif-
eafe, however different the affe&ion may feem to be in
the parts which it attacks.
^I he tnird ftate of irregular gout, which we name
the mifplaced, is when the gouty diathefis, in (lead of
producing the inflammatory affe&ion of the joints,
produces an inflammatory affedion of fome internal
part, and which appears from the fame fymptoms that
attend the inflammations of thofe parts arifing from
other caufes.
Whether the gouty diathefis does ever produce fuch
inflammation of the internal parts without having firft
produced it in the joints, or if the inflammation of the
internal part be always a tranflation from the joints
previoufly affeded, we dare not determine ; but, even
fuppofing the latter to be always the cafe, we think
the difference of the affedion of the internal part muft
ftiil diftinguilh the mifplaced from what we have named
the retrocedent g^ut.
With regard to the mifplaced gout, Dr Cullen,
whom we here follow, tells us, that he never met with
any cafes of it in his pradice, nor does he find any di-
ftindly marked by pradical writers, except that of a
pneumonic inflammation.
There are two cafes of a tranflated gput; the one
of which is an affedion of the neck of the bladder,
producing pain, ftrangury, and a catarrhus ve/tcee:
the other is an affedion of the redum, fometimes by
pain alone in that part, and fometimes by hsemorrhoi-
dal fymptoms. In gouty perfons fuch affedions have
been known to alternate with inflammatory affedions
of the joints ; but whether thefe belong to the retroce¬
dent or to the mifplaced gout, our author pretends not
to determine.
It is commonly fuppofed, that there are fome cafes
of rheumatifm which are fcarcely to be diftinguiflied
from the gout : but thefe, our author thinks, are but
few ; and that the two difeafes may be for the moft
part diftinguifhed with great certainty, by obferving
the predifpofition, the antecedents, the parts aft'eded,
the recurrences of the difeafe, and its connedion with
the fyftem ; which circumftances, for the moft part,
appear very differently in the two difeafes.
Caufesy &c. The gout is generally an hereditary
difeafe: but fome perfons, without any hereditary dif-
pofition, feem to acquire it ; and in fome an hereditary
difpofition may be counteraded from various caufes. It
CINE. ' 47,7
attacks the male fex efpecially ; but it fometimes, tho* Practice
more rarely, attacks alfo the female. The females 
liable to it are thofe of the more robuft and full
habits ; and it very often happens to thofe before the
menftrual evacuation hath ceafed. Dr Cullen hath alfo
found it occurring in feveral females whofe menftrual
evacuations were more abundant than ufual.
The gout feldom attacks eunuchs; and when it does,,
feems to fall upon thofe who happen to be of a robuft
habit, to lead an indolent life, and to live very full. It
attacks efpecially men of robuft and large bodies, who
have large heads, are of full and corpulent habits, and
whofe Ikins are covered with a thicker rete mucofum,
which gives a coarfer furface. To fpeak in the (lyle of
the ancient phyficians, the gout will feldora be found to
attack thefe of a fanguine, or fuch as are of a purely
melancholic temperament; but very readily thofe of a
cholericofanguine temperament. It is, however, very
difficult to treat this matter with precifion. The gout
feldom attacks perfons employed in conftant bodily
labour, or thofe who live much upon vegetable ali¬
ment. It does not commonly attack men till after
the age of 35 ; and generally not till a ftiil later pe¬
riod. There are indeed inftances of the gout appear¬
ing more early ; but thefe are few in comparifon of
the others. When the difeafe does appear early in life,
it feems to be in thofe who have the hereditary difpo-
tion very ftrong, and to whom the remote caufes here¬
after mentioned have been applied in a very confide-
rable degree.
As the gout is an hereditary difeafe, and affe&s
men particularly of a certain habit, its remote caufes
may be confidered as predifponent and occafional.
The predifponent caufe, as far as expreffed by exter¬
nal appearances, hath been already marked ; and phy-
iicians have been very confident in affigning the occa¬
fional caufes : but in a difeafe depending fo much up¬
on a predifpofition, the affigning occafional caui'es
muft be uncertain ; as in the predifpofed the occa¬
fional caufes may not always appear, and in perfons-
not predifpofed they may appear without effeA; and
this uncertainty muft particularly affed the cafe of the
gout.
The occafional caufes of the difeafe feem to be of
two kinds. Firft, thofe which induce a plethoric
ftate of the body. Secondly, thofe which, in ple¬
thoric habits, induce a ftate of debility. Gf the firft-
kind are a fedentary,. indolent manner of life, and a
full diet of animal-food. Of the fecond kind of occa¬
fional caufcs which induce debility are excefs in veneryj.
intemperance in the ufe of intoxicating liquors ; indi-
geftion, produced either by the quantity or quality of
the aliments ; much application to ftudy or bufinefsr
night-watching, exceffive evacuations; the ceafing of
ufual labour ; a fudden change from a very full to a-
very fpare diet ; the large ufe of acids and acefcentsj
and laftly, cold applied to the lower extremities. The
former feem to a6t by increafing the predifpofi¬
tion ; the latter are commonly the exciting caufes,
both of the firft attacks, and of the repetitions of the
difeafe.
With refpeft to the proximate caufe of the gout, it
hath generally been thought that it depends on a cer¬
tain morbific matter always prefent in the body ; and
that this matter, by certain caufes, thrown upon the.
joints
4718
■Pr ACT ICI
joints or other parts, produces the feveral phenomena
of the difeafe.
This dodirine, however ancient and general, appears
to Dr Cullen very doubtful. For,
Firft, there is no direft evidence of any morbific
matter being prefent in perfons difpofed to the gout.
There are no experiments or obfervations which fhew
that the blood or other humours of gouty perfons are
in any refpedt different from thofe of others. Previous
to attacks of the gout, there appear no marks of any
morbid ftate of the fluids; for the difeafe generally at¬
tacks thefe perfons who have enjoyed the molt perfedl
health, and appear to be in that ftate when the difeafe
comes on. At a certain period of the difeafe, a pecu¬
liar matter indeed appears in gouty perfons; but this,
which does not appear in every inftance, and which
appears only after the difeafe has fubfifted for a long
MEDICINE. Part II
it has not fuggefted any fuccefsful method of cure. Prac^
Particular fuppofuions have often corrupted the prac¬
tice, and have frequently led from thofe views which
might have been ufeful, and from that pradlice which
experience had approved. Further, though the fup-
poficion of a morbific matter has been generally recei¬
ved, it has been as generally negledted in praftice.
When the gout has affe&ed the ftomach, nobody
thinks of correcting the matter fuppofed to be prefent
there, but merely of reftoring the tone of the moving
fibres.
Eighthly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter is
quite fuperfluous: for it explains nothing, without fup-
pofing that matter to produce a change in the ftate of
the moving powers ; and a change in the ftate of the
moving powers, produced by other caufes, explains
every circumftance without the fuppofition of a morbi-
time, feems manifeftiy to be theeffeft, not the caufe, of fic matter; and, to this purpofe, it may be obferved,
the difeafe. Further, tho’ there be certain acrids which, that many of the caufes exciting the gout, do not ope-
taken into the body, feem to excite the gout, it
probable that thefe acrids operate otherwife in exci¬
ting the difeafe, than by affording the material caufe
of it. In general, therefore, there is no proof of any
morbific matter being the caufe of the gout.
Secondly, the fuppofitions concerning the particu¬
lar nature of the matter producing the gout, have been
fo various, and fo contradi&ory to each other, as to
allow us to conclude, that there is truly no proof of the
exiftence of any of them. With refpeft to many of fervations.
rate upon the ftate of the fluids, but direftly and folely
upon that of the moving powers.
Laftly, The foppofition of a morbific matter is fu¬
perfluous ; becaufe, without that, the difeafe can be
explained in a manner more confident with its pheno¬
mena, with the laws of the animal ceconomy, and with
the method of cure which experience has approved.
We now proceed to give this explanation ; but, before
entering upon it, we muft premife fome general ob-
thefe fuppofitions, they are fo inconfiftent with che¬
mical philofophy, and with the laws of the animal ceco¬
nomy, that they muft be entirely reje&ed.
Thirdly, the fuppofition of a morbific matter as the
caufe, is not confiftent with the phenomena of the dif¬
eafe, particularly with its frequent and fudden tranfla-
tions from one part to another.
Fourthly, The fuppofition is further rendered im¬
probable by this, that, if a morbific matter did exift,
its operation ftiould be fimilar in the feveral parts which
it attacks : whereas it feems to be very different, be¬
ing ftimulant, and exciting inflammation, in the joints ;
but fedative, and deftroying the tone, in the ftomach:
v/hich, upon the fuppofition of particular matter afting
iu both cafes, is not to be explained by any difference
in the part affedled.
Fifthly, Some fads alleged in proof of a morbific
matter, are not fufficiently confirmed; fuch as thofe
which would prove the difeafe to be contagious. There
is, however, no proper evidence of this, the facts given
being, not only few, but exceptionable, and the nega¬
tive obfervations innumerable.
Sixthly, Some arguments brought in favour of a
morbific matter are founded upon a miftaken explana¬
tion. The difeafe has been fuppofed to depend upon
a morbific matter, becaufe it is hereditary. But the in¬
ference is not juft: for moft hereditary difeafes do not
depend upon any morbific matter, but upon a parti¬
cular conformation of the ftrufture of the body tranf-
mitted from the parent to the offspring ; and this laft
appears to be particularly the cafe in the gout. It
may be alfo obferved, that hereditary difeafes depend¬
ing upon a morbific matter, appear always much more
early in life than the gout commonly does.
Seventhly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter be¬
ing the caufe of the gout, has been hitherto ufeiefs, as
The firft; obfervation is, That the gout is a difeafe of
the whole fyftem, or depends upon a certain general
conformation and ftate of the body, which manifeftiy
appears from the fafts above mentioned. Butthegeneral
ftate of the fyftem depends chiefly upon the ftate of its
primary moving powers ; and therefore the gout may
be fuppofed to be an affe&ion of thefe chiefly.
The fecond obfervation is, That the gout is mani¬
feftiy an affeftion of the nervous fyftem; in which the
primary moving powers of the whole fyftem are lodged.
The occafional or exciting caufes are almoft all fuch
as aft direftly upon the nerves and nervous fyftem;
and the greater part of the fymptoms of the atonic ot
retrocedent gout are manifeftiy affeftions of the fame
fyftem. This leads us to feek for an explanation of
the whole of the difeafe in the laws of the nervous
fyftem, and particularly in the changes which may
happen in the balance of its feveral parts.
The third obfervation is, That the ftomach, which
has fo univerfal a confent with the reft of the fyftem,
is the internal part that is the moft frequently, and
often very confidevably, affefted by the gout. Thepa-
roxyfms of the difeafe are commonly preceded by an
affeftion of the ftomach; many of the exciting caufes.
aft firft upon the ftomach, and the fymptoms of the
atonic and retrocedent gout are moil commonly and
chiefly afieftions of the fame organ. This obfervation
leads us to remark, that there is a balance fubfifting
between the ftate of the internal and that of the ex¬
ternal parts; and, in particular, that the ftate of the
ftomach is connefted with that of the external parts;
fo that the ftate of tone in the one may be communi¬
cated to the other.
Thefe obfervations being premifed, we ihall now of¬
fer the following pathology of the gout.
In fome perfons there is a certain vigorous- and ple¬
thoric.
Fart II.
» act ice thotic date of the fydem, winch at a certain period of
| ’ life is liable to a lofs of tone in the extremities. This
:] is in fome meafure communicated to the whole fyftem,
but appears more efpecially in the fun&ions of the fto-
mach. When this lofs of tone occurs while the energy
of the brain (till retains its vigour, the vis medicatrix
nature is excited to reftore the tone of the parts; and
accomplifhes it, by exciting an inflammatory affedtion
in fome part of the extremities. When this has fub-
filted for fome days, the tone of the extremities and
of the whole fyftem is reftored, and the patient re¬
turns to his ordinary (late of health.
This is the courfe of things in the ordinary form of
the difeafe, which we name the regular gout; but there
are circumflances of the body, in which this courfe is
interrupted or varied. Thus, when the atony has ta¬
ken place, if the rea&ion do not fucceed, the atony
continues in the ftomach, or perhaps in other internal
parts; and produces that ftate which we have, for rea-
■fons now obvious, named the atonic gout.
A fecond cafe of variation in the courfe of the gout
is, w'hen to the atony the reaftion and inflammation
have to a certain degree fucceeded, but from caufes
cither internal or external the tone of the extremities
and perhaps of the whole fyftem is weakened; fo that
the inflammatory ftate, before it had either proceeded
to the degree, or continued for the time, requifite for
reftoring the tone of the fyftem, fuddenly and entirely
ceafes: whence the ftomach, and other internal parts,
relapfe into the ftate of atony; and perhaps have that
increafed by tht atony communicated from the extre¬
mities: all which appears in what we have termed the
retrocedent Jlate of the gout.
A third cafe of variation from the ordinary courfe
of the gout, is, when to the atony, ufually preceding,
an inflammatory readion fully fucceeds, but has its
ufual determination to the joints by fome circumftances
prevented; and is therefore direded to fome internal
part, where it produces an inflammatory affedion, and
that ftate of things which we have named the mifplaced
gout.
Cure. In entering upon this, we muft obferve, in the
firft place, that a cure has been commonly thought im-
poflible; and we acknowledge it to be very probable,
that the gout, as a difeafe of the whole habit, and
very often depending upon original conformation, can¬
not be cured by medicines, the effeds of which are al¬
ways very traniitory, and feldom extend to the produ¬
cing any confiderable change of the whole habit.
It would perhaps have been happy for gouty per-
fons if this opinion had been implicitly received by
them; as it would have prevented their having been
fo often the dupes of felf interefted pretenders, who
have either amufed them with inert medicines, or have
rafhly employed thofe of the mod pernicious tendency.
Our author is much difpofed to believe the impoffibi-
lity of a cure of the gout by medicines; and more cer¬
tainly (till inclined to think, that, whatever may be the
poffible power of medicines, yet no medicine for curing
the gout has hitherto been found. Although almolt
every age has prefented a new remedy, all hitherto of¬
fered have, very foon after, been either negltded as
ufelefs, or condemned as pernicious.
But, though unwilling to admit the power of medi¬
cines, yet he contends, that a great deal can be done
Vol.VI. i
4719
towards the cure of the gout by a regimen : and from Practice
what has been already obferved, he is firmly perfuaded, ‘
that any man who, early in life, will enter upon the
conftant pra&ice of bodily labour, and of abftinence
from animal-food, will be preferred entirely from the
difeafe.
Whether there be any other means of radically cu¬
ring the gout, the Dodor is not ready to determine.
There are hiftories of cafes of the gout, in which it is
faid, that by great emotions of mind, by wounds, and
by other accidents, the fymptoms have been fuddenly
relieved, and never again returned; but how far thefe
accidental cures might be imitated by art, or would
fucceed in other cafes, is at leaft extremely uncertain.
The pradices proper and neceflary in the treatment
of the gout, are to be confidered under two heads:
Firjl, As they are to be employed in the intervals of
paroxyfms ; or, fecondlyt As during the time of thefc.
In the intervals of paroxyfms, the indications are,
to prevent altogether the return of paroxyfms; or at
leaft to render them lefs frequent, and more moderate.
During the time of paroxyfms, the indications are, to
moderate the violence and (horten the duration of them
as much as can be done with fafety.
r. It has been already obferved, that the gout may be
entirely prevented by conftant bodily exercife, and by
a low diet; and Dr Cullen is of opinion, that this pre¬
vention may take place even in perfons who have a he¬
reditary difpofition to the difeafe. Even when the dif-
pofition has difcovered itfelf by feveral paroxyfms of
inflammatory gout, he is perfuaded that labour and
abftinence will abfolutely prevent any returns of it for
the reft of life. Thefe, therefore, are the means of an-
fwering the firft indication to be purfued in the inter¬
vals of paroxyfms.
Exercife in perfons difpofed to the gout, is direfted
to two purpofes. One of thefe is the ftrengthening of
the tone of the extreme veffels; and the other, the
guarding againft a plethoric ftate. For the former, if
exercife be employed early in life, and before intempe¬
rance has weakened the body, a very moderate degree
of it will anfwer the purpofe; and, for the latter, if
abftinence be at the fame time obferved, little exercife
will be neceflary.
With refped to exercife, this in general is to be ob¬
ferved, that it fttould never be violent; for, if vio¬
lent, it cannot be long continued, and muft always en¬
danger the bringing on an atony in proportion to the
violence of the preceding exercife.
It is alfo to be obferved, that the exercife of gefta-
tion, though confiderable and conftant, will not, if it be
entirely without bodily exercife, anfw'er the purpofe
in preventing the gout. For this end, therefore, the
exercife muft be in fome meafure that of the body; and
mu(l be moderate, but at the fame time conftant and
continued through life.
In every cafe and circumftance of the gout in which
the patient retains the ufe of his limbs, bodily exer¬
cife, in the intervals of paroxyfms, will be always ufe-
ful; and, in the beginnings of the difeafe, w^hen the
difpofition to it is not yet ftrong, exercife may prevent
a paroxyfm which otherwife might-have come on. In
more advanced Hates of the difeafe, however, when
there is fome difpofition to a paroxyfm, much walking
will bring it on; either as it weakens the tone of the-
.26 R lower
MEDICINE.
4720 M E D I
Practice lower extremities, or as It excites an inflammatory dif-
* pofition in them; and thus it feems to be, that drains
or contufions often bring on a paroxyfm of the gout.
Abftinence, the other part of our regimen for pre¬
venting the gout, is of more difficult application. If
an abftinence from animal food be entered upon early
in life, while the vigour of the fyftem is yet entire, our
author has no doubt of its being both fafe and effec¬
tual; but, if the motive for this diet ftiall not have oc¬
curred till the conftitution hath been broken by in¬
temperance, or by the decline of life, a low diet may
then endanger the bringing on an atonic ftate.
Further, if a low diet be entered upon only in the
decline of life, and be at the fame time a very great
change in the former manner of living, the withdraw¬
ing of an accuftomed ftimulus of the fyftem may rea¬
dily throw this into an atonic ftate.
The fafety of an abftemious courfe may be greater
or lefs according to the management of it. It is ani¬
mal food which efpecially difpofes to the plethoric and
inflammatory ftate, and that food is to be therefore
tfpecially avoided ; but, on the other hand, it is ve¬
getable aliment of the lowed quality that is in danger
of weakening the fyftem too much by not affording
fufficient nourilhment, and more particularly of weak¬
ening the tone of the ftomach by its acefcency. It is
therefore a diet of a middle nature that is to be cho-
fen; and milk is precifely of this kind, as containing
both animal and vegetable matter.
As approaching to the nature of milk, and as being
a vegetable matter containing the greateft portion of
riouriftiment, the farinaceous feeds are next to be cho-
fen, and are the food moft proper to be joined with
milk.
With refpefi to drink, fermented liquors are ufeful
only when they are joined with animal food, and that
by their acefcency; and their ftimulus is only necef-
fary from cuftom. When, therefore, animal food is
to be avoided, fermented liquors are unneceffary ; and
by increafing the acefcency of vegetables, thefe li¬
quors may be hurtful. The ftimulus of fermented, or
fpirituous liquors, is not necefi’ary to the young and
vigorous, and, when much employed, impairs the
tone of the fyftem. Thefe liquors, therefore, are to
be avoided, except fo far as cuftom and the declining
ftate of the fyftem may have rendered them neceffary.
For preventing or moderating the regular gout, water
is the only proper drink.
With refpedt to an abftemious courfe, it has been
fuppofed, that an abftinence from animal-food and fer¬
mented liquors, or the living upon milk and farinacea
alone for the fpace of one year, might be fufficient for
a radical cure of the gout: and it is poffible that, at a
certain period of life, In certain circumftances of the
conftitution, fuch a meafure might anfwer the purpofe.
But this is very doubtful; and it is more probable,
that the abftinence muft, in a great meafure, be con¬
tinued, and the milk-diet be perfifted in, for the reft
of life. It is well known, that feveral perfons who
had entered on an abftemious courfe, and had been
thereby delivered from the gout, have however, upon
returning to their former manner of full living, had
the difeafe return upon them with as much violence as
before, or in a more irregular and more dangerous
fom.
CINE. Part Hi
It has been alleged, that, for preventing the return Practic|
of the gout, blood-letting, or fcarifications of the feet, r
frequently repeated, and at ftated times, may be prac-
tifed with advantage; but of this the Dodtor has had . )
no experience.
Exercife and abftinence are the means of avoiding
the plethoric ftate which gives the difpofition to the
gout; and are therefore the means propofed for pre¬
venting the paroxyfms, or at leaft for rendering them
lefs frequent and more moderate. But many circum¬
ftances prevent the fteadinefs neceffary in purfuing
thefe meafures: and therefore, in fuch cafes, nnlefs
great care be taken to avoid the exciting caufes, the
difeafe may frequently return ; and, in many cafes,
the preventing of paroxyfms is chiefly to be obtain¬
ed by avoiding thofe exciting caufes already enume¬
rated.
A due attention in avoiding thofe feveral caufes, will
certainly prevent fits of the gout ; and the taking care I
that thofe exciting caufes be never applied in a great
degree, will certainly render fits more moderate whet*
they do come on. But, upon the whole, it will ap¬
pear, that a ftri& attention to the whole condudl of
life, is in this matter neceffary; and therefore, when
the predifpofition has taken place, it will be extremely f
difficult to avoid the difeafe.
Dr Cullen is firmly perfuaded, that, by obviating
the predifpofition, and by avoiding the exciting
caufes, the gout may be entirely prevented: but, as
the meafures neceffary for this purpofe will, in moft ■’
cafes, be purfued with difficulty, and even with reluc¬
tance, men have been very defirous to find a medicine
which might anfwer the purpofe, without any reftraint
on their manner of living. To gratify this defire,
phyficians have propofed, and, to take advantage of it,
empirics have feigned, many remedies, as we have al¬
ready obterved. Of what nature feveral of thefe re¬
medies have been, it is difficult to fay : but of thofe
which are unknown, we conclude, from their having
been only of temporary fame, and from their having
foon fallen into negleft, that they have been either
inert or pernicious, and therefore fliall make no in¬
quiry after them ; and fhall now remark only upon one ;
or two known remedies for the gout which have been
lately in vogue.
One of thefe is what has been namedin England the
Portland powder. This is not a new medicine, but is
mentioned by Galen, and, with fome little variation in
its compofition, has been mentioned by the writers of
almoft every age fince that time. It appears to have
been at times in fafhion, and to have again fallen into
ncgledi; and our author thinks that this laft has been
owing to its leaving been found to be, in many in-
ftances, pernicious. In every inftance which the Doc¬
tor has known of its exhibition for the length of time
preferibed, the perfons who had taken it were indeed
afterwards free from any inflammatory affedfion of the
joints; but they were affefted with many fymptoms
of the atonic gout; and all, foon after finHhing their
courfe of the medicine, have been attacked with apo- ’
plexy, afthma, or dropfy, which proved fatal.
Another remedy which has had the appearance of
preventing the gout, is an alkali in various forms ; fuch
as the fixed alkali, both mild and cauftic, lime-water,
foap, and abforbent earths. Since it became common
to ■' |
fart II. M E D I
Ssactice to exhibit thefe medicines in nephritic and calculous
cafes, it has often happened that they were given to
thofe who were at the fame time fubjeA to the gout ;
and it has been obferved, that under the ufe of thefe
medicines, gouty perfons have been longer free from
the fits of their difeafe. That, however, the ufe of
thefe medicines has entirely prevented the returns of
gout, Dr Cullen does not know ; becaufe he never
pulhed the ufe of thofe medicines for a long time, be-
ing apprehenfive that the long-continued ufe of them
might produce a hurtful change in the flate of the
4 fluids.
As the preventing the gout depends very much on
fupporting the tone of the ftomach, and avoiding in-
digeftion ; fo coftivenefs, by occafioning this, is very
hurtful to gouty perfons. It is therefore necefiary for
fuch perfons to prevent or remove coftivenefs, and by
a laxative medicine, when needful; but it is at the fame
time proper, that the medicine employed fhould be
fuch as may keep the belly regular, without much pur¬
ging. Aloetics, rhubarb, magnefia alba, or flowers
I of fulphur, may be employed, as the one or the other
may happen to be beft fuited to particular perfons.
2. Thefe are the feveral meafures to be purfued in the
intervals of the paroxyfms ; and we are next to men¬
tion the meafures proper during the time of them.
As during the time of paroxyfms the body is in a
feverifli ftate, no irritation fhould then be added to it;
and every part, therefore, of the antiplogiftic regimen,
except the application of cold, ought to be ftriftly ob-
R ferved.
Another exception to the general rule may occur
when the tone of the ftomach is weak, and when the
patient has been before much accuftomed to the ufe
of ftrong drink; for then it may be allowable, and
even neceffary, to give fome animal-food, and a little
wine.
That no irritation is to be added to the fyftem du¬
ring the paroxyfms of gout, except in the cafes men¬
tioned, is entirely agreed upon among phjficianss
but it is a more difficult matter to determine, whether,
during the time of paroxyfms, any meafures may be
purfued to moderate the violence of rea&ion and of
inflammation. Dr Sydenham has given it as his opi¬
nion, that the more violent the inflammation and
pain, the paroxyfms will be the fhorter, as well as the
interval between the prefent and the next paroxyfm
longer: and, if this opinion be admitted as juft, it
will forbid the ufe of any remedies which might mo¬
derate the inflammation } which is, to a certain de¬
gree, undoubtedly neceflary for the health of the bo¬
dy. On the other hand, acute pain prefies for relief;
and, although a certain degree of inflammation may
| feem abfolutely neceflary, his not certain but that a mo¬
derate degree of it may anfwer the purpofe : and it is
even probable, that, in many cafes, the violence of in¬
flammation may weaken the tone of the parts, and
thereby invite a return of paroxyfms. It feems to be
in this way, that, as the difeafe advances, the paroxyfms
become more frequent.
From thefe laft confiderations, it feems probable,
that, during the time of paroxyfms, fome meafures
may be taken to moderate the violence of the in¬
flammation and pain, and particularly, that in firft
paroxyfms, and in the young and vigorous, blood-
Z
CINE. 4721
letting at the arm maybe pra&ifed with advantage: Practh?
but this pradlice cannot be repeated often with fafety;
becaufe blood-letting not only weakens the tone of the
fyftem, but may alfo contribute to produce plethora.
However, bleeding by leeches on the foot, and upon
the inflamed part, may be pra&ifed and repeated with
greater fafety ; and inftances have been known of its
having been pracfifed with fafety to moderate and
iboiten paroxyfms; but how far it may be carried, we
have not had experience enough to determine.
Befides blood-letting and the antiphlogiftic regi¬
men, it has been propofed to employ remedies for mo¬
derating the inflammatory fpafm of the part affe&ed,
fuch as warm bathing and emollient poultices. Thefe
have fometimes been employed with advantage and
fafety; but, at other times, have been found to give
occafion to a retroceffion of the gout.
Bliftering is a very effeftual means of relieving and
difeuffing a paroxyim of the gout; but has alfo fre¬
quently had the effedt of rendering it retrocedent. The
flinging with nettles is analogous to bliftering; and
probably would be attended with the fame danger.
The burning with moxa, or other fubftances, is a re¬
medy of the fame kind; but, though not found hurtful,
there are no fufficient evidences of its proving a radi¬
cal cure.
Camphire, and fome aromatic oils, have the power
of allaying the pain, and of removing the inflammation
from the part affedted; but thefe remedies commonly
make the inflammation only fhift from one part to an¬
other, and therefore with the hazard of its falling up¬
on a part where it may be more dangerous; and they
have fometimes rendered the gout retrocedent.
From thefe refledtions it will appear, that fome dan¬
ger muft attend every external application to the parts
affedted during a paroxyfm ; and that therefore the
common pradhee of committing the perfon to patience
and flannel alone, is eftabliftied upon the beft founda¬
tion. Opiates give the molt certain relief from painj
but, when given in the beginning of gouty paroxyfms,
occafion thefe to return with greater violence. When,
however, the paroxyfms fhall have abated in their vio¬
lence, but ftill continue to return, fo as to occalion
pfcinful and reftlefs nights, opiates may be then given
with fafety and advantage; efpeeially in the cafe of
perfons advanced in life, and who have be«n often af-
fedted with the difeafe. When, after psroxyfms have
ceafed, fome fwelling and ftiffnefs (hall remain in the
joints, thefe fymptoms are to be difeufled by the dili¬
gent ufe of the flelh-brulh. Purging immediately af¬
ter a paroxyfm, will be always employed with the ha¬
zard of bringing it on again.
Thus far of the regular gout. We now proceed
to confider the management of the difeafe when it has
become irregular.
I. In the atonic gout, the cure is to be accomplilhed
by carefully avoiding all debilitating caufes; and by
employing, at the fame time, the means of ftrengthen-
ing the fyftem in general, and the ftomaeh in particu¬
lar.
For ftrengthemng the fyftem in general, Dr Cullen
recommends frequent exercife on horfeback, and mo¬
derate walking. Cold bathing alfo may anfwer the
purpofe; and may be fafely employed, if it appear to
be powerful in ftimulating the fyftem, and be not ap-
26 R 2 plied
4722
Practice
MEDICINE.
Part III
plied when the extremities are threatened with any
pain.
For fupporting the tone of the fyflem in general,
■when threatened with atonic gout, fome animal food
ought to be employed, and the more acefcent vege¬
tables ought to be avoided. In the fame cafe, fome
wine alfo may be neceflary: but it fhould be in mode¬
rate quantity, and of the lead acefcent kinds; and if
every kind of wine (hall be found to increafe the aci¬
dity of the ftomach, ardent fpirits and water muft be
employed.
For ftrengthening the ftomach, bitters and the Pe¬
ruvian bark may be employed; but care muft be taken
that they be not conftantly employed for any great
length of time.
The moft effeftual medicine for ftrengthening the
ftomach is iron, which may be employed under various
preparations ; but the beft appears to be the ruft in
fine powder, which may be given in very large dofes.
For fupporting the tone of the ftomach, aromatics
may be employed ; but (hould be ufed with caution,
as the frequent and large ufe of them have an oppofite
effedt; and they fhould therefore be given only in com¬
pliance with former habits, or for palliating prefent
fymptoms.
When the ftomach happens to be liable to indige-
ftion, gentle vomits may be frequently given, and pro¬
per laxatives {hould be always employed to obviate or
to remove coftivenefs.
In the atonic gout, or in perfons liable to it, to
guard againft cold is efpecially neceflary; and the moft
certain means of doing this, is by repairing to a warm
climate during the winter-feafon. In the more violent
cafes, bliftcring the lower extremities may be ufeful;
but that remedy {hould be avoided when any pain
threatens the extremities. In perfons liable to the ato¬
nic gout, iffues may be eftablilhed in the extremities,
as in fome meafure a fupplement to the difeafe.
2. A fecond cafe of the irregular gout, is the re¬
trocedent.
When this affedls the ftomach and inteftines, relief
is to be inftantly attempted by the free ufe of ftrong
wines, joined with aromatics, and given warm ; or, if
thefe ftiall not prove powerful enough, ardent fpirits
muft be employed, and are to be given in a large dofe.
In moderate attacks, ardent fpirits, impregnated with
garlic or with afa foetida, may be employed ; or,
even without the ardent fpirits, a folution of afa foe¬
tida, with the volatile alkali, may anfwer the purpofe.
Opiates are often an effeftual remedy; and may be
joined with aromatics, as in the ele&uarium thebai-
cum ; or they may be ufefully joined with volatile al¬
kali andcamphire. Mufk has likewife proved ufeful in
this difeafe.
When the affe&ion of the ftomach is accompanied
with vomiting, this may be encouraged, by taking
draughts of warm wine, at firft with water, and af¬
terwards ^without it; having at length recourfe, if ne¬
ceflary, to fome of the remedies abovcmentioned, and
particularly the opiates.
In like manner, if the inteftines be affe&ed with
diarrhoea, this is to be at firft encouraged by taking
plentifully of weak broth ; and when this {hail have
been done fufficiently, the tumult is to be quieted by
opiates.
When the retrocedent gout fhall affeft the lungs, PractiJ|
and produce afthma,this is to be cured by opiates, by ^
antifpafmodics, and perhaps by bliftering on the back
or breaft.
When the gout, leaving the extremities, ftiall afFeft
the head, and produce pain, vertigo, apoplexy, or palfy.
our refources are very precarious. The moft probable
means of relief is, bliftering the head; and,if the gout
fhall have receded very entirely from the extremities,
blifters may be applied to thefe alfo. Together with
thefe blifterings, aromatics, and the volatile alkali, may
be thrown into the ftomach.
3. The third cafe of the irregular gout is the mif-
placed'; that is, when the inflammatory afteAion of the
gout, inftead of falling upon the extremities, falls upon
fome internal part. In this cafe, the difeafe is to be
treated by blood-letting, and by fuch other remedies
as would be proper in an idiopathic inflammation of
the fame parts.
Whether the tranflation fo frequently made from the
extremities to the kidneys, is to be confidered as an
inftance of the mifplaced gout, feems, as we have faid
before, uncertain; but our author is difpofed to think-
it fomething different; and therefore is of opinion, that,
in the nephralgia calculofa produced upon this occafion,
the remedies of inflammation are to be employed no
farther than they may be otherwife fometimes neceflary
in that difeafe, arifing from other caufes than the gout.
To this differtation on the gout, taken from the works
of our learned profeflbr, we cannot help fubjoining a
very uncommon cafe publiflied by Dr Samuel Pye iu
the London Medical Tranfa&ions, where the gout
would feem to have been occafioned by a morbific mat¬
ter, and to have been cured by the evacuation of it.
“ Mr Major Rook, furgeon and apothecary inUp-
pear Shadwell, of about 45 years of age, a fober, tem¬
perate man, of a good habit of body, accuftomed
to no difeafe but the gout; the returns of the fits
whereof had never been more frequent than once in
12 or 14 months. About the month of June 1752,
he was feized with a very fevere paroxyfm of the gout.
As I had known fome extraordinary efle&s, pro¬
ceeding from a vegetable diet, in that diftemper; par¬
ticularly in one gentleman, who, by a total abftinence
from all manner of food, except cow’s milk, and that
without bread, had cured himfelf of this difeafe ; and
who, at the time I mentioned the cafe to my friend,
was in the 13th year of his milk-diet; I perfuaded
Mr Rook to try what vegetables would do for him :
he readily complied, and entered upon, it immediately,
with a refolution, that, if it anfwered hisexpeftoration,
he would renounce fifh and flefh for ever.
“ But after the moft religious abftinence from ani¬
mal food, of every kind, for eleven weeks, being vi-
fited by a gentle attack in both feet, he returned im¬
mediately to his animal-food. This paroxyfm conti¬
nued but 48 hours; but in March 1753, was fucceed-
ed by a very fevere one in both feet.
“ The pain in his feet, heels, and ankles, increa-
fed with great violence, for about 10 or 12 days; till
at length he was in the moft extreme agonies; fuch as
he had never felt before, and fuch as almoft made him
mad. In the height of this extremity, the pains (it
is his own expreflion) from the feet, heels, and ankles,
flew as quick as lightning distdly to the calves of his
II. M E D I
legs ; but remaining there not half a minute, and not
in the lead abating of their extreme violence, (though
the feet, heels, and ankles, were left entirely free from
pain), from the calves, after a fhort ftay of about half
a minute, the pains afcended with the fame velocity
as before to both the thighs, at the fame time lea¬
ving the calves of the legs free from pain : from the
thighs, in lefs than the fpace of one minute, and as
quick as before, they arrived at the abdomen ; and af¬
ter giving the patient one mod fevere twitch in the
bowels, they reached the ftomach : here the pains
and here the fit ended, upon the patient’s vomiting up
about a pint and a half of a green aqueous liquor, but
fo extremely corrofive, that he compared it to the
ftrongeft mineral acid.
“ This extraordinary crifis happened at about two
in the morning : immediately after this difcharge he
fell afleep, and flept till feven or eight, and waked
perfectly eafy in every part, no figns of the diftemper
remaining, but the fwelling and tendernefs of his feet;
both of which went off gradually, fo that in two days
he was able to walk about his bufinefs.
“ The next fit feized him in February 1754, in the
common way ; but was lefs violent than the former,
and continued for about fix weeks; during which time
he had three -increafed paroxyfms, or dittinft fmart
fits, which held him about two hours each ; in the
laft of which he had the fame critical difcharge, by vo¬
miting of the fame corrofive matter, preceded by the
fame uncommon fymptoms as in the fit of 1753. But
mending every hour, he was able the very next day to
walk, and attend his patients, with more eafe than af¬
ter the firft-mentioned fit; for the fwelling abated
much fooner, and in three days difappeared.
“ I have fatd, that this laft fit was attended with
three diftinft paroxyfms, the laft of which ended as
above: yet to (hew the difpofition of nature, in this
cafe, to throw off the offending humour in this her
new way, it is remarkable, that, in the two firft of
thefe increafed paroxyfms of pain, the patient de¬
clared to me that he never had the lead eafe till he
had vomited ; but as there was no tranflati’on of the
pain before thefe vomitings, there was none of that
corrofive matter to be diicharged; nothing but the
common contents of the ftomach was to be feen.
Thefe vomitings, however, procured the patient fome
eafe ; but the fit of the gout went on till the third
paroxyfm was over, which ended as has been related.
“ As the crifis in this cafe is uncommon, I muft
take notice of a fymptom or two, which were no lefs
extraordinary, in both thefe fits of the gout.
“ A moft profufe fweat attended the patient every
morning, during the whole co.urfe of the fits; which
was fo very offenfive, and at the fame time his breath
fo uncommonly (linking, that neither the patient him-
felf, nor thofe who waited on him, were ever fenfible
of the like.
“ His linen was tinged as with faffron ; and his urine
very high coloured, of almoft as deep a red as claret:
but, upon the critical vomitings, every one of thefe
fymptoms difappeared with the difeafe.
“ On the ninth of December 1 755, he was attacked
again in one foot. The fymptoms, however, were fo
very mild, that be took no notice of them to his fami¬
ly, till the 12th: from that day the pain was aggra-
C I N E. 4723
vated, and the fwelling greatly increafed, by walking, Practice
and riding in a coach. On the 17th it became ex-   
tremely violent, particularly in the heel; when it
inftantaneoufly left the parts affeded, and in the fame
manner and with equal velocity, (as in the two former
fits,) it flew into the calves of his legs, thighs, and
abdomen ; and when it had reached the ftomach, it
caufed him to vomit the fame kind of corrofive acid as
in the two former fits ; and though the quantity was
no more than a tea-fpoonful, he became perfe&ly well
in two days.
“ The fame fymptoms of fetid urine, and offenfive
fweats, attended the patient in this fhort paroxyfm, as
in thofe of 1753 and 1754 ; the fweat continued but
two nights, and the-urine fetid only 48 hours.
“ As Mr Rook had experienced fo great and hap¬
py effefts from the former critical vomitings, he was
greatly difappointed upon finding the quantity evacua¬
ted fo very fmall ; for which reafon he immediately at¬
tempted to increafe it, by drinking three pints of warm
water (which was at hand), but in vain ; for neither
that, nor the ufe of his finger, could provoke to an
evacuation, which was begun and finiihed by nature:
for though the quantity evacuated was fo very fmall,
yet as it was equally corrofive, and produced the fame
effeft, the difcharge muft be accounted as truly criti¬
cal as the others were.
“ During the firft of thefe fits, in the year 1752,
a hard tumour had appeared on the fide of the meta-
tarfus near the middle of the right foot, which conti¬
nued till after the third critical vomiting; when it was
refolved, and totally difappeared, upon the difcharge
of a vifeid matter, like the white of an egg, with a
few fmall chalk-ftones from the end of the middle toe
of the fame foot. This difcharge happened about four
or five days before the patient was feized with a regu¬
lar fit in April 1755. ®ut k >s t° be remarked, that
this laft fit continued three or four weeks, and went
off in the common way, without any of the critical
difeharges of vomiting, urine, or fweat; but left on
one hand three, and on the other two, fingers loaded
with chalk-ftones ; with this peculiar fymptom, that
when the weather was cold thofe fingers were affedled
with a moft exquifue pain, which was always removed
by heat.
“ But not long after this laft-mentioned fit, a large
quantity of chalk-ftones were extra&ed from the bot¬
tom of the left foot, near the ball of the great toe, and
that from time to time for about three or four months.
On the 19th of January 1756, (the wound occafion-
ed by the chalk-ftones being ftill open) he was feized
with a fever, without any fymptom of the gout: the
fever went off on the third day, with the fame kind of
critical fweat and urine as always accompanied the
acid vomitings in the forementioned fits. On the
fourth day from the attack of the fever, a fit of the
gout came on, with the common fymptoms, in both
feet; which continued with violence for about a week,
with frequent retching and vomiting, but without
bringing up more than the common contents of the
ftomach. At this time an uncommon itching in the
bottom of the foot and ball of the great toe from
whence the chalk-ftones had been extra£led, torment¬
ed the patient for five or fix hours ; upon his gently
rubbing the part, he was very fenfible of a fluftuation
4724
Practice of fome matter, which foon appeared to flow at firft
in fmall quantities from the open orifice in the ball
of the toe: upon preffing the part, about a tea-cup full
of a liquid chalky matter was colledted. The next
morning the patient made a large opening with an im-
pofthume knife, which produced more than half a pint
of 3 bloody ferous matter, full of chalk ftones, which
proved as truly critical as the vomitings of the corro-
five acid did in the cafes above-mentioned ; for the
orifice from whence the chalk-ftones firft iffued, was
very foon healed, and the gentleman continues in per¬
fect health.”
3*o LXIV. AR.THUOPROSIS, Genus XXV.
Lumbago pfoadica, Sauv. fp. 6. Fordyce, Pra&ice
of Phyfic, P. II. p. 70.
Lumbago apoftematofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
Lumbago ah arthrocace, Sauv. fp 17.
Ifchias ex abfceflu, Sauv. fp. 6.
Morbus coxarius, De Haen, Rat. Med. Vol. I.
c. xxxii.
This is a difeafe very much refembling the rheuma-
tifm; but differing both from it and the gout, in that
it occafions fuppurations, which they feldom or never
do. It frequently, according to Sauvages, attacks the
mufcle pfoas; and occafions excruciating pains, and
then colle&ions of matter.
The only cure is, if fuppuration cannot be prevented,
to lay open the part where the matter is contained,
which would otherwife be abforbed, and occafion a
fatal he&ic.
321 Order III. EXANTHEMATA.
Exanthemata, Sag. Clafs X.
Phlegmafise exanthematicse, Sauv. Clafs III. Ord. I.
Morbi exanthematici, Lin. Clafs I. Ord. II.
Febres exaathefnaticse, Vog. Clafs I. Ord. II.
322 Genus XXVI. ERYSIPELAS, or St An¬
thony’s Fire.
Eryfipelas Sauv. gen. 97. Lin. to. Sag. gen. 296.
Fcbris eryfipelacea, Vog. 68. Hoffm. II. 98.
LXV. Erysipelas with Bltfters. Sp. I.
323 Eryfipelas rofa, Sauv. fp 1. Sennert de febr. lib. ii.
c. 15.
Febris eryfipelatofa, S>ydenha7ti, fed. vi. cap. 5.
Eryfipelas typhodes, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelas peftilens, Sauv. fp. 5.
Eryfipelas contagiofum, Sauv. fp. 9.
Defcription. The eryfipelas of the face, where this
affeftion very frequently appears, comes on with a
cold fhivering, and other fymptoms of pyrexia. The
hot ftage of this is frequently attended with a confu-
flon of the head, and fome degree of delirium ; and
.-almoft always with drowfinefs, and perhaps coma.
The pulfe is always frequent, and commonly full and
hard.—When thefe fymptoms have continued for one,
two, or at moft three days, an erythema appears on
fome part of the face. This at firft: is of no great
extent; but gradually fpreads from the part Tt firft
occupied to the other parts of the face, till it has
Part II.
affefted the whole; and frequently from the face it Practice
fpreads over the hairy fcalp, or defeends on fome *
part of the cheek. As the rednefs fpreads, it com¬
monly leaves, or at leaft is abated in the parts it had
before occupied. All the parts which the rednefs
affefts are at the fame time affedted with fome fwelling,
which continues for fome time after the rednefs has
abated. The whole face becomes confiderably turgid;
and the eye-lids are often fo much fwelled as entirely
to fliut’up the eyes. When the rednefs and fwelling
have continued for fome time, there commonly arife,
fooner or later, blifters of a larger or fmaller fize on
feveral parts of the face. Thefe contain a thin colour-
lefs liquor, which fooner or later runs out. The fur-
face of the fltin, in the bliftered places, fometimes
becomes livid and blackifti; but this feldom goes
deeper, or difeovers any degree of gangrene affedting
the fltin. On the parts of the face not affedfed with
blifters, the cuticle fuffers, towards the end of tlie
difeafe, a confiderablc defquamation. Sometimes the
tumour of the eye-lids ends in a fuppuration.
The inflammation coming upon the face does not
produce any remiflion of the fever which had before
prevailed ; and fometimes the fever increafes with the
fpreading and increafing inflammation. The inflamma¬
tion commonly continues for eight or ten days; and,
for the fame time, the fever and fymptoms attending
it alfo continue. In the progrefs of the difeafe, the
delirium and coma attending it fometimes go on in¬
creafing, and the patient dies apopledfic on the fevenih,
ninth, or eleventh day of the difeafe. In fuch cafes
it has been commonly fuppofed, that the difeafe is
tranflated from the external to the internal parts.
But Dr Cullen apprehends that the affe&ion of the
brain is merely a communication from the external
affection, as this continues increafing at the fame
time with the internal. When the fatal event does
not take place, the inflammation, after having affeifted
the whole face, and perhaps the other external parts
of the head, ceafes, and with that the fever alfo ; and,
without any other crifis, the patient returns to hia
ordinary health. This difeafe is not commonly con¬
tagious; but as it may arife from an acrid matter
externally applied, fo it is poffible that the difeafe
may fometimes be communicated from one perfon to
another. Perfon s who have once laboured under this
difeafe are liable to returns of it.
Prognofis. The event of this difeafe may be fore-
feen from the ftate of the fymptoms which denote
more or lefs the affe&ion of the brain- If neither
delirium nor coma come on, the difeafe is feldomt
attended with any danger; but when thefe fymp¬
toms appear early in the difeafe, and are in a confi-
derable degree, the utmoft danger is to be appre¬
hended.
Cure. The eryfipelas of the face is to be cured
much in the fame manner as phlegmonic inflamma¬
tions; by blood-letting, cooling purgatives, and by-
employing every part of the antiphlogiftic regimen.
The evacuations of blood-letting and purging are to
be employed more or lefs, according to the urgency
of fymptoms; particularly thofe of the pyrexia, and of
thofe which mark an afifedlion of the brain. As the
pyrexia continues, and often increafes with the in¬
flammation of the face, fo the evacuations above-
mentioned
MEDICINE.
ifipart II.
acticf mentioned are to be employed at any time of the
 difeafe.
In this, as in other difeafes of the head, it is
proper to put the patient, as often as he can eafily
bear it, into fomewhat of an ereft pofture; and as in
this difeafe there is always an external affe&ion, fo
various external applications have been propofed to be
made to the part affefted; but almoft all of them are
of doubtful effect.
An eryfipelas frequently appears on other parts of
the body befides the face, and fuch other eryfipelatous
inflammations frequently end in fuppuration ; but
thefe cafes are feldom dangerous. At coming on they
are fometimes attended with drowfinefs, and even
with fome delirium j but this feldom happens, and
thefe fymptoms do not continue after the inflamma¬
tion is formed; and Dr Cullen does not remember to
have feen an jnftance of the tranflation of an inflam-
|.. mation from the limbs to an internal part; and tho’
thefe inflammations of the limbs be attended with
pyrexia, they feldom require the fame evacuations as
the eryfipelas of the face. It is probable, however,
that this difeafe is fometimee attended with, or is the
fymptom of, a putrid fever; and iu fuch cafes the eva¬
cuations above-mentioned may be improper, and the
ufe of the bark neceflary; but our author remembers
not to have feen any cafes of this kind,
:■! 324 LXVI. Erysipelas with Pbjyfiena. Sp. II.
Eryfipelas zofter, Sauv. fp. 8.
Zona; Anglis, T^Shikgles, RuJJel de tab. gland,
p. 124. Hift. 35.
Herpes Zofter, Sauv. fp. 9.
This differs from the former in no other way than
in being attended with an eruption of phly&ente or
fmall watery bladders on feveral parts of the body.—
The method of cure is the fame.
| 325 LXVII. PESTIS, the Plague. Gen. XXVII.
Peftis, Sauv. gen. 91. Lin. 2. Junck. 78.
Febris peftilentialis, Vog. 33. Hoffm. II. 93.
Peftis benigna, Sauv. fp. 2. Peftis Maililienfis,
Clafs III. Traite de la pefte, p. 41. Ejufdem
peftis, Cl. $ta Traite, p. 228.
Peftis remittens, Sauv. fp. 9.
Peftis vulgaris, Sauv. fp. I. Peftis Maflil. Cl. ii.
Traite, p. 38- Ejnfd. Cl. iii. & iv. Trailc,
p. 225, &c. Waldfchmidt. de pefte Holfatica,
apud Halleri DifT. Praft. tom. v. Che not. de pefte
Tranfylvanica, 1755, 1759* De Haen, Rat. Med.
pars xiv.
Peftis Egyptiaca, Sauv. fp. 11. Alpin. de Med.
Egypt.
Peftis interna, Sauv. fp. 3. Peft. Mafiil. Cl. I. Traite,
p. 37—224.
Defcription. Of this diftemper Dr Cullen declines
yriviag any particular hiftory, becaufe he never faw it;
from the accounts of other authors, however, he is
of opinion, that the circumftances peculiarly charac-
teriflic of it, efpecially of its more violent and dan¬
gerous ftates, are, 1. The great lofs of ftrength in
the animal fun&ions, which often appears early in the
difeafe. 2. The ftupor, giddinefs, and confequent
daggering, which refembles drunkennefs, or the head-
ach and various delirium, all of them denote a grea t
47*S
diforder in the funftions of the brain. 3. Anxiety,Practice
palpitation, fyncope, and efpecially the weaknefs and
irregularity of the pulfe, denote a confiderable di-
fturbance in the a&ion of the heart. 4. Naufea and
vomiting, particularly the vomiting of bile, which (hews
an accumulation of vitiated bile in the gall-bladder and
biliary dufts, and from thence derived into the in-
teftines and ftomach ; which denote a confiderable
fpafm, and lofs of tone in the extreme veflels on the
furface of the body. 5. The buboes and carbuncles,,
which denote an acrimony prevailing in the fluids ^
and, laftly. The petechise, haemorrhages, and colli¬
quative diarrhoea, which denote a putrefeent ten¬
dency prevailing in a great degree in the mafs of
blood.
To thefe chara&eriftics of the plague enumerated;
by Dr Cullen, we (hall add one mentioned by Sir John
Pringle, which, though perhaps lefs frequent than
the others, yet feems worthy of notice. It is this,.
That in the plague there is an extraordinary enlarge¬
ment of the heart and liver. In nine diffedtions of
bodies dead of the plague at Marfeilles, this extraor¬
dinary enlargement of the heart is taken notice of in
them all, and of the liver in feven of them. The ac¬
count was fent to the Royal Society by M. Didier,
one of the phyficians to the king of France, and hath*
been publifhed in the Pbilofophical TranfaQions. In
the firft cafe, the author takes notice, that “ the heart
was of an extraordinary bignefs; and the liver was of
double the natural fize.—Cafe 2. The heart was of a
prodigious bignefs, and the liver much enlarged.—
Cafe 3. The heart double the natural bignefs.—Cafe 4.
The heart was very large, and the liver was bigger
and harder than ordinary.—Cafe 5. The heart was of
a prodigious bignefs.—Cafe 6. The heart was larger
than in its natural ft ate ; the liver alfo was very large.
— Cafe 7. The heart was of a prodigious fize, and
the liver was very large.—Cafe 8. The heart was-.
much larger than natural, and the liver of a prodi¬
gious fize. —Cafe 9. The heart was double the natural
bignefs, and the liver was larger than ordinary.”—
This preternatural enlargement Dr Pringle thinks is
owing to the relaxation of the foil'd parts, by which
means they become unable to refift the impetus of
blood, and therefore are eafily extended; as in the cafe
of infancy, where the growth is remarkably quick.
And a fimilar enlargement he takes notice of in the
feurvy, and other putrid difeafes.
Caufes, &c. From a coufideration of the fymptoms-
above-mentioned, Dr Cullen concludes, that the plague
is owing to a fpecific contagion, often fuddenly pro¬
ducing the moft confiderable debility in the nervous
fyftem or moving powers, and of a general putrefcency
in the fluids.
Prevention. Here we muft refer to all thofe me¬
thods of preventing and removing the incipient con¬
tagion of putrid fevers, which have been fo fully enume¬
rated. Dr Cullen is perfuaded that the difeafe never
arifes in the northern parts of Europe, but in confe-
qnence of being imported from fome other country.
The magiftrate’s firft care therefore ought to be to
prevent the importation; and this may generally be
done by a due attention to bills of health, and to the
proper performance of quarantines.—With refpedi to
the latter, he is of opinion, that the quarantines of:
petfons
MEDICINE.
4726
Practics
M E D I
: perfons may with fafety be much lefs than 40 days;
'and if this were allowed, the execution of the quaran¬
tine would be more exadl and certain, as the tempta¬
tion to break it would be in a great meafure avoided.
With refpe<5t to the quarantine of goods, it cannot be
perfeft unlefs the fufpe&ed goods be unpacked, duly
ventilated, and other means be employed for cor-
refting the infe&ion they may carry; and if all this
be properly done, it is probable that the time com¬
monly prefcribed for quarantine may be alfo. flior-
tened.
A fecoud meafure in the way of prevention is re¬
quired, when an infe&ion has reached and prevailed in
any place, to prevent that infedlion from fpreading in¬
to others. This can only be done by preventing the
inhabitants or the goods of any infefted place from
going out of it, till they have undergone a proper
quarantine.
The third meafure, and which ought to be em¬
ployed with great care, is, to prevent the infeftion
from fpreading among the inhabitants of a place in
which it has arifen. And in this cafe, a great deal
may be done by the magiftrate, 1. By allowing as
many of the inhabitants as are free from infedtion, and
are not neceflary to the fervice of the place, to go out
of it. 2. By difcharging all affemblies, or unnecef-
fary intercourfe of the people. 3. By ordering fome
neceffary communications to be performed without
contadt. 4. By making fuch arrangements and pro-
vifions as may render it eafyforthe families remaining
to (hut themfelves up in their own houfes. 5. By al¬
lowing perfons to quit houfes where an infedtion ap¬
pears, upon condition that they go into lazarettoes.
6. By ventilating, and purifying, and deftroying, at
the public expence, all infedted goods. 7. By avoid¬
ing hofpitals, and providing feparate apartments for
infedfed perfons.
The fourth and laft part of the bufinefs of preven¬
tion refpedls the eondudt of perfons neceffarily remain¬
ing in infedled places, efpecially thofe obliged to have
fome communication with perfons infedled. Thofe
obliged to remain in places infedled, but not to have
any near communication with the Tick, muft avoid all
near communication with other perfons or their goods;
and it is probable, that a fmall diflance will ferve, if,
at the fame time, there be no ftream of air to carry
the effluvia of perfons or goods to fome diftance. Thofe
who are obliged to have a near communication with
the fick ought to avoid any of the debilitating caufes
which render the body fufceptible of infedfion, as a
fpare diet, intemperance in drinking, excefs in venery,
cold, fear, or other deprelflng paffions of the mind.
A full diet of animal-food is alfo to be avoided, be-
caufe it increafes the irritability of the body, and fa¬
vours the operation of contagion ; and indigeflion,
whether from the quantity or quality of the food, con¬
tributes very much to the fame.
Befides thefe, it is probable that the moderate ufe
of wine and fpirituous liquors, moderate exercife, and
the cold bath, may be of ufe; tonic medicines alfo, of
which the Peruvian bark is defervedly accounted the
chief, may alfo be ufed with great probability of fuc-
cefs. If any thing is to be expedled from antifeptics,
Dr Cullen thinks camphire preferable to any other. In
general, however, every one is to be indulged in the
CINE. Part IIJ
medicine of which he hath the bed opinion, provided Pa-*
it is not evidently hurtful. Whether blues be ufeful in
preferving from the effe&s of contagion, Dr Cullen
doth not determine.
Cure. Here, according to Dr Cullen, the indica¬
tions are the fame as in ftver in general, but are not
all equally important. The meafures for moderating
the violence of rea&ion, which operate by diminilhing
the adtion of the heart and arteries, have feldom any
place here, excepting that the antiphlogiftic regimen
is generally proper. Some phyficlans have recom¬
mended bleeding, and Sydenham even feems to think
it an effeftual cure; but Dr Cullen thinks, that for
the moft part it is unneceffary, and in many cafes
might do much hurt. Purging has alfo been recom¬
mended; and in fome degree it may be ufefu), in draw¬
ing off the putrefeent matter frequently prefent in the
inteftines ; but a large evacuation this way may cer¬
tainly be hurtful.
The moderating the violence of readlion, as far as
it can be done, by taking off the fpafm of the ex¬
treme veffels, is a meafure of the utmoft neceflity in
the cure of the plague ; and the whole of the means
formerly mentioned, as fuited to this indication, are
extremely proper. The giving an emetic, at the firft
approach of the difeafe, would probably be of great
fervice ; and it is probable, that, at fome other periods
of the difeafe, emetics might be ufeful, both by eva¬
cuating bile abounding in the alimentary canal, and by
taking off the fpafm of the extreme veffels.
From fome principles with refpedt to fever in gene¬
ral, and with refpeft to the plague in particular, our
author is of opinion, that after the exhibition of the
firft vomit, the body Ihould be difpofed to fweat; but
this fweat Ihould be raifed only to a moderate degree,
though it muft be continued for 24 hours or more if
the patient bears it eafily. The fweating is to be ex¬
cited and conducted according to the rules laid down
under Synocha; and muft be promoted by the plen¬
tiful ufe of diluents rendered more grateful by vege¬
table acids, or more powerful by being impregnated
with fome portion of neutral falls. To fupport the,
patient under the continuance of the fweat, a little
weak broth, acidulated with the juice of lemons, may
be given frequently, and fometimes a little wine if
the heat of the body be not confiderable. If fudorific
medicines are judged neceffary, opiates will be found
moft effedlual and fafe ; but they fhould not be com¬
bined with aromatics, and probably may be more ef¬
fectual if joined with a portion of emetics and of neu¬
tral falls. But if, notwithftanding the ufe of emetics
andfudorifics in the beginning, the difeafe Ihould ftill
continue, the cure muft turn upon the ufe of means
for obviating debility and putrefcency ; and for this
purpofe tonic medicines, efpecially the Peruvian bark,
and cold drink, are the moft proper. For the treat¬
ment of buboes and carbuncles, fee the article Sur¬
gery.
Genus XXVIII. VARIOLA; the Small-Pox. 326
Variola, gen. 92. Z/«. 3. Sag-, gen. 290.
Febris variolofa, Vog. 35. Hoffm. II. 49.
Variolas, Boerh. 1371. Junck, 76.
tiXVIIL
M E D I
LXVII. The DiJHnft Small-pox. Sp. I.
Variola difcreta benigna, Sauv. fp. 2.
Variolasregulares difcretae, Sydenh. fe&.iii. cap 2.
Variolas difcretae fimplices, Helvet. Obf. fp. x.
Variola difcreta complicata, Sauv. fp. 2. Helvet.
fp. 2.
Variolas anomalas, Sydenh. feft. iv. cap. 6.
Variola difcreta dyfenteriodes, Sauv. fp. 4. Sy¬
denh. fe<ft. iv. cap. 1.
Variola difcreta veficularis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Variola difcreta cryftallina. Mead de variol. cap. 2.
Variola difcreta verrucofa, Sauv. fp. 6. Mead
ibid.
Variola difcfeta filiquofa, Sauv. fp. 7. Freind
Oper. p. 358.
Variola difcreta miliaris, Sauv. fp. 8. Helvet. Obf,
fp- 3-
LXVIII. The Confluent Small-pox. Sp. II.
Variola confluens, Sauv. fp. 9.
Variolas regulares confluentes, ann. 1667. Syden¬
ham. fed. iii. cap. 2.
Variolas confluentes fimplices, Helvet. Obf. fp. 1.
Variola confluens cryftallina, Sauv. fp. 10.
Variola japonica, Kempfer.
Veficulas Divas Barbaras, C. Pif. obf. 149.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. Obf. fp. 1.
Variola confluens cohaerens, Sauv. fp. 11.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 2.
Variola confluens nigra, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham.
feft. v. cap. 4.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 3.
Variola fanguinea. Mead de variolis, cap. 2.
Variola confluens corymbofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 4.
Defcription. In the diftin& fmall-pox, the difeafe
begins with a fynoefia or inflammatory fever. It
generally comes on about mid-day, with fome fymp-
toms of a cold ftage, and commonly with a confi-
derable langour and drowfinefs. A hot ftage is foon
formed, and becomes more confiderable on the fecond
and third day. During this courfe children are liable
to frequent ftartings from their flumbers ; and adults,
if they are kept a-bed, are difpofed to much fweat-
ing. On the third day, children are fometimes
afte&ed with one or two epileptic fits. Towards the
end of the third day the eruption commonly appears,
and gradually increafes during the fourth; appearing
firft on the face, and fucceffively on the inferior
parts, fo as to be completed over the whole body on
the fifth day. From the third day the fever abates,
and againft the fifth it entirely ceafes. The eruption
appears firft in fmall red fpots hardly eminent, but by
degrees rifing into pimples. There are generally but
few on the facebut, even when more numerous, they
are feparate andNliftinft from one another. On the
fifth or fixth day, a fmall veficle, containing an almoft
colourlefs fluid, appears on the top of each pimple.
For two days thefe veficles increafe in breadth only,
and there is a fmall hollow pit in their middle, fo that
they are not raifed into fpheroidical puftules till the
eighth day. Thefe puftules from their firft formation
continue to be furrounded with an exaftly circular in¬
flamed margin, which when they are numerous diffufes
Vol. VI. 2
CINE. 4;
fome inflammation over the neighbouring fkin, fo as to Pr a
give fomewhat of a damalk-rofe colour to the fpaces 
between the puftules. As the puftules increafe in fize,
the face fwells confiderably if they are numerous
on it; and the eye-lids particularly are fo much
fwelled, that the eyes are entirely fhut. As the difeafe
proceeds, the matter in the puftules becomes by degrees
more opaque and white, and at length aflumes a
yellowifh colour. On the eleventh day, the fwelling of
the face is abated, and the puftules feem quite full.
On the top of each a darker fpot appears; and at this
place the puftule, on the eleventh day, or foon after, is
fpontaneoufly broken, and a portion of the matter
oozes out; in confequence of which the puftule is
fhrivelled, and fubfides ; while the matter oozing out
dries, and forms a cruft upon its furface. Sometimes
only a little of the matter oozes out, and what remains
in the puftule becomes thick and even hard. After
fome days, both the crufts and the hardened puftules
fall off, leaving the (kin which they covered of a
brownifli red colour; nor doth it refume its natural
colour till many days after. In fome cafes, where
the matter of the puftules has been more liquid, the
crufts formed by it are later in falling off, and the part
they covered fuffers fome defquamation, which occa-
fions a fmall hollow or pit in it.
On the legs and hands the matter is frequently
abforbed ; fo that at the height of the difeafe, thefe
puftules appear as empty as veficles. On the tenth
and eleventh days, as the fwelling of the face fubfides,
a fwelling arifes in the hands and feet; but which
again fubfides as the puftules come to maturity.
When the puftules on the face are numerous, fome
degree of pyrexia appears on the tenth and eleventh
days, but difappears again after the puftules are fully
ripened ; or perhaps remains in a very flight degree
till the puftules on the feet have finifhed their courfe ;
and it is feldom that any fever continues longer in the
diftimft fmall-pox. When the puftules are numerous
on the face, upon the fixth or feventh day fome uneafi-
nefs in the throat, with a hoarfenefs of the voice, comes
on, and a thin liquid is poured out from the mouth.
Thefe fymptoms increale with the fwelling of the
face ; and the liquids of the mouth and throat be¬
coming thicker are with difficulty thrown out; and
there is at the fame time fome difficulty in fwallowing,
fo that liquids taken in to be fwallowed are frequently
reje&ed or thrown out by the nofe. But all thefe
affeftions of the fauces are abated as the fwelling of
the face fubfides.
In the confluent fmall-pox all the fymptoms above-
mentioned are much more fevere. The eruptive fever
particularly is more violent; the pulfe is more fre¬
quent and more contracted, approaching to that ftate
of pulfe which is obferved in typhus. The coma is
more confiderable, and there is frequently a delirium.
Vomiting alfo frequently attends, efpecially at the
beginning of the difeafe. In very young infants
epileptic fits are fometimes frequent on the firft days
of the difeafe, and fometimes prove fatal before any
eruption appears, or they ufner in a very confluent
and putrid fmall-pox. The eruption appears more
early on the third day, and it is frequentiy preceded
or accompanied with an eryfipelatous emorefcence.
Sometimes the eruption appears in clufters like
the meafles. When the eruption is completed, the
26 S pimples
4728
MEDICINE.
Part II.
Practice pimples are always more numerous upon the face,
and at the fame time fmaller and lefs eminent. Upon
the eruption the fever fuffers fome remiflion, but never
goes off entirely; and after the fifth or fixth day it
increafesagain, and continues to beconfiderable though-
out the remaining part of the difeafe. The veficles
formed on the top of the pimples appear fooner; and
while they increafe in breadth, the do not retain a
circular, but are every way of an irregular figure.
Many of them run into one another, infomuch that
very often the face is covered with one veficle rather
than with a number of puftules. The veficles, as far
as they are anyway feparated, do not arife to a
fpheroidal form, but remain flat, and fometimes the
whole of the face is of an even furface. When the
puftules are in any meafure feparated, they are not
bounded by an inflamed margin, but the part of the
flcin that is free from puftules is commonly pale and
flaccid. The liquor that is in the puftules changes
from a clear to an opaque appearance, and becomes
whitifti or brownifli, but never acquires the yellow
colour and thick confiftence that appears in the diftinft
fmall-pox. The fwelling of the face, which only
fometimes attends the diftinft fmall-pox, always attends
the confluent kind ; it alfo comes on more early, and
arifes to a greater height, but abates confiderably on
the tenth or eleventh day. At this time the puftules
or veficles break and flirivel; pouring out at the fame
time a liquor, which is formed into brown or black
crufts, which do not fall off for a long time after.
Thofe of the face, in falling off, leave the flcin fubjeft
to a defquamation, which pretty certainly produces
pittings. On the other parts of the body the puftules
of the confluent fmall-pox are more diftindt than on
the face ; but never acquire the fame maturity and
eofiftence of pus as in the properly diftindl kind.
The falivation, which fometimes only attends the
diftinft fmall-pox, very conftantly attends the conflu¬
ent; and both the falivation and the affe&ion of the
fauces above-mentioned, are, efpecially in adults, in
a higher degree. In infants a diarrhoea comes fre¬
quently in place of a falivation.
In this kind of fmall-pox there is often a very con-
fiderable putrefcency of the fluids, as appears from
petechise, ferous veficles, under which the flcin ftiews
a difpofition to gangrene, and from bloody urine or
other haemorrhages; all of which fymptoms frequently
attend this difeafe. In the confluent fmall-pox alfo,
the fever, which, had only fuffered a remiflion from the
eruption to the maturation, at or immediately after this
period is frequently renewed again with confiderable
violence. This is what has been called the fecondary
fever, and is of various duration and event.
Caufer,* 3i.c. It is evident that the fmall-pox is
originally produced by a contagion; and that this
contagion is a ferment with refpeft to the fluids of the
human body, which aflimilates a great part of them to
its own nature; and it is probable, that the quantity
thus alfimilated is,, in proportion to their feveral bulks,
nearly the fame in different perfons. This quantity
paffes again out of the body, partly by infenfible per-
fpiration, and partly by being depofited in puftules;
but if the quantities generated be nearly equal, the
quantities pafling out of the body the two ways above-
mentioned are very unequal k different perfons. The
caufes which determine more of the variolous matter P* acticj
to pafs by perfpiration, or to form puftules, are pro- " “
bably certain circumftances of the flcin, which deter¬
mine more or lefs of the variolous matter to flick in
it, or to pafs freely through it. The circumftance of
the flcin which feems to determine the variolous matter
to flick in. it, is a certain ftate of inflammation de¬
pending much on the heat of it: thus we have many
inftances of parts of the body, from being more heated,
having a greater number of puftules than other parts.
Thus parts covered with plafters, efpecially thofe of
the ftimulant kind, have more puftules than others.
—Certain circumftances alfo, fuch as adult age,
and full living, determining to a phlogiftic diathefis,
feem to produce a greater number of puftules, and
vice verfa. It is therefore probable, that an inflam¬
matory ftate of the whole fyflem, and more particu¬
larly of the flcin, gives occafion to a greater number of
puftules; and the caufes of this may produce moft of
the.other circumftances of the confluent fmall pox, fuch
as the time of eruption, the continuance of the fever,
the effufion of a more putrefcent matter and lefs fit to
be converted into pus, together with the form and
other circumftances of the puftules.
Prognojis. The more exaftly the difeafe retains
the form of the diftindl kind, it is the fafer; and the
more completely the difeafe takes the form of the
confluent kind, it is the more dangerous. It is only
when the diftindl kind fhews a great number of pu¬
ftules on the face or otherwife, by fever or putref¬
cency, approaching to the circumftances of the con¬
fluent, that the diftimSt kind is attended with any
danger.
In the confluent kind the danger is always very
confiderable : and the more violent and permanent
the fever is, the greater the danger; and efpecially
in proportion to the increafe of the fymptoms of pu¬
trefcency. When the putrid difpofition is very great,
the difeafe fometimes proves fatal before the eighth
day ; but in moft cafes death happens on the ele¬
venth, and fometimes not till the fourteenth or feven-
teenth day.
Though the fmall-pox may not prove immediately
fatal, the more violent kinds are often followed by a
morbid ftate of the body, fometimes of very dan¬
gerous event. Thefe confequences, according to Dr
Cullen, may be imputed fometimes to an acrid matter
produced by the preceding difeafe, and depofited in
different parts ; and fometimes to an inflammatory
diathefis produced and determined to particular parts
of the body.
Cure. The art of medicine hath never yet afforded a
method of preventing the eruption of the fmall • pox after
the contagion is received; all that can be done is, to ren¬
der the difeafe more mild, which is generally effedled by
Inoculation. It is not to befuppofed that the mere
giving of the infe&ion artificially could make any dif¬
ference in the nature of the difeafe, wf.s it not that cer¬
tain precautions are commonly ufed in the cafe of thofe
w’ho are inoculated, which cannot be ufed in the cafe of
thofe who receive them naturally. Thefe meafures, ac¬
cording to Dr Cullen,, are chiefly the following. ■
i. The choofing for the fubjedl of inoculation per¬
fons otherwife free from difeafe, and not liable from,
their age or otherwife to any incidental difeafe.
2. The.
II. M E D I
ce 2. The choofing that time of life which is moil fa¬
vourable to a mild difeafe.
3. The choofing for the pra&ice a feafon mod fa¬
vourable to a mild difeafe.
4. The preparing the perfon to be inoculated, by
enjoining abftinence from animal-food for fome time
before inoculation.
5. The preparing the perfon by courfes of mercu¬
rial and antimonial medicines.
6. The taking care at the time of inoculation to
avoid cold, intemperance, fear, or other circumftances
which might aggravate the future difeafe.
7. After thefe preparations and precautions, the
choofing a fit matter to be employed in inoculation, by
taking it from a perfon of a found conftitution, and
free from any difeafe, or fufpicion of it; by taking it
from a perfon who has had the fmall-pox of the moft
benign kind ; and laftly, by taking the matter from
fuch perfon as foon as it has appeared in the puftules,
either on the part inoculated, or on other parts of the
body.
8. The introducing, by inoculation, but a fmall
portion of the contagious matter.
9. After inoculation, the continuing of the vege¬
table diet, and the employment of mercurial and anti¬
monial medicines, and at the fame time employing fre¬
quent purging.
10. Both before and after inoculation, taking care
to avoid external heat, either from the fun, artificial
fires, warm chambers, much clothing, or being much
in bed ; and, on the contrary, expofing the perfon to
a free and coo! air.
11. Upon the appearance of the eruptive fever, the
rendering that moderate by the employment of pur¬
gatives; by the ufe of cooling and antifeptic acids;
and efpecially by expofing the perfon frequently to a
cool, and even a cold air, at the fame time giving free¬
ly of cold drink.
12. After the eruption, the continuing the appli¬
cation of cold air, and the ufe of purgatives, during
the courfe of the difeafe, till the puftules are fully ri¬
pened.
On thefe meafures Dr Cullen obferves, that, as the
common infection may often feize perfons under a difea-
fed ftate, which may render the fmall-pox more violent,
it is evident that inoculation muft have a great advantage
by avoiding fuch concurrence. But as the avoiding of this
may in the mean time frequently leave perfons expofed
to the common infe&ion, it is well worth while to in¬
quire what are the difeafed ftates which fhould reftrain
from the pra&ice of inoculation. This is not yet fuf-
ficiently afcertained : for it hath been obferved, that
the fmall-pox has often occurred with a difeafed ftate
of the body, without being thereby rendered more
violent; and it hath alfo been obferved, that fome
difeafes of the Ikin are equally innocent. Our author
is of opinion, that they are difeafes of the febrile kind,
or fuch ailments as induce or aggravate a febrile ftate,
that efpecially give the concurrence which is moft dan¬
gerous with the fmall-pox. He is alfo of opinion,
that though a perfon be in a difeafed ftate, if that
ftate be of uncertain nature andeffed, and at the fame
time the fmall-pox are very common in the neighbour¬
hood, fo that it muft be extremely difficult to guard
againft the common infe&ion, it will always be fafer
CINE. 4729
to give the fmall-pox by inoculation than to leave the Practice
perfon to take them by the common infe&ion.
Though inoculation hath been pra&ifed with fafety
upon perfons of all ages, yet there is reafon to con¬
clude, that adults are more liable to a violent difeafe
than perfons of younger years. At the fame time it
is obferved, that children, in the time of their firft
dentition, are liable, from the irritation of that, to
have the fmall-pox rendered more violent; and that in¬
fants, before the time of dentition, upon receiving the
contagion of the fmall-pox are liable to be afflided
with epileptic fits, which frequently prove fatal. Hence
it is evident, that though circumftances may admit
and approve of inoculation at any age, yet for the
moft part it will be advantageous to choofe perfons af¬
ter the firft dentition is over, and before the time of
puberty. The operation of inoculation may be per¬
formed at any feafon of the year; yet as it is certain
that the cold of winter may increafe the inflammatory,
and the heats of fummer increafe the putrefcent, ftate
of the fmall-pox, it is highly probable that inocula¬
tion may have fome advantage from avoiding the ex¬
tremes either of cold or heat.
As the ufe of animal-food may increafe both the in¬
flammatory and putrefcent ftate of the human body,
fo it muft render perfons, in receiving the contagion of
the fmall-pox, lefs fecure againft a violent difeafe;
and therefore inoculation may derive fome advantage
by enjoining abftinence from animal-food for fome
time before the operation is performed : but Dr Cul¬
len is of opinion, that a longer time is neceflary than
what is commonly prefcribed.
Mercurial and antimonial preparations may have
fome effed in determining to a more free perfpira-
tion, and therefore may be of fome ufe in preparing
a perfon for the fmall-pox ; but there are many ob-
fervations which render their ufe doubtful. The
quantity of both thefe medicines, particularly the an¬
timony, commonly employed, is too inconfiderable to
have any effeds. Mercurials indeed have been often
employed more freely; but even their falutary effeds
have not been evident, and they have fometimes been
evidently produdive of mifchief. It is therefore much
to be doubted, whether inoculation really derives any
benefit from thefe preparatory courfes or not.
It has been often obferved, in the cafe of almoft all
contagions, that cold, intemperance, fear, and fome
other circumftances, concurring with the application
of the contagion, have greatly aggravated the future
difeafe; it muft undoubtedly be the fame in the cafe
of the fmall-pox: and it is certain that inoculation
muft derive a great advantage, perhaps its principal
one, from avoiding the concurrences above-men¬
tioned.
It has commonly been fuppofed, that inoculation
derives fome advantage from the choice of the matter
employed in it; but it is very doubtful if any choice
be here neceflary, or can be of any benefit in deter¬
mining the ftate of the difeafe. It is not indeed pro¬
bable that there is any difference of contagion pro-
ducirig the fmall-pox; for there are innumerable in-
ftances of the contagion arifing from a perfon who
labours under the diftind fmall-pox producing the
confluent kind, and the contrary. Since the pradice
of inoculation hath been introduced, it hath alfo been
26 S 2 obferved,
473° M E D I
Pn act ice obfsrved, that the fame variolous matter would in one
perfon produce the diftind, and in another the con¬
fluent fmall-pox. It is therefore highly probable, that
the difference of the fmall-pox does not depend upon any
difference of the contagion, but upon fome difference in
the ftate of theperfons to whom it is applied, or in the
(late of certain circumftances concurring with the ap¬
plication of the contagion.
Some have fuppofed, that inoculation has an advan¬
tage over the natural infe&ion, by introducing only a
fmall portion of contagious matter into the body; but
this is by no means well afcertained. It is not known
what quantity of contagion is introduced into the
body by the common infe&ion of the fmall-pox; and
it is probable the quantity is not great: nor, though it
were larger than that thrown in by inoculation, is it
certain what the effedls would be. A certain quan¬
tity of ferment may be neceffary to excite fermenta¬
tion in a given mafs; but when that quantity is given,
the fermentation and affimilation are extended to the
whole mafs; and we do not find that a greater quan¬
tity than is juft neceffary, either increafes the a&ivity
of the fermentation, or more certainly fecures the
affimilation of the whole. In the cafe of the fmall-
pox, a confiderable difference in the quantity of the
contagion introduced, hath not fhewn any effefts in
modifying the difeafe.
Purging has the effeft of diminiftiing the aflivi-
ty of the fanguiferous fyftem, and of obviating the
inflammatory ftate of it; and therefore it is pro¬
bable, that the frequent ufe of cooling purgatives gives
a confiderable advantage to the practice of inocula¬
tion ; and probably this is alfo obtained by diminifti¬
ing the determination to the flcin. It feems alfo
probable, that mercurials and antimonials are ufeful
only as they make part of the purging courfe.
It is probable that the ftate of the fmall pox de¬
pends very much upon the ftate of the eruptive fever,
and particularly in avoiding the inflammatory ftate of
the Ikin ; and therefore it is alfp probable, that the
meafures taken for moderating the eruptive fever,
and inflammatory ftate of the fkin, afford the greateft
improvement which has been made in the praftice of
inoculation. The tendency of purging, and the ufe
of acids to this purpofe, is fufficiently obvious: and
upon the fame grounds we fliould fuppofe that blood¬
letting might be ufeful; but probably this has-been
omitted, and perhaps other remedies might be fo, fince
we have found a more powerful and effeftual one in the
application of cold air and the ufe of cold drink.
It hath been the practice of inoculators to continue
the ufe of purgatives and the application of cold air
after the eruption ; but it cannot be faid to give
any particular advantages to inoculation, and the
employment of purgatives feems often to .have led to
an abufe. When the ftate of the eruption is deter¬
mined, when the number of puftules is very fmall,
and the fever hath entirely ceafed, the fafety of the
dileafe may be faid to be afcertained, and further
remedies abfolutely fuperfluous: in fuch cafes there¬
fore the ufe of purgatives is unneceffary, and may be
hurtful.
It remains now only to confider the treatment of
the fmall-pox, when the fymptoms (hall be violent, as
may fometimes happen, even after inoculation and
CINE. Part II
every remedy and precaution have been ufed. The Pract
caufe of this is not afcertained, but it feems to be a
putrefcent tendency of the fluids. When therefore,
from the prevailing of fmall-pox as an epidemic, and
more efpecially when it is known that a perfon not
formerly affefted with the difeafe has been expofed to
the infe&ion, if fuch perfon (hould be attacked with
the fymptoms of fever, there can be little doubt that
it is the fever of the fmall-pox, and therefore he is to
be treated in every refpeft as if he had received the
difeafe by inoculation. He is to be freely expdfed to
cool air, to be purged, and to have cooling acids given
liberally. If thefe meafures moderate the fever, no¬
thing more is neceffary : but if the nature of the
fever be uncertain ; or if, with fufpicions of the fmall-
pox, the fever be violent; or even if, knowing the
diftemper to be the fmall-pox, the meafures above-
mentioned do not moderate the fever fufficiently;
venefeftion will be proper ; and more efpecially if the
perfon be an adult, of a plethoric habit, and ac-
cuftomed to full living. In the fame circumftances it
will always be proper to give a vomit; which is ufeful
in the beginning of all fevers, and efpecially in this,
where a determination to the ftomach appears by pain
and fpontaneous vomiting.
It frequently happens, efpecially in infants, that,
during the eruptive fever of the fmall-pox, convulfions
occur. Of thefe, if only one or two fits appear on
the evening preceding the eruption, they give a
prognoftic of a mild difeafe, and require no remedy :
but if they occur more early, are violent, and fre¬
quently repeated, they are very dangerous, and re¬
quire a fpeedy remedy ; and here bleeding and blif-
tering are of no fervice, the only effectual medicine is
an opiate given in a large dofe.
Thefe are the remedies neceffary during the erup¬
tive fever ; and if, upon the eruption, the puftules on
the face are diftinft, and their number few, the difeafe
requires no further remedies. But when, upon the
eruption, the number of pimples on the face is confider¬
able, when they are notdiftiniff; and efpecially if, upon
the fifth day, the fever does not fuffer a confiderable
remiffipn ; the difeafe ftill requires a great deal of
attention.
If, after the eruption, the fever (hall ftill continue,
the avoiding of heat and the continuing to expofe the
body to a cool air will ftill be proper. If the fever
is confiderable, with a full hard pulfe, in an adult
perfon, a bleeding will be neceffary, and more cer¬
tainly a cooling purgative : but it will be feldom ne¬
ceffary to repeat the bleeding, as a lofs of ftrength
very foon comes on ; but the repetition of a purga¬
tive, or the frequent ufe of laxative glyfters, is com¬
monly advantageous.
When a lofs of ftrength, with other marks of a
putrefcent tendency of the fluids, appears, the Peru¬
vian bark mult be given in fubltance, and in large
quantity. In the fame cafe, the ufe of acids and of
nitre is advantageous, and commonly it is proper alfo
to give wine very freely. From the fifth day of the
difeafe throughout the whole courfe of it, it is proper
to give an opiate once or twice a-day; taking care at
the fame time to obviate coftivenefs, by purgatives or by
laxative glyfters. From the eighth to the eleventh day
of a violent difeafe, it will be proper to lay on blifters
t IT. MED
ice fucceffively on different parts of the body, and that
“ without regard to the parts being covered with pu-
ftules. Blifters are alfo to be applied to the external
fauces, in cafe of difficult deglutition, and vifcid fa-
liva and mucus, which are thrown out with difficulty,
at the fame time that detergent gargles are to be dili¬
gently ufed. During the whole courfe of this difeafe,
when a confiderable fever isprefent, antimonial medi¬
cines may be given in naufeating dofes with ad¬
vantage, and thefe commonly anfwer the purpofe of
purgatives.
The remedies above-mentioned are frequently pro¬
per from the fifth day till the fuppuration is finifhed.
But as after that period the fever is fometimes conti¬
nued and increafed; or as fometimes, when there was
little or no fever before, a fever now arifes and conti¬
nues with confiderable danger; this is called the /earn-
dary fever^ and requires a particular treatment.
When the fecondary fever follows the diftinft fmall-
pox, and the pulfie is full and hard, the cafe is to be
treated as an inflammatory affe&ion, by bleeding and
purging; but the fecondary fever which follows the
confluent kiud, is to be confidered as a putrid difeafe,
and bleeding is improper. Some purging may be ne-
ceffary, but the remedies to be chiefly depended upon
are the Peruvian bark and acids. When the fecondary
fever firft appears, whether after a diftindt or confluent
fmall-pox, it is ufeful to exhibit an antimonial emetic
in naufeating dofes, but in fuch a manner as to pro¬
duce fome vomiting. For avoiding the pits which fre¬
quently follow the fmall-pox, no method hitherto pro-
pofed feems to be fufficiently certain.
On the fubjeft of inoculation, Baron Dimfdale, a
very celebrated writer, informs us, that were it left to
his choice, he would decline inoculating children under
two years old ; becaufe within that period they are ex-
pofed to all the dangers of dentition, fevers, fluxes,
convulfions, and other accidents, fufficiently diffi¬
cult in themfelves to manage in fuch tender fubje&s.
Befides, as already obferved, convulfive paroxyfms
often accompany the variolous eruptive fever in chil¬
dren ; and though generally looked upon in no un¬
favourable light, as often preceding a diftindt kind of
fmall-pox, yet they are at all times attended with
fome degree of danger : nay, many have expired under
them ; while others, who have ftruggled through with
great difficulty, have been fo debilitated, and their
faculties fo impaired, that the effefts have continued
during the remaining part of their lives.
It ought alfo to be confidered, that young children
have ufually a larger fhare of puftules from inocula¬
tion, than thofe who are advanced a little farther in
life; under which circumftance many have died : that
it feems moft prudent to wait till this dangerous pe¬
riod be over, especially as its duration is fo fhort, that
the danger of their receiving the fmall-pox in the na¬
tural way, before this time expires, is very little ; and
it is eafier to preferve them from it, than when they
are left more to themfelves, and may be more expofed
to infeftion. But children above this period may be
inoculated with greater freedom ; nor does there appear
any reafon to exclude healthy adults of any age ; per-
fons of 70 having pafled thro’ this procefs with the ut-
moft eafe and fafety.
In regard to conftitution, Baron Dimfdale obferves,
I C I N E. 4631
that greater liberties may be taken than were formerly Practice
judged admiffible. Perfons afflifted with various chro- —
nic complaints, of fcrophulous, fcorbutic, and arthritic
habits; perfons of unwieldy corpulency, and of in¬
temperate, irregular lives; have all paffed through this
difeafe with as much facility as the moft temperate,
healthy, and regular. But thofe who labour under
any acute or critical difeafe, or its effe&s, are ob-
vioufly unfit and improper fubjedls. So likewife are
thofe in whom are evident marks of corrofive acrimo¬
nious humours, or who have an evident debility of the
whole frame from inanition or any other caufe. All
fuch require to be treated in a particular manner pre¬
vious to the introduftion of this difeafe. Conftiuitions
difpofed to frequent returns of intermittents, feem like¬
wife juftly exceptionable; efpecially as the prepara¬
tory regimen may in fome habits increafe this tenden¬
cy. Baron Dimfdale, however, has known inftances
of fevere ague-fits attacking perfons between the infer-
tion of the matter and the eruption of the pox, and
even during maturation, when the Peruvian bark has
been given liberally and with much fuccefs; the prin¬
cipal bufinefs, in the mean time, fuffering no injury or
interruption.
Among the circtimftances generally confidered as
more or lefs propitious to inoculation, the feafon of
the year has been reckoned a matter of fome impor¬
tance. Spring and autumn have been generally recom¬
mended, as being the moft temperate feafons; the
cold of winter, and the fummer-heats, having been
judged unfavourable for this purpofe. But the Baron
remarks, that experience does not juftify thofe opi¬
nions; for, according to the beft obfervation he has
been able to make, inoculated perfons have generally
had more puftules in fpring than at any other time
of the year 5 and epidemic difeafes being commonly
moft frequent in autumn, efpecially fluxes, intermit¬
tents, and ulcerated fore throats (all which are liable
to mix more or lefs with the fmall-pox), the autumn,
upon this account, does not feem to be the moft fa*
vourable feafon in general.
Our author’s opinion is, that confidering the fur-
prifing and indifputable benefits arifing at all times to
patients in the fmall-pox, from the free admiffion of
frefli cool air and evacuations, we may fafely inoculate
at all feafons, provided care be taken to fereen the pa¬
tients as much as poffible from heat in fummer, and to
prevent them from keeping themfelves too warm and
too much (hut up, as they are naturally difpofed to
do, from the weather in winter. When feafona, how¬
ever, are marked with any peculiar epidemics, of fuch,
a kind efpecially as may render a mild difeafe more
untraftable, it may perhaps be moft prudent not to in¬
oculate while fuch difeafes are prevalent.
In direfling the preparatory regimen, Baron Dimf¬
dale principally aims at the following points, viz. To
reduce the patient, if in high health, to a lower and
more fecure ftate ; to ftrengthen the conftitution,
if too low ; to correfl what appears vitiated ; and
to clear the ftomach and bowels, as much as may be,
from all crudities and their effefls. With this view
he orders fuch of his patients as conftitute the firft
clafs abovementioned, and who are by much the majo¬
rity, to live in the following manner: To abftain from
all animal food, including broths,alfo batter and cheefe ?
4733
Practice
M E D I
and from all fermented liquors, excepting fmall beer,
' which is allowed fparingly; and from all fpices, and
whatever is endued with a manifeft heating quality.
The diet is to confift of pudding, gruel, fago, milk,
rice-milk, fruit-pies, greens, roots, and vegetables of
any of the kinds in feafon, prepared or raw. Eggs,
though not to be eaten alone, are allowed in puddings,
and butter in pye-cruft. The patients are to be care¬
ful that they do not eat fuch a quantity as to over¬
load their ftomachs, even of this kind of food. Tea,
coffee, or chocolate, are permitted for breakfaft, to
thofe who choofe or are accuftomed to them.
In this manner they are to proceed about nine or
ten days before the operation; during which period,
at nearly equal diftances, they are dire&ed to take
three dofes of the following powder, either made into
pills or mixed with a little fyrup or jelly, at bed-time,
and a dofe of Glauber’s fait diffolved in thin water-
gruel, each fucceeding morning.
The powder is compofed of eight grains of calomel,
the fame quantity of the compound powder of crab’s-
claws, and one eighth part of a grain of emetic tartar.
Inftead of the latter, Baron Dimfdale has fometimes
fubftituted two grains of precipitated fulphur of anti¬
mony. In order to facilitate the divifion of the dofes,
a large quantity is prepared at once, and great care
taken that the feveral ingredients be well mixed.
This quantity is ufually fufficient for a healthy ftrong
man ; and the dofe muff be leffened for women or
children, according to their age and ftrength, as well
as for perfons advanced in years.
The firft dofe is generally ordered at the commence¬
ment of the courfe ; the fecond, three or four days af¬
ter ; and the third about the eighth or ninth day. The
Baron choofes to inoculate the day after the ’aft dofe
has been taken. On the days of purging, broths are
allowed, and the patients are defired to abftain from
unprepared vegetables.
What has been faid concerning the preparation,
muft be confidered as proper only for the young or
middle-aged, in a good ftate of health : but among
thofe who are defirous of inoculation are often found
tender, delicate, and weakly women; men of bad fta-
mina, valetudinarians by conftitution, by illnefs, or
intemperance; alfo aged perfons, and children; and
for all fuch a very different treatment muft be direc¬
ted. Here a milder courfe of medicine, rather of the
alterative than purgative kind, is preferable ; and in
many inftances, an indulgence in fome light animal-
food, with a glafs or two of wine in cafe of lownefs, is
not only allowable, but neceffary to fupport a proper
degree of ftrength, efpecially in advanced age.
Children whofe bowels are often tender, and ought
not to be ruffled by ftrong purges, yet require a mild
mercurial, and bear it well. Befides emptying the
bowels of crudities, it is a good fecurity againft worms
and their effe&s, which fometimes produce very alarm¬
ing and even fatal diforders.
Inattention to the particular ftate of health of
thofe who are entering upon the preparatory courfe,
has been produftive of great mifchief. This is chiefly
obfervable refpe&ing the indifcreet ufe of mercurials,
by which a falivation has often been raifed, to the
rifque of impairing good conftitutions, and the ruin of
fuch as were previoufly weak and infirm. The di-
CINE. Part II,
ftinftions and treatment neceffary, will be obvious to Pxacti’
thofe who are acquainted with the animal-ceconomy "" 
and medical practice.
The time of menftruation has generally been the
guide in refpedt to the inoculation of women, that the
whole of the difeafe might be over within the menftrual
period. Baron Dimfdale informs us, that he obferves
this rule, when he can choofe his time without any
inconvenience, and he inoculates foon after the evacua¬
tion ceafes ; tho’ he has no reafon to decline perform¬
ing the operation at anytime.
Women with child have likewife been inoculated,
and done well; but the ftate of pregnancy feems un¬
favourable to the procefs, which ought therefore not
to be hazarded without fome urgent reafon. Baron
Dimfdale has not inoculated any woman whom he
knew to be pregnant; but on fome who concealed
their pregnancy he has performed the operation, with¬
out producing a mifcarriage, the hope of which event,
he fufpedls, had rendered them defirous of the pro¬
cefs. One of thofe had a child born nine weeks after
inoculation, at the full time, with diftindt marks of the
difeafe, though the mother had very few eruptions.
The manner moft ufually praftifed in this country
for communicating the fmall-pox by inoculation, has
of late been the following : A thread is drawn through
a ripe puftule, and well moiftened with matter. A
piece of this thread is infinuated into a fuperficial inci-
fion made in one or both arms, near the part where
iffues are ufually fixed ; and being covered with a pla-
fter, is there left for a day or two.
Very different methods of inoculation, however, are
purfued ; two of which Baron Dimfdale has frequent¬
ly pra&ifed and defcribes ; but he informs us, that the
following has proved fo invariably fuccefsful, as to in¬
duce him to give it the preference.
The patient to be infe&ed being in the fame houfe,
and, if no objeftion is made to it, in the fame room,
with one who has the difeafe, a little of the variolous
matter is taken from the place of infertion, if the fub-
jeft be under inoculation ; or a puftule, if in the na¬
tural way, on the point of a lancet, fo that both fides
of the point are moiftened.
With this lancet an incifion is made in that part of
the arm where iffues are ufually placed, deep enough
to pafs thro’ the fcarf-lkin, and juft to touch the ikin
itfelf; and in length as ihortas poflible, not more than
one eighth of an inch.
The little wound being then ftretched open between
the finger and thumb of the operator, the incifion is
moiftened with the matter, by gently touching it with
the flat fide of the infefted lancet. This operation is
generally performed in both arms, and fometimes in
two places in one arm, a little diftant from each
other. For as Baron Dimfdale has not obferved any
inconvenience from two or three incifions, he feldom
trufts to one; that neither he nor his patient may be
under any doubt about the fuccefs of the operation
from its being performed in one place only.
Baron Dimidale. has alfo tried the following me¬
thod, with the fame fuccefs as that above defcribed;
but he does not fo much approve oHt, becaufe he has
been credibly informed that it has fometimes failed in
the pra&ice of others. A lancet being moiftened with
the variolous fluid in the fame manner as in the other,
is
mrt II. M E D I
■ Notice is gently introduced, in an oblique manner, between
the fcarf and true Ikin, and the finger of the operator
is applied on the point, in order to wipe off the infec¬
tion from the lancet, when it is withdrawn. In this
method, as well as in the former, a little blood will
fometimes appear; but Baron Dimfdale neither draws
blood with defign, nor does he think there is any ne-
ceffity of wiping it off before the matter is intro¬
duced.
In both thefe ways of inoculating, neither plafter,
bandage, nor covering is applied, nor in any refpeA
neceffary.
Baron Dimfdale informs us, that thofe methods of
producing this difeafe have never once failed him; and
experience has fufficiently proved that there is no dan¬
ger from additional infedion by the natural difeafe at
the fame time. He therefore makes no fcruple of ha¬
ving the perfon to be inoculated, and the perfon from
whom the infection is to be taken, in the fame room; nor
has he ever obferved any ill confequence attending this
praftice. But he advifes the inoculated patients (tho’
perhaps there is no neceffity for that precaution) to be
afterwards feparated from places of infe&ion till cer¬
tain (igns of fuccefs appear, when all reftraint is remo¬
ved, there being then no danger from accumulation.
Baron Dimfdale remarks, that it feems to be of no
confequence whether the infe&ing matter be taken
from the natural or inoculated fmall-pox. He has
ufed both, and never has been able to difcover the
leaft difference, either refpe&ing the certainty of in-
feftion, the progrefs, or the event. He therefore takes
the infe&ion from either, as opportunity offers, or at
the option of the patients or their friends.
Neither is it of any confequence whether the mat¬
ter be taken before, or at the crifis of, the diftemper.
It is generally fuppofed, that the fmall-pox is not in-
feftious till after the matter has acquired a certain de¬
gree of maturity; and in the common method of ino¬
culation this is fo much attended to, that when the o-
peration has proved ineffectual, the failure has been
afcribed to the unripenefs of the matter.
But, as the author remarks, it appears very clearly
from the prefent pradtice of inoculation, that fo foon
as any moifture can be taken from the infedted part of
an inoculated patient, previous to the appearance of
any puftules, and even previous to the eruptive fever,
this moifture is capable of communicating the fmall-
pox with the utmoft certainty. Baron Dimfdale has
taken a little clear fluid from the elevated pellicle on
the incifed part, even fo early as the fourth day after
the operation ; and has at other times ufed matter ful¬
ly digefted at the crifis, with equal fuccefs. In ge¬
neral, however, he prefers taking the matter for infec¬
tion during the eruptive fever, as he fuppofes it at that
time to have its utmoft adtivity.
In all cafes, when he takes matter from an inocula¬
ted perfon, it is from the place where it was inferted.;
as he is always fure to find infedtion there if the dif¬
eafe fucceeds, and always of fufficient energy.
It may appear ftrange that no bandage, drefling, or
application whatfoever, is ufed to the part infedted;
but that the moft Gmple incifion being made, and
moiftened with the fmalleft particle of the recent fluid
matter, the whole is committed to nature. This me¬
thod, however, the baron obferves, is perfedtly right:.
CINE. 4733
becaufe the application of either plafter or unguent, as Practice
is the ufual pradlice, will occafion an inflammation on"
fome {kins; and, in all, tend to disfigure the natural ap¬
pearance of the incifion, and prevent our forming a
proper judgment of the progrefs of the infedtion.
If neither an inoculated patient beat hand, nor any
one in the neighbourhood has a diftindt kind of the
natural difeafe, a thread may be ufed as in the com¬
mon manner, provided it be very recently infedted; but
baron Dimfdale is of opinion, that the thread ought to
be ufed as foon as poffible after being charged with
infedting matter.
The following method of introducing the difeafe has
likewife been found effedlual: Dip the point of a lan¬
cet in variolous matter; let it be held in the air till it
is dry; after which it may be put up and kept in the
common cafe, without any farther care. With this pre¬
pared lancet raife the fcarf-lkin obliquely, and keep
the lancet a little time in motion between the two {kins,
that part of the matter may be mixed with the animal-
juices; then withdraw the lancet, and leave the inci-
iion uncovered as before.
A due attention to the progrefs of infedtion, difco-
verable by the part where the operation was perform¬
ed, is a neceffary circumftance ; becaufe a juft progno-
ftic may thence be fometimes formed of the future ftate
of the diftemper, and indications may be taken from
the different appearances on the arm, that will enabla
us to prevent inconveniencies.
Our author obferves, that the former method of co¬
vering the place of incifion with a plafter, and conti¬
nuing upon it dreffings of one fort or other, prevented
much ufeful information of this kind. They precluded
any judgment by the touch, and fometimes rendered
that by the eye equivocal.
The day after the operation is performed, though
it takes effedt, little alteration is difcoverable. On the
fecond day, if the part be viewed with a lens, there
generally appears a kind of orange-coloured ftairt
about the incifion, and the furrounding fldn feems to
contradf. At this time Baron Dimfdale ufually gives
the following medicine at going to bed, either mixed
with a little of any kind of jelly, or more frequently
made into a pill.
Calomel, and compound powder of crabs-claws, of
each three grains ; emetic tartar, one-tenth of »
grain.
A quantity of this medicine ftiould be carefully
prepared at once, in order to make the divifion more
exadt.
On the fourth or fifth day, upon applying the fin¬
ger, a hardnefs is perceptible to the touch. The pa¬
tient feels an itching on the part, which appeaa-s {light¬
ly inflamed ; and under a kind of vefication is feen a-
little clear fluid, the part refembling a fuperficial burn*
About the fixth, moft commonly fome pain and ftiff-
nefs is felt in the axilla; a circumftance which not on¬
ly foretells the near approach of the eruptive fymp-
toms, but is a fign of a favourable progrefs of the dif¬
eafe. Sometimes on the feventh, oftener on the eighth
day, fymptoms of the eruptive fever appear; fuch as
flight remitting pains in the head and back, fucceeded
by tranfient ihiverings and alternate heats, which con¬
tinue in a greater or lefs d-.gree till the eruption be
perfedled. At this time alio it is ufual for the pa-
tieafe
4734
MEDICINE.
Part
tient to complain of a very difagreeable tafte in his
mouth, the breath is always fetid, and there enfues a
fmell peculiar to the variolous eruptive fever.
The inflammation in the arms at this time fpreads
fail; and, upon viewing it with a good glafs, the inci-
fion for the moil part appears furrounded with an in¬
finite number of fmall confluent puftules, which increafe
in fize and extent as the difeafe advances. On the tenth
or eleventh day, a circular or oval efflorefcence is ufual-
ly difcovered furrounding the incifion, and extending
fometimes near half round the arm, but more frequent¬
ly to about the fize of a (hilling; and being under the
cuticle, is fmooth to the touch and not painful. This
appearance alfo is favourable. It accompanies erup¬
tion ; every difagreeable fymptom ceafes ; and at the
fame time it certainly indicates the whole affair to be
over, the pain and ftiflfnefs in the axilla alfo going
off.
The feverifh fymptoms are for the moft part fo mild,
as feldom to require any affiftance, except a repetition
of the fame medicine that was direfted on the fecond
night after the operation ; and next morning the fol¬
lowing laxative draught fhould be given, to procure
three or four ftools.
Infufion of fena two ounces, manna half an ounce,
tin&ure of jalap two drachms.
Thefe are given as foon as the eruptive fymptoms
are perceivable, if they feem to indicate any uncom¬
mon degree of vehemence.
It has been obferved that by attending to the
progrefs of infeftion, we may in general be able to
prognofticate with fome degree of certainty the iffue
of the diftemper. Particular incidents will ever hap¬
pen, but not fufficient to invalidate the propriety of
general rules.
If the appearances already defcribed are obferved
early, a very favourable event may be expe&ed ; but
it happens in fome cafes,' that the fuccefs of the ino-
cubtion is barely perceptible, the colour about the
wound remaining pale, inftead of changing to red or
inflamed ; the edges of the incifion fpread but little,
they remain almoft entirely fiat, and are attended nei¬
ther with itching nor uneafinefs of any kind. Nay,
fometimes on the fifth, and even the fixth day, the al¬
teration is fo little as to render it doubtful whether the
infection has taken place.
When matters are in this date, the appearance is
unfavourable, implying a late and more untoward dif¬
eafe : To prevent which, Baron Dimfdale direfts the
powder or pill to be taken every night; and in cafe it
fails to operate by ftool, or there be the leaft dif-
pofition to coftivenefs, an ounce of Glauber’s falls,
or more commonly the laxative draught already men¬
tioned, is given in the morning, once or twice, as the
cafe may require. This couri'e forwards the inflam¬
mation, which is always a defirable circumflance ; it
being conftantly obferved, that an early progrefs on
the arm, and an early commencement of the eruptive
complaints, portend that the diftemper will be mild
and favourable ; and on the contrary, when both are
late, the fymptoms are ufually more irregular and
unfavourable.
The management recommended by Baron Dimf¬
dale at the period of eruption differing effentially from
that of former pra&itioners, and being a matter of
great importance, he gives the following explicit di-
re&ions on this head, advifing that they may be pur-
fued with firmnefs and moderation.
Inftead of the patient being confined to his bed or
his room, when the fymptoms of the eruptive fever
come on, he is directed, as foon as the purging me¬
dicine has operated, to keep abroad, as much as he
can bear, in the open air, be it ever fo cold ; always
taking care not to (land ftill, but to walk about mode¬
rately while abroad. He is alfo diredted, if thirfty,
to drink cold water.
Baron Dimfdale obferves, that this treatment feems
as hard at firft to the patients as it muft appear An¬
gular to thofe who are unacquainted with fuch prac¬
tice ; but the effe&s are fo falutary, fo conftantly con¬
firmed by experience, and an eafy progrefs throogh
every ftage of the difeafe depends fo much upon it,
that he admits of no exception, unlefs the weather be
extremely fevere and the conftitution very delicate.
He adds, it is indifputably true, that, in the few in-
flances where the fymptoms of eruption have run very
high, the patients being averfe to any motion, and
fearing the cold as the greateft evil; yet when, under
thofe circumftances, he has perfuaded them to rife out
of bed, and go out of doors, though led fometimes
by two afliftants, and has allowed them to drink as
much cold water as they chofe, they have not fuffered
the leaft unfavourable accident: on the contrary, af¬
ter they have been prevailed upon to comply with
thofe direflions, they find their fpirits revived ; an in¬
clination for nourifhment returns; they reft well; a
gentle fweat fucceeds, accompanied with a favourable
eruption ; and the fever feems to be entirely extin-
guifhed.
In general, the complaints in this ftateare very mo¬
derate, and attended with fo little illnefs that the pa¬
tient eats and fleeps well the whole time. A few pu¬
ftules appear, fometimes equally difpofed ; fometimes
the inflammations on the arms fpread, and are fur-
rounded with a few puftules, which gradually advance
to maturity ; during which time, for the moft part,
the eruption proceeds kindly, and there is much more
difficulty to reftrain the patients within due bounds,
and prevent their mixing with the piiblic, thereby
fpreading the infe&ion, than there was at firft to pre¬
vail upon them to go abroad. During this time me¬
dicine is feldom wanted ; the cool air feems the heft
cordial; and if any uncommon languor happens, a
bafon of fmall broth, or a glafs of wine, is allowed
in the day, or fome white-wine whey at bed-time;
which are indeed at any time allowed to tender, aged,
or weakly perfons.
With thofe exceptions, the patients are hitherto
kept very fcrupuloufly to the diet at firft directed.
But after the eruption is completed, they are, if oc-
cafion requires, indulged in a little well-boiled meat
of the lighteft kind, as chicken, veal, or mutton.
The above-mentioned regimen, the cooling altera¬
tive purges, and the free ufe of cool air at the feafort
of eruption, almoft univerfally prevent either alarming
fymptoms or a large crop of puftules. Baron Dimf¬
dale has feen a few with fuch a quantity of puftules,
though diftimft, that he has neither advifed nor allow¬
ed them to go out of the houfe. But the generality
of his patients, when the eruptions are few, amufe
them-
Pr
IT,
Isler ice themfelves abroad, within proper limits, with the pu-
f ‘' ftules upon them.
This pradice, however, the Baron neither enjoins,
nor maintains to be neceflary ; but he has not been
able to obferve that any inconvenience has arifen from
it. He alfo informs us, that, how ftrange foever it
may appear, thofe who are moft adventurous, feem to
enjoy better fpirits, and are more free from com¬
plaints, than others who are inclined to keep within
doors.
Thofe who have the difeafe in the flighted manner
fird deferibed, viz. without any appearance of erup¬
tion but on the inoculated part, are foon permitted to
go about their ufual affairs : and many indances have
happened of very indudrious poor men, who have im¬
mediately returned to their daily labour, with a cau¬
tion not to intermix with thofe who have not had the
didemper, for fear of fpreadingit; and with injunc¬
tions to take, two or three times, of the purge already
directed, or as many dofes of Glauber’s falts. Thofe
who have the difeafe in a greater degree, are confined
fomewhat longer; and, if there be the lead difpofuion
to codivenefs, a very mild laxative is now and then ex¬
hibited ; as the progrefs to maturation appears rather
to be advanced than retarded by fuch means.
When the maturation is completed, and there is
nothing farther to fear from the didemper, Baron
Dimfdale allows his patients gradually to change their
courfe of diet, from the perfeitly cooling kind, to one
a little more generous; recommending driftly to all a
return to their ordinary animal-diet, with much cau¬
tion and redraint upon their appetites, both in refpedl
of food and fermented liquors.
He obferves it is not often that we are under a ne-
ceflity of making any application to the part where
the infertion of the variolous matter was made. It mod
commonly heals up, and is covered with a fcab, about
the time when, in a natural way, all the pox would
have been dried up. But in fome cafes the incifions
continue to difeharge a purulent matter a longer time.
In thefe indances it is fufficient to cover the part with
the white cerate, or any other mild empladic fubdance,
which may at once prevent the linen from adhering to
the fore, and defend it from the air. As in thefe
cafes the part remains unhealed from fome.peculiar
caufe in the habit, it will be neceffary to give gentle
purgatives, and proper alteratives, as particular exi¬
gencies may require.
After deferibing the ufual progrefs of the fmall-pox
from inoculation, Baron Dimfdale remarks that there
are frequent deviations from this courfe, which may
embarrafs an unexperienced pradlitioner, and create a
real difficulty, as well as apprehenfions of danger.
He therefore proceeds to relate the means for remo¬
ving thofe fymptoms, and the doubts refpe&ing the
event.
The fymptom he fird notices, and which, though
it very rarely happens, fometimes gives much trouble,
is great ficknefs, accompanied with vomiting, in the
eruptive date of the difeafe. For this complaint it is
always necedary in the fird place to clear the domach;
which may be eff'efted, either by ordering the patient
to drink plentifully of warm liquids to promote vo¬
miting ; or perhaps more properly, by giving to an
adult one grain of emetic tartar, mixed with ten
Vol. VI. X
4635
grains of compound powder of cr&bs-claws ; taking Practice
care to diminifli the dofe for very young and weak
fubjedts.
This ufually throws off fome bilious matter by vo¬
mit, fometimes procures dools, or occafions a mode¬
rate fweat,and generally adminiders relief. If, however,
no dools fhould follow from this medicine, and the fick-
nefs diould remain, a gentle laxative almod certainly
procures a refpite, and the appearance of the eruption
entirely removes the complaint.
Another deviation, of yet greater confequence,
which fometimes happens towards the time of the erup¬
tion, and is often, though not always, accompanied
with great ficknefs, is an eryfipelatous effiorefcence.
If this Ihews itfelf on the fkin partially, and here and
there in patches, it is not very alarming, and foon
wears off. But fometimes the whole furface of the bo¬
dy is covered with a rafh intimately mixed with the
variolous eruption, and fo much refembling the mod
malignant kind of conduent fmall-pox as fcarcely to
be didinguidied from it. In fome fuch cafes, accom¬
panied with petechias and livid fpots, Baron Dimfdale
has been much alarmed; not being able by infpeclion
only, though affided by glafles, to determine whether
what he faw was an inoffenfive ra(h, or tokens of the
greated malignity. Very drift attention, however, has
enabled him to didinguilh the difference clearly ; and
for afliding others in fuch a diferimination, he makes
the following remarks.
The real and effential difference is to be gathered from
theconcomitant fymptoms. In the eryfipelatous or vari¬
olous radi, there is not fo much fever, nor is the redleff-
nefs or pain of the head or loins fo confiderable, neither
is there that general prodration of drength; all which
are ufual attendants on a confluent fmall-pox, efpectal-
ly when accompanied with fuch putrid appearances.
Befides, upon a careful examination, there may fome¬
times be difeerned a few didinft pndules, larger than
the red, mixed with the radi, which are the real fmall-
pox. In thofe cafes the patients are ordered to re¬
frain from cold water, or any thing cold; and to keep
within doors, but not in bed. If any ficknefs yet re¬
mains, a little white-wine whey, or other temperate
cordial, is advifed ; and this method Las been fo ge¬
nerally fuccefsful, as to prevent any alarming com¬
plaint. After two or three days, the flein changes
from a florid to a dufley colour, a few dittinft pudules
remain, and advance properly to maturation, without
any farther trouble enfuing from this formidable ap¬
pearance.
This rafh has often been midaken for the confluence
it fo much refembles; and has afforded occafion for
fome praftitioners, either ignorantly or difingenuoufly,
to pretend, that, after a very copious eruption of the
confluent pox, they can by a fpecific medicine dif¬
eharge the greater part of the pudules, leaving only
as many didinft ones as may fatisfy the patient that
he has the difeafe.
Baron Dimfdale informs us, that rafhes of the kind
above deferibed frequently happen during the prepa¬
ration (whether owing to the regimen, or medicine,
or both, he does not determine), and caufe the opera¬
tion to be podponed. But he has obferved, that in fuch
cafes they are apt to return at the time of the eruption
of the fmall-pox.
M E D I C I N E.
26 T
In
473^ M E D I
Practice In general, as has been already faid, the fymptoms
 which precede eruption commence at the end of the
feventh or on the eighth day inclufive from the opera¬
tion ; but it often happens that they appear much
fooner, and fometimes much later than this period.
Baron Dimfdale has leen fome cafes in which the dif-
eafe has come on fo fuddenly after infe&ion, and with
fo little complaint or uneafinefs, that the whole affair
has been terminated, purges taken, and the patient
returned home perfe&ly well, in a week; before others,
inoculated at the fame time, from the fame patient,
and under the fame circumftances, have begun to com¬
plain.
In this cafe, the inoculated part (hews early certain
marks of infeftion, fometimes on the very next day,
or the day after, when the incifion will often appear
confiderably inflamed and elevated. The patient about
this time frequently makes fome of the following com¬
plaints, viz. chillnefs, itchings, and flight pricking
pains in the part, and fometimes on the fhoulder ; gid-
dinefs, drowzinefs, and a flight head-ach, fometimes
attended with a feverifh heat, but often without any.
The account themfelyes give of their feelings is, in
fome, as if they had drank too much, and in others,
as if they had caught a cold. Thofe complaints fel-
dom laft 24 hours, often not fo long, and with fre¬
quent intermiffions; never, fo far as our author remem¬
bers, rifing to a degree that requires confinement.
During the continuance of thofe complaints, the in¬
flammation of the arm advances apace, and feels hard
to the touch: but upon their wearing off, the inflamed
appearances gradually diminilh, and the part dries to
a common fmall fcab ; the Ikin, that was before red,
turns livid, and the difeafe entirely vaniflies. In fome
inftances, thofe fymptoms attack much later; even on
the feventh or eighth day, when an eruption might be
expefted in confequence of them, yet none appears ;
but the arm gets well very foon, and the difeafe is at
an end.
In this irregular fort of the diforder there have,
however, been fome examples where a few eruptions
have appeared, and probably in confequence of the in¬
oculation : yet the pullules have not looked like the
true pox, neither have they maturated like them, nor
lafted longer than three days ; about which time, for
the moft part, they have dried away.
When this irregular kind of the difeafe firft occur¬
red in Baron Dimfdale’s pra&ice, he was in doubt
whether the patients were quite fecure from any future
attacks of the diftemper. In order to be fatisfied of
this point, he inoculated them a fecond time, caufing
them to aflbciate with perfons in every ftage of the
difeafe, and to try all other means of catching the in-
fedlion. This method has been pra&ifed with the
generality of fueh patients ever fince, yet without a
Angle in (lance of its producing any diforder. Baron
Dimfdale, therefore, now makes no fcruple of pro¬
nouncing them perfeftly fafe ; and experience has en¬
abled him to foretel, for the moft part, in two or three
days after the operation, whether the difeafe will pafs
in this flight manner.
Upon the fecond inoculation, however, the incifed
parts are uncommonly inflamed for a day or two, juft
in the fame manner as has in numerous inftances been
obfemd, as well in thofe who, though certain of ha-
C I N E. Part II. j
ving had the fmall-pox in the natural way, have fub- Practice.
mitted to inoculation for the fake of experiment, as in
others, who, being doubtful whether they have had
the difeafe or not, have been inoculated in order to be
fatisfied. But in all fuch cafes, the parts foon became
well; nor did any of thofe appearances which have
been deferibed as the conftant attendants on inocula¬
tion, as pain in the head, giddinefs, marks of infec¬
tion in the arm, &c. enfue. Neither can thofe ap¬
pearances ever be produced upon a perfon who has had
the fmall pox before, either in the natural way, or by
inoculation.
Another irregularity deferving notice is, that fome¬
times upon the abatement of the fever and other fymp¬
toms, after the appearance of feveral puftules, and
when the eruptive ftage of the difeafe feems comple¬
ted, it neverthelefs happens that frefti eruptions come
out, and continue doing fo daily, for four, five, or
even fix days fucceflively preceded fometimes by a
flight pain in the head, though more frequently they
appear without any new difturbance. Thofe are gene¬
rally few, of fhort duration, and feldom come to ma- "
turity. Baron Dimfdale, however, has feen four cafes,
in which, after a cefiation of complaints, and an ap¬
pearance of few puftules, the eruptive ftage of the dif¬
eafe was thought to be over, yet in two or three days
a frefti fit of fever has attacked the patients, and af¬
ter a (hort iilnefs a quantity of new puftules has broke
out far exceeding the firft number, and thofe remain¬
ed and matured completely.
Some of the Baron’s own patients, and, as he has
been credibly informed, of other inoculators, have had
confiderable eruptions of this kind after they returned
home; which have probably given occafion for the re¬
ports of feveral having had the difeafe in the natural
way after inoculation. But in confirmation that thofe
reports are ill-grounded, our author obferves, that in
all the cafes of this fort which have occurred in his
own praftice, or, as far as he can learn, in that of
others; the fecond, or latter crop of puftules, has al¬
ways happened within the time ufually allowed for the
progrefs of the fmall-pox from inoculation; before the
inflammation on the arm has ceafed, and fooner than
we can fuppofe them to have been produced by infec¬
tion received in the natural way. When this has hap¬
pened, it has been to perfons in whom after a flight
eruption and abatement of fymptoms, the difeafe has
prematurely been judged to be quite over, and they
have therefore been permitted to return to their fami¬
lies.
Baron Dimfdale next confiders the confequences
that arife from this very cool and repelling method,
and how far the patient’s future ftate of health maybe
affected by a prailice fo oppolite to eftablifhed theory.
In has been the general opinion, that in moft or all
eruptive complaints, efpecially the fmall-pox, the ra¬
tional method of cure was to forward, by every gentle
means, the efforts of nature in producing an eruption;
and on the contrary, that there was danger in check¬
ing it, either by cold air, cold drink, or any confider¬
able evacuations. For this purpofe the ufe of warm
diluents, and the lying in bed, efpecially if the fever
and fymptoms run high, or at lead confining to the
houfe, have been generally approved and recommend¬
ed. Experience, however, has now fufficiently con¬
firmed 1
f j'art II. M E D I
ijiAcncE firmed the advantage of a different kind of treatment.
—    While the common or old methods prevailed of
condufting inoculation, the patients, particularly chil¬
dren, after pafling through the difeafe in a very fa¬
vourable manner, were frequently liable to abfceffes in
the axilla and other parts, tedious ophthalmies, and
troublefome ulcerations in the place of infertion; which
though they could not be forefeen nor prevented, yet
often gave more pain and vexation to the patients, and
trouble to the operator, than the difeafe itfelf had done.
But on inquiry into the ftate of thofe who have been
treated in the cool way, or according to the new me¬
thod, Baron Dimfdale affirms, that in more than 1500
there has been only one who has had fo much as a boil
in the axilla; and this was a child who had in the fame
arm an iffue, which was at that time dried up. He has
feen only two very fmall fuperficial boils in others near
the place of infertion; and thofe feemed to be occa-
fioned rather by an irritation from the difcharge, than
by any other caufe, and were all foon healed with very
little trouble.
In a few inftances alfo, there has been a flough in
the incifed part, which has caufed a fore of fhort dura¬
tion ; but not one inftance of an ulcer of any continu¬
ance. Such little breakings out too, and fcabs, as fre¬
quently fucceed the mild natural fmall-pox, fometimes,
though rarely, happen to thofe inoculated in the new
way; and, as they are of little confcquence, are gene¬
rally cured by the fame method of a few gentle purges.
In regard to ophthalmies from this kind of praftice,
Baron Dimfdale has never known an inftance of one
truly deferving that name. The coats of the eye have
been a little inflamed in a very few, but they foon be¬
came clear, without any means ufed for that purpofe.
He knows but two cafes where he thought the inflam¬
mation great enough to require bleeding; and notone
where a blifterwas neceffary. Thofe complaints, there¬
fore, which were formerly fo frequent and trouble¬
fome, feem to be much reduced by the new method, the
great utility of which is now univerfally acknowledged.
329 LXIX. the Chicken-Pox. Gen. XXIX.
Varicella, Vog. 42.
Variola lymphatica, fp. 1.
Anglis, The Chicken-pox, Edin. Med. Effays,
vol. ii. art. 2. near the end. Heberden, Med.
Tranfac. art. 17.
This is a very flight difeafe; and is attended with fo
little danger, that it would not merit any notice, if it
were not apt to be confounded with the fmall-pox, and
thus give occafion to an opinion that a perfon might
have the fmall-pox twice in his life ; or they are apt
to deceive into a falfe fecurity thofe who have never
had the fmall-pox, and make them believe that they
are fafe, when in reality they are not. Thefe pox
break out in many, according to Dr Heberden, with,
out any illnefs or previous fign; in others they are pre¬
ceded by a little degree of chillnefs, laffitude, cough,
broken fleep, wandering pains, lofs of appetite, and fe-
verifhnefs for three days.
In fome patients they make their firft appearance
on the back, but this perhaps is not conftant. Moft
of them are of the common fize of the fmall-pox, but
fome are lefs. Our author never faw them confluent,
nor very numerous. The greateft number was about
Cine. 4737
12 in the face, and 200 hundred over the reft of tie Vracth-e
body.
On the firft day of the eruption they are reddifli.
On the fecond day there is at the top of moft of them
a very fmall bladder, about the fize of a millet-feed.
This is fometimes full of a watery and colourlefs, fome¬
times of a yellowifh liquor, contained between the cu¬
ticle and fkin. On the fecond, or, at the fartheft, on
the third day from the beginning of the eruption, as
many of thefe pocks as are not broken feem arrived
at their full maturity ; and thofe, which are fulltft of
that yellow liquor, very much refemble what the ge¬
nuine fmall-pox are on the fifth or fixth day, efpecial-
ly where there happens to be a larger fpace than or¬
dinary occupied by the extravafated ferum. It hap¬
pens to moft of them, either on the firft day that this
little bladder arifes, or on the day after, that its ten¬
der cuticle is burft by the accidental rubbing of the
clothes, or by the patient’s hands to allay the itching,
which attends this eruption. A thin fcab is then
formed at the top of the pock, and the fwelling of the
other part abates, without its ever being turned into
pus, as it is in the fmall-pox. Some few efcape being
burft ; and the little drop of liquor contained in the
veficle at the top of them, grows yellow and thick,
and dries into a fcab. On the fifth day of the erup¬
tion they are almoft all dried and covered with a flight
cruft. The inflammation of thefe pocks is very fmall;
and the contents of them do not feem to be owing to
fuppuration, as in the fmall pox, but rather to what is
extravafated under the cuticle by the ferous veffels of
the Ikin, as in a common blifter. No wonder, there¬
fore, that this liquor appears fo foon as on the fecond
day; and that, upon the cuticle being broken, it is pre-
fently fucceeded by a flight fcab: hence too, as the
true Ikin is fo little affedted, no mark or fear is likely
to be left, unlefs in one or two pocks, where, either
by being accidentally much fretted, or by fome extra¬
ordinary fliarpnefs of the contents, a little ulcer is
formed in the ikin.
The patients fcarce fuffer any thing throughout the
whole progrefs of this illnefs, except fome languidnefs
of ftrength and fpirits and appetite, all which is pro¬
bably owing to the confining of themfelves to their
chamber.
Two children were taken ill of the chicken-pox,
whofe mother chofe to be with them, though Are had
never had this illnefs. Upon the eighth or ninth day
after the pocks were at their height in the jchildren,
the mother fell ill of this diftemper then beginning to
flrew itfelf. In this inftance the infedlion lay in the bo¬
dy much about the fame time that it is known to do ia
the fmall-pox.
Remedies are not likely to be much wanted in a dif¬
eafe attended with hardly any inconvenience, and
which in fo ftiort a time is certainly cured of itfelf.
The principal marks by which the chicken-pox may
be dftinguiftied from the fmall-pox are,
1. The appearance, on the fecond or third day from
the eruption, of that veficle full of ferum upon the top
of the pock.
2. The cruft, which covers the pocks on the fifth
day; at which time thofe of the fmall- pox are not at
the height of their fuppuration.
Foreign medical writers hardly ever mention the
26 T 2 name
4738 M E D I
Practice name of this diftemper ; and the writers of our own
country fcarce mention any thing more of it than its
name. Morton fpeaks of it as if he fuppofed it to be
a very mild genuine fmall-pox. But thefe two diftem;
pevs are furtly totally different from one another, not
only on account of their different appearances above-
mentioned, but becaufe thofe who have had the fmall-
pox are capable of being infeded with the chicken-
pox; but thofe who have once had the chicken-pox
are not capable of having it again, though to fuch as
have never had this dillemper, it feems as infe&ious as
the fmall-pox. Dr Heberden wetted a thread in the
mod conceded pus-like liquor of the chicken-pox
which he could find ; and after making a flight inci-
iion, it was confined upon the arm of one who had for¬
merly had it; the little wound healed up immediately,
and fhewed no figns of any infedion.
From the great fimilitude between the two diftem-
pers, it is probable, that, inftead of the fmall-pox, fome
perfons have been inoculated from the chicken-pox;
and that the diftemper which has fucceeded, has been
miflaken for the fmall-pox by hafty or unexperienced
obfervers.
There is fometimes feen an eruption, concerning
which our author is in doubt, whether it be one of the
many unnoticed cutaneous difeafes, or only a more ma¬
lignant fort of chicken-pox.
This diforder is preceded for three or four days by all
the fymptoms which forerun the chicken-pox ; but in a
much higher degree. On the fourth or fifth day the
eruption appears, with very little abatement of the fe¬
ver; the pains likewife of the limbs and back ftill con¬
tinue, to which are joined pains of the gums. The
pocks are redder than the chicken-pocks, and fpread
wider; and hardly rife fo high, at lead not in propor¬
tion to their fize. Inftead of one little head orveficle
of a ferous matter, thefe have from four to ten or
twelve. They go off juft like the chicken-pox, and
are diftinguiftiable from the fmall-pox by the fame
marks; befides which, the continuance of the pains
and fever after the eruption, and the degree of both
thefe, though there be not above 20 pocks, are what
never happen in the fmall-pox.
.330 Genus XXX. RUBEOLA; the Measles.
Rubeola, Sauv. gen. 94. Z/.v. 4. Sag. 293.
Febris raorbillofa, Fug. 36. Hoffvu II. 62.
Morbilli, Junck. 76.
231 LXX. The Regular Measles. Sp. I.
Rubeola vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1.
Morbilli regulares, Sydenh. Se$. iv. cap. 5.
332 LXXI. The Irregular or Anomalous Measles,
Var. 1.
Rubeola anomala, Sauv. fp. 2.
Morbilli anomjli, Sydenh. fed!, v. cap. 3.
333 LXXII. The Measles attended with Quinjy
Var. 2.
3.34 LXXIII. The Measles with PutridDiathefis of the
Blood. Var. 3.
335 LXXIV. The Variolodes, in Scotland commonly
called the Nirles. Sp. II.
Eubeola variolodes, Sauv. fp. 3,
CINE. Par: IT. *
Defcripthn. This difeafe begins with a cold ftage,
which is foon followed with a hot, with the ordinary
fymptoms of third, heat, anorexia, anxiety, ficknefs,
and vomiting ; and thefe are more or lefs confiderable
in different cafes. Sometimes from the beginning, the
fever is (harp and violent : often, for the firft two days,
it is obfeure and inconfiderable; but always becomes
violent before the eruption, which commonly happens
on the fourth day. This eruptive fever, from the be¬
ginning of it, is always attended with hoarfenefs, a
frequent boarfe dry cough, and frequently with fome
difficulty of breathing. At the fame time, the eye¬
lids are fomewhat fwelled; the eyes are a little in¬
flamed, and pour out tears ; and, with this, there is a
coryza, and frequent fneezing. For the molt part, a
conftant drowfinefs attends the beginning of this dif-
eafe. The eruption, as we have faid, commonly ap¬
pears upon the fourth day, firft on the face, and fuc-
ceflively on the lower parts of the body. It appears
firft in fmall red points; but, foon after, a number of
thefe appear in cinders, which do not arife in vifible
pimples, but, by the touch, are found to be a little
prominent. This is the cafe on the face ; but, in other
parts of the body, the prominency, or roughnefs, is
hardly to be perceived. On the face, the eruption re¬
tains its rednefs, or has it increafed for two days ;
but, on the third, the vivid rednefs is changed to a
brownilh red ; and, in a day or two more, the erup¬
tion entirely difappears, while a meally defquamation
takes place. During the whole time of the eruption,
the face is fomewhat turgid, but feldom confiderably
fwelled. Sometimes, after the eruption has appeared,
the fever ceafes entirely ; but this is feldom the cafe ;
and more commonly the fever continues or is increa¬
fed after the eruption, and does not ceafe till after
the defquamation. Even then the fever docs not al¬
ways ceafe, but continues with various duration and
effeft. Though the fever happens to ceafe upon the
eruption’s taking place, it is common for the cough to
continue till after the defquamation, and fometimes
much longer. In all cafes, while the fever continues,
the cough alfo continues, generally with an increafe of
the difficulty of breathing ; and both of thefe fymp¬
toms fometimes arife to a degree which denotes a pneu¬
monic affeftion. This may arife at any period of-the
difeafe; but very often it does not come on till after
the defquamation of the eruption.
After the fame period, alfo, a diarrhoea frequently
comes on, and continues for fome time.
It is common for meafles, even when they have not
been of a violent kind, to be followed by inflammatory
affedtions, particularly ophthalmia and phthifis. If the
blood be drawn from a vein in the meafles, with the
circumftances neceffary to favour the reparation of the
gluten, this always appears feparated, and lying on the
furface of the craffamentum, as in inflammatory dif¬
eafes. For the moft part, the meafles, even when vio¬
lent, are without any putrid tendency; but in fome
cafes, fuch a tendency appears both in the courfe of
the difeafe, and efpecially after the ordinary courfe of
it is finifhed. See Dr Watfon, in London Med. Obf.
vol. iv. art. 11.
Caufes. The meafles are occafioned by fome kind
of contagion, the nature of which is not underftood ;
and which, like the former, affedts a perfon only once
iac
wart IF. _ M E D I
:^ctice ju their lives.
"T"- pr0gmjis. From the defcrlption of this diftemper
already given, it appears that tiie toeafles are attended
with a catarrhal affection, and by an inflammatory dia*
thefis to a confiderable degree; and therefore the dan*
ger of them is to be apprehended chiefly from the co*
tning on of a pneumonic inflammation.
Cure. From the confideration mentioned in the
prognofis, it will be obvious, that the remedies efpe*
cially neceffary are thofe which may obviate and di-
minilh the inflammatory diathefis; and therefore, in a
particular manner, blood-letting. This remedy may
be employed at any time in the courfe of the difeafe,
. or after the ordinary courfe of it is finilhed, It is to
be employed more or lefs, according to the urgency
of the fymptoros of fever, cough, and dyfpnosa ; and
generally may be employed very freely. But, as the
fymptoms of pneumonic inflammation feldom come on
during the eruptive fever; and, as this is fometimes
violent, immediately before the eruption, though a
fufficiently mild difeafe be to follow; bleeding is feldom
very neceffary during the eruptive fever, and may often
be rcferved for the times of greater danger which are
| perhaps,to follow.
In all cafes of meafles, where there are no marks of
putrefcency, and where there is no reafon, from the
known nature of the epidemic, to apprehend putre¬
fcency, bleeding is the remedy to be depended upon :
but affUIanee may alfo be drawn from cooling purga¬
tives ; and particularly from bliftering on the fides, or
I between the fltoulders. The dry cough may be alle*
viated by the large ufe of demulcent peftorals, muci¬
laginous, oily, or fweet. It may, however, be obfer-
ved, with refpeft to thefe demulcents, that they are not
fo powerful in involving and correfting the acrimony
of the mafs of blood as has been imagined ; and that
their chief operation is by befmearing the fauces, and
thereby defending them from the irritation of acrids,
either ariiing from the lungs, or diddling from the
head. For moderating and quieting the cough in this
difeafe, opiates certainly prove the mod effeclual
means, whenever they can be fafely employed. In
the meafles, in which an inflammatory date prevails
in a confiderable degree, opiates may be fnppofed to
be inadmifiible; and, in thofe cafes in which a high
degree of pyrexia and dyfpncea fhew either the pie-
fence, or at lead the danger, of pneumonic inflamma¬
tion, opiates might be very hurtful : but, in cafes in
which the dyfpnoea is not confiderable, and in which
bleeding, to obviate or abate the inflammatory ftate,
has been duly employed ; in fuch cafes, while the
cough and watchfulnefs are the urgent fymptoms, o-
piates may be fafely exhibited, and with great advan¬
tage. In all the exanthemata, there is an acrimony
diffufed over the fyflem, which gives a confiderable ir¬
ritation; and, for obviating the effe&s of this, opiates
are ufeful, and always proper, when no particular
contra-indication prevails.
When the defquamation of the meafles is finiflied,
though then there Ihould be no diforder remaining,
phyficians have thought it neceffary to purge the pa¬
tient fever.il times, with a view to draw off the dregs
of this difeafe, that is, a portion of the morbific mat¬
ter which is fuppofed to remain long in the body. Dr
Cullen doth not rejedl this fuppofition; but, at the lame
CINE. # 47.39
time, cannot believe that the remains of the morbific sacnrr
matter, diffufed over the whole mafs of blood, can be'”
wholly drawn off l?y purging; and therefore thinks,
that, to avoid the confequence of the meafles, it is not
the drawing off the morbific matter which we need
to ftudy, fo much as to obviate and remove the inflam¬
matory ftate of the fyftem which had been induced by
the difeafe. With this laft view, indeed, purging
may (till be a proper remedy ; but bleeding, in pro¬
portion to the fymptoms of inflammatory difpofition,
is ftill more fo.
From our late experience of the ufe of cold air in
the eruptive fever of the fm^ill pox, fome phyficians
have been of opinion that the practice may be tranf-
ferred to the meafles ; but we have not yet had expe¬
rience to determine this. We are certain, that exter¬
nal heat may be very hurtful in the meafles, as in molt
other inflammatory difeafes ; and, therefore, that the
body ought to be kept in a moderate temperature du¬
ring the whole courfe of the meafles : but how far, at
any period of the difeafe, cold air may be applied with
fafety, we are uncertain. Analogy, though fo often
the refource of phyficians, is frequently fallacious ;
and further, though the analogy with the fmall-pox
might lead to the application of cold air during the
eruptive fever of the meafles, the analogy with catarrh
feems to be againft the pra&ice. When the eruption
is upon the Ikin, we have had many inftances of cold
air making it difappear, and thereby producing much
diforder in the fyftetn ; and we have alfo had frequent
inftances of this diforder’s being removed by reftoring
the heat of the body, and thereby again bringing out
the eruption.
Upwards of 20 years ago, inoculation for the meafles
was propofed, and pra&ifed in feveral inftances with
fuccefs, by Dr Home of Edinburgh. His method of
communicating the infe&ion was, by applying, to an
incifion in each arm, cotton moiftened with the blood
of a patient labouring under the meafles. But the con¬
tagion hath fince been artificially induced by means of
lint wet with the tears which flow from the eyes in the
firft ftage of this diforder. Thus, it is faid, the fore-
nefs of the eyes was mitigated, the cough abated, and
the fever rendered lefs fevere. But the pradtice was
never much in falhiou, and now is fcarce ever heard
of.
LXXV. The MILIARY FEVER. Genus XXXI. ^
Miliaria, Lin. 7.
Miliaris, Sauv. gen. 95. Sag. gen. 295.
Febris miliaris, f og. 37.
Febris purpurata rubra et alba miliaris, Hoffm. II.
68.
Febris purpurea feu miliaris, Junck. 75.
Germanis der Friefel. God. JVelfch, Hift. Med. de
novo puerperarum morbo, qui fex Friefel dicitur,
Lipf. 1655.
Hamilton, de febr. miliar. 1710. Fatonus, de febr.
mil. 1747. Hllioni de miliar. 1758. Fordyce, de
febr. mil. 1748. Fifcber, de ftbr. mil. 1767. De
Haen, de divif. febr. 1760, et in Ratio tried,
pafiim. Matt. Collin ad Balditiger de miliar. 1764.
Miliaris benigna, Sauv. fp. I.
Miliaris maligna, Sauv. fp. 2.
Miliaris recidivaus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Miliacift
474° M E D I
Practice Miliaris Germanica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Miliaris Boia, Sauv. fp. a.
Miliaris Britannica, Sauv. fp. t.
Miliaris nova febris, Sydenh. Sched. monit. Sauv.
fp. d.
Miliaris fudatoria, Sauv. fp. e.
Miliaris nautica, Sauv. fp. g.
Miliaris purpurata, Sauv. fp. f>.
Miliaris ladlea, Sauv. fp. c.
Miliaris puerperarum, Sauv. fp. k.
Miliaris icorbutica, Sauv. fp. /.
Miliaris critica, Sauv. fp. b.
Hijiory and Defcription. This difeafe is faid to have
been unknown to the ancients, and that it appeared
for the firft time in Saxony about the middle of the
laft century. It is faid to have fince fpread from
thence into all the other countries of Europe; and,
fince the period mentioned, to have appeared in
many countries in which it had never appeared be¬
fore.
From the time of its having been firft taken notice
of, it has been defcribed and treated of by many
different writers; and by all of them, till very late¬
ly, has been confidered as a peculiar idiopathic dif¬
eafe. It is faid to have been conftantly attended with
peculiar fymptoms. It comes on with a cold ftage,
which is often confiderable. The hot ftage, which follows,
is attended with great anxiety, and frequent fighing.
The heat of the body becomes great, and foon produ¬
ces profufe fweating, preceded, however, with a fenfe
of pricking, as of pin-points in the fkin ; and the
fweat is of a peculiar rank and difagreeable odour.
The eruption appears fooner or later in different per-
fons, but at no determined period of the difeafe. It
feldom or never appears upon the face; but appears
firft upon the neck and breaft, and from thence often
fpreads over the whole body.
The eruption named miliary is faid to be of two
kinds; the one named the red, the other the •white mi¬
liary. The former, which in Englifh is ftri&ly named
a rujh, is commonly allowed to be a fymptomatic af¬
fection ; and, as the latter is the only one that has any
pretenfions to be confidered as an idiopathic difeafe, it
is this only that we fhall more particularly defcrike
and treat of in this chapter.
What is then called the •white miliary eruption, ap¬
pears at firft like the red, in very fmall red pimples,
for the moft part diftinCt, but fometimes cluftered to¬
gether. Their little prominence is better diftinguifh-
ed by the finger than by the eye. Soon after the ap¬
pearance of this eruption, and, at lead, on the fecond
day, a fmall veficle appears upon the top of the
pimples. At firft the veficle is whey-coloured ; but
foon becomes white, and ftands out like a little globule
on the top of the pimple. In two or three days, thefe
globules break, or are rubbed off; and are fucceeded
by fmall crufts, which foon after fall off in fmall fcales.
While one fet of pimples take this courfe, another fet
arife to run the fame, fo that the difeafe often conti¬
nues upon the fkin for many days together. Some¬
times when one crop of this eruption has difappeared,
another, after fome interval, is produced. And, it has
been further obferved, that, in fome perfons, there is
fuch a dlfpofition to this difeafe, that they have been
CINE. Part III
affefted with it feveral times in the courfe of their lives. PractuI
This difeafe is faid to affe& both fexes, and perfons
of all ages and conftitutions; but it has been obferved
at all times to affeCt efpecially, and moft frequently,
lying-in women.
It is often accompanied with violent fymptoms, and
has frequently proved fatal. The fymptoms, however,
attending it are very various } and they are, upon oc-
cafion, every one attending febrile difeafes ; but no
fymptom, or concourfe of fymptoms, are fteadily the
fame in different perfons, fo as to give any fpecific cha-
raCler to the difeafe. When the difeafe is violent, the
moft common fymptoms are phrenetic, comatofe, and
convulfive affeftions, which are alfo fymptoms of all
fevers treated by a very warm regimen.
While there is fuch a variety of fymptoms appear¬
ing in this difeafe, it is not to be expeCted that any
one particular method of cure can be propofed; and,
accordingly, we find in different writers different me¬
thods and remedies prefcribed; frequent difputcs about
the moft proper ; and tho'fe received and pra&ifed by
fome, oppofed and deferted by others.
It appears, however, to Dr Cullen, very improbable
that this was really a new difeafe, when it was firft
confidered as fuch. There are very clear traces of it
in authors who wrote long before that period ; and
though there were not, we know that ancient defcrip-
tions were inaccurate and imperfect, particularly with
refpedt to cutaneous affedtions; and we know very well
that thofe affedtions which commonly appeared as fym-
tomatic only, were commonly neglefted, or confounded
together under a general appellation.
The antecedent fymptoms of anxiety, fighing, and
pricking of the (kin, which have been fpoken of as pe¬
culiar to this difeafe, are, however, common to many
others ; and, perhaps, to all thofe in which fweatings
are forced out by a warm regimen. Of the fymptoms
faid to be concomitant of this eruption, there are none;
which can be faid to be conftant and peculiar but that
of fweating. This, indeed, always precedes and ac¬
companies the eruption ; and, while the miliary erup¬
tion attends many different difeafes, it never, however,
appears in any of thefe, but after fweating; and in
perfons labouring under the fame difeafes it does not
appear, if in fuch perfons fweating is avoided. It is,
therefore, probable, that the eruption is the effeft of
fweating; and that it is the effe& of a matter not be¬
fore prevailing in the mafs of blood, but generated
under particular circumftances in the (kin itfelf. That
it depends upon particular circumftances of the (kin,
appears further from hence, that the eruption feldom <v
or never appears upon the face, although it aft'e&s the
whole of the body befides; and that it comes upon
thofe places efpecially which are more clofely covered;
and that it can be brought out upon particular places
by external applications.
It is to be obferved, that this eruptive difeafe dif¬
fers from the other exanthemata in many circumftan¬
ces; in its not being contagious, and therefore never
epidemic t in this the eruption appears at no determin¬
ed period of the difeafe; that the eruption has no de¬
termined duration ; that fucceffive eruptions frequently
appear in the courfe of the fame fever, and that fuch
eruptions frequently recur in the courfe of the fame
perfon’s; life. All this tenders it very probable, that.
:i'art II.
Auctice in the miliary fever, the morbific matter is not a fub-
filling contagion communicated to the blood, and
thence, in confequence of fever and aflimilation,
thrown out upon the furface of the body, but a mat¬
ter occafionally produced in thelkin itfelfby fweating.
,I*his conclufion is further rendered probable from
hence, that, while the miliary eruption has no fymp-
toms or concourfe of fymptoms peculiar to itfelf, it,
upon occafion, accompanies almoft every febrile dif-
eafe, whether inflammatory or putrid, if thefe happen
to be attended with fweating ; and from thence it may
be prefumed, that the miliary eruption is a fympto-
matic affe&ion only, produced in the manner we have
faid.
But, as this fymptomatic affe&ion does not always
accompany every inftance of fweating, it may be pro¬
per to inquire, what are the circumltances which efpe-
cially determine this eruption to appear ? And to this
our author gives no full and proper anfwer. He can¬
not fay that there is any one circumftance which in all
cafes gives occafion to this eruption ; nor can he fay
what different caufes, in different cafes, may give oc¬
cafion to it. There is only one obfervation that can
be made to the purpofe of this inquiry ; and it is, that
thefe perfons fweating, under febrile difeafes, are efpe-
cially liable to the miliary eruption, who have been
previoully weakened by large evacuations, particular¬
ly of blood. This will explain why it happens to ly¬
ing-in-women more frequently than to any other per¬
fons ; and to confirm this explanation, he has obfer-
ved, that the eruption has happened to other women,
though not in child-bed, but who had been much fub-
jefted to a frequent and copious menftruation, and to
an almoft conftant fluor albas. He has alfo obferved it
to have happened to men in fevers, after wounds from
which they had fuffered a great lofs of blood.
Further, that this eruption is produced by a certain
ftate of debility, will appear probable, from its fo of¬
ten attending fevers of the putrid kind, which are al¬
ways attended with great debility. It is true, that it
alfo fometimes attends inflammatory difeafes, when it
may not be accounted for in the fame manner; but he
believes it may be obferved, that it efpecially attends
thofe inflammatory difeafes in which the fweats have
been long protrafted, or frequently repeated, and
which have thereby produced a debility, and perhaps
a debilitating putrid diathefis.
It appears fo clearly that this eruption is always a
fymptomatic and faftitious affedlion, that our author
is perfuaded it may be, in mod cafes, prevented mere¬
ly by avoiding fweats. Spontaneous fweatings, in the
beginning of difeafes, are very rarely critical; and
all fweatings, not evidently critical, fhould be pre¬
vented ; and the promoting them, by increafing exter¬
nal heat, is commonly very pernicious. Even critical
fweats fliould hardly be encouraged by fuch means. If,
therefore, fpontaneous fweats arife, they are to be
checked by the coolnefs of the chamber; by thelight-
nefs and loofenefs of the bed-cloaths ; by the perfons
laying out their arms and hands ; and by their taking
cold drink; and in this way our author thinks he has
frequently prevented miliary eruptions, which were
otherwife likely to have appeared, particularly in lying-
in-women.
But it may happen, when thefe precautions have
4741
been negle&ed, or from other circumftances, that a mi- Practice
liary eruption does not adlually appear; and the que-
ftion will then be put, how the cafe is to be treated? It
is a queftion of confequence; as our author believes that
the matter here generated is often of a virulent kind; it
is often the offspring of putrefceucy; and, when treated
by increafing the external heat of the body, it feeins to
acquire a virulence which produces thofe fymptoms
mentioned above, and proves certainly fatal.
It has been an unhappy opinion with mod phyff-
cians, that eruptive difeafes were ready to be hurt by
cold ; and that it was therefore neceffary to cover up
the body very elofely, and thereby increafe the exter¬
nal heat. We now know that this is a miftaken opi¬
nion; that increafing the external heat of the body is
very generally mifchievous; and that feveral eruptions
not only admit, but require the application of cold air.
He is perfuaded, therefore, that the pra&ice which
formerly prevailed in the cafe of miliary eruptions, of
covering up the body clofe, and both by external
means and internal remedies encouraging the fweat¬
ings which accompany this eruption, was highly per¬
nicious, and commonly fatal. He is therefore of opi¬
nion, that even when a miliary eruption has appeared,
in all cafes in which the fweating is not manifeftly cri¬
tical, we fhould employ all the feveral means of flop¬
ping the fweating that are mentioned above; and he
has fometimes had occafion to obferve, that even the
admiffion of cool air was fafe and ufeful.
This is, in general, the treatment of miliary erup¬
tions : but at the fame time, the remedies fuited to the
primary difeafe are to be employed; and therefore,
when the eruption happens to accompany inflamma¬
tory affedlions, and the fulnefs and hardnefs of the
pulfe or other fymptoms fhew an inflammatory ftate
prefent, the cafe is to be treated by blood-letting,
purging, and other antiphlogiftic remedies.
Upon the other hand, when the miliary eruption
attends difeafes, in which debility and putrefcency
prevail, it will be proper to avoid all evacuations, and
to employ tonic and antifeptic remedies, particularly
the Peruvian bark, cold drink, and cold air.
We fliall conclude this fubjefl with obferving, that
the venerable oftogenarian pra&itioner, de Fifcher,
when treating of this fubjedl, in laying down the in¬
dications of cure, has given this as one of them :
“ Excretionis periphericas non primariam habere ra-
tionem.”
Genus XXXII. SCARLATINA. The Scarlet 337
Fever.
Scarlatina, Sauv. gen. 98. Vog. 39. Sag. 294.
Junck. 75.
LXXVI. The Mild Scarlet Fever. Sp. I. jjg.
Scarlatina febris, Sauv. fp. 1. Sydenham, fedl. vi.
cap. 2.
LXXVII. The Scarlet Fever with Ulcerated rm
Sore Throat. Sp. II.
Scarlatina anginofa. Withering on the Scarlet
Fever.
The mild fcarlet fever is defcribed. by Syden¬
ham, who tells us that he can fcarce account it
a difeafe; and indeed nothing more feems to be ne¬
ceffary
MEDICINE.
474s
Pa ACT Id
M E D I
ceffary la the treatment of it than an antiphlogiftic
'regimen, avoiding the application of cold air and
cold drink. The difeafe however fometimes rages
epidemically, and is attended with very alarming fymp-
toms, bearing no fmall refemblance to the cynanche
maligna, in which cafe it is called fcarlatina an-
ginofa.—The beft defcription of this diftemper hath
been publifhed by Dr Withering in the year 1778.
This difeafe made its appearance, we are told, at
Birmingham and the neighbouring villages, about
the middle of May 1778. It continued in all its
force and frequency to the end of Oftober; varying,
however, in fame of its fymptoms, as the air grew
colder. In the beginning of November it was rarely
met with; but towards the middle of that month,
when the air became warmer, it increafed again, and
in fome meafure refumed thofe appearances it poffefTed
in the fummer-months, but which it had loft during
•the cold winds in Oftober.
It affefted children more than adults; but feldom
occurred in the former under two years of age, or in
the latter when once they had pafled their fiftieth
year.
Defcription. With various general fymptoms of
fever, the patient at firft complains of a dejeftion of
fpirits, a flight forenefs or rather ftiffnefs in the neck,
with a fenfe of ftraitnefs in the mufcles of the neck
and (boulders, as if they were bound with chords.
The fecond day of the fever this forenefs in the throat
increafes, and the patients find a difficulty in fwallow-
ing ; but the difficulty feems lefs occafioned by the
pain excited in the attempt, or by the ftraitnefs of
the paflage, than by an inability to throw the ne-
ceffary mufcles in action. The fkin feels hot and dry,
but not hard ; and the patients experience frequent,
fmall, pungent pains, as if touched with the point of
a needle. The breath is hot and burning to the lips,
and thirft makes them wiffi to drink; but the tendency
toficknefs, and the exertions necefiary in deglutition,
are fo unpleafant, that they feldom care to drink
much at ar time. They have much uneafinefs alfo
from want of reft during the night. In the morning
of the third day, the face, neck, and breaft, appear
redder than ufual: in a few hours this rednefs be¬
comes univerfal; and increafes to fuch a degree of in-
tenfity, that the face, body, and limbs, refemble a
boiled lobfter in colour, and are evidently fwollen.
Upon prefiure the rednefs vaniffies, but foon returns
again. The fkin is fmooth to the touch, nor is there
the lead appearance of pimples or puftules. The
eyes and noftrils partake more or lefs of the general
rednefs; and in proportion to the intenfity of this
•colour in the eyes, the tendency to delirium pre¬
vails.
Things continue in nearly this ftate for two or
three days longer, when the intenfe fcarlet gradually
abates, a brown colour fucceeds, and the fkin be¬
coming rough, peels off in fmall fcales. The tume-
faftion fubfides at the fame time, and the patients
gradually recover their ftrength and appetite.
During the whole courfe of the difeafe, the pulfe
is quick, fmall, and uncommonly feeble; the urine fmall
in quantity; the fub-maxillary glands fomewhat en¬
larged and painful to the touch. The velum pendu¬
lum palati, the uvula, the tonfils, and gullet, as far
SINE. Part
as the eye can reach, partake of the general rednefs Pra
and tumefaction; but although collections of thick~~~
mucus, greatly refembling the fpecks or Houghs in
the putrid fore throat, fometimes occur, yet thofe are
eafily wafhed off, and real ulcerations of thofe parts
were never obferved.
Thefe are the moft ufual appearances of this difor*
der ; but it too frequently affumes a much more fatal
form. In fome children the delirium commences in a
few hours after the firft attack; the (kin is intenfely
hot; the fcarlet colour appears on the firft or fecond
day, and they die very early on the third. Others
again, who fu’-vive this rapid termination, inftead of
recovering, as is ufual, about the time the (kin begins
to get its natural colour, fall into a kind of lingering,
and die at laft in the courfe of fix or eight weeks.
In adults, circular livid fpots, were frequently ob¬
ferved about the breaft, knees, and elbows; alfo large
blotches of red, and others of white intermixed, and
often charging places.
In the month of OCtober, when the air becomes
colder, the fcarlet colour of the (kin was both lefs
frequent and lefs permanent. Many patients had no
appearance of it at all; whilft others, efpecially adults,
had a few minute red pimples, crowned with white
pellucid heads. The infide of the throat was con-
fiderably tumefied; its colour a dull red, fometimes
tending to a livid. The pulfe beat in general 130
or 140 ftrokes in a minute ; was fmall, but hard,
and fometimes fufficiently fo to juftify the opening of
a vein ; and the blood thus taken away, in every in-
ftance when cool, appeared fizy, and the whole craffa-
mentum firm.
Happy would it be, our author obferves, if the
baneful influence of this diforder terminated with the
febrile fymptoms. But in ten or fifteen days from
the ceffation of the fever, and when a complete re¬
covery might be expefted, another train of fymptoms
occur, which at laft frequently terminate fatally.
The patienrs, after a few days amendment, feel a
fomething that prevents their farther approach to
health ; an unaccountable languor and debility pre¬
vails, a ftiffnefs in the limbs, an accelerated pulfe,
dilturbed deep, difrelifli to food, and a fcarcity of
urine. Thefe fymptoms, we are told, are foon fuc-
ceeded by fwellings of a real dropfical nature, form¬
ing fometimes an anafarca, and on other occafions an
afcites.
Dr Withering, after examining the accounts given
of this difeafe by different authors, proceeds to the
diagnofis. It may be diftinguilhed, he obferves, from
the petechial fever, by the eruption in the latter ap¬
pearing feldom before the fourth day, by the regula¬
rity and diftin&nefs of the fpots, and by its princi¬
pally occupying the neck, the back, and the loins.
On the other hand, in the fcarlet fever, the eruption
generally appears about the third day ; confifts either
of broad blotches, or elfe one continued rednefs,
which fpreads over the face and the whole body.
In the fever called purpura, the puftules are pro¬
minent, keep their colour under preffure, and never
appear early in the difeafe ; whereas in the fcarkc
fever, the eruption appears more early, is not promi¬
nent, but perfedly fmooth to the touch, and becomes
quite white under preffure.
Although
II. M E D I
ice Although the purple fever and fcarlatina may be
connefted by feme general caufe, yet our author takes
occafion to obferve. that they cannot be mere modifi¬
cations of the fame eruption : for examples occur,
he fays, of the fame perfon being firfi feized with one
of thefe diforders, and afterwards with the other;
but he never met with an inftance of the fame perfon
having the fcarlet fever twice ; and he believes it to
be as great an improbability as a repetition of the
fmall-pox.
This diforder is particularly diftinguifhed from the
meafles, we are told, by the want of that cough,
watery eye, and running at the nofe, which are known
to be the predominant fymptoms in the early ftate
of the meafles, but are never known to exift in the
fcarlatina.
From the eryfipelas this difeafe is diftinguifliable,
by the limited feat of the former, together with its
not being contagious.
The ulcerated fore throat, however, is more diffi¬
cult to diitinguifli from this difeafe than any other;
and yet the diftin&ion is a matter of the greateft im¬
portance, as the method of treatment, we are told,
ought to be extremely different.—But although, in a
number of circumftances, thefe two difeafes bear a
very great refemblance, yet, with a little attention,
" the one may in general be diftinguifhed from the
other. From Dr Fothergill’s account of the fore
throat attended with ulcers, our author has made out
the following chara&eriftical circumftances of the two
difeafes, contrafted to one another.
Scarlatina Anginofa.
Seafon. . Summer . . Au¬
tumn.
dir. . Hot . . Dry.
Places. High . . Dry. . .
Gravelly.
Subjefts. Vigorous. Both
fexes alike. . Robuft in
moft danger ....
Skin. Full fcarlet ....
fmooth . . If pimply,
the pimples white at
the top . . Always dry
and hot.
Eyes. Shining, equable,
intenfe rednefs, rarely
watery.
Throat. In fummer, ton-
fils, &c. little tume¬
fied ; no flough . . In
autumn, more fwelled.
Integuments feparat-
ing . . Sloughs white.
Breath. Very hot, but not
fetid.
Voice. In fummer, natural.
Bowels. Regular at the
acceffion.
Blood. Buffy. . Firm.
Termination. The 3d,5th,
8th, or i ith day.
Nature. Inflammatory.
Vol. VI.
Angina Gangrenofa.
Seajon. . Spring . . Win¬
ter.
Air. . Warm . . Moift.
Places. Clofe. . Low . .
Damp. . Marfhy.
Subjefls. Delicate .. Wo¬
men and female Chil¬
dren. Robuft adults
not in danger.
Skin. Red tinge . . pim¬
ply. . The pimples red¬
der than the interftices
. . bedewed with fweat
towards morning.
Eyes. Inflamed and wa¬
tery, or funk and dead.
Throat. Tonfils, &c. con-
fiderably fwelled and
ulcerated . . . Sloughs
dark brown.
Breath. Offenfive to the
patients and affiftants.
Voice. Flat and Rattling.
Bowels. . Purging at the
acceffion.
Blood. . Florid. . Tender.
Termination. No ftated
period.
Nature. Putrid.
CINE. 4741
It is not pretended, out author remarks, that all Practice
the above contrafted fymptoms will be met with in
every cafe. It is enough, he obferves, that fome of
them appear ; and that if conjoined, with the con-
fideration of the prevailing conftitution, they enable
us to direft that mode of treatment which will moft
contribute to the relief of the fick.
Caufes. Our author affirms that the immediate
caufe of this difeafe is a poifou of a peculiar kind,
communicable by contagion.
2. That this poifon firft takes pofleffion of the
mucous membrane lining the fauces and the nofe;
and either by its a&ion upon the fecretory glands,
or upon the mucus itfelf, affimilates that mucus to its
own nature.
3. That it is from this beginning, and from this
only, that it fpreads to the ftomach, &c. and at length
afts upon the fyftem at large.
4. That its firft adion upon the nerves, is of a fe-
dative or debilitating nature.
5. That in confequence of certain laws of the ner¬
vous fyftem, when the debilitating effe&s operate up¬
on the fenforium commune, a rea&ion takes place t
and that this read ion is, caterisparibus, proportioned
to the debilitating power.
6. That, in confequence of this re-adion of the
nervous fyftem, the vibratory motion of the capillary
blood-veffels dependent thereon is greatly increafed;
an unufually large quantity of blood is accumulated
in thofe veffels; the heart and large blood-veflels are
deprived of their cuftomary proportion; and hence,
though ftimulated to more frequent contradion, the
pulfe muft neceffarily be feeble.
7. That as violent exertions are followed by debility,
upon the ceffation of the fever, the capillary veflels,
which had aded with fuch unufual violence, are left
in a ftate of extreme debility, and are long in reco¬
vering their tone; hence it is that fo many patients
afterwards become dropfical.
Our author now proceeds to the confideration of
the different remedies, which either are at prefent in
common ufe, or have been recommended as proper in
this difeafe.
Cure. Blood-letting has been recommended by
authors; but fuch was the ftate of the pulfe in this
diforder, at leaft during the fummer-months, that
it was not in any inftance thought advifable to take
away blood. In fome cafes, indeed, where the fiery
rednefs of the eyes feemed to demand the ufe of
leeches, they were had recourfe to, but never with
any advantage. In the harveft months, when the
pulfe was more firm, and when fuffocation feemed to
be threatened from the fwelling in the fauces, blood¬
letting was fometimes advifed, but ftill with lefs ad¬
vantage than one would have expefted in almoft any
other fituatioo.
Vomiting.] This, our author obferves, feemato be the
remedy of nature ; and he is furprifed how it fliould
have been omitted by feveral authors, who have gone
before him. Vomiting, he fays, moft amply fulfils
the indications arifing both from a confideration of the
caufe and of the effe&s ; and a liberal ufe of the re¬
medy he holds forth as the true foundation for fuc-
cefsful practice in fcarlet-fever and fore-throat. His
common form of emetic is a combination of tartar
36 U emetic
4742
Practice emetic and ipecacuanha, given in pretty fmart dozes ;
and thefe are to be repeated at leaft once in 48
hours, and in the word cafes fo often as twice in 24
hours.
Purging.] The aftion of purgatives is confidered
by our author as altogether repugnant to the curative
indications in this difeafe: for the poifon, as formerly
remarked, being received into the fydem by the
fauces, the operation of a purge, inftead of dif-
charging it, can only promote its diffufion along the
alimentary canal; and in fa£t, we are told, that when
even a fpontaneous purging fupervenes in this difeafe,
the patients fink fo amazingly fait,that it is not with¬
in the reach of art to fupport them.
Sudorifics. Cordials. Alexipharmics.] None of thefe
remedies were found beneficial. With refpe& to cor¬
dials, our author obferves, that although they feem to
be indicated by the great lofs of ftrength and feeble
pulfe, yet the certain confequence of their ufe always
was, an increafe of reftlelfnefs, of the delirium, and
of the heat.
Diuretics.] Thefe were found very beneficial. The
vegetable fixed alkali is recommended as the moft
proper article of this kind: a dram or two may be
eafily fwallowed every 24 hours, by giving a fmall
quantity in every thing the patient drinks.
Peruvian bark.] No medicine, we are told, ever
had a fairer trial in any difeafe than the Peruvian bark
had in this epidemic; for the feeble pulfe, great
proftration of ftrength, with here and there a livid
fpot, were thought to be fuch undeniable evidences of
a putrid tendency, that the bark was poured down
not with a fparing hand. But this was only at firft ;
for thefe livid fpots and the (loughs in the throat be¬
ing found to be the effefts of inflammation inftead of
putrefa&ion, and the bark inftead of diminifliing,
rather increafing thefe fymptoms, it was at laft entirely
laid afide.
Upon the fame principles that the bark was pre-
fcribed, fixable air was at firft likewife advifed, but
with no evident effefts either one way or another.
Dulcified acids were alfo had recourfe to, but with no
advantage.
Opiates.] Thefe, although recommended by fome
authors for the removal of inquietude and watchfulnefs,
yet in this epidemic, inftead of effefting thefe pur-
pofes, always increafed the diftrefs of the patient.
Blifters.] In the fummer appearance of the difeafe,
blifters were univerfally detrimental; they never failed
to haften the delirium ; and if the cafe was of the
word kind, they too often confirmed its fatal tendency.
In the autumnal feafon, when the inflammation was
lefs generally diffufed through the body, they were
tefs detrimental, but did not even here produce any
beneficial effeds.
Injefted gargles of contrayerva deco&ion, fweeten-
ed with oxymel of (quills, &c. were found very bene¬
ficial in bringing always large quantities of vifcid ropy
ftuff from the fauces.
The immerfion. of the feet and legs in warm water,
although it did no harm, yet did not either procure
fleep or abate the delirium, as it frequently does in
other kinds of fever.
As in fummer it was found difficult to keep the
patients fufficiently cool, they were ordered to lie
Part II.
upon a mattrefs inftead of a feather-bed 5 a free cir- PRActim
culation of air was kept up ; and where the patient’s HI
ftrength would admit of it, they were ordered fre¬
quently out of doors. Animal food and fermented
liquors were denied them, and nothing allowed but
tea, coffee, chocolate, milk and water, gruel, barley-
water, and fuch articles.
With refpeift to the dropfical diforder which fo
frequently fucceeds to this complaint, it was never
obferved, our author remarks, when the preceding
fymptoms had been properly treated.
When called upon to patients in the dropfical ftate,
our author commences his pradfice by a dofe of calo¬
mel at night, and a purgative in the morning. When
a febrile pulfe attended the other fymptoms, emetics
were ufeful, as well as the faline draughts and other
neutral falls. When great debility, comatofe or pe-
ripneumonic fymptoms occurred, blifters were found
very ferviceable : but when dropfical fymptoms were
the principal caufe of complaint, fmall dofes of rhu¬
barb and calomel are advifed ; recourfe was alfo had
to diluted folutions of fixed alkalies, fquills. Seltzer
waters, and other diuretics.
When the urine flows freely, fteel and other tonics
are recommended; together with gentle excercife,
high-feafoned foods, wine, and the wearing of flannel
in contadt with the (kin.
Our author concludes his effay with an enumeration
of feveral cafes, treated according to the principles
above laid down. The fuccefsful termination of thefe
cafes demonftrates the propriety of the practice which
he has recommended.
LXXVIII. URTICARIA, the Nettle-rash.
Genus XXXIII. 340 I
Febris urticata, Vog. 40.
Uredo, Lin. 8.
Purpura urticata, 75.
Scarlatina urticata, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelatis fpecies altera, Sydenham, fed. vi.
cap. 6.
Febris fcarlatina, et febris urticata, Meyferey,
Mai. des armees, 291 et feq.
Defcription. This difeafe has its Englifh name
from the refemblance of its eruption to that made by
the flinging of nettles. Thefe little elevations upon
the (kin in the nettle-ra(h often appear inftantaneoufly,
efpecially if the (kin be rubbed or fcratched, and fel-
dom flay many hours in the fame place, and fome-
times not many minutes. No part of the body is ex¬
empt from them; and where many of them rife toge¬
ther, and continue an hour or two, the parts are often
confiderably fwelled ; which particularly happens in
the face, arms, and hands. Thefe eruptions will con¬
tinue to infeft the (kin, fotnetimes in one place and
fometimes in another, for one or two hours at a
time, two or three times every day, or per¬
haps for the greateft part of the 24 hours.—
In fome perfons they lafi only a few days, in others
many months ; nay, fometimes the difeafe hath laded
for two years, with very fiiort intervals, or even for
feven or ten years.
But though the eruption of the urticaria refembles,
as already obferved, that produced by the flinging of
nettles, it is fometimes accompanied with long wheals,
as
MEDICINE.
I’Part II. M E D I
aAiACTicE as if the part had been ftruck with a whip. What-
Tr— ever be the fhape of thefe eminences, they always ap¬
pear folid, without having any cavity or head con¬
taining either water or any other liquor: and this
affords an eafy mark whereby this difeafe may be di-
ftinguifhed from the itch. For it often happens, that
the infufferable itching with which this eruption is at¬
tended, provokes the patient to fcratch the parts fo
violently, that a fmall part of the cuticle on the top of
thefe little tumours is rubbed off; a little fcab fucceeds;
and, when the fwelling is gone down, there is left an
appearance hardly to be didinguifhed from the itch,
but by the circumftance juft now mentioned. The
nettle-rafh alfo further differs from the itch, in not
being infectious.
Cattfes, See. Dr Heberden inclines to aferibe this
diftemper to fome mechanical caufe outwardly applied
to the fkin. He obferves, that mod people fuffer in a
fimilar manner from the real flinging of nettles.
Cowhage, or, as it is corruptly called, cow-itch, is a
fort of phafeolus, or French bean, the pod of \vhich
js covered over with a kind of down or hair, and the
effeft of it upon the fkin is much the fame as that of
nettles; and almoft any hairs cut equally fhort, and
fprinkled upon the fl<in, whenever they happen to flick
in it, will make the part itch or fmart in fuch a man¬
ner as to give great uneafinefs; it is alfo a confiderable
time before the fkin can be cleared of the finer ones,
when once they are ftrewed upon it.
Reaumur, in the fourth memoir of his Hiflory of
InfeAs, deferibes a fpecies of caterpillars to which be¬
longs a fort of hairs almoft invifible to the naked
eye, which are eafily detached, and frequently float
in the air round their neft, though it have not been at
all diflurbed. The touch of thefe hairs has a fimilar
cffeCt with the cow-itch; that is, they occafion into¬
lerable itchings, with little bumps and rednefs, arifing
fometimes to a flight inflammation. Thefe he found
would continue four or five days, if the animal or the
nefl had been much handled ; and though they
had not been touched at all, yet, by only walking
near their netls, the fame effects would be brought on,
but for a fhorter time. Thefe hairs affeCt the fkin in
this manner by flicking in it, as he could perceive
with a glafs of a great magnifying power ; for with
one of a fmall power they were riot vifible. The un-
eafy fenfations caufed by thefe fmall wounds, not only,
as he fays, laft feveral days, but move from one part
of the body to the other; fo that they will ceafe upon
one wrift, and immediately begin on the other; from
the wrifl they will go to the fingers or the face, or
even to the parts of the body which are covered. He
fuppofes, that the motions of the body, when much of
this fine down lies near or upon the fkin, may drive
it from one part to another, or change what was lying
there inoffenfively to a fituation fit to make it pene¬
trate into the flein. Neither cold water, nor oil, nor
fpirit-of-wine, with which the parts affeded were
bathed, had any effe£t in removing the itching. He
thinks the moft efficacious remedy which he tried for
this complaint was, to rub the parts flrongly with
parfley, which inftantly leffened the fenfations, and,
after two or three hours, entirely freed him from
them. It is alfo well known, that many fpecies of
caterpillars, by only walking over the hands, will
CINE. 4743
produce fomething like this effed on th4 parts Practice
which they touch, and undoubtedly from the fame “”
caufe.
Dr Heberden afks, Is it impoflible that the nettle-
rafh fhould arife from the fame caufes, or from others
fimilar, which we mifs by looking too deeply for
them in the blood and humours ? Such, fays he, may
have been its origin in fome inftances, where it has
lafted only a few days; but where this affedion hath
continued for fome years, in perfons who change their
linen every day, and who bathe frequently all the
time, it can hardly be aferibed to fuch an external
caufe. Our author has obferved it frequently to arife
from cantharides: but though it hath continued many
weeks after the removal of the blifter, yet it might be
fufpeded that this arofe from the fine fpicula of the
cantharides flicking all this time about the fkin; it
being cuftomary to ftrew much of the dry powder of
the cantharides over the blifter-plafter, whence it may
readily be carried to other parts of the body. But it
is certain that fimilar effeds will fometimes follow the
internal ufe of wild valerian root, or the eating of fifh
not fufficiently dreffed ; mufcles, fhrimps, and even
honey, and the kernels of fruits, will alfo fometimes
produce fymptoms of a fimilar kind. But whatever
be its caufe, Dr Heberden never faw any reafon to
fuppofe that the nettle-rafh had in any way vitiated
the humours to fuch a degree as to require the ufe of
internal remedies; and if the itching could be cer¬
tainly and expeditioufly allayed, there would be no
occafion for any farther cure. The Dodor concludes
this hiftory of the diforder with a cafe communicated
to him by Dr Monfey, phyfician of Chelfea-college,
and in which the difeafe appeared with uncommon
violence.
W. A. aged near 30, of a thin fpare habit, was
feized with a diforder attended with fymptems of a
very uncommon kind. Whenever he went into the
air, if the fun fhined bright, he was feized with a
tickling of his flefh on thofe parts expofed to the fun:
this tickling, by his continuing in the air, increafed to
a violent itching, attended with great heat and pain :
the fkin would then be almoft as red as vermilion, and
thicken like leather; and this remained till he went out
of the open air, and then abated in about 15 or 2p mi¬
nutes. This happened only when the fun was above
the horizon ; at other times he was what he called
quite well.—Tut it was not owing to the heat of the
fun; for the fun in winter affe<fled him full as much,
if not more, and the heat of the fire had no fuch ef-
fe£l. Thus he was confined to the houfe for ten years.
He tried feveral hofpitals, and had advices from many
phyficians, without the leaft abatement of his com¬
plaints. At laft it was agreed by a confultation of
phyficians, that he fhould try dipping in falt-water;
which he did at Yarmouth for 13 weeks, without any
vifible amendment. One hot day, having pulled off
his clothes and gone into the fea in the middle of the
day, the heat diffufed itfelf fo violently all over his
body, that, by the time he had put on his clothes,
his eye-fight began to fail, and he-was compelled to
lie down upon the ground to fave himfelf from falling.
The moment he lay down, the faintnefs went off:
upon this he got up again; but had no fooner arifen,
than he found himfelf in the former condition : he
26 Uz therefore
4-744
Practice therefore lay down again, and immediately recovered.
He continued alternately getting up and lying down,
till the diforder began to be exhaufted, which was in
about half an hour; and he was frequently obliged to
have recourfe to the fame expedient.
Having at lad accidentally met with Dr Monfey,
this phyfician queftioned him concerning the caufe of
the diforder; but nothing could be guefled at, ex¬
cepting that the patient owned he had one winter
lived entirely upon bullock’s-liver and porter, from
inability to purchafe better vi&uals. A comrade
lived with him at that time, on the fame provifions;
and he alfo was affe&ed in a fimilar manner, though
in a lefs degree, and had recovered. This patient
was then firft put upon a courfe of Dover’s fweating
powder without any effeft, and afterwards tried a
courfe of nitrous ones with the fame bad fuccefs. At
laft Dr Monfey determined to try the eflett of mer¬
cury, which happily proved effeftual in removing this
obftinate and uncommon diftemper. The patient be¬
gan with taking five grains of calomel for three nights
running, and a cathartic next morning. In this courfe
he went on for near a fortnight, at the end of which
he found himfelf very fenfibly relieved. This encou¬
raged him to go on rather too boldly, by which
means a flight falivation enfued; however, that went
off foon, and in about fix weeks he was quite well.—
Some time after, he was threatened with a return of
his diforder ; but this was effeftually relieved by a
dofe of calomel, which he had afterwards occafion
to repeat for the fame reafon, and with the fame
fuccefs ; but at laft the diforder feemed to be radi¬
cally cured, by his having no further fymptoms of a
relapfe.
341 LXXIX. PEMPHIGUS. Gen. XXXIV.
Pemphigus, Sauv. gen. 93. Sag. 291.
Morta, Z;». (.
Febris bullofa, Fog. 41.
Pemphigus major, Sauv. fp. 1.
Exanthemata ferofa, C. Pifon. Obf. 150.
Febris pemphygedes, Ephem. Germ. D. I. A. via.
Obf. 56.
Pemphigus caftrenfis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Febris fyneches, cum veficuiis per peftus et col'um
fparfis, Morton App. ad Exerc. II.
Pemphigus Helveticus, Sauv. fp. 3. Langhans in
Ad. Helvet. vol. ii. p. 260. et in Befchreibuug
des Siementhals, Zurich 1753-
This is a very rare difeafe, infomuch that Dr Cul¬
len declares he never faw it. He declines taking the
defcriptions of foreign phyficians; we fhall therefore
content ourfelves with giving an inftance of this very
uncommon diftemper, as it was obferved in the infir¬
mary at Aberdeen.—A private foldier of the 73d re¬
giment, aged eighteen years, formerly a pedlar, and
naturally of a healthy conftitution, was received into
the hofpital at Aberdeen on the 25th of April. A-
bout twenty days before that, he had been feized with
the meafles when in the country; and, in marching to
town, on the fecond day of their eruption, he was ex-
pofed to cold; upon which they fuddenly difappeared.
Having arrived ht Aberdeen, he was quartered in a
damp, ill-aired, under ground apartment. He then
Part II.
complained of ficknefs at ftomach, great oppreffion Practki
about the prsecordia, head-ach, lafiitude, and weari- "
nefs, on the leaft exertion ; with ftiffnefs and rigidity
of his knees and other joints. The furgeon of the re¬
giment vifited him : he was purged, but with little
benefit. About ten days before, he obferved on the
infide of his thighs a number of very fmall, diftinft,
red fpots, a little elevated above the furface of the
flcin, and much refembling the firft appearance of
fmall-pox. This eruption gradually fpread itfelf over
his whole body, and the puftules continued every day
to increafe in fize.
Upon being received into the hofpital, he complain¬
ed of head-ach, ficknefs at ftomach, oppreffion about
the prsecordia, thirft, fore throat, with difficulty of
fwallowing; his tongue was foul, his fltin felt hot and
feverilh; pulfe from no to 120, rather deprefled;
belly coftive; eyes dull and languid, but without'deli-
rium. The whole furface of his flcin was interfperfed
with veficles, or phlyflsenas, of the fize of an ordinary
walnut; many of them were larger, efpecially on the
arms and breaft. In the interftices, between the vefi¬
cles, the appearance of the fkin was natural, nor was
there any rednefs round their bafe ; the diftance from
one to another was from half an inch to a hand-
breadth or more. In fome places two or three were
joined together, like the puftules in the confluent fmall-
pox. A few veficles had burft of themfelves, and form¬
ed a whitifh fcab or cruft. Thefe were moftly on the
neck and face; others (hewed a tolerably laudable pus.
However, by far the greateft number were perfedtly
entire, turgid, and of a bluifh colour. Upon opening
them it was evident, that the cuticle elevated above the
cutis, and diftended with a thin, yellowifli, femipellu-
cid ferum, formed this appearance. Nor was the fur¬
face of the cutis ulcerated, or livid; but of a red florid
colour, as when the cuticle is feparated by a blifter,
or fuperficial burning. No other perfon laboured un¬
der a fimilar dileafe, either in the part of the country
from which he came, or when he refided in Aberdeen.
This cafe was treated in the following manner. The
largeft of the veficles were Hipped, and drefled with
unguent, e lap. calaminari. In the evening he was
vomited with a folution of tartar emetic, given in fmall
quantities and at intervals. This alfb procured two
loofe ftools. And he was ordered for drink, water-
gruel acidulated with lemon-juice.
“ April 16. He ftili complained of ficknefs, fome
oppreffion about his breaft, and fore throat; he had
(lept little during the night; his tongue was foul and
blackifh; his (kin, however, was not fo hot as the pre¬
ceding day; his urine was high-coloured, but had the
appearance of feparation ; his pulfe 90, and fpft; moll
of the fores on the trunk of the body looked clean.
Others, particularly where the veficles were confluent,
feemed beginning to ulcerate, and to have a bluifti fub-
livid appearance. They were drefied afrefli with ce¬
rate, and he was ordered the following medicines:
Decoft. Cort. Peruvian, ^vi. Vini rubr. Lufitan.
|iii. M. Hujus mixturse capiat ^(i. tertia qua-
que bora.
“ His acidulated drink was continued; and on ac¬
count of the very offenfive fmell on approaching near
him, fome vinegar was placed in a bafon before the
bed, and fprinkied on the floor; and the room was
kept
MEDICINE.
tlart II.
:|»actice kept properly aired.
■"I  “ April 17. His fores looked tolerably clean, un-
lefs on his arms and thighs; where they were livid, a
little ulcerated, and difcharged a bloody ichor.
“ His head-ach, ficknefs, &c. were moftlygone;
his tongue was rather cleaner; pulfe 68, and foft. As
the decoftion of the bark fat eafily on his ftomach, the
following prefcription was ordered:
JJ, Pulv. fubtiliff. Cort. Peruv. 3ft. Vini rubri Lu-
fitan. Aquas fontan. aajlS. M. ft. Hauft. tertia
qnaque hora repetend.
The acidulated drink was continued, and frelh dref-
fings applied to the fores.
“ April 18. The little ulcers in his arms and thighs
ftill difcharged a bloody ichor, and looked ill ; his
other complaints were better; pulfe 82. The bark had
not naufeated him, and it was continued as well as his
former drink.
“ April 19. His fores looked greatly cleaner and
better; the fever was gone, his pulfe natural, and he had
no complaint but weaknefs and a troublefome itching
ofthefkin: The Peruvian bark, &c. were continued.
“ April 20. Some of the ulcers ftill poured forth a
bloody ichor; molt of them, however, looked well,
and had begun to heal—fever gone—medicines conti¬
nued.
“ From the 21 ft April, he went on gaining ftrength,
and his fores appeared to heal fall; he was delired to
take only four dofes every day; and by the 27th his
fores, &c. were totally dried up—he had no complaint
—-was difmified cured.”
i 342 LXXX. APHTHA, the Thrush. Genus XXXV.
Aphtha, Sauv. gen-, too. Lin. 9. Sag. 298.
Boerh. 978. Hoffm. II. 478. Junck. 137.
Febris aphthofa, Vog. 44.
The only idiopathic fpecieS is the thrufb to which
infants are fubjeft; (Aphtha laducimen, fp. 1.)
The aphthae are whitilh or afh-coloured puftules, in¬
vading the uvula, fauces, palate, tonfils, infide of the
cheeks, gums, tongue, and lips. They for the moft
part begin at the uvula, fending forth a glutinous mu¬
cus, and the puftules covering all or the greateft
number of the parts above-mentioned with a thick
whitilh cruft adhering moft tenacioufly. This cruft
doth not induce an efchar on the parts on which it
lies by eating into them, but comes off in whole pieces
after the puftules have arrived at maturity. This will
often happen in a ftiort time, fo that the throat and
internal parts of the mouth are frequently obferved to
be clean which a few hours before were wholly cover¬
ed with white crufts. Neither is this difeafe confined
to the throat and fauces, but is faid to afftft the cefo-
phagus, ftomach, and all parts of the alimentary canal.
Of this indeed there is no other proof, than that, after
a great difficulty of fwallowing, there is fometimes an
immenfe quantity of aphthae evacuated by ftool and
vomit, fuch as the mouth could not be thought capable
of containing.
Caufes, Sic. The aphthofe fever feems to be pro¬
duced by cold and moifture, as it is found only in
the northern countries, and efpecially in marlhy places;
and in them the aphthae often appear without any fever
at all.
4745
Prognojis. There is no fymptom by which the Pract^i!
coming out of aphthae can be foretold, tho’ they are
common in many fevers ; but they themfelves are in
general a bad fymptom, and always fignify a very te¬
dious diforder : the danger denoted by them is in pro¬
portion to the difficulty of deglutition ; and a diar¬
rhoea accompanying them is likewife bad. This indeed
generally carries off old people when they become af¬
fected with aphthae. The dark-coloured aphthae alfo
are much more dangerous than fuch as are of a brown
or other dark colour; but it is a good fign when the
appetite returns, and the dark-coloured ones are fuc-
ceeded by others of a whiter colour. Neither are thofe
which are unaccompanied with fever fo dangerous as
the other kind.
Cure. As the aphthae are feldom a primary difeafe,
we muft generally endeavour to remove the diforder
upon which they depend, after which they will fall
off; but in the mean time we are not to negleCt appli¬
cations to the aphthae themfelves, fuch as detergent and
foftening gargles made of the deco&ion of figs, with
the addition of honey of rofes, a little vinegar, and
fome tin&ure of myrrh : in thofe ulcerated aphthae
which appear in the malignant fore throat, Mr Penrofe
recommends the vitrum antimonii ceratum.
Order IV. H2EMORRHAGIiE; 443
MORRHAGES.
Haemorrhagiae, Vog. Clafs II. Ord. I. Hoffm. II.
194. Junck. $.
Sanguifluxus, Sauv. Clafs IX. Ord. I. Sag.
Clafs V. Order I.
LXXXI. EPISTAXIS, or Bleeding at the Nose. 344
Genus XXXVIII.
Haemorrhagia, Sauv. gen. 239. Lin. 173. Sag.
gen. 174.
Haemorrhagia narium, Hoffm. II. 196. Javck. 6.
Haemorrhagia plethorica, Sauv; fp. 2. Hoffm. II.
198.
The other fpecies enumerated by authors are all
fymptomatic.
Defcription. The milder fpecies of this haemorrhage
comes on more frequently in fummer than in winter,,
and for the moft part without giving any warning, or
being attended with the lead inconvenience ; but the
lefs benign kind is preceded by feverai remarkable
fymptoms. Thefe are, congeftions of the blood fome¬
times in one part and fometimes in another, and
which are often very troublefome in the fides of the
head ; there is a rednefs of the cheeks ; an inflation
of the face, and the veffels of the neck and temples; a
tinnitus aurium ; a heavy pain of the eyes, with a pro¬
minence, drynefs, and fparks; there is a vertiginous
affe&ion of the head, with an itching of the noftrils,
and a fenfe of weight, efpecially about the root of the
nofe. In fome the fleep is difturbed with dreams about
blood, fire, &c. Frequently the belly is coftive, there
is a diminution of the quantity of urine, a fuppreffion
of fweat, coldnefs of the lower extremities, and ten-
fions of the hypochondria, efpecially the right one.
Caufes, &c. This haemorrhage may occur at any
time of life; but moft commonly happens to young
perfons, owing to the peculiar llate of the fyftem
at
MEDICINE.
4746
Practice
M E d I
: at that time. Sometimes, however, it happens af¬
ter the <**/“» and during the date of manhood, at
which time it is to be imputed to a plethoric date of
the fydem ; to a determination of the blood, by habit,
to the veffels of the nofe; or to the particular weak-
nefs of thefe vedels.
In all thefe cafes thedifeafe may be confidered as an
arterial hsemorrhage, and depending upon an arterial
plethora ; but it fometimes occurs in the decline of
life, and may then be confidered as the fign of a ve¬
nous plethora in the veffels of the head. It often hap¬
pens at any period of life in certain febrile difeafes,
which are altogether or partly of an inflammatory
nature, and which fhew a particular determination of
the blood to the veffels of the head. As by this eva¬
cuation the difeafes are often removed, it may on thefe
occafions be deemed truly critical. It happens to per¬
sons of every conditution and temperament; but mod
frequently to the plethoric and fanguine, and more
commonly to men than women.
Prognojis. In young people, the bleeding at the
nofe may be confidered as a flight difeafe, and fcarce
worth notice. But, even in young perfons, when it re¬
curs very frequently and in great quantity, it is alarm¬
ing ; and is to be confidered as a mark of an arterial
plethora, which in the decline of life may give the
blood a determination to parts from which the hemor¬
rhage would be more dangerous. And this will require
more particular attention as the marks of plethora and
congedion preceding the hemorrhage are more confi-
derable, and as the flowing of the blood is attended
with a more confiderable degree of febrile diforder.
Thefe confequences are more efpecially to be dreaded,
when the epiftaxis happens to perfons after their
returning frequently and violently. Even in the
decline of life, however, it may be confidered as in
itfelf very falutary ; but at the fame time it is a mark
of a dangerous ftate of the fyftem, i. e. of a ftrong
tendency to a venous plethora in the head, and hath
accordingly been often followed by apoplexy, palfy,
&c. When it happens in febrile difeafes, and is in
pretty large quantity, it may be generally confidered
as critical and falutary ; but it is very apt to be too
profnfe, and thus become dangerous. It fometimes
occurs during the eruptive fever of fome exanthemata,
and is in fuch cafes fometimes falutary ; but if thefe
exanthemata be accompanied with any putrid tenden¬
cy, this hsemorrhage, as well as artificial blood-let¬
tings, may have very bad tendency.
Cure. Though this difeafe has been generally
thought very flight, Dr Cullen is of opinion that it
fhould feldom be left to the conduft of nature ; and
that in all cafes it (hould be moderated by keeping the
patient in cool air, by giving cold drink, by keeping
the body and head ereft, by avoiding any blowing of
the nofe, fpeaking, or other irritation; and if the blood
has flowed for fome time without fhewing any tenden¬
cy to Hop, we are to attempt the fuppreffion of the
haemorrhage by prefling the nollril from which the
blood flows, walking the face with cold water, or ap¬
plying this to fome other parts of the body. Thefe
meafures he judges to be proper even on the firft at¬
tacks, and in young perfons where the difeafe is the
leaft hazardous: but thefe meafures will Hill be more
requifite if the difeafe frequently recurs without any
CINE. Part II.
external violence; if the returns happen to perfonsPractic*
difpofed to a plethoric habit 5 and more particular- •
ly if the figns of plethora appear in the foregoing
fymptoms.
When the bleeding rs fo profufe that the pulfe be¬
comes weak and the face pale, every means muft be
ufed to put a flop to it, and that whether the patient
is young or old. Befides thofe methods abovemen-
tioned, we muft ufe aftringents both internal and ex¬
ternal ; but the latter are the moft powerful, and the
choice of thefe may be left to the furgeon. The in¬
ternal aftringents are either vegetable or fofiil; but '
the vegetable aftringents are feldom powerful in the
cure of any haemorrhages except thofe of the alimen¬
tary canal. The foffil aftringents are more powerful,
but differ confiderably in ftrength from one another.
The chalybeates appear to have little ftrength : the
preparations of lead are more powerful; but cannot be
employed, on account of their pernicious qualities, un-
lefs in cafes of the utmoft danger. The tinflura fa-
turnina, or antiphthifica, is a medicine of very little
efficacy, either from the fmall quantity of lead it con¬
tains, or from the particular ftate in which it is. The
fafeft and at the fame time the moft powerful aftrin-
gent feems to be alum.
For fuppreffing this and other haemorrhages, many
fuperftitious remedies and charms have been ufed, and
faid to have been employed with fuccefs. This has
probably been owing to the miftake of the by-ftan-
ders, who have fuppofed that the fpontaneous ceffation
of the haemorrhage was owing to their remedy. At
the fame time Dr Cullen is of opinion, that fuch re¬
medies have fometimes been ufeful, by impreffing the
mind with horror or dread. Opiates have fometimes
proved fuccefsful in removing haemorrhages ; and
when the fulnefsand inflammatory diathefis of the fy¬
ftem have been previoufly taken off by bleeding, they
may, in Dr Cullen’s opinion, be ufed with fafety and
advantage. Ligatures have been applied upon the
limbs, for retarding the return of the venous blood
from the extremities ; but their ufe feems to be am¬
biguous. In the cafe of profufe haemorrhages, no
care is to be taken to prevent the patient from faint¬
ing, as this is often the moft certain means of flop¬
ping them.
Genus XXXVIII. HAEMOPTYSIS, or Spitting
of Bloodt
345
Haemoptyfis, Sauv. gen. 240. Lin. 179. 84.
Sag. gen. 175. Junck. 8.
Hsemoptoe, Boerh. 1198.
Sanguinis fluxus ex pulmonibus, II. 202.
346
347
LXXXII. Haemoptysis from Plethora. Sp. I.
LXXXIII. Hemoptysis, from External Violence.
Sp. II.
Haemoptyfis accidentalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Haemoptylis habitualis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Haemoptyfis traumatica, Sauv. ip. 12.
LXXXIV. Hemoptysis with Pthifu. Sp. IIL 348
Haemoptyfis phthifica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Ha^moptyfis ex tuberculo pulmonum, Sauv. fp. 10.
LXXXV.
Jpart II, M E D I
Jactice LXXXV. The Calculous Hemoptysis. Sp. IV.
-|p  Haemoptyfis calculofa, Sauv. fp. 14.
LXXXVI. The F/Vijr/V#/Hemoptysis. Sp. V.
L35° Hsemoptyfis catamenialis, Sanv. fy.
Hsemoptyfis periodica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Defcription. The hsemopty fis commonly begins
with a fenfe of weight and anxiety in the cheft, feme
uneafinefs in breathing, pain of the bread or other
parts of the thorax, and fome fenfe of heat under the
flernum ; and very often it is preceded by a faltifh
tafte in the mouth. Immediately before the appear¬
ance of blood, a degree of irritation is felt at the top
of the larynx. The perfon attempts to relieve this by
hawking, which brings up a little florid and fome-
what frothy blood. The irritation returns; and in
the fame manner blood of a fimilar ki»d is brought
up, with fome noife in the wind pipe, as of air paffing
through a fluid. Sometimes, however, at the very
firft, the blood comes up with coughing, or at lead
fomewhat of coughing accompanies the hawkingabove-
1- mentioned.
The blood is fometimes at firft in very fmall quan¬
tity, and foon difappears ; but in other cafes, efpeciaily
when it frequently recurs, it is in greater quantity,
and often continues to appear at times for feveral days
together. It is fometimes profufe, but rarely in
fuch quantity as either by its excefs or by a fudden
fuffocation to prove immediately mortal.
It is not always eafy to difcover whether the blood
evacuated by the mouth proceeds from the internal
furface of the mouth itfelf, from the fauces or adjoin¬
ing cavities of the nofe, from the ftomach, or from
the lungs. It is, however, very neceffary to diftin-
guilh the different cafes, and for this Dr Cullen offers
the following confiderations.
1. When the blood proceeds from fome part of the
internal furface of the mouth, it comes out without
any hawking or coughing; and generally, upon in-
fpeflion, 'the caufe is evident.
2. When blood proceeds from the fauces, or ad¬
joining cavities of the nofe, it may be brought out by
hawking, and fometimes by coughing. In this cafe
there may be a doubt concerning its real fource, and
the patient may be allowed to pleafe himfelf with the
thoughts that the blood doth not come from the lungs.
But the phyfician muft remember that the lungs are
much more frequently the fouree of an haemoptyfis
than the fauces. The latter feldom happens but to
perfons who have before been liable to an haemorrhage
from the nofe, or to fome evident caufe of erofion ;
and in moft cafes, by looking into the fauces, the diftil-
lation of the blood from thence will be perceived.^
3. When blood proceeds from the lungs, the man¬
ner in which it is brought up will commonly fliew
from whence it comes; but independent of that, it
may alfo be known from the caufes of haemoptyfis
from the lungs, to be afterwards mentioned, having
preceded.
4. When vomiting accompanies the throwing out
of blood from the mouth, we may generally know the
fource from whence it proceeds, by confidering that
blood does not proceed fo frequently from the ftomach
as from the lungs; that blood proceeding from the
ftomach commonly appears in greater quantity than
CINE.
from the lungs. The pulmonary blootfalfo is ufuallyl
of a florid colour, and mixed with a little frothy
mucus only; but the blood from the ftomach is of a
darker colour, more grumous, and mixed with the
other contents of the ftomach. The coughing or
vomiting, as the one or the other happens firft to
arife, may fometimes point out the fource of the blood;
and this hath alfo its peculiar antecedent figns and
caufes.
Caufes, &c. An hsemoptyfis may be produced at
anytime of life by external violence; and, in adult
perfons, while the arterial plethora prevails in the
fyftem, i. e. from the age of 16 to 35, an haemoptyfis
may at any time be produced merely by a plethoric
ftate of the lungs. More frequently, however, it
arifes from a faulty proportion between the capacity
of the lungs and that of the reft of the body. Thus
it is often an hereditory difeafe, which implies a pe¬
culiar and faulty conformation.
This difeafe efpecially happens to perfons who
difcover the fmaller capacity of their lungs by the
narrownefs of their cheft, and by the prominence of
their (boulders ; which laft is a mark of their having-
been long liable to a difficulty of refpiration. In fuch.
cafes, too, the difeafe very frequently happens to per-
fonsofa fanguine temperament, in whom particularly the
arterial plethora prevails. It happens alfo to perfons
of a flender delicate make, of which a long neck is a
mark ; to perfons of much fenfibility and irritability,
and therefore of quick parts ; to perfons who have
formerly been liable to haemorrhages from the nofe ;
to thofe who have fuffered a fuppreffion of any ufual
haemorrhage, the moft frequent inftance of which is
in females, who have fuffered a fuppreffion of their
menftrual flux ; and laftly, to perfons who have fuf¬
fered the amputation of any confiderable limb.
All this conftitutes the predifponent caufe of hae¬
moptyfis ; and the difeafe may happen merely from the
predifponent caufe arifing to a confiderable height.
But in thofe who are already predifpofed, it is often
brought on by the concurrence of various occafional
and exciting caufes. One of thefe, and perhaps a fre¬
quent one, is external heat; which, even wftien in no
great degree, brings on the difeafe in fpring, and the
beginning of fummer, while the heat rarifies the blood
more than it relaxes the folids, which had before been
contracted by the cold of winter. Another exciting
caufe is a fudden diminution of the weight of the at-
mofphere, efpecially when concurring with any effort
in bodily exercife. The effort too, alone, may often
be the exciting caufe in thofe who are already pre¬
difpofed; and more particularly any violent exercife
of refpiration. In the predifpofed, alfo, the difeafe may
be occafioned by any degree of external violence.
Prognojis. The hsemoptyfis may fometimes be no
more dangerous than a haemorrhage from the nofe; as
when it happens to females in confequence of a fup¬
preffion of their menfes; when, without any marks of
predifpofition, it arifes from external violence; or, from
whatever caufe arifing, when it leaves no cough, dyfp-
noea, or other affeftion of the lungs, behind it. But,,
even in thefe cafes, a danger may arife from too large
a wound being made in the veffels of the lungs, from
any quantity of red blood being left to ftagnate in the
cavity of the bronchia?, and particularly from any de-
terminatioui
4747
Practice
4748
Parctice
351
352
353
M E D I
termination of the blood being made into the veflels of
the lungs, which by renewing the hsemorrhage may
have thefe confequences.
Cure. On this fubjedt Dr Cullen differs from thofe
who prefcribe chalybeates and the Peruvian bark in
the cure of hsemoptyfis. Both of thefe, he obferves,
contribute to increafe the phlogiftic diathefis then pre¬
vailing in the fyftem,and the haemoptyfis from predif-
pofition is always accompanied with a fuch a diathefis.
Inflead of thefe, therefore, he recommends blood¬
letting in greater or fmaller quantity, and more or lefs
frequently repeated as the fymptoms fhall dired. At
the fame time cooling purgatives are to be employed,
and every part of the antiphlogiftic regimen is to be
ftri&ly enjoined. In the London Medical Obferva-
tions, the ufe of nitre is greatly recommended by Dr
Dickfon, to whom its efficacy was made known by Dr
Letherland, phyfician to St Thomas’s hofpital. The
moft commodious method of exhibiting it he found
was in an ele&uary. Four ounces of conferve of rofes
were made into an ele&uary with half an ounce of
nitre; of which the bulk of a large nutmeg was direc¬
ted to be given, four, fix, or eight times a-day, ac¬
cording to the urgency of the cafe. The good effeds
of this, our author tells us, have often aftonifhed him ;
and when given early in the difeafe, he fays he can de¬
pend as much upon it for the cure of an hasmoptyfis,
as on the bark for the cure of an intermittent. He
agrees with Dr Cullen, however, that in thofe cafes
where there is any hardnefs in the pulfe, and which al-
mofl; always happens, there is a neceffity for venefec-
tion. A cool regimen, and quiet of body and mind,
are certainly ufeful; but Dr Cullen obferves, that fome
kinds of geftation, fuch as failing, and travelling in an
eafy carriage on fmooth roads, have often proved a re¬
medy. When the cough is very troublefome, it is ab-
folutely neceflary to exhibit frequently a fmall dofe of
an opiate. Dr Dickfon alfo informs us, that the nitre
joined with fperroaceti, or pulv. e tragacanth. comp.
has produced equally good effeds with the eleduary
above-mentioned; in the compofition of which the
Dodor at firft confidered the conferve only as a vehicle
for the nitre, though he means not to infinuate that
the former is totally deftitute of efficacy.
PHTHISIS, or Consumption of the Lungs.
Phthifis, Sauv. gen. 276. Lin. 208. Vog. 319.
gag. 101. Junck. 33.
Phthifis pulmonis, Boerh. 1196.
Affidio phthifica, five tabes pulmonalis, Hoffm. II.
284.
LXXXVII. The Incipient Phthisis, with an expec¬
toration of Pus. Sp. I.
Phthifis incipiens, Morton. Phyfiolog. L. II. cap. 3.
Phthifis ficca, Saz/v. fp. I.
LXXXV1II. The Confirmed Phthisis with an ex-
pedoration of Pus. Sp. II.
Phthifis confirmata auftorum.
Phthifis humida, Sauv. fp. 2.
Sometimes, notwithftanding all the care we can
take, the haemoptyfis will degenerate into a phthifis pul-
onalis, or confumption of the lungs; and fometimes an
haemoptyfis will be the confequence of this dangerous
CINE. Part
diforder. It hath been indeed fuppofed, that an uI-Pra.
ceration of the lungs, or phthifis, was the natural and
almoft necefiary confequence of an haemoptyfis : but,
according to Dr Cullen, this is in general a miftake;
for there are many inftances of an haemoptyfis from
external violence without being followed by any ulce¬
ration. The fame thing hath often been obferved
where the haemoptyfis arofe from an internal caufe;
and this not only in young perfons, when the difeafe
returned for feveral times, but when it has often recur¬
red during the courfe of a long life; and it may eafily
be conceived, that a rupture of the veffels of the lungs,
as well as of the veffels of the nofe, may be fometimes
healed. The caufes of phthifis, therefore, Dr Cullen
reduces to five heads. 1. An haemoptyfis. 2. A fup-
puration of the lungs in confequence of a pneumo¬
nia. 3. A catarrh. 4. An afthma ; and, 5. Tu¬
bercles.
x. When a phthifis arifes from an haemoptyfis, it is
probable that it is occafioned by particular circum-
ftances; and what thefe circumftances are, may not al¬
ways be eafily known. It is poffible, that merely the
degree of rupture, or frequently repeated rupture, pre¬
venting the wound from healing, may occafion an ul¬
cer; or it is poffible, that red blood effufed, and not
brought up entirely by coughing, may, by ftagnating
in the bronchiae, become acrid, and erode the parts.
But thefe hypothefes are not fupported by any certain
evidence; and from many obfervations we are led to
think, that feveral other circumftances muft concur in
producing the difeafe from haernoptyfis.
2. The fecond caufe of an ulceration of the lungs to
be confidered, is a fuppuration formed in confequence
of pneumonia. When a pneumonia, with fymptoms
neither very violent nor very flight, has continued for
many days, it is to be feared it will end in a fuppura¬
tion : but this is not to be determined by the number
of days; for, not only after the fourth, but even after
the tenth day, there have been examples of a pneu¬
monia ending by a refolution; and if the difeafe has
fuffered fome intermiffion, and again recurred, there
may be inftances of a refolution happening at a much
later period from the beginning of the difeafe than
that juft now mentioned. But, if a moderate difeafe,
in fpite of proper remedies employed, be protra&ed to
the 14th day without any confiderable remiffion, a
fuppuration is pretty certainly to be expe&ed; and it
will be more certain ftill, if no figns of refoluiion have
appeared, or if an expectoration which had appeared
ftiall have again ceafed, and the difficulty of breathing
has continued or increafed while the other fymptoms
have been rather abated.
That in a pneumonia, the effufion is made which
may lay the foundation of a fuppuration, we conclude
from the difficulty of breathing becoming greater when
the patient is in a horizontal pofture, or when the pa¬
tient can lie more eafily on the affedfed fide. That, in
fuch cafes, a fuppuration has a&ually begun, we con¬
clude from the patient’s being frequently affected with
flight cold fhiverings, and with a fenfe of cold felt fome¬
times in one fometimes in another part of the body.
We form the fame conclufion alfo from the ftate of the
pulfe, which is commonly lefs frequent and fofter, but
fometimes quicker than before. That a fuppuration
is already formed, we conclude from there being a con¬
fiderable
a'jjPartir. MEDI
34ractice fiderable remlfiion of the pain which had before fub-
filled ; while at the fame time the cough and efpeci-
ally the dyfpncea continue, and are rather increafed.
At the fame time the frequency of the pulfe is rather
increafed, the feverilh Hate fuffers confiderable exacer-
i bations every evening, and by degrees a he&ic in all
its circumflances comes to be formed.
In this (late of fymptoms, we conclude very confi¬
dently, that an abfcefs, or, as it is called, a vomica, is
formed in fome part of the pleura, and moll frequently
in that portion of it tnvelling the lungs. Here purulent
matter frequently remains for fome time, as if inclofed
in a cyll; but commonly not long before it comes to
be either abforbed and transferred to fome other part
of the body, or breaks through into the cavity of the
lungs, or into that of the thorax. In the latter cafe it
produces the difeafe called empyema; but it is when
the matter is poured into the cavity of the bronchice
that it properly conllitutes the phthifis pujmonalis. In
the cafe of empyema, the chief circumiiances of a
phthifis are indeed alfo prefent: but we lhall here con-
fider only that cafe in which the abfcefs of the lungs
gives occafion to a purulent expedtoration.
An abfcefs of the lungs in confequence of pneumo¬
nia, is not always followed by a phthifis : for fome-
times a he&ic fever is not formed; the matter poured
into the bronchiae is a proper and benign pus, which
frequently is coughed up very readily, and fpit out;
and though this purulent expectoration Ihould continue
for fome time, if it be without hedlic, the ulcer foon
heals, and every morbid fymptom difappears. This has
fo frequently happened, that we may conclude, that
neither the accefs of the air, nor the conftant motion
of the lungs, will prevent an ulcer of-thefe parts from
healing if the matter of it be well-conditioned. An
abfcefs of the lungs, therefore, does not neceflarily pro¬
duce the phthifis pulmonalis; and if it is followed by
fuch a difeafe, it mull be in confequence of particular
circumftances which corrupt the purulent matter pro¬
duced, render it unfuitable to the healing of the ulcer,
and at the fame time make it afford an acrimony,
which, abforbed, produces a he&ic and its confe-
quences.
The corruption of the matter of fuch abfceffes may
be owing to feveral caufes; as, i. That the mat¬
ter effufed during the inflammation had not been a
pure ferum fit to be converted into a laudable pus, but
had been joined with other matters which prevented
that, and gave a confiderable acrimony to the whole:
Or, 2. That the matter effufed and converted into
pus, merely by long ftagnation in a vomica, or by its
connection with an empyema, had been fo corrupted as
to become unfit for the purpofe of pus in the healing
of the ulcer. Thefe feem to be pofiible caufes of the
corruption of matter in abfceffes, fo as to make it the
occafion of a phthifis in perfons otherwife found; but
it is probable that a pneumonic abfcefs efpecially pro¬
duces phthifis when it happens to perfons previoufly
difpofed to that difeafe, and therefore only as concur¬
ring with fome other caufes of it.
3. The third caufe fuppofed to produce a phthifis
is a catarrh; which, in many cafes, feems in length of
time to have the expedloration of mucus proper to it
gradually changed to an expeCloration of pus; and at
the fame time, by the addition of a heClic fever, the
Vol. VI. I
CINE. 4749
difeafe, which was at firfl a pure catarrh, is changedPrActic*
into a phthifis. But this fuppofition is not eafily to
be admitted. The catarrh is properly an affeClion of
the mucous glands of the trachea and bronchise analo¬
gous to the coryza and lefs violent kinds of cynanche
tonfillaris, which very feldom end in fuppuration. And
although a catarrh (hould be difpofed to do fo, the ul¬
cer produced might readily heal up, as it does in the
cafe of a cynanche tonfillaris; and therefore (hould not
produce a phthifis.
Further, the catarrh, as purely the effefl of cold, is
generally a mild difeafe as well as of (hort duration;
and, according to Dr Cullen, there are at mod but
very few of the numerous cafes of it, which can be faid
to have ended in a phthifis. In all thefe cafes in which
this feems to have happened, he thinks it probable that
the perfons affedled were peculiarly predifpofed to
phthifis; and the beginning of phthifis fo often refembles
a catarrh, that it may have been miftaken for fuch a dif¬
eafe. It often happens alfo to increafe the fallacy, that
the application of cold, which is the mod frequent caufe
of catarrh, is alfo frequently the exciting caufe of the
cough, which proves to be the beginning of a phthifis.
Many phyficians have fuppofed that an acrimony of
the fluids eroding fome of the vefiels of the lungs is a
frequent caufe of ulceration and phthifis; but this ap¬
pears to Dr Cullen to be a mere fuppofition. He ac¬
knowledges, that in many cafes an acrimony fubfiding
in fome part of the fluids is the caufe of the difeafe;
but obferves that it is at the fame time probable, that
this acrimony operates by producing tubercles, rather
than by any diredl erofion.
A phthifis, indeed, mod commonly arifes from
tubercles. Dr Simmons informs us, that he has had
opportunities of infpefting the bodies of feveral peo¬
ple who died in this way, and never found them to¬
tally ablent. He hath likewife feen them in fubjedts
.of different ages, who had been troubled with no fymp¬
toms of an affedlion of the bread during their life¬
time. In thefe, however, they were fmall, and few
in number. This proves that they may exid without
inconvenience till they begin to didurb the fundtions
of the lungs by their iize and number; or till fome
degree of inflammation is excited, either by acciden¬
tal caufes, or by certain changes that take place with¬
in their fubdance; for as yet we know hut little of
their true nature. Thefe little tumours vary in their
confidence; in fome they are compofed of a pulpy
fubdance, and in others approach more to the nature
of fcirrhus. They are moll commonly formed in con¬
fequence of a certain conditutional predifpofition ; but
whatever is capable of occafioning a morbid irritabi¬
lity of the lungs feems to be capable of generating
them. Thus the fpafmodic adhma frequently ends in
tubercles and confumptioiv; and it is not unufual for
millers, done-cutters, and others, to die confumptive,
from their being fo condantly expofed to dull, which
in thefe cafes probably adls by producing fimilar con¬
cretions : and Dr Kirkland obferves, that fcythe-
grinders are fubjedl to a difeafe of the lungs, from
particles of fand mixing with iron dud, which among
themfelves they call the grinders rot. Tubercles like¬
wife often hkve their fource from a fcrophulous acri¬
mony ; and fome eminent phyficians have fuppofed
that the generality of pulmonary confumptions are of
26 X this
475° M E D I
Practice this kind. This notion, however, they haw carried
~ too far : they have probably been milled by thefe tu¬
berculous concretions which, without good reafon,
have been fuppofed to be difeafed glands, and of
courfe analogous to the glandular affeftions we meet
with in the fcrophula. Tubercles may likewife fome-
times be owing to the fudden repulfion of cutaneous
eruptions, or of the matter of exanthemata, &c. or
to other caufes.
The perfons who are moft liable to confumption are
thofe of a fair complexion, fine and foft lie in, florid
cheeks, and a flender make; with high cheek-bones,
hollow temples, long neck, fhoulders Handing out like
wings, narrow cheft, and a remarkable prominence of
the proceffes of the os facrum. To thefe marks we
may add, that of found teeth, which, as the difeafe
advances, ufually become of a milky white colour, and
more or lefs tranfparent. Of thofe who are carried off
by this difeafe, Dr Simmons aflerts, the greater num¬
ber will be found never to have had a carious tooth.
Perfons of the above defeription often remain for
a long time without feeling any other inconvenience
than fome oppreflion at the bread in moid weather,
or in hot apartments. Their breathing is eafily hur¬
ried, fometimes by the flighted motion ; and they be¬
come languid, paler, and thinner. All this while,
however, they feel no heat or painful fenfation in the
bread. As the evil increafes, the patient begins to
be attacked with a flight, frequent, and dry cough,
which is mod troublefome in the night-time. This,
however, by proper care, is often relieved ; and the
patient remains in this date for a confiderable time,
and even for many years, if he is fenfible of his dan¬
ger, and careful to guard againd it by a fuitable man¬
ner of living. More commonly, however, we find
the cough increafing, and fometimes accompanied with
more or lefs of catarrh. This is ufually aferibed to
cold; and but too generally negle&ed, till the difeafe
becomes alarming by its obdinacy and its effefts.
This may be confidered as the beginning, or fird pe¬
riod, of the difeafe. During this dage, the cough is
fometimes dry from the fird; and fometimes, when it
fets in in the form of a catarrh, is attended with more
or lefs expectoration of mucus.
When the cough fets in in the form of a catarrh,
and appears to be occafioned by an increafed fecretion
of a thin faltifh mucus irritating the membrane of the
trachea, all judicious praftitioners agree in recom¬
mending an attention to regimen, the free ufe of dilu¬
ting liquors, bland emulfions, fmall dofes of nitre,
the taking avyay a few ounces of blood if there be
much inflammation, the inhaling the fleams of warm
\aUr water +» and the occafional ufe of fuch a dofe of elixir
paregoricum as will be fuflicient to allay the irritation
of the bronchise, and to promote a gentle moiflure on
the Ik in. Thefe methods will generally be found to
be efficacious, efpecially if the patient’s chamber is of
a moderate temperature, and he carefully avoids ex-
pofure to a cold, damp, or raw air, till the complaint
is removed. In cafes in which the cough has been
obdinate, and the inflammatory fymptoms confider¬
able, Dr Simmons has often experienced the great
advantages of the warm bath, the heat of which did
not exceed 920. When this is had recourfe to, the
the patient fhould remain in it only a very few mi-
C I N E. Part II.
nutes, and go foon afterwards to bed ; but not with a Pa act icb;]
view to force a fweat by an increafed weight of bed-   |
clothes, as is too often injudicioufly pradifed.
Patients of a confumptive habit, who have had an
attack of this kind at the beginning of winter, are
particularly liable to a return of the complaint during
the continuance of the cold feafon, on the flighted oc-
cafion and with greater violence. A relapfe is there¬
fore to be carefully guarded againfl ; and nothing will
be found to do this more effeftually than the ufe of
focks and a flannel under-waidcoat. The ufe of flan¬
nel has been condemned by feveral medical writers as
increafing the infenfible perfpiration ; but in the pre-
fent cafe, to fay nothing of fome others in which it
may be ufeful, it will in general be found to have
the bed effe&s. It will prevent a too great de¬
termination to the lungs, and fhould not be left off
till the approach of fummer. In fome few inflances
in which flannel was found to have a difagreeable ef-
fed, a piece of dimity, worn over the bread next the
fkin, prevented the return of colds and coughs in per¬
fons of a delicate habit, who had before been liable
to them on the flighted occafions. In thefe cafes,
circumdances that are feemingly of the mod trifling
nature become of importance.
Sometimes the cough is occafioned by an immediate
inflammation of fome part of the lungs, from fome
of the ufual caufes of inflammation ; and when this
happens no time is to be lofl in removing it. To do
this will perhaps require more than one bleeding, to¬
gether with a Arid attention to a cooling plan of diet,
diluting drinks, the inhalation of warm fleams, and,
if convenient, the ufe of the warm bath ; but above
all, the fpeedy application of a large blider as near as
may be to the fuppofed feat of the inflammation.
The cough, in this cafe, will often remain after the
original complaint is abated. A prudent ufe of opi¬
ates at bed-time, joined to gum ammoniacum, will
then generally be ufeful as a fedative and antifpaf-
modic.
In this, as well as in the catarrhal cough jufl now
mentioned, many praditioners are too eager to admi-
nider the Peruvian bark, with the view, as they term
it, of bracing up the patient: but this never fails to
increafe the cough, and of courfe to do great and very
often irreparable mifehief.
And here it will not be foreign to our fubjed to
obferve, that a fymptomatic cough, which has its rife
not from catarrh, or from an immediate inflammation of
the lungs, but from their fympathy with the flomach,
has fometimes laid the foundation of phthifis, from
its having been miflaken, and of courfe improperly
treated. It feems to be owing to a redundancy or vi¬
tiated date of the bile, or to fome affedion of the
flomach, which it is perhaps not eafy to define. It
is fometimes a concomitant of other bilious fymptoms;
and when this happens to be the cafe, it cannot ealily
be miflaken ; but we fometimes find it occurring
fingly, and in general attacking perfons of a feden-
tary life. Dr Stoll, of Vienna, who has noticed this
cough, has very properly given it the name of tufis
Jlomachka. This complaint is fo far from being re¬
lieved by bleeding, that it condantly grows worfe af¬
ter it, efpecially if the evacuation is in any confider¬
able quantity. The oily remedies feldom fail to ex-
afperate
'Part H. MEDICINE.
aractice afperate this cough, which at firft is dry, frequent, called, differs from the heiiic attendant on confnmp-
y often extremely violent, but which feldom fails to tions; nor does the latter correfpond with that which
give way to one or two gentle pukes, and the occafional fometimes accompanies the fuppuration of a cancerous
ufe of mild purges. The cough, as in other cafes, ulcer. In the pulmonary confumption, or at lead in
often continues from habit after the caufe that gave the third flage of it, the fever induced is truly of the
rife to it has been removed, and may then be checked putrid kind, and has been well denominated febris
by opiates. hettica putrida by the judicious Morton, who confiders
When the difeafe has been negle&ed, or our at- it as being combined with a peripneumonic or inflam-
tempts to remove it in the beginning have failed, both matory fever, which recurs as often as frefh tubercles
of which circumftances but too frequently happen, begin to inflame. For although we have named one
the patient begins to complain of a forenefs, and of period of the difeafe the inflatnmatory, and another
flight lancinating pains {hooting through the breaft, the fuppurative period, yet we are not to fuppofe that
fometimes in the dire&ion of the mediaftinum, and the latter is exempt from inflammation. While mat-
fometimes confined chiefly to one fide. The forenefs ter is poured into the bronchise, or abforbed and car-
is pretty conftant, and much increafed by the cough, ried into the fyftem from one part of the lungs, other
The pain in the fide often prevents the patient from parts are in a crude ftate of inflammation, or advan-
lying on the fide affe&ed ; and this inability of lying, cing towards fuppuration; fo that, on examining the
except on one fide, frequently occurs even when no lungs of perfons who die confumptive, we find fome
fuch pain is felt. In this ftage of the difeafe, flufli- tubercles that are fmall and juft formed, fome that
ing heats are felt in the palms of the hand and foies are large and full of matter, and others that are in a
of the feet: the breathing is fhort and laborious; and ftate of ulceration. This eafily accounts for the oc*
it is not long before the patient begins to expeftorate cafional combination of inflammatory fymptoms with
a thin and frothy phlegm, at firft in fmall quantities, thofe of the putrid heftic. When the matter ab-
coughed up with difficulty and forenefs, and now and forbed is a laudable pus, as in the cafe of a pfoas ab-
then ftreaked with blood: this may be confidered as feefs, we find the form of the heftic differing from ei-
the inflammatory period of the difeafe, to which fuc- ther of thofe we have mentioned,
ceeds the fuppurative ftage. In the latter, the ex- Cure. In thefe different periods of the difeafe, the cu-
pe&oration becomes more copious and purulent, the rative indications are fufficiently obvious. To prevent
breath proportionabiy offenfive, and the exacerbations the formation of frefh tubercles; to obviate the inflam-
of the heftic more confiderable : an increafed quick- mation of thofe already formed; to promote their re-
nefs of the pulfe comes on about the middle of the folution; to allay morbid irritability, the cough, and
day ; but the moft confiderable paroxyfm of the fever other troublefome fymptoms; and, above all, to check
is at night, and at firft continues till towards morn- the tendency to heftic,—are the views that every ra-
ing, commonly till three or four o’clock, when it ter- tional phyfician propofes to himfelf in the treatment
minates in a fweat, which ufually begins upon the of the genuine confumption. We know of no medi-
breaft. As the difeafe advances, thefe fwcats become cines that can exert their fpecific effe&s upon the
more profufe, and fometimes come on almoft as foon lungs by diffolving tuberculous concretions; nor is it
as the pulfe begins to quicken, but without affording probable, from what we know of the animal ceconomy,
any relief to the patient. During the exacerbations, that any fuch will ever be difeovered. Yet medicines
we obferve a circumfcribed rednefs of the cheeks, that operate in a general manner upon the fyftem,
while the reft of the face is pale, and appears as if it may, by promoting abforption, and diminifhing the
were not clean wafhed. The coftivenefs that com- determination to the lungs, tend to difperfe tubercles,
monly accompanies the beginning of the difeafe is or to prevent their formation. There are not want-
ufually fucceeded by a diarrhoea ; the fpitting leffeus, ing inftances of wonderful recoveries in cafes where
and all the purulent matter feems to be carried down- the evil was fuppofed to be beyond the power of phy-
wards. The wafting of the fat and the lofs of nou- fic; and in fome, where nature was left to herfelf; fo
rifhment occafion the nails to curve inwards, tht hair that a phyfician who has obferved the various and
to fall off, and the eyes to fink in their fockets. In powerful refources nature has within herfelf, will be
the mean time, the legs commonly fwell; till at length very cautious how he afferts that a difeafe is incurable,
death clofes a feene which is melancholy to all but The moft formidable effefis of ulcerated lungs are
the patient himfelf, who in general continues fenfible the abforption and confequent heftic. It feems evt-
to the laft moment, and even then indulges a vain dent, that, in many cafes, death is brought on by this,
hope of prolonging a miferable exiftence. In fome rather than by the lungs themfelves being rendered
cafes, and that not unfrequently, a delirium comes on unfit for the purpofes of refpiration. So that if we
towards the clofe of the difeafe. can obviate the effe&s of the abforption, diminifh the
The he£tic fever that attends this and fome other preternatural determination to the lungs, and fulfil the
Chronic difeafes, is evidently the effedt of acrimony, other general indications juft now mentioned, we may
and moft commonly of pus abforbed and carried very often enable nature to recover herfelf. It may
into the circulation. The nature of this acrimo- he alleged indeed, that the phyfician’s art has hitherto
ny, and the different irritability of different pa- proved very unfuccefsful in thefe cafes; but may not
tients, are probably the fources of the variety we this be owing to the remedies that are adopted being
obferve in fevers of this denomination.; a variety very often fuch as are inimical to the cure?
which is doubtlefs much greater than we are aware of. The bark is, perhaps, the moft commonly employed
Thus we find that the matter of the fmall-pox excites of any, and often confided in as an ultimate refource
a fever of this kind; but this fecondary fever, as it is in thefe cafes. But befides this, the elixir of vitriol,
2 26 X 2 the
,,47iI
4752 M E D I
Practice the balfams, and frequent bleedings, have each had
  —"—their partizans. The ufe of blifters and ifiues, opiates,
a mik and vegetable diet, exercife, and change of air,
are pretty generally recommended by all. Coneern-
* Dtjferl. the bark, Default * long ago obferved, that it had
fur laPhihi-been produftive of great mifchief in cenfumptive
//r. cafes; and Dr Fothergill, in a paper lately publilhed
j Med.Olf.by him f on this fubjeft, very judicioufly remarks,
and biq. that the bark is fo far from curing the heflic ariling
veil. 5. from diftempered lungs, that, according to the bell
of his obfervations, it not only takes up that time
•which might probably have been better employed in
the nfe of other medicines, but for the moll part ag¬
gravates the difeafe beyond remedy. Indeed it will
be found by every attentive obferver, that, whenever
pus, or any kind of matter excites an hedlic, by being
abforbed and carried into the circulation, the bark
will never fail to exafperate the complaint, efpecially
if it is accompanied with any degree of inflammatory
diathefis, unlefs the matter has a free outlet from the
fyftem; as in the cafe of abfeefles, for inflance, in
which we often find the bark produdlive of excellent
effedls. It is likewife well known to be nfed as a tonic,
to obviate the effedls of fluor albus, or any other im¬
moderate evacuation in delicate perfons, which, by en¬
feebling the lyftem, very often lays the foundation of
phthifis: but the moment we have reafon to fufpedl
that the lungs are ulcerated, it ought to be laid afide;
and in the genuine tuberculous confumption, it is at all
times inadmiffible.
Dr Fothergill, however, obferves, that there are
two caufes of confumptions, which often produce fymp-
toms fo fimilar to thofe of the genuine phthifis, as fome-
times to have led him to make ufe of the bark in ap¬
parent tendencies to a genuine pulmonary confump¬
tion with advantage.
One of thefe caufes is, the fuckling of children
longer than is confiftent with the mother’s ability.
This cafe frequently occurs among the middling and
lower clafles of females of conftitutions naturally deli¬
cate and tender. In fuch a ftate of weaknefs, fome
flight cold brings on a cough, which increafes gradual¬
ly, till at length it produces the true pulmonary con¬
fumption. Here the bark given early, in moderate
dofes, and merely as a tonic remedy, is often of ex¬
cellent ufe.
Another caufe is, any weakening difeharge, either
from abfeefles, the greater operations of furgery, a
copious and conftant fluor albus, or fimilar enfeebling
evacuations. That the bark is, for the rooft part, of
ufe in thefe cafes, when the lungs are not inflamed, is
indubitable ; and if they are fo affe&ed, but not beyond
a certain degree, it is alfo efficacious in preventing the
progrefs of the confumption.
In phthifical complaints fucceeding fuch fituations,
a prudent trial of the bark feems neceflary. Small
dofes of the decoftion, either alone, or joined with the
feline mixture or fuch other additions as the phyfician
thinks proper, may be given. But if the breath be¬
comes more tight and opprefled, the cough dry, the
pulfe more quick and hard, and efpecially if flight
tranfitory pains or flitches about the thorax are more
frequently complained of, a perfeverance in the ufe
of the bark will increafe the difeafe. If fuch alfo
fhould be the appearances in the progrefs of the dif-
CINE. Part
cafe, or, from*vvhatever caufe, if the bark is aceom-1
panied with fuch effedls, the ufe of it ought to be
with-held.
If, on the other hand, no pain, tightnefs, or op-
preffion, is perceived, and there appears a manifeft a-
batement of the fymptoms, it will be advifeable to
proceed. The adminiftration of this medicine, how¬
ever, requires a judicious obferver; and it ought nei¬
ther to be given in the early inflammatory ftage of this
difeafe, nor be continued in any fubfequent period, if
it produces the eflefts abovementioned.
By its tonic virtues it will often enable nature to
conquer many difficulties. In confirmation of this re¬
mark, Dr Fothergill farther obferves, that he has feen
it of ufe in promoting expedloration, when this be¬
came deficient from want of ftrength towards the end
of peripneumonic fevers ; but that it flops this dif¬
eharge, changes flight wandering pains into fuch as
are fixed, and increafes them with all their confequen-
ces, in a variety of cafes.
The elixir of vitriol is often exhibited in confump-
tive cafes, with no lefs impropriety than the bark.
This medicine, from its aftringency, is obvioufly im¬
proper in the inflammatory ftate of the difeafe. But
in the latter ftage, when a general tendency to putre-
faftion takes place, it is ferviceable in refifting the ef-
fe£t 5 it reftrains the colliquative fweats; and if the
lungs are not injured paft repair, it is allowed to be a
very ufeful auxiliary.
Various are the opinions concerning the efficacy of
Briftol-water in this difeafe. The experienced author
laft mentioned informs us, that he has feen many per¬
fons recover from pulmonary difeafes after drinking
thefe waters, whofe cure feemed to be doubtful from
any other procefs; and he thinks this circumftance,
added to the general reputation of Brillol-waters in
phthifical cafes, affords fufficient inducement to recom¬
mend the trial of them in the early ftage of fuch com¬
plaints. It is, however, before the approach of a con¬
firmed phthifis that patients ought to repair to Bri-
ftol ; otherwife a journey thither will not only be
without benefit, but may even prove detrimental.
Some have imagined, that the journey, a better air,
change of fituation and of objects, have contributed
to the patient’s recovery; and thefe may doubtlefs be
of advantage. It feems, however, that the water drank
freflt at the pump, adlually contains principles condu¬
cive to the recovery of patients affe&ed with phthifical
complaints. It feems-to poflefs a flight calcareous ftyp-
ticity, and perhaps the air it contains may alfo have an
antifeptic quality. On the whole, it appears to be an
efficacious medicine, and is often found of remarkable
benefit to confumptive patients.
Change of air, fometimes even from good to bad,
is of great confequence in all chronic difeafes of the
lungs. In confumptive cafes, however, the air of all
large cities is found to be particularly injurious.
A'fea-voyage has been much recommended in the
cure of this difeafe. The benefit of exercife has alfo
been ftrongly urged by many writers; but, however
falutary when properly ufed, it certainly ought to be
regulated with diferetion. Dr Dickfon declares
himlelf of opinion, that riding on horfeback in con¬
fumptive cafes is moft commonly hurtful, without
fuch regulations as in general have been little regard¬
ed
'Part II. M E D I
|r tcTKE ed. For Inftance, he has known a perfon who, by a
T ride of an hour or two in the morning, was very
much recruited, and who, at another time, in the af¬
ternoon and evening, without undergoing more bodi¬
ly motion, has returned faint and languid, and ap¬
parently worfe. This obfervation on the fame perfon
has been fo frequently made, as to point out clearly
the times when this exercife fhall not do hurt in con-
fumptive cafes. In this difeafe, the pulfe, however
calm in the morning, becomes more frequent in the
afternoon and night, attended with heat and other fe-
verifh fymptoms. Exercife therefore, at this time,
can only add to the mifehief of the fever. For this
reafon he prudently recommends to all heftic perfons,
efpecially thofewho fhall travel to didant places on ac¬
count of a better air, or the benefit expected from
any particular- water, that their travelling fhould be
flow, confined to a very few hours, and only in the
morning.
Horfe-exercife, however, feems to be chiefly bene¬
ficial in thofe cafes where confumption is a fecondary
difeafe. For example, in the nervous atrophy; in
the hypochondriacal confumption; or when it is the ef¬
fect of long-continued intermittents, or of congettions
in any of the abdominal vifeera; or in a word, when¬
ever the confumption is not attended with an inflamed
or ulcerated date of the lungs; long journeys on horfe-
back will be beneficial. Such a practice may likewife
be highly ufeful in obviating an attack of phthifis, or
in carrying off a dry hufky cough in a perfon of a con-
fumptive habit, when there is reafon to fuppofe that
no tubercles are as yet formed. On the other
hand, in the confirmed phthifis, when the lungs are
inflamed or ulcerated, much or violent exercife will
be improper ; and there have been indances where
the death of the patient was evidently accelerated by
it. The exercife therefore fhould be gentle, propor¬
tioned to the drength of the patient, and employed
only in the morning. In fine weather, an eafy open
carriage is perhaps the mod eligible, not only on ac¬
count of its being open to tbe air, but becaufe it af¬
fords that kind of agitation which is mod wanted in
thefe cafes. For if we confider the different modes of
exercife, we fhall find that walking, though the bed
exercife in health, as it employs the mod mufcles, is
the word for the fickly, who fhould have the benefit
of exereife without fatigue. Riding on horfeback
agitates the vifeera more than walking, and is there¬
fore preferable to it in many chronic difeafes ; but
when a preternatural determination to the lungs has
taken place, it will be liable to increafe the evil, and
may likewife be hurtful by the fatigue that attends it.
For thefe reafons it will be prudent to begin with a
carriage; and if the patient gains drength, and the dif¬
eafe abates, recourfe may afterwards be had to horfe-
exercife.
The gentle motion of a coach has been often found
of great utility in pulmonary complaints. Its efficacy
feems to depend chiefly on its increafing the determi¬
nation to the furface of the body. The naufea which
this motion excites in fome perfons is an effeft of this
increafed determination. It has therefore been found
beneficial in haemoptyfis ; and Dr Simmons mentions
the cafe of a lady, who, after trying various remedies
to no purpofe, was cured, of this complaint by travel-
CINE. 4753
hug feveral hundreef miles through different parts offnACTire
England in her own coach. At fird, whenever flic 
tarried three or four days in any place, the diforder be¬
gan to return again ; but at length by perfevering in her
journeys, it gradually went off. Default, who praftifed
at Bourdeaux about 40 years ago, tells us, he fent fe¬
veral confumptive patients to Bareges, and with good
fuccefs; but that in thefe cafes his reliance was not fo
much upon the Bareges waters, as upon the motion of
the carriage and the change of air in a journey of more
than too leagues.
It is now pretty generally acknowledged, that the
good effeds of fea-voyages in confumptive cafes de¬
pend more upon the condant and uniform motion of
the fliip, than upon any particular impregnation of the
fea-air; although this from its coolnefs may likewife
be of great ufe, efpecially in the hot months, when
fea-voyages are generally undertaken by confumptive
patients. The ancients were no drangers to this re¬
medy ; and amongd the Romans it was no unufual
thing for confumptive patients to fail to Egypt. Pliny
obferves, that this was done not for the lake of the
climate, but merely on account of the length of the
voyage.
Many of our Englilh phyficians have recommended
a voyage to Lifbon in thefe cafes. When this is done,
the proper feafon of the year fhould be carefully at¬
tended to. Dr Simmons knew a gentleman who went
thither with fymptoms of incipient phthifis, and who
experienced fome relief during the courfeof the voyage;
but happening to arrive at Lilbon at the beginning of
the rainy feafon, the difeafe was foon greatly increa¬
fed, and terminated fatally.
The bed adapted diet in confumptive cafes, is milk,
particularly that of affes. It may however be remark¬
ed, that there are conditutions in which this falutary
nutriment feem to difagree. A propenfity to generate
bile, or too flrong a difpofition to acefcency from a
weaknefs of the digedive organs, both merit attention.
Whey, either from cows or goats milk, appears to be
more fuitable in the former cafe ; and for correfting
acidity, lime-water may be added to the milk. The
method of adding rum or brandy to affes or cows milk,
Ihould be ufed with great caution : for when added
beyond a certain quantity, as is often the cafe, they
not only coagulate the milk, but heat the body; by
which means the former difagreS^ with the patient,and
the fpirit augments the difeafe.
In confumptive cafes, Dr Simmons obferves, that
the patient’s taffe (hould be confulted;, and fays that a
moderate ufe of animal-food, where the faked and high-
feafoned kinds are avoided, is not to.be denied. Shell-
filh, particularly oyfters, are ufeful, as well as fnails
fwallowed whole, or boiled in milk.
Repeated bleedings, in fmall quantities, are confi-
dered in confumptive cafes as highly advantageous 1-
and in particular circumftances they undoubtedly are
fo; for inftance, when the conftitution apparently
abounds with blood; when the fluid drawn off is ex-
tremely'fizy; when there is much pain in the break ;
and when venefeftion is followed by an abatement of
every fymptom. In thefe cafes, bleeding is certainly
proper, and ought to be repeated fo long as it feems
to be attended with advantage. In very delicate con-
ttitutions, however, where the pulfe is quick, with)
fome.
4754 M E D I
Practice feme degree of fulnefs, and the blood lad drawn
confiderably fizy, it may not prove equally fervice-
able.
It deferves to be remarked, that the inflammatory
appearance of the blood is not alone a fufficient reafon
for bleeding; but, in determining the propriety of this
evacuation, all other circumftances fliould be confider-
ed ; fuch as the patient’s age, ftrength, habit, and the
date of thedifeafe.
A remark which has been judicioufly made by Dr
Fothergill, ought not to be omitted in the account of
this difeafe. It is, that young delicate females, from
the age of 15 or 16, and upwards, are often fubjeft
to confumptions. When the difeafe has advanced con¬
fiderably, the menfes, if they have made their appear¬
ance, moft generally ceafe. This alarms their female
friends, and they call upon the phyfician to ufe his
utmoft endeavours for reftoring the difeharge ; belie¬
ving the ceflation of it to be the immediate caufe of
the phthifical complaint. Induced by their felicita¬
tions, medicines have fometimes been adminiftered,
that, without obtaining this end, have tended to ag¬
gravate the diftemper. This deficiency is often of no
real difadvantage in thofe cafes ; and in many the eva¬
cuation would prove injurious, by diminifhing the
ftrength, which is already too much impaired. Even
fmall bleedings at the regular periods, have often done
more harm than good. A fudden fuppreflion may re¬
quire bleeding; but when the evacation fails through
want of ftrength, and from poverty of blood, the re¬
newal of it increafes the difeafe.
Befides thefe remedies, Dr Simmons ftrongly recom¬
mends a frequent repetition of vomits. Many phyfi-
cians have fuppofed that where there is any increafed
determination to the lungs, vomits do mifehief: but
our author is perfuaded, that inftead of augmenting
they diminifh this determination; and that much good
may be expe&ed from a prudent ufe of this remedy,
than which none has a more general or powerful effedt
on the fyftem. If any remedy is capable of difperfing
a tubercle, he believes it to be vomits. The affedtions
of the liver, that fometimes accompany pulmonary com¬
plaints, give way to repeated emetics fooner than to
any other remedy. In feveral cafes where the cough
and the matter expedtorated, the flulhing heats, lofs
of appetite, and other fymptoms, threatened the moft
fatal event; the complaints were greatly relieved, and
in others wholly removed, by the frequent ufe of eme¬
tics. Other fuitable remedies were indeed employed
at the fame time ; but the relief the patients generally
experienced after the emetic, was a fufficient proof of
its falutary operation. By this, however, our author
does not mean that vomits will be ufeful in every pe¬
riod of the difeafe, or in every patient. In general, it
will be found that the earlier in the difeafe emetics are
had recourfe to, the more likely they will be to do
good and the lefs likely to do harm. The cafes in
which this may be reckoned improper, are commonly
thofe in which the difeafe is rapid in its progrefs ; or
in that ftage of it, when there is great debility, with
profufe colliquative fweats.
In thefe cafes, when an emetic has been adminifter¬
ed twice a-week, and the cough is mitigated, the ex¬
pectoration facilitated, and the other fymptoms relie-
C I N E. Part II. ,,
ved, both the patient and the phyfician will be encou- PaAcTii -
raged to proceed, and to repeat the vomit every other  
day, or even every day, for feveral days together, as
our author has fometimes done when the good effefls
of it were obvious.
The choice of emetics to be employed in thefe cafes
is by no means a matter of indifference. Carduus tea,
chamomile tea, warm water, and others that aft by
their bulk, and by exciting naufea, relax the tone of
the ftomach when they are frequently repeated, and of
courfe will be improper. More aftive emetics are
therefore to be preferred; and here fome of the prepa¬
rations of antimony might naturally be thought of.
But the operation of thefe is not confined to the fto¬
mach, They produce evacuations by ftool, and a dif-
pofition to fweat; and are therefore improper in the
pulmonary heftic. The mildnefs and excellence of
ipecacuanha as an emetic, are well known ; but in
thefe cafes Dr Simmons hath often employed the blue
vitriol, concerning the effefts of which we meet with
fome groundlefs affertions in feveral medical books. Its
operation is confined to the ftomach ; it afts inftanta-
neoufly, and its aftringency feems to obviate the relax¬
ation that is commonly fuppofed to attend the frequent
ufe of emetics. In two cafes he experienced its good
effefts, after vomits of ipecacuanha had been given in-
effeftually. It ftiould be adminiftered in the morning,
and in the following manner:
Let the patient firft fwallow about half a pint of
water, and immediately afterwards the vitriol diflblved
in a cupfull of water. The dofe of it mull be adap¬
ted to the age and other circumftances of the patient,
and may be varied from two grains to ten, fifteen, or
twenty. As fome perfons are much more eafily puked
than others, it will be prudent to begin with a fmall
dofe: not that any dangerous effefts will be produced
by a large one, for the whole of the medicine is in-
ftantly rejefted; but if the naufea is violent and of
long continuance, the patient may perhaps be difeou-
raged from repeating it. In general, the moment the
emetic has reached the ftomach it is thrown up again.
The patient muft then fwallow another half pint of
water, which is likewife fpeedily rejefted; and this
is commonly fufficient to remove the naufea.
Dr Marryat, in his New Praflice of Phyfic, pre-
feribes with great freedom what he calls the dry 'uomiti
from its being direfted to be taken without drinking.
This medicine confifts of blue vitriol and the emetic
tartar ; but its good effefts have not yet been afeer-
tained by other praftitioners.
Befides the ufe of internal remedies in pulmonary
affeftions, phyficians have often preferibed the fleams
of refinous and balfamic fubftances to be conveyed in¬
to the lungs. The vapour of dulcified fpirit of vi¬
triol, dropt into warm water, has likewife been ufed
in thefe cafes, and is advertifed as a noftrum under
the name of nether. The inhaling of fixed air has
alfo been fpoken of as an ufeful praftice. Dr Sim¬
mons hath feen all of thefe methods tried at differ¬
ent times ; but without being able to perceive any
real advantages from them in the fuppurative ftage of
the difeafe, where they might be expefted to be of
the greateft ufe; and in the beginning he hath often
found the two firft. to be too ftimulating. He there-
jPart II. M E D I
AAcricEfore preferred the Ample vapour of warm water, and
I ' hath experienced its excellent efFefts in feveral inftan-
ces: but when the complaint has made any confider-
able progrefs, its utility is lefs obvioils; and when the
patients have been much weakened, he hath feen it
bring on profufe fweats, efpeeially when ufed in bed,
and therefore generally recommended it to be ufed in
the day-time. Formerly he made ufe of a fumigating
machine, defcribed in the gentleman’s magazine for
1748, in which the air, infpired by the patient, is
made to pafs through hot water, by means of a tube
that communicates with the external air, and with the
bottom of the vtflel: but we have now a more elegant,
and (on account of the valve and mouth-piece) a more-
ufeful, inftrument of this kind, invented by the ingenious
Mr Mudge. See Inhaler.
Another remedy recommended by fome as a fpecific
in confumptions, is the earth-bath. Van Swieten, in
his Commentaries on Boerhaave, tells us, from the in¬
formation of a perfon of credit, that in fome parts of
Spain they have a method of curing the phthifis pul-
monalis by the ufe of this remedy; and he quotes the
celebrated Solano de Luque in confirmation of this
pra&ice. Solano fpeaks of the banoj de tierra, or
earth-baths, as a very old and common remedy in
Granada and fome parts of Andalufia, in cafes of hec¬
tic fever and confumptions ; and relates feveral in-
ftances of their good effefts in his own praftice. The
method he adopted on thefe occafions was as follows:
He chofe a fpot of ground on which no plants had
been fown, and there he made a hole large and deep
enough to admit the patient up to the chin. The in-
terftices of the pit were then carefully filled up with
the frefh mould, fo that the earth might every where
come in contadl with the patient’s body. In this fitu-
ation the patient was fuffered to remain till he began
to (hiver or felt himfelf uneafy; and during the whole
procefs, Solano occafionally adminiftered food or fome
cordial medicine. The patient was then taken out,
and, after being wrapped in a linen cloth, was placed
upon a mattrafs, and two hours afterwards his whole
body was rubbed with an ointment compofed of the
leaves of the folanum nigrum and hog’s lard. He ob-
ferves, that a new pit mull be made every time the
operation isrepeated; and advifes the ufe of thefe baths
only from the end of May to the end of Oftober. Dr
Fouquet, an ingenious French phyfician, has tried
this remedy in two cafes. In one, a confirmed phthi¬
fis, he was unfuccefsful; but the remedy had not a fair
trial. The patient, a man 30 years of age, had been
for feveral months affli&ed with cough, hedlic fever,
and profufe colliquative fweats. He was firft put into
the earth in the month of June ; but foon complained
of an uneafy oppreffion at his ftomach, and was remo¬
ved at the end of feven minutes. The fecond time he
was able to remain in it half an hour, and when taken
out was treated in the way prefcribed by Solano. In
this manner the baths were repeated five times, and
the patient was evidently relieved; but having concei¬
ved a difiike to the procefs, he refufed to fubmit to any
further trials, and died fome months afterwards. In
the fecond cafe he was more fortunate: th^ patient, a
girl 11 years of age, had been for three months trou¬
bled with a cough brought on by the meafles, which
CINE. 4755
was at length attended with a purulent expe&oration, Practice
heftic fever, and night-fweats. She began the ufe of
the earth-bath in Auguft, and repeated it eight time?
in the fpace of 20 days. At the end of that time the
fever and difpofition to fweat had entirely ceafed, and
by the ufe of the common remedies the patient was
perfe&ly reftored. A phyfician at Warfaw has like-
wife prefcribed the earth-bath with good fuccefs in
cafes of hedlic fever. The Spaniards confine it entirely
to fuch cafes; but in fome other parts of the world we
find a fimilar method employed as a remedy for other
difeafes, and particularly for the feurvy. Dr Prieftley
obferves, that the Indians, he has been told, have a
cuftom of burying their patients labouring under pu¬
trid difeafes, up to the chin in frefh mould, which is
alfo known to take off the factor from flefh-meat be¬
ginning to putrefy. The rancidity of a ham may like-
wife be corredted by burying it for a few hours in the
earth. The efficacy of this remedy in the fea-fcurvy
has frequently been experienced by the crews of our
Eaft India (hips. See below.
Solano, who is fond of philofophizing in his wri¬
tings, is of opinion, that the earth applied in this way
abforbs the morbid taint from the fyftem; but does it
not feem more probable, that the effluvia of the earth,
by being abforSed and carried into the circulation, cor-
redl the morbid ftate of the fluids, and thus are equally
ufeful in the fea-fcurvy and in the pulmonary hedlic ?
That the earth when moiftened does emit a grateful
odour is a fadl generally known ; and Baglivi long ago
gave his teftimony in favour of the grateful effefts of
the effluvia of frefh earth. He afcribes thefe good ef-
fedts to the nitre it contains.
With regard to the drains, fuch as blifters, ifluesy
and felons, that are fo frequently recommended in pul¬
monary complaints, there is lefs danger of abufe from
them, than from the pradlice of venefedlion. Thedif-
charge they excite is not calculated to weaken the pa¬
tient much ; and the relief they have fo often been
found to afford, is a fufficient reafon for giving them
A trial. Blifters, as is well known, adl in a twofold
manner; by obviating fpafm, and producing revul-
fion : Iffues and felons aft chiefly in the latter of thefe
two ways ; and in this refpeft their effefts, though
lefs fudden and lefs powerful at firft, are more durable
from the continuance of the difeharge they occafion.
It is perhaps hardly neceflary to. remark, that, if much
fervice is to be expefted from either of thefe remedies,
they fhould be applied early in the difeafe. The in¬
genious Mr Mudge, who experienced the good effefts
of a large fcapulary ifiue on his own perfon, very pro¬
perly obferves, that the difeharge in thefe cafes ought
to be confiderable enough to be felt. But it isfeldom
poffible for us to prevail on the delicate perfons, who
are moft frequently the viftims of this difeafe, to fub¬
mit to the application of a cauftic between the fhoul-
ders. The difeharge produced by a feton is by no‘
means inconfiderable ; and as in thefe cafes there is
generally fome inflammatory ftitch, fome part of the
bread that is more painful or more affefted by a deep*
infpiration than the reft, a feton in the fide, as near as-
can be to the feat of the inflammation, will be an ufe¬
ful auxiliary. Our author has feen it evidently of
great ufe in feveral cafes.
Genus-
47^6 M E D I
P* ACTICE
— Genus XL. HJEMORRHOIS, the Hemorrhods
or Piles.
Hsemorrhois, Sauv. gea. 217. Lin. 192. Sag.
gen. 182.
Hsemorrhoidalis fluxus. Hoffm. 219.
Hsemorrhoides, Junck. 11. and 12.
Leucorrhois, Vog. 112.
354 LXXXIX. The External Bloody Piles. Sp. I.
Var. A.
Hsemorrhois moderata, Sauv. fp. 1.
Haemorrhoides ordiuatae, Junck. 11.
Hsemorrhoides nimiae, Junck. 11.
Hsemorrhois immodica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Haemorrhoides excedentes, Alberti, de haemor¬
rhoid. p. 179.
Haemorrhois polypofa. Sauv. fp. 3.
XC. Mucous Piles. Sp. I. Var. B.
Haemorrhoides decoloratae, albae, et mucidae, Junck.
13. Alberti, p. 248.
256 XCI. The Piles from a Procidentia Ani. Sp. II.
Haemorrhois ab exania, Sauv. fp. 4.
227 XCII. The Piles. Sp. II.
35g XCIII. The £//W Piles. Sp. IV.
Haemorrhoides coecae, Junck. 12. Alberti p. 274.
Defcription. The difcharge of blood from fmall
tumours on the verge of the anus conftitutes what
is called the hemorrhoids or piles. They are diftin-
guifhed into the external and internal, according
to the fituation ofthe tumours, either without or within
the anus. Sometimes, however, thefe tumours appear
without difcharging any blood; and in this cafe they
are called the hamorrhoides cxce or blind piles. Some¬
times the difeafe appears without the verge of the
anus in diftinft feparate tumours; but frequently only
one tumid ring appears, feeming as it were the anus
puflied without the body. Sometimes thefe tumours
appear without any previous diforder of the body:
but more frequently, before the blood begins to flow,
and fometimes even before the tumours are formed,
various affections are perceived in different parts of
the body; as head-ach, vertigo, ftupor, difficulty of
breathing, ficknefs, colic pains, pain of the back and
loins, and frequently a confiderable degree of pyrexia;
while along with thefe fymptoms there is a fenfe of
fullnefs, heat, itching, and pain, in and about the
anus. Sometimes the difeafe is preceded by a ferous
difcharge from the anus; and fometimes this ferous
difcharge, accompanied with fwelling, feems to come
in place of the difcharge of blood, and to relieve the
above-mentioned diforders of the fyftem. This ferous
difchatge hath therefore been named the hemorrhois
alba.
In this difeafe the quantity of blood difcharged is
different upon different occafions. Sometimes it flows
only when the perfon goes to ftool, and commonly
follows the difcharge of faeces. In other cafes it
flows without any difcharge of faeces; and then
generally in confequence of the diforders above-men¬
tioned, when it is alfo commonly in larger quantity.
CINE. Part II.
This is often very confiderable 5 and, by the repeti- Practk
tion, fo great, that we conld hardly fuppofe the body '
to bear it but with the hazard of life. Indeed,
though rarely, it has been fo great as to prove fud-
dently fatal, as probably was the cafe with Arius
and Copernicus.—Thefe confiderable difcharges oc¬
cur efpecially to perfons who have been frequently
liable to the difeafe. They often induce great de¬
bility, and frequently a leucophlegmatia or dropfy
which proves fatal. Sometimes the tumours and
difcharges of blood in this difeafe recur exa&ly at
ftated periods. In the decline of life it frequently
happens, that the hsemorrhoidal flux, formerly fre¬
quent, ceafes to flow ; and in that cafe it generally
happens that the perfons are affefted with apoplexy
or palfy. Sometimes haemorrhoidal tumours are affec¬
ted with inflammation, which ends in fuppuration and
gives occafion to the formation of fiilulous ulcers in
thofe parts.
The hsemorrhoidal tumours have often been confi-
dered as varices or dilatations of the veins; and in fome
cafes varicous dilatations have appeared upon diffec-
tion. Thefe, however, do not appear; and Dr Cul¬
len is of opinion that they are ufually formed by an
effufion of blood into the cellular texture of the inte-
ftine near to its extremity. When recently formed they
contain fluid blood, but. after they remain for fome
time they are ufually of a firmer confiftence.
Caufes, &c. It would feem probable, that the
haemorrhoidal tumours are produced by fome inter¬
ruption of the free return of the blood from the rec¬
tum, by which a rupture of the extremities of the
veins is occafioned. But confidering that the haemor¬
rhage occurring here is often preceded by pain, in¬
flammation, and a febrile ftate, and with many other
fymptoms which fhew a connexion of the topical af-
fe&ion with the ftate of the whole fyftem, it is pro¬
bable that the interruption of the venous blood pro¬
duces a confiderable refiftance to the motion of the
venous blood through the arteries, and confequently
that the difcharge of blood is commonly from the
latter. Some have thought, that a difference of the
hsemorrhois, and of its effedls upon the fyftem, might
arife from the difference of the hsemorrhoidal veffels
from whence the blood iffued. But Dr Cullen is of
opinion, that we can fcarce ever diftinguifh the veffels
from which the blood flows; and that the frequent
inofculations of both arteries and veins belonging to
the lower extremity of the re&um, will render the ef-
fe&s of the haemorrhage much the fame, from whatever
fource it proceeds.
With regard to the haemorrhoids, however, the
author is of opinion, that they are, for the moft part,
merely a topical affe&ion. They take place before the
period of life at which a venous plethora happens. They
happen to females, in whom a venous plethora deter¬
mined to the haemorrhoidal veffels cannot be fuppofed;
and they happen to both fexes, and to perfons of all
all ages, from caufes which do not affedl the fyftem,
and are manifetlly fuited to produce a topical affeftion
only.
Thefe csufes are, in the firft place, the frequent
voiding of hard and bulky faeces, which, by their
long ftagnation in the redfum, and efpecially when
voided, muft neceffarily prefs upon the veins of it, and
interrupt
(art IT. M E D I
^ct ice interrupt the courfe of the blood in them. For this
 reafon the difeafe fo frequently happens to thofe who
are habitually coftive. From the fame caufes, the
difeafe happens frequently to thofe who are fubjedt to
a prolapfus ani. In voiding the faeces, it almoft al¬
ways happens that the internal coat of the reft urn is
more or lefs protruded ; and, during this protrufion,
it fometimes happens that the fphinfter ani is con-
trafted: in confequence of this, a ftrong conftriftion
is made, which preventing the fallen-out gut from
being replaced, and at the fame time preventing the
return of blood from it, occafions a confiderable
{welling, and the formation of a tumid ring round
the anus.
Upon the fphinfter’s being a little relaxed, as it is
immediately after its ftrong contraftion, the portion
of the gut which had fallen out is. commonly taken
into the body again ; but by the frequent repetition
of the accident, the fize and fulnefs of the ring formed
by the prolapfed inteftine is much increafed. It is
therefore more llowly and difficultly replaced; and in
this confifts the chief uneafinefs of haemorrhoidal per-
fons. As the internal edge of this ring is neceflarily
divided by clefts, the-whole often puts on the appear¬
ance of a number of diftinft fwellings; and it alfo fre¬
quently happens, that fome portions of it are more
confiderably fwelled, become more protuberant, and
form thofe fmall tumours more ftriftly called hamor-
rboids or piles.
From confidering that the preffure of the fseces,
and other caufes interrupting the return of venous
blood from the lower extremity of the reftum, may
operate a good deal higher up than that extremity,
we may underftand how tumours may be formed with¬
in the anus; and probably it alfo happens, that fome
of the tumours formed without the anus may con¬
tinue when taken within the body, and even be
increafed by the caufes juft mentioned. Thus may the
produftion of internal piles be explained, which, on
account of their fituation and bulk, are not protruded
on the perfon’s going to ftool, and are therefore more
painful.
The produftion of piles is particularly illuftrated
by this, that pregnant women are frequently affefted
with the difeafe.—This is to be accounted for, partly
by the preffure of the uterus upon the reftum, and
partly by the coftive habit to which pregnant women
are liable. Dr Cullen hath known many inftances of
piles happening for the firft time during the ftate of
pregnancy; and there are few women who have born
children, that are afterwards entirely free from piles.
—Purgatives alfo, efpecially thofe of the more acrid
kind, and particularly aloetics, are apt to produce
the piles, when frequently ufed ; and as they fti-
mulate particularly the great guts, they may be
juftly reckoned among the exciting caufes of this dif¬
eafe.
Prognojis. Though the haemorrhoids are commonly,
as we have faid, to be efteemed a topical difeafe, they
may, by frequent repetition, become habitual and con-
nefted with the whole fyftem ; and this will more
more readily happen in perfons who have been once
affefted with the difeafe, if they are frequently ex-
pofed to a renewal of the caufes which occafioned it.
It happens alfo to .perfons much expofed to a con*
Von. VI. a.
C I N F. ^ ^ 4757
geftion in the haemorrhoidal veffels, in confequence of Practice
their being often in an ereft pofition of the body, and
in an exercife which pufttes the blood into the depend¬
ing veffels, while at the fame time the effefts of thefe
circumftances are much favoured by the abundance
and laxity of the cellular texture about the anus. It
is to be particularly obferved, that when the haemor¬
rhoidal difeafe has either been originally or has be¬
come a fyftematic affeftion, it then acquires a parti¬
cular conneftion with the ftomach ; fo that certain
affeftions of the ftomach excite the htemorrhoidal dif¬
eafe, and certain dates of this difeafe excite the difor-
ders of the ftomach.
It hath been an almoft univerfally received opinion,
that the hasmorrhoidal flux is a falutary evacuation,
which prevents many difeafes that would otherwife
have happened ; and that it even Contributes to give
long life: and as this opinion hath been ftrenuoufly
adopted by Dr Stahl, it hath had a very confiderable
influence on the praftice of phyfic in Germany. But
Dr Cullen maintains that we can never expeft to reap
much benefit from this flux, which at firft is purely
topical; and, granting that it fhould become habitual,
it is never proper to be encouraged. It is a nafty,
difagreeable difeafe; ready to go to excefs, and there¬
by to prove hurtful, and fometimes even fatal. At
belt it is liable to accidents, and thus to unhappy
confequences. He is therefore of opinion, that even
the firft approaches of the difeafe are to be guarded
againft; and that, though it (hould have proceeded
for fome time, it ought always to be moderated, and
the neceffity of it fuperfeded.
Cure. When any evident caufe for this difeafe is
perceived, we ought immediately to attempt a re¬
moval of that caufe. One of the moft frequent re¬
mote caufes is an habitual coftivenefs ; which muft be
obviated by a proper diet, as the perfon’s own ex¬
perience will beft direft ; or if the management of
diet be not effeftual, the belly muft be kept open by
medicines, which may prove gently laxative, with¬
out irritating the reftum. In moft cafes it will be of
advantage to acquire a habit with regard to time,
and to obferve it exaftly. Another caufe of the
haemorrhois to be efpecially attended to is the prolap¬
fus ani, which is apt to happen on a perfon’s having
a ftool. If this (hall occur to any confiderable de¬
gree, and be not at the fame time eafily and immedi¬
ately replaced, it moft certainly produces piles, or
increafes them when otherwife produced. Perfons
therefore who are liable to this prolapfus, Ihould,
after having been at ftool, take great pains to have
the gut immediately replaced, by lying down in an
horizontal pofture, and preffing gently upon the anus,
till the reduftion (hall be completely obtained. When
this prolapfus is octafioned only by the voiding of
hard and bulky fseces, it is to be removed by ob¬
viating the coftivenefs which occafions it. But in fome
perfons it is owing to a laxity of the reftum; and in
thofe it is often mail confiderable on occafion of a
loofe ftool. In thefe cafes, it is to be treated by
aftringents, and proper artifices to keep the gut in its
place.
When the difeafe has frequently recurred from
negleft, and is thus in fome meafure eftabliftied, the
methods above-mentioned are no lefs proper; but in
26 Y this
4758
Pit ACT ICE
M E D I
this cafe fome -other meafures mud alfo be ufed.
It is efpecially proper to guard againft a plethoric
date of the body; and therefore to avoid a fendentary
life, full diet, and intemperance in the ufe of ftrong
liquor, which in all cafes of haemorrhagy is of the
moil pernicious confequence.
Exercife of all kinds is of great fervice in obviating
and removing a plethoric date of the body ; but upon
occafion of the hemorrhoidal flux, when this is imme¬
diately to come on, both walking and riding, as in-
creafing the determination of the blood into the
hasmorvhoidal veflels, are to be avoided. At other
times, when no fuch determination is already formed,
thefe modes of exercife may be very properly em¬
ployed.
Another method of removing plethora is by cold
bathing; but this mud be employed with caution.
When the haemorrhoidal flux is approaching, it may
be dangerous to divert it; but during the intervals of
the difeafe, cold bathing may be employed with
fafety and advantage ; and in thofe who are liable to
a prolapfus ani, the frequent walhing of the anus with
cold water may be ufeful.
When the flux has aftually come on, we are to mo¬
derate it as. much as poffible, by caufing the patient
lie in a horizontal podure on a hard bed ; by avoiding
exercife in an ereft podure, ufing a cool diet, and
avoiding external heat. But with refpeft to the fur¬
ther cure of this difeafe, we mud obferve, that there
are only two cafes in which it is common for hsemor-
rhoidal perfons to call for medical affidance. The one
is, when the affedtion is accompanied with much pain;
and the other, when the piles are accompanied with
exceflive bleeding. In the fird cafe, we mud confider
whether the piles are external or internal. The pain
of the external piles happens efpecially when a confi-
derable protrufion of the reftura has happened ; and
while it remains unreduced, it is drangled by the con-
flridlion of the fphin&er; and at the fame time no
bleeding happens to take off the fwelling of the pro¬
truded portion of the intedine; and fometimes an in¬
flammation fupervenes, which greatly aggravates the
pain. In this cafe, emollient fomentations and poul¬
tices are fometimes of fcrvice, but the application of
Igeches is generally to be preferred.
In cafe of excellive bleeding, we are on all occa-
flons to endeavour to moderate the flux, even where
the difeafe has occurred as a critical difcharge ; for if
the primary difeafe fliall be entirely and radically cu¬
red, the preventing any return of the haemorrhois feems
entirely fafe and proper. It is only when the difeafe
arifes from a plethoric habit, and from a dagnation of
blood in the hypochondriac region, or when, though
originally topical, it hath by frequent repetition be¬
come habitual, and has thereby acquired a conneftion
with the fyffem, that any doubt can arife about curing
it entirely. In any of thefe cafes, however, Dr Cul¬
len is of opinion that it will be proper to moderate
the bleeding, left, by its continuance or repetition, the
plethoric ftate of the body, and the particular deter¬
mination of the blood into the hsemorrhoidal veflels, be
increafed, and the return of the difeafe be too much
favoured. Dr Stahl is of opinion, that the hsemor-
rhoidal flux is never to be accounted excefiive except¬
ing when it occafions great debility or leucophlegma-
CINE. Part II.
tia : but Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the fmalleft ap-Practm
proach towards producing either of thefe effefts fliould    
beconfidered as an excefs which ought to be prevent¬
ed from going farther; and even in the cafes of con-
gedion and plethora, if the plethoric habit and ten¬
dency can be obviated and removed, the hasmorrhoi-
dal flux may then with fafety be entirely fupprefled.
In all cafes therefore of exceflive bleeding, or any ap¬
proach to it, adringents both internal and external
may be fafely and properly applied ; not indeed to in¬
duce an immediate and total fuppreflion } but to mo¬
derate the haemorrhage, and by degrees to fupprefs it
altogether; while at the fame time meafures are taken
for the removing the neceflity of its recurrence. In
cafe of a connexion between the haemorrhoidal affec¬
tion and tfie date of the ftomach, the fame method is
to be nfed in the atonic gout.
Genus XLI. MENORRHAGIA, or Immoderate
Flow of the Menses.
Menorrhagia, Sauv. 244. Lin. 202. Vog. 96.
Metrorrhagia, Sag. gen. 179.
Uteri haemorrhagia. Hoffm. II. 224.
Haemorrhagia uterina, Junk. 14.
Leucorrhoea, Sauv. gen. 267. 201. Fog. 119.
Sag. gen. 202.
Cachexia uterina,five fluoralbus, HoffmAW. 348.
Fluor albus, Junck. 133.
Abortus, Sauv. gen. 245. Lin. 204, Sag. gen. 180.
Junck. 92.
Abortio, Vog. 97.
Fluor uterini fanguints, Boerh. 1303.
Convulfio uteri, five abortus, Hoffm. III. 176.
XCII. IDaz. Immoderate Flow ok the Menses, properly 359
fo called. Sp. I.
Menorrhagia immodica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Menorrhagia dillatitia, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcription. The quantity of the menftrual flux is
different in different women, and likewife in the fame
woman at different times. An unufual quantity there¬
fore is not always to be confidered as morbid: but
when a larger flow of the menfes has been preceded
by head-ach, giddinefs, ordyfpnoea; has been ufher-
ed in by a cold flage, and is attended with much
pain of the back and loins, with a frequent pulfe,
heat and third; it may then be confidered as preter-
naturally large. On the other hand, when the face
becomes pale, the pulfe weak, an unufual debility is
felt in exercife, and the brathing is hurried by little
labour; when the back becomes pained from any con¬
tinuance in an ereft podure, when the extremities be¬
come frequently cold, and when at night the feet
appear affefled with cedematous fwelling ; from all
thefe fymptoms we may conclude, that the. flow of
the menfes hath been immoderate, and has already
induced a dangerous date of debility.—The debility,
induced in this cafe, often appears alfo by affeftions
of the domach, an anorexia, and other fymptoms of
dyfpepfia ; by a palpitation of the heart, and frequent
faintings ; by a weaknefs of mind, liable to drong
emotions from flight caufes, efpecially thofe prefented
by furprife. A flow of the menfes attended with
barrennefs in married women, may generally be con¬
fidered
II. M E D I
;e fidered as preternatural and morbid. Generally, alfo,
that flow of the menfes may be confidered as immo¬
derate, which is preceded and followed by a leu-
corrhcea.
Caufesy &c. The proximate caufe of the menor¬
rhagia is either the effort of the uterine vefiels preter-
naturally increafed, or a preternatural laxity of the
extremities of the uterine arteries.—The remote caufes
may be, I. Thofe which increafe the plethoric ftate
of the uterine vtffels ; as a full and nourifhing diet,
much ftrong liquor, and frequent intoxication. 2.
Thofe which determine the blood more copioufly
and forcibly into the uterine veffels; as violent
{trainings of the whole body; violent fhocks from
falls; ftrokes or contufions on the lower belly;
violent exercife, particularly in dancing; and vio¬
lent paffions of the mind. 3. Thofe which particu¬
larly irritate the veffels of the uterus; as excefs in
venery ; the exercife of venery in the time of men-
ftruation ; a coftive habit, giving occafion to violent
ftraining at ftool; and cold applied to the feet. 4.
Thofe which have forcibly overttrained the extremities
of the uterine veflels ; as frequent abortions, frequent
child-bearing without nurfing, and difficult tedious
labours. Or, laftly, thofe which induce a general
laxity; as living much in warm chambers, and drink¬
ing much of warm enervating liquors, fuch as tea,
coffee, &c.
Cure. The treatment and cure of the menorrhagia,
mult be different, according to the different caufes of
the difeafe.
In all cafes, the firft attention ought to be given to
avoiding the remote caufes, whenever that can be
done; and by fuch attention the difeafe may be often
entirely cured. When the remote caufes cannot be
avoided, or when the avoiding them has been neg-
lefted, and a copious meflftruation has come on, it
fliould be moderated as much as poffible, by abftain-
ing from all exercife at the coming on or during the
continuance of the menftruation ; by avoiding even an
ereft pofture as much as poffible ; by fhunning exter¬
nal heat, and therefore warm chambers and foft beds;
by ufing a light and cool diet; by taking cold drink,
at leaft as far as former habits will allow; by avoid¬
ing venery; by obviating coftivenefs, or removing it
by laxatives which give little ftimulus. The fex are
commonly negligent, either in avoiding the remote
caufes, or in moderating the firft beginnings of this
difeafe. It is by fuch negleft that it fo frequently
becomes violent and of difficult cure; and the frequent
repetition of a copious menftruation may be confidered
as a caufe of great laxity in the extreme veflels of the
uterus.
When the coming on of the menftruation has been
preceded by fome diforder in other parts of the body,
and is accompanied with pains of the back, fomewhat
like parturient pains, with febrile fymptoms, and
when at the fame time the flow feems to be copious,
a bleeding at the arm may be proper, but is not often
neceflary ; and it will in moft cafes be fufficient to
employ, with great attention and diligence, thofe
means already mentioned for moderating the dif-
ebarge.
When the immoderate flow of the menfes fhall
feem to be owing to a laxity of the veflels of the
CINE. 4759
uterus, as may be concluded from the general debility Pa kcmc
and laxity of the perfon’s habit; from the remote
caufes that have occafioned the difeafe; from the ab-
fence of the fymptoms which denote increafed action
in the vefiels of the uterus; from the frequent recur¬
rence of the difeafe; and particularly from this, that
the perfon in the intervals of menftruation is liable to
a leucorrhoea : in fuch a cafe, the difeafe is to be
treated, not only by employing all the means above-
mentioned for moderating the hsemorrhagy, but alfo
by avoiding all irritation, every irritation having the
greater effedt in proportion as the veflels are more
lax and yielding. If, in fuch a cafe of laxity, it fhall
appear that fome degree of irritation concurs, opiates
may be employed to moderate the difeharge; but in
uling thefe much caution is requifite. If, notwith-
ftanding thefe meafures having been taken, the dif¬
eharge fliall prove very large, aftringents, both exter¬
nal and internal, may be employed. In fuch cafes.
Dr Cullen afks, May fmall dofes of emetics be of fer-
vice?
When the menorrhagia depends on the laxity of
the uterine veflels, it will be proper, in the intervals
of menftruation, to employ tonic remedies; as cold
bathing, and chalybeates. The exercifcs of geftation
alfo may be very ufeful, both for ftrengthening the
whole fyftem, and for taking off the determination of
the blood to the internal parts.
Thefe remedies may be employed in all cafes of
menorrhagia, from whatever caufe it may have pro¬
ceeded, if it fhall have already induced a confiderable
degree of debility in the body.
XCIII. Abortion. Sp. II. 361
Menorrhagia gravidarum, Saw. fp. 6.
Abortus effluxio, Sauv. fp. 1.
a. Abortus fubftrimeftris.
b. Abortus fobfemeftris.
c. Abortus oftimeftris.
Abortus ab uteri laxitate, Sauv. fp. l.
XCIV. Immoderate Flux of the Lochia. Sp. III. 362
Menorrhagia lochialis, Sauv. fp. 8.
For the defeription, treatment, and cure, of thefe two
laft difeafes, fee the article Midwifery.
XCV. Immoderate Flore} of the Menses from fome sg*
Local Diforder. Sp. IV.
Menorrhagia ex hyfteroptofi, Sauv. fp. y.
Menorrhagia ulcerofa, Sauv. fp. 9.
XCV. The Leucorrhtxa, Fluor Albus, or Whites. Sp.V. 364
and VI.
Leucorrhcea, G. utfupra.
Menorrhagia decolor, Sauv. fp. 7.
Leucorrhoea Americana, Sauv. fp. 5.
Leucorrhoea Indica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Leucerrhcea Nabothi, Sauv. fp. 9*
Leucorrhoea gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Defeription. The fluor albus, female weaknefs, or
•whites, as commonly called, is a difeafe of the womb
and its contiguous parts; from which a pale coloured,
greeniih or yellow fluid is difeharged, attended with
lofs of ftrength*. pain in the loins, bad digeftion, and
26 V 2
e a wan fickly afpe&.
Caufes, Sec. The quantity, colour, and confiftence
of the difeharge chiefly depend upon the time of its
duration, the patient’s habit of body, and the nature
of the caufe by which it was produced. Taking cold,
ftrong liquor, immoderate heat and moifture, or violent
exercife, are all obferved to produce a bad effed, as to
its quantity and quality.
Weakly women of lax folids, who have had many
children, and long laboured under ill health, are of
all others the moft fubjedl to this difagreeable difeafe;
from which they unfortunately fnffer more fevere pe¬
nance than others, as the niceft fenfations are often
conne&ed with fuch a delicacy of bodily frame as fub-
jefts them to it.
In Holland it is very frequent, and in a manner
peculiar to the place, from the dampnefs of its fitua-
tion ; the furrounding air being fo overcharged with
moifture as to relax the body, ftop perfpiration, and
throw it upon the bowels, or womb ; producing in
the firft, a diarrhoea or flux ; in the laft, the fluor al¬
ius or female weaknefs.
The difeharge proceeds from the vefiels fubfervient
to menftruation ; becaufe, in delicate habits, where
thofe veffels are weak, and confequently remain too
long uncontra&ed, the fluor albus fometimes immedi-
follows the menfes, and goes off by degrees as they
gradually clofe. It alfo comes from the mucous glands
of the womb, as is particularly evident in very young
females of eight and ten years old; in whom, though
very rarely, it has been obferved, and where it muft then
neceflarilyhave efcaped from thofe parts; for the uterine
veflcls are not fufficiently enlarged for its pafiage at fo
early a period.
Sometimes, as in women with child, it proceeds from
the paffage to the womb, and not from the womb it-
felf; which, during pregnancy, is clofely fealed up, fo
that nothing can pafs from thence till the time of la¬
bour. The application of thofe inftruments called pef-
faries, from the pain and irritation they occafion, are
alfo apt to bring on this difeharge. Hence we may
conclude, that this difeafe may happen although the
blood is in a pure ftate. Here the fault feems to be
placed in the veftels or ftrainers, by which the fluids
are vitiated and changed from their natural qualities.
The fluor albus has been fuppofed to fupply the
want of the menfes; becaufe* where the firft prevails,
the laft is generally either irregular, or totally wanting:
but it might more properly be faid, that the prefence of
tMe flusr albus, which is a preternatural evacuation, oc-
cafions the abfence of that which is natural ; as is evi¬
dent from the return of the menfes after the fluor albus
has been taken away. Indeed, when this difeharge
appears about the age of 13 or 14, and returns once
a month, with fymptoms like thofe of the menfes,
then it may be deemed ftridly natural, and therefore
ought not to be flopped.
‘Prognofis. rY\\c fluor albus may be diftinguifhed in¬
to two kinds. The firft arifes from a Ample weak¬
nefs,or the relaxation of the folids; which may either
be general, where the whole bodily fyftem is enervated
and unftrung; or partial, where the womb only is
tbus affeded, in confequence of hard labour, frequent
mifearriages, a fiippreffion or immoderate quantity of
the menfes, or a fprain of the back or loins.
In the firft cafe, the difeharge being generally mild,
may be fafely taken away. In the fecond, it may
proceed from a vitiated, or impure blood, where the
body, from thence, is loaded with grofs humours,
which nature for her own fecurity and relief thus en¬
deavours to carry off. In fnch cafes, the difeharge is
often of a reddifh colour, like that from old ulcer¬
ous fores; being fometimes fo fharp as to excoriate
the contiguous parts, and occafion a fmarting and heat
of urine.
A deep-feated, darting pain, with a forcing down,
attending fuch a difeharge, is a very dangerous and
alarming fign, and indicates an ulceration or cancerous
ftate of the womb. This malignant ftate of the dif¬
eafe, if of long continuance, is extremely difficult of
cure; and difpofesthe patient to barrennefs, a bearing
down, the dropfy, or a confumption.
Cure, See. The caufes of thofe two kinds of this
difeafe being different, fo they will require a very dif¬
ferent method of cure. To anfwer this intention ; irt
the firft cafe, nothing will be more proper than nou-
rifhing Ample food, fuch as veal broths, jellies, frelb
eggs, and milk diet. The acid fruits will alfo be pro¬
per ; and the patient may take a reftorative, ftrengthen*
ing infufion, which will give firmnefs to the body, and
affift the weakened fibres of the womb in returning to
their natural ftate.
The fame method may beufed with fuccefs, where
the fluor albus follows the menfes, as already ob¬
ferved.
The Tunbridge or Spa waters may be drank at the
fame time; and if neceffary, an infufion of green tea,
or pure fmith’s-forge-water, may be ufed with a womb-
fyringe as an injedlion twice a-day. Should the dif¬
eafe prove uncommonly obftinate ; the patient may go
into the cold bath every other day ; and alfo drink
lime-water with milk, which will expedite the cure,
and prevent a relapfe. . A volatile liniment, and after¬
wards a ftrengthening plafter, may be applied to the
fmall of the back.
By way of caution, (he fhould abftain from the im¬
moderate ufe of tea ; and be removed into a dry
clear air; or if (he is obliged to remain in one Id's
proper, (he may apply the fleffi-brufh, and wear a flan¬
nel (hift next her (kin, impregnated with the fumes of
burning frankincenfe, or any of the grateful aromatic
gums. Cold fpring-water pumped on the loins, or a
bliftering plafter applied to the bottom of the fpine or
back, are both very powerful in their effe&s, and have
fometimes fucceeded after other remedies had been
tried in vain.
In the fecond fort of the difeafe, where the difeharge
is (harp and of long (landing, it would be extreme¬
ly dangerous to fupprefs it fuddenly, either by aftrin-
gents internally taken, or applied as inje&ions, until
the blood is freed from its impurities by proper pur¬
gatives, and otherwife corre&ed by fnch medicines as
not only carry off the (harp fcorbutic falls and putrid
juices, but alfo impart to it that foft balmy quality of
which it had been deprived.
A purging potion may be taken twice a-week, and
in the intervals an alterative pill night and morning.
After this courfe has been continued a fortnight or
three weeks, (he may begin with the ftrengthening,
bitter infufion, or other tonic, in the quantity of a
tea-
i^art II.
pr actice tea-cupful twice a-day, or more, as her ftomach will
allow. . , ,
The fame fort of food and regimen will here be pro¬
per as in the lira kind of the difeafe. The patient
fhould abftain from malt liquors, and drink rice-water,
in each pint of which half an ounce of gum arabic has
been dilfolved ; or if (lie is weak, and of a cold bloat¬
ed habit of body, a little French brandy may be ad¬
ded occafionally.
When (he begins to take the bitter infufion, it will
be proper to ufe the Tunbridge or Pyrmont water
for common drink ; but if thofe cannot conveniently
be ha.d, the artificial Spa water, impregnated with
■See A lit, iron and fixed air *, will make an excellent fubftitute.
*1 If it (hould render her coftive, and occafion the head-
ach ; (he may defift, and drink imperial water or a
little fenna-tea fweetened with manna, till thofe com¬
plaints are removed.
In (hort, as this is a malady of the moft difagree-
able kind, which, by long continuance or negleft, be¬
comes difficult of cure, and often produces an ulcera¬
tion of the womb, bearing down, barrennefs, a dropjy,
or confumption ; it were to be wifiled, that women, on
fuch occafions, would be more attentive to their own
fafety, by ufing all poffible means, in due time, to pre¬
vent thofe diforders
Dr Leake fays he has attended more patients la¬
bouring under the fiuor albus in the autumn than at
any other feafon of the year, efpecially when the
weather was uncommonly moift. and cold : moft of
them were cured by change of diet, an increafed per-
fpiration, and the proper ufe of Peruvian bark with
aromatics. He obferved, that feveral about this
time who efcaped the diforder, were vifited with
bad colds, a defluxion of rheum on the throat, or a
diarrhoea, which were removed by a fimilar treatment.
As women are fometimes connefted with thofe who
do not confcientioufly regard their fafety, it is a cir-
cumftance of the utmoft confequence to diftinguijh a
frefh venereal infedion from the fiuor albus or whites t
for, if the firft is miftaken for the laft, and is either ne-
glefted or treated accordingly, the diforder may unfor¬
tunately end in a confirmed lues or pox.
The following figns will beft inform the patient whe¬
ther there is occafion for her doubts or not.
A frefti infe&ion, called gonorrhoea, is malignant
and inflammatory; iht fluor albus moft commonly a-
rifes from relaxation and bodily weaknefs; and there¬
fore, the remedies proper in the firft diforder would
render the laft more violent, by Joeking up and confi¬
ning the infectious matter.
In the gonorrhoea, the difcharge chiefly proceeds
from the parts contiguous to the urinary paflage,
and continues whilft the menfes flow; but in \\\efiuor
albus, it is fupplied from the cavity of the womfi
and its paffage, and then the menfes are feldom re-
^ In the gonorrhoea, an itching, inflammation, and
beat of urine, are the fore-runners of the difcharge ;
the orifice of the urinary paffage is prominent and
painful, and the patient is affeaed with a frequent ir¬
ritation to make water. \n the fiuor albus, pains in
the loins, and lofs of ftrength, attend the difcharge;
and if any inflammation or heat of urine follow, they
happen in a lefs degree, and only after a long con-
4761
tinuance of the difcharge, which, becoming (harp andPR*CTICE
acrimonious, excoriates the furrounding parts.
In the gonorrhoea, the difcharge fuddenly appears
without any evident caufe ; but in the fiuor albus, it
comes on more (lowly, and is often produced by irre¬
gularities of the menfes, frequent abortion, fprains, or
long-continued illnefs.
In the gonorrhoea, the difcharge is greenifli or yel¬
low, lefs in quantity, and not attended with the fame
fymptoms of weaknefs. In the fluor albus, it is alfo of¬
ten of the fame colour, efpecially in bad habits of
body, and after long continuance ; but is ufually more
offenfive, and redundant in quantity.
All the other kinds of hasmorrhage enumerated by
medical writers, are by Dr Cullen reckoned to be
fymptomatic; as,
Stomacace, Sauv. gen. 241. Lin. 175. Vog. 85.
Sag. gen. J76.
Species : Scorbutica, Purulenta, &c.
H/ematemesis, Sauv. gen. 242. Z/'». 184. Vog.Sy.
gen. 177.
Species : Plethorica, Catameniaiis, Scorbutica, &c.
Hematuria, Sauv. gen. 233. Z/». 198. Vog. 9.2*
Sag. gen. 178.
Species: Purulenta, Calculofa, Hasmorrhoidalis, See.
Order V. PROFLUVI A.
Genus XLII. The CATARRH.
Catarrhus, Sauv. gen. 186. Vog. 9%. Sag. gen. 145.
Coryza, Lin. 174. Vog. too. Sag. gen. 196.
Rheuma, Sauv. gen. 142.
Tuffis, Sauv. gen. 142. Lin. 15y. Vog. 205. Sag.
gen. 245. 255. fund. 30.
Tuffis catarrhalis et rheumatica, Hoffm. III. 109.
XCVII. Catarrh from Cold. Sp. I. 355
Catarrhus benignus, Sauv.. fp. 1.
Catarrhus peftoreus, Sauv. fp. 6.
Coryza catarrhal is, Sauv. fp. 1.
Coryza phlegmatorrhagia, Sauv. fp. 2. Salmuth.
Obf. cent. x. 37. fund. 28. Morgagn. de fed.
xiv. 21.
Coryza febricofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Tuffis catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 1. N. Rofsn Diff. apud
Haller, Difput. Pradl. tom. II.
Rheuma catarrhale, Sauv. fp. 1.
Amphimerina catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Amphimerina tufliculofa, Sauv. fp. 13.?"
Cephalalgia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 10.
Catarrh from Contagion. Sp. II- 3^
Catarrhus epidemicus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Rheuma epidemicum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Synocha catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 5.
There are feveral fymptomatic fpecies; as, Catarrhus
Rubeolofus; Tuffis Variolofa, Verminofa, Calcu¬
lofa, Phthifica, Hyfterica, a Dentitione, Gravida¬
rum, Metallicorum, &c.
Defer ip tion. The catarrh is an increafed excretion
MEDICINE.
4748
Practice of mucus from the mucous membrane of the nofe,
" fauces, and bronchiae, attended with pyrexia.
Pra&ical writers and nofologifts have diftinguilhed
the difeafe by different appellations, according as it
happens to affeft thofe different parts of the mucous
membrane, the one part more or lefs than the other :
but Dr Cullen is of opinion that the difeafe in thofe
different parts is always of the fame nature, and pro¬
ceeds from the fame caufe in the one as in the other.
Very commonly indeed thofe different parts are affeft-
ed at the fame time ; and therefore there is little room
for the diftin&ion mentioned. The difeafe has been
frequently treated of under the title of tufis, or cough}
and a cough, indeed, always attends the chief form
of catarrh, that is, the increafed excretion from the
bronchia ; but it is fo often alfo a fymptom of many
other affedlions, which are very different from one an¬
other, that it is improperly ufed as a generic title.
The difeafe generally begins with fome difficulty of
breathing through the nofe, and with a fenfe of fome
fulnefs flopping up that paffagc. This again is often
attended with fome dull pain and a fenfe of weight in
the forehead, as well as a ftiffnefs in the motion of the
eyes. Thefe feelings, fometimes at their very firft
beginning, and always foon after, are attended with
the diftilfation of a thin fluid from the nofe, and
fometimes from the eyes; and thefe fluids are often
found to be fomewhat acrid, both by their tafte and
by their fretting the parts over which they pafs.
Thefe fymptoms conftitute the coryza and gravedo of
authors, and are commonly attended with a fenfe of
laffitude over the whole body. Sometimes cold fhi-
verings are felt; at leaft the body is more fenfible than
ufual to the coldnefs of the air ; and with all this the
pulfe is more frequent than ordinary, efpecially in the
evenings.
Thefe fymptoms have feldom continued long before
they are accompanied with fome hoarfenefs, and a
fenfe of roughnefs and forenefs in the trachea, with
fome difficulty of breathing, expreffed by a fenfe of
ftraitnefs in the cheft, and with a cough which feems
to arife from fome irritation felt at the glottis. This
cough is generally at firft dry and painful, occafioning
pains about the cheft, and more efpecially in the
breaft; fometimes, together with thefe fymptoms,
pains refembling thofe of the rheumatifm are felt in
feveral parts of the body, particularly about the neck
and head. With all thefe fymptoms, the appetite is
impaired, fome third arifes, and a feverilh laffitude is
felt all over the body. Thefe fymptome mark the
height and violence of the difeafe; but commonly
it does not continue long. By degrees the cough
becomes attended with a more copious excretion of
mucus; which is at firft thin, but gradually becoming
thicker, is brought up with lefs frequent and lefs la¬
borious coughing. The hoarfenefs and forenefs of
the trachea are alfo relieved or removed ; and the fe¬
brile fymptoms abating, the expeftoration becomes
again lefs, and the cough lefs frequent, till at length
they ceafe altogether.
Such is generally the courfe of this difeafe, neither
tedious nor dangerous ; but it is fometimes in both
refpe&s otherwife. The body affefted with catarrh
feems to be more than ufually liable to be affe&ed by
cold air; and if the bodyaffefted with catarrh be ex-
Part II
pofed to cold, the difeafe, which feemed to be yield- Pract
ing, is often brought back with greater violence than
before, and is rendered not only more tedious than
otherwife it would be, but alfo more dangerous by
the fupervening of other difeafes. Some degree of
the cynanche tonfillarisoften accompanies the catarrh;
and when this is aggravated by a freffi application of
cold, the cynanche alfo becomes more violent and dan¬
gerous from the cough, which is prefent at the fame
time. When a catarrh has been occafioned by a vio¬
lent caufe, when it has been aggravated by improper
management, and efpecially when it has been render¬
ed more violent by frefh and repeated applications of
cold, it often paffes into a pneumonic inflammation,
attended with the utmoft danger.
Unlefs, however, fuch accidents as thofe happen, a
catarrh, in found perfons not far advanced in life, is
always a flight and fafe difeafe : but, in perfons of a
phthifical difpofition, a catarrh may readily produce a
hemoptyfis, or perhaps form tubercles in the lungs;
and, more certainly in perfons who have tubercles al¬
ready formed in the lungs, an accidental catarrh may
occafion the inflammation of thefe tubercles, and in
confequence produce a phthifis pulmonalis.
In elderly perfons, a catarrh fometimes proves a
dangerous difeafe. Many perfons, as they advance in
life, and efpecially after they have arrived at old age,
have the natural mucus of the lungs poured out in
greater quantity, and requiring a frequent expedora-
tion. If, therefore, a catarrh happen to fuch per¬
fons, and increafe the afflux of fluids to the lungs,
with fome degree of inflammation, it may produce
the peripneumonia notha, which in fuch cafes is very
often fatal.
Caufcs, &c. The proximate caufe of catarrh feems
to be an increafed afflux of fluids to the mucous mem¬
brane of the nofe, fauces, and bronchise, along with
fome degree of inflammation affefting the fame. The
latter circumftance is confirmed by this, that, in the
cafe of catarrh, the blood drawn from a vein com¬
monly exhibits the fame inflammatory cruft which ap¬
pears in the cafe of phlegmafiae. The remote caufe
of catarrh is moft commonly cold applied to the body.
This application of cold producing catarrh is gene¬
rally evident and obferved ; and Dr Cullen is of opi¬
nion that it would always be fo, were men acquainted
with and attentive to the circumftances which deter¬
mine cold to ad upon the body.
The application of cold which occafions a catarrh,
probably operates by flopping the perfpiration ufually
made by the (kin, and whigh is therefore determined
to the mucous membrane of the parts above-mention¬
ed. As a part of the weight which the body daily
lofes by infenfiblc evacuation, is owing to an exhala¬
tion from the lungs, there is probably a connedion
between this exhalation and the cutaneous refpiration,
fo that the one may be increafed according as the
other is diminilhed ; and therefore we may underftand
how the diminution of cutaneous perfpiration, by the
application of cold, may increafe the afflux of fluids
to the lungs, and thereby produce a catarrh.
Dr Cullenobferves that there are fome obfervations
of Dr James Keil which may render this matter
doubtful; but fays there is a fallacy in thofe obferva¬
tions. Tire evident effeds of cold in producing
coryza.
MEDICINE.
ijs’art II. M E D I
jjjactici coryza, leave the matter, In general, without doubt;
  and there are feveral other obfervations which fhew a
connexion between the lungs and the furface of the
body.
Whether from the fuppreffion of perfpiration, a
catarrh be produced merely by an increafed afflux of
fluids, or whether further the matter of perfpiration
be at the fame time determined to the mucous glands,
and there excites a particular irritation, may be un¬
certain ; but our author thinks the latter fuppofition
is moft probable.
Although, in the cafe of a common catarrh, which
is in many inftances fporadic, it may be doubtful
whether any morbific matter be applied to the mu¬
cous glands; we are, however, certain that the
fymptoms of a catarrh do frequently depend upon
fuch a matter being applied to thefe glands, as ap¬
pears from the cafe of meafles, chincough, and efpe-
cially from the frequent occurrence of contagious and
epidemical catarrh.
The phenomena of contagious catarrhs have been
much the fame with thofe of the others; and the
difeafe has always been particularly remarkable for
this, that it has been the moft widely and generally
fpreading epidemic known. It has feldom appeared
in any one country of Europe, without appearing
fucceffively in every different part of it; and, in fome
inftances, it has been alfo transferred to America,
and has been fpread therein like manner, fo far as we
have had opportunities of being informed.
The catarrh from contagion appears with nearly
the fame fymptoms as thofe above-mentioned. It
Ifeems often to come on in confequence of the ap¬
plication of cold. It comes one with more cold
fhivering than the catarrh arifing from cold alone ;
and the former does alfo not only fooner fhew febrile
fymptoms, but to a more confiderable degree. Ac¬
cordingly, it more fpeedily runs its courfe, which is
commonly finifhed in a few days. It fometimes ends
by a fpontaneous fweat; and this, in fome perfons,
produces a miliary eruption. It is, however, the
febrile ftate of this difeafe efpecially, that is finifhed
in a few days; for the cough and other catarrhal
fymptoms do frequently continue longer, and often
when they appear to be going off they are renewed
by any frefh application of cold.
Prognojis. Confidering the number of perfons who
are affe&ed with catarrh, of either the one fpecies or
the other, and efcape from it quickly without any
hurt, it may be allowed to be a difeafe very free from
danger; but it is not always to be treated as fuch,
for in fome perfons it is accompanied with pneumonic
inflammation. In the pthifically difpofed, it often
accelerates the coming on of phthifis ; and in-elderly
perfons it often proves fatal in the manner we have
explained above.
Curs. The cure of catarrh is nearly the fame,
whether it proceeds from cold or contagion ; only in
the latter cafe remedies are commonly more neceffary
than in the former. In the cafes of a moderate dif¬
eafe, it is commonly fufficient to avoid cold, or to ab-
ftain from animal-food for fome days, or perhaps for
the fame time to lie a-bed, and, by taking frequently
fome mild and diluent drink, a little warmed, to pro¬
mote a very gentle fweat, and after this to take care
CINE. 4763
to return very gradually only to the ufe of the free Practice
air. When the difeafe is more violent, not only the 
antiphlogiftic regimen, exa&ly obfervtd, but various
remedies alfo, become neceffary. To take off the
phlogiftic diathefis, which always attends this difeafe,
blood-letting, more or lefs, according as the fymp¬
toms fflall require, is the proper remedy. After
blood-letting for reftoring the determination of the
fluids to the furface of the body, and at the fame
time for expediting the fecretion of mucus in the lungs,
which may take off the inflammation of its membrane,
vomiting is the moft effe&ual means. For the laft-
mentioned purpofe, it has been fuppofed that fquills,
gum-ammoniac, the volatile alkali, and fome other
medicines, might be ufeful ; but their efficacy has
never been found confiderable: and if fquills have ever
been very ufeful, it feems to have been rather by their
emetic than by their expe&orant powers. When the
inflammatory affe&ions of the lungs feem to be conii-
derable, it is proper, befides blood-letting, to apply
blifters to the back or fides.
As a cough is often the moft troublefome ctrcum-
ftance of this difeafe, fo demulcents may be employed
to alleviate it. But after the inflammatory fymptoms
are much abated, if the cough ftill remains, opiates af¬
ford the moft effefhial means of relieving it; and, in
the circumftances juft now mentioned, they may be
very fafely employed. After the inflammatory and
febrile Rates of this difeafe are very much gone, the
moft effe&ual means of difcufitng all remains of the
catarrhal affedion, is by fome exercife of geftation di¬
ligently employed.
Befides the remedies above-mentioned, Mr Mudge,
in a treatife on this difeafe, recommends the fteam of
warm water as a moft efficacious and fafe remedy for
a catarrh, and which indeed he feems to confider as
little lefs than infallible. The method of breathing in
thefe fleams is defcrrbed under the word Inhaler;
but he gives a caution to people in health, who may
accidentally fee his machine, not to make the experi¬
ment of breathing through cold water with it, or they
will be almoft certain of catching a fevere cold with it.
His directions for thofe troubled with the catarrh are
as follow:
“ In the evening, a little before bed-time, the pa¬
tient, if of adult age, is to take three drachms, or as
many tea-fpoonfuls, of elixir paregoricum, in a glafs
of water: if the fubjeft is younger, for inftance, under
five years old, one tea-fpoonful; or within that and
ten years, two. [Each tea-fpoonful contains fome-
what lefs than one quarter of a grain of opium.J
About three quarters of an hour after, the patient
fhould go to bed, and, being covered warm, the
inhaler three parts filled with water nearly boiling,
(which, from the coldnefs of the metal, and the time
it ordinarily takes before it is ufed by the patient,
will be of a proper degree of warmth,) and being
wrapped up in a napkin, but fo that the valve in the
cover is not obftru&ed by it, is to be placed at the
arm-pit, and the bed clothes being drawn up and
over it clofe to the throat, the tube is to be applied
to the mouth, and the patient fhould infpire and ex¬
pire through it about twenty minutes or half art
hour.
“ Jt is very evident, as the whole aft of refpiration
is
47^4 M E D I
Practice is performed through the machine, that in infpiration
the lungs will be filled with air which will be hot, and
loaded with vapour, by palling through the body of
water; and in exfpiration, all that was contained in
the lungs will, by mixing with the (team on the fur-
face of the water, be forced thro’ the valve in the co¬
ver, and fettle on the furface of the body under the
bed-cloaths.
. “ The great ufe of this particular conftrudlion of
the inhaler is this. Firft, as there is no neceflity, at
the end of every infpiration, to remove the tube from
the mouth, in order to exfpire from the lungs the va¬
pour which had been received into them, this machine
may therefore be ufed with as much eafe by children
as older people. And, fecondly, as a feverifh habit
frequently accompanies the diforder, the valve in that
refpeft alfo is of the utmoft importance : for a fweat,
or at lead a free perfpiration, not only relieves the
patient from the reftlefs anxiety of a hot, dry, and
fometimes parched Ikin, but is alfo, of all others, the
mod eligible evacuation for removing the fever ; and
it will be generally found, that, after the inhaler fo
condrufted hath been ufed a few minutes, the warm
vapour under the cloaths will, by fettling upon the
trunk, produce a fweat, which will gradually extend
itfelfto the legs and feet.
“ In a catarrhous fever, or any feverilh habit at¬
tending this cough, it would be proper to take a
draught of warm thin whey a few minutes before the
inhaler is ufed} and after the procefs is over, the fweat
which it has produced may be continued by occafional
fmall draughts of weak warm whey or barley-water.
The fweating is by no means fo neceffary to the cure
of the catarrhous cough, as that the fuccefs of the in¬
haler againd that complaint at all depends upon it; yet
I cannot help once more remarking, that when this
diforder happens to be accompanied with a feverifh
habit, the advantages of this particular eondru&ion
will be very important.
“ After this refpiratory procefs is over, the patient
ufually pafles the night without the lead interruption
from the cough, and feels no farther moledation from
it than once or twice in the morning to throw off the
trifling leakage which, unperceived, had dripped into
the bronchiae and veficlesduring the night; the thinner
parts of which being evaporated, what remains is foon
got rid of with a very gentle effort.
“ I cannot, however, take leave of this part of my
fubjeft, without pointedly obferving, that if the pa¬
tient means not to be difappointed by my affurances or
his own expe&ations, it is effentially neceffary that the
following remarks, with regard to the time and man¬
ner of ufing this procefs, fhould be dridtly attend¬
ed to.
Firff, That as tender valetudinary people are but
too well acquainted with the fird notices of the difor¬
der, the remedy mud, or ought to be, ufed the fame
evening; which will, in an ordinary feixure, be attend¬
ed with an immediate cure: but if the forenefs of the
refpiratory organs, or the petulance of the cough,
fhew the cold which has been contracted to have been
very fevere, the inhaler, without the opiate, fhould
be again repeated for the fame time the next morning.
“ Secondly, if the ufe of the inhaler, &c. is de¬
layed till the fecond night, it will be always right
CINE. Part II.
to repeat it again the next morning without thePRAcri
opiate, but with it if the feizure has been violent.  7
“ And, laflly, if the cough is of fume days fland-
ing, it will be always neeeffary to employ both parts
of the procefs at night and the fucceeding morning,
as the fird fimple inflammatory mifehief is now mod
probably aggravated by an additional ofie of a chronic
tendency.
“ But if, through the want of a timely application,
or a total negleCt'of this or any other remedy, the
cough fhould continue to harrafs the patient, it is, par¬
ticularly in delicate and tender conditutions, of the ut-
mod confequence to attempt the removal of it as foon
as pofiible, before any floating acrimony in the condi-
tution (from the perpetual irritation) receives an ha¬
bitual determination to an organ fo effential to life as
the lungs.
“ If the patient expe&orates with eafe and freedom
a thick and well-digelted inoffenfi've phlegm, there is
generally but little doubt of his (pitting oft' the difor¬
der, with common care, in a few days; and till that is
accomplifhed, a proper dole of elixir paregoricum for
a few fuccefiive nights will be found very ufeful in fup-
prefling the fatiguing irritation and ineffe&ual cough,
occafioned by a matter which, dripping in the early
date of the difeafe into the bronchiae during the night,
is commonly at that time too thin to be discharged by
thofe convulfive efforts.
“ If, however, notwithftanding a free and copious
expectoration, the cough fhould ftill continue, and the
difeharge, indead of removing the complaint, fhould
itfelf, by becoming a difeafe, be a greater expence
than the conditution can well fupport, it is pofiible
that a tender patient may fpit off his life through a
weak relaxed pair of lungs, without the lead appear¬
ance of purulence, or any fufpicion of fuppuration.
In thofe circumdances, befides, as was mentioned be¬
fore, increafing the general perfpiration by the falu-
tary friCtion of a flannel waidcoat, change of fitua-
tion, and more efpecially long journeys on horfeback,
conducted as much as pofiible through a thin, (harp,
dry air, will feldom fail of removing the complaint.
“ But, on the contrary, if the cough fhould, at
the fame time that it is petulant and fatiguing to the
bread, continue dry, hufky, and without expectora¬
tion; provided there is reafon to hope that no tu¬
bercles are forming, or yet actually formed, there is
not perhaps a more efficacious remedy for it than half
a drachm of gum ammoniacum, with 18 or 20 drops
of laudanum, made into pills, and taken at bed-time,
and occafionally repeated. This-excellent remedy Sir
John Pringle did me the honour to communicate to
me; and I have accordingly found it, in a great many
indances, amazingly fuccefsful, and generally very
expeditioufly fo; for it feldom fails to produce an ex¬
pectoration, and to abate the diftreffing fatigue of the
cough. In thofe circumdances I have likewife found
the common remedy of jfs or 9ij of half, fulph. anifat.
taken twice a-day, in a little powdered fugar or any
other vehicle, a very efficacious one. I have alfo, many
times, known a falutary revulfion made from the lungs
by the fimple application of a large plader, about five
or fix inches diameter, of pix Burgund. between the
fhoulders; for the perfpirable matter, which is locked
up under it, becomes fo fharp and acrid, that in a few
days
j .R •
''.Part II.
Yra,ctice days it feldom fails to produce a very confiderable
h itching, fome little tendency to inflammation, and
very frequently a great number of boils. This appli¬
cation (hould be continued (the plafter being oc-
cafionally changed), for three weeks or a month, or
longer, if the complaint is not fo foon removed.
“ And here I cannot help obferving, that, though
feemingly a trifling, it is however by no means a ufelefs
caution to the tender patient, not to expofe his (boul¬
ders in bed, and during the night, to the cold ; but
when he lies down to take care they are kept warm,
by drawing the bed-cloaths up ciofe to^iis back and
neck.
“ If, however, notwithflanding thefe and other
means, the cough, continuing dry or unattended with
I a proper expe&oration, (hould perfevere in harraffing
the patient; if, at lafl, it (hould produce, together
with a forene*, (hooting pains through the bread and
between the (houlders, attended alfo with (hortnefs of
the breath ; and if, added to this, fluflies of the cheeks
after meals, fcalding in the hands and feet, and other
fymptoms of a heftic, (hould accompany the diforder;
there is certainly no time to be loft, as there is the
greateft reafon to apprehend that fome acrimony in
the habit is determined to the tender fubftance of
the lungs, and that confequently tubercular fuppura-
tions will follow. In this critical and dangerous (I-
tuation, I think I can venture to fay from long expe¬
rience, that, accompanied with change of air and oc-
calional bleedings, the patient will find his greateft fe-
curity in a drain from a large fcapulary iflue, affifted
by a diet of afles milk and vegetables.
: 367 XCV. DYSENTERIA, the Dysentery. Ge¬
nus XLIII.
Dyfenleria, Sauv. gen. 248. Lin. igi. Vog. 107.
Sag. 183. Hofftn.Wl. 151. Junck. 76.
Defcription. The dyfentery is a difeafe in which
the patient has frequent ftools, accompanied with
much griping, and followed by a tenefmus. The
ftools, though frequent, are generally in fmall quan¬
tity ; and the matter voided is chiefly mucus, fome-
times mixed with blood. At the fame time, the na¬
tural faeces feldom appear; and, when they do, it is
generally in a compaft and hardened form.—This dif¬
eafe occurs efpecially in fummer and autumn, at the
fame time with autumnal, intermittent, and remittent
fevers ; and with thefe it is often complicated. It
comes on fometimes with cold (hiverings, and other
fymptoms of pyrexia ; but more commonly the fymp¬
toms of the topical affe&ion appear firft. The belly
is coftive,* with an unufual flatulence in the bowels.
Sometimes, though more rarely, fome degree of diar¬
rhoea is the firft appearance. In moft cafes, the dif¬
eafe begins with griping, and a frequent inclination
to go to (tool. In indulging this, little.is voided, but
fome tenefmus attends it. By degrees the ftools be¬
come more frequent, the griping more fevere, and the
tenefmus more confiderable. With thefe fymptoms
there is a lofs of appetite, and frequently ficknefs,
naufea, and vomiting, alfo affedling the patient. At
the fame time there is always more or lefs of pyrexia
prefent. It is fometimes of the remittent kind, and
obferves a tertian period. Sometimes the pyrexia is
Voi. VI. 2
4
manifeftly inflammatory, and very often of a putrid
kind. Thefe febrile dates continue to accompany the
difeafe during its whole courfe, efpecially when it ter¬
minates foon in a fatal manner. In other cafes, the
febrile date almoft entirely difappears, while the pro¬
per dyfenteric fymptoms remain for a long time after.
—In the courfe of the difeafe, whether fora (horteror
a longer time, the matter voided by ftool is very various.
Sometimes it is merely a mucous matter, without any
blood, exhibitingthat difeafe which is named by fomethe
morbus mucofus, and by others the dyfertteria alba. For
the moft part, however, the mucus difcharged is more
or lefs mixed with blood. This fometimes appears
only in ftreaks amongft the mucus; but at other times
is more copious, tinging the whole; and upon fome
occafions a pure and unmixed blood is voided in confix
derable quantity. In other refpefts, the matter void¬
ed is varioufly changed in colour and confiftence, and
is commonly of a ftrong and unufually fetid odour. It
is probable, that fometimes a genuine pus is voided,
and frequently a putrid fanies, proceeding from gan¬
grenous parts. There are very often mixed with the
liquid matter, fome films of a membranous appear¬
ance, and frequently fome fmall mafles of a feemingly
febaceous matter. While the ftools voiding thefe va¬
rious matters are, in many inftances, exceedingly fre¬
quent, it is feldom that natural faeces appear in them ;
and when they do appear, it is, as we have faid, in the
form of fcybala, that is, in fomewhat hardened, fe-
parate balls. When thefe are voided, whether by the
efforts of nature or as folicited by art, they pro¬
cure a remilfion of all the fymptoms, and more efpe¬
cially of the frequent ftools, griping, and tenefmus.
Accompanied with thefe circumftances, the difeafe
proceeds for a longer or a (horter time. When the
pyrexia attending it is of a violent inflammatory kind,
and more efpecially when it is of a very putrid nature,
the difeafe often terminates fatally in a very few days,
with all the marks of a fupervening gangrene. When
the febrile (late is more moderate, or difappears alto¬
gether, the difeafe is often protracted for weeks, and
even for months ; but, even then, after a various du¬
ration, it often terminates fatally, and generally in
confequence of a return and confiderable aggravation
of the inflammatory and putrid ftates. In fome cafes,
the difeafe ceafes fpontaneoufly; the frequency of
ftools, the griping, and tenefmus, gradually diminifh-
ing, while natural ftools return. In other cafes, the
difeafe, with moderate fymptoms, dontinues long, and
ends in a diarrhoea, fometimes accompanied with lien-
teric fyraptoms.
Caufes, See. The remote caufes of this difeafe
have been varioufly judged of. It generally arifes in
fummer or autumn, after confiderable heats have pre¬
vailed for fome time, and efpecially after very warm
and at the fame time very dry ftates of the weather;
and the difeafe is much more frequent in warm, than
in cooler climates. It happens, therefore, in the fame
circumftances and feafons which confiderably affeCf
the ftate of the bile in the human body : but the cho¬
lera is often without any dyfenteric fymptoms, and co¬
pious difeharges of bile have been found to relieve the
fymptoms of dyfentery: fo that it is difficult to de¬
termine what connexion the difeafe has with the ftate
of the bile.
MEDICINE.
26 z
it
4766 M E D I
Practice It has been obferved, that the effluvia from very
“ ' " "putrid animal-fubftances readily affeft the alimentary
canal, and, upon occafion, they certainly produce a
diarrhoea ; but whether they ever produce a genuine
dyfentery, is not certain.
The dyfentery does often manifeftly arife from the
application of cold, but the difeafe is always conta¬
gious ; and, by the propagation of fuch contagion,
independent of cold, or other exciting caufes, it be¬
comes epidemic in camps and other places. It is, there¬
fore, to be doubted if the application of cold ever
produces the difeafe, unlefs where the fpecific conta¬
gion has been previoufly received into the body : and,
upon the whole, it is probable that a fpecific conta¬
gion is to be confidered as always the remote caufe of
this difeafe.
Whether this contagion, like many others, be of a
permanent nature, and only {hews its effefts in certain
civeumftances which render it active, or if it be occa-
iionally produced, we cannot determine. Neither, if
the latter fuppofnion be received, can we fay by what
means it may be generated. As little do we know
any thing of its nature, confidered in itfelf; or at
moft, only this, that, in common with many other con¬
tagions, it is very often fomewhat of a putrid nature,
and capable of inducing a putrefcent tendency in the
human body. This, however, does not at all explain
the peculiar effeft of inducing thofe fymptoms which
properly and efTentially con dilute the difeafe of dy¬
fentery. Of thefe fymptoms the proximate caufe is
ftill obfcure. The common opinion has been, that the
difeafe depends upon an acrid matter thrown upon or
fomehow generated in the inteftines, exciting their pe-
riftaltic motion, and thereby producing the frequent
ftools which occur in this difeafe. But this fuppofi-
tion cannot be admitted; for, in all the inftances
known, of acrid fubftances applied to the inteftines,
and producing frequent ftools, they at the fame time
produce copious ftools, as might be expefted from a-
crid fubftances applied to any length of the inteftines.
This, however, is not the cafe in dyfentery, in which
the ftools, however frequent, are generally in very
fmall quantity, and fuch as may be fuppofed to pro¬
ceed from the lower parts of the redum only. With
refped to the fuperior portions of the inteftines, and
particularly thofe of the colon, it is probable they are
under a preternatural and confiderable degree of con-
ftri&ion : for, as we have faid above, the natural fae¬
ces are feldom voided ; and when they are, it is in a
form which gives reafon to fuppofe they have been
long retained in the cells of the colon, and confe-
quently that the colon had been affe&ed with a preter¬
natural conftri&ion. This is confirmed by almoft all
the difTe&ions which have been made of the bodies of
dyfenteric patients ; in which, when gangrene had not
entirely deftroyed the texture and form of the parts,
confiderable portions of the great guts have been
found affeded with a very confiderable conftridion.
The proximate caufe of dyfentery, or at leaft the
chief part of the proximate caufe, feems to confift in a
preternatural conftridion of the colon, occafioning, at
the fame time, thofe fpafmodic efforts which are felt
in fevere gripings, and which efforts, propagated down¬
wards to the redum, occafion there the frequert mu¬
cous ftools and tenefmus. But, whether this expla-
C I N E. Part II. ;
nation fhall be admitted or not, it will ftill remain cer-Practic#
tain, that hardened faeces, retained in the colon, are 1
the caufe of the griping, frequent ftools, and tenef¬
mus : for the evacuation of thefe faeces, whether by
nature or by art, gives relief from the fymptoms men¬
tioned; and it will be more fully and trfefully confirm¬
ed by this, that the moft immediate and fuccefsful cure
of dyfentery is obtained by an early and conftant at¬
tention to the preventing the conftridion, and the fre¬
quent flagnation of faeces in the colon.
Cure. The moft eminent of our late pradioners,
and of greateft experience in this difeafe, feem to be
of opinion, that it is to be cured moft effedual-
ly by purging, afliduoufly employed. 'The means
may be various : but the moft gentle laxatives are
ufually fufficient; and, as the medicine mu ft be fre¬
quently repeated, thefe are the moft fafe, the more
efpecially as an inflammatory ftate fo frequently ac¬
companies the difeafe. Whatever laxatives produce
an evacuation of natural faeces, and a confequent re-
miffion of the fymptoms, will be fufficient to effeduate
the cure. But, if the gentle laxatives fhall not pro¬
duce the evacuation now mentioned, fomewhat more
powerful muft be employed; and Dr Cullen bath
found nothing more proper or convenient than tartar
emetic, given in fmall dofes, and at fuch intervals as
may determine their operation to be chiefly by ftool.
Rhubarb, fo frequently employed, is, in feveral re-
fpeds, amongft the moft unfit purgatives.
Vomiting has been held a principal remedy in this
difeafe ; and may be ufefully employed in the be¬
ginning of the difeafe, with a view to both the ftate
of the ftomach and of the fever : but it is not ne-
ceflary to repeat it often; and, unlefs the emetics
employed operate alfo by ftool, they are of little
fervice. Ipecacuanha is by no means a fpecific ; and
it proves only ufeful when fo managed as to operate
chiefly by ftool.
For relieving the conftridion of the colon, and eva¬
cuating the retained faeces, glyfters may fometimes
be ufeful; but they are feldom foeffedual as laxatives,
given by the mouth ; and acrid glyfters, if they be
not effedual in evacuating the colon, may prove hurt¬
ful by ftimulating the redum too much.
The frequent and fevere griping attending this
difeafe, leads almoft neceflarily to the ufe of opiates ;
and they are very effedual for the purpofe of relieving
from the gripes: but, by occafioning an interuption
of the adion of the fmall guts, they favour the con¬
ftridion of the colon, and thereby aggravate the
difeafe; and if, at the fame time, the ufe of them
fuperfede in any meafure the employing purgatives,
it is doing much mifchief; and the negled of purging
feems to be the only thing which renders the ufe of
opiates very neceffary.
When the gripes are both frequent and fevere,
they may fometimes be relieved by the employment
of femicupium, or by a fomentation of the abdomen
continued for fome time. In the fame cafe, the pains
may be relieved, and the conftridion of the colon
may be taken off, by blifters applied to the lower
belly.
At the beginning of this difeafe, when the fever
is any way confiderable, blood-letting, in patients of
tolerable vigour, may be proper and neceffary; and,
when
G|Part IT.
j|t actice when the pulfe is full and hard, with other fymptotns
of an inflammatory difpofition, blood-letting ought
to be repeated. But, as the fever attending dyfentery
is often of a putrid kind, or does, in the courfe of
the difeafe, become foon of that nature, blood-letting
mud be cautioufly employed.
From our account of the nature of this difeafe, it
will be fufficiently obvious, that the ufe of aftringents
in the beginning of it muft be abfolutely pernicious.
Whether an acrid matter be the original caufe
of the dyfentery may be uncertain ; but, from the
indigeftion, and the ftagnation of fluids, which at¬
tend the difeafe, we may fuppofe that fome acrid
matters are conftantly prefent in the ftomach and in-
teftines, and therefore that demulcents may be always
ufefully employed. At the fame time, from thiscon-
fideration that mild oily matters thrown into the in-
teftines in confiderable quantity always prove laxa¬
tive, Dr Cullen is of opinion that the oleaginous de¬
mulcents are the mod ufeful.
As this difeafe is fo often of an inflammatory or
of a putrid nature, it is evident that the diet em-
• ployed in it fliould be vegetable and acefcent. Milk,
in its entire date, is of doubtful quality in many
cafes; but fome portion of the cream is often allow¬
able, and whey is always proper.—In the fird dages
of the difeafe, the fweet and fubacid fruits are allow¬
able, and even proper. It is in the more advanced
ftages only that any morbid acidity feems to prevail
in the flomach, and to require fome referve in the ufe
of acefcents. At the beginning of the difeafe, abfor-
bents feem to be fuperfluous; and, by their adrin-
gent and feptic powers, they may be hurtful.
When this difeafe is complicated with an intermit¬
tent, and is protra&ed from that circumdance chiefly,
it is to be treated as an intermittent, by adminider-
ing the Peruvian bark, which in the earlier periods
of the difeafe is hardly to be admitted.
Class II. NEUROSES.
Order I. COM AT A.
Comata, Sauv. Clafs VI. Ord. II. Sag. Clafs IX.
Ord. V.
Soporofi, Z/«. Clafs VI. Ord. II.
Adynamia:, Vog. Clafs VI.
Nervorum refolutiones, Hoffm. III. 194.
Affe&us foporofi, Hoffm. III. 209.
Motuum vitalium defe&us, Junck. 114.
Genus XLIV. APOPLEXY.
Apoplexia, Sativ. gen. 182. Lin. 101. Vog. 229.
Boerh. 1007. Junck. 117. Sag. gen. 288. Wtp-
fer. Hid. apopledticorum.
Carus, Sauv. gen. 181. Lin. 100. Vog. 231.
Boerh. 1045. ^ag- gen" 2^7*
Cataphora, Sauv. gen. 180. Lin. 99. Vog. 232.
Boerh. 1048. Sag. gen. 286.
Coma, Vog. 232. Boerh. 1048.
Haemorrhagia cerebri, Hoffm. II. 240.
To this genus alfo Dr Cullen reckons the following
difeafes to belong.
Catalepfis, Sauv. gen. I'jS. Lin. 129. Vog. 2^0.
4767
Sag. gen. 281. Boerh. 1036. Junck. 44. Practice
AffeSus cerebri fpafmodico-ecdaticus, Hoffm. III.
44.
Ecdafis, Sauv. gen. 177. Vog. 333. Sag. gen.
283.
The following he reckons fymptomatic.
Typhomania, gen. 178. Lin.r)']. Vog.2$.
Sag. gen. 284.
Lethargus, Sauv. gen. 179. Lin. 98. Vog. 22.
Sag. gen. 285.
XCVI. The Sanguineous Apoplexy. Sp. I. 368
Defcription. In this difeafe the patients fall fud-
denlydown. and are deprived ofall fenfe and voluntary
motion, but without convulfions. A giddinefs of the
head, noife in the ears, corufcations before the
eyes, and rednefs of the face, ufually precede. The
diflinguifhing fymptom of the difeafe is a deep fleep,
attended with violent fnorting; if any thing is put
into the mouth, it is returned through the nofe; nor
can any thing be fwallowed without fhutting the
nodrils ; and even when this is done, the perfon is in
the utmod danger of fuflfocation. Sometimes apo¬
plectic patients will open their eyes after having taken
a large dofe of an emetic; but if they fhew no fign of
fenfe, there is not the lead hope of their recovery.
Sometimes the apoplexy terminates in an hemiplegia;
in which cafe it comes on with a didortion of the
mouth towards the found fide, a drawing of the
tongue the fame way, and dammering of the fpeech.
Difleftions fometimes (hew a rupture of fome veflels of
the meninges, or of the brain itfelf; though fome¬
times, if we may believe Dr Willis, no defeft is
to be obferved either in the cerebrum or cerebellum.
Caufes, 8cc. The general caufe of a fanguineous
apoplexy is a plethoric habit of body, with a deter¬
mination to the head. The difeafe therefore may be
brought on by whatever violently urges on the circula¬
tion of the blood; fuch as forfeits, intoxication, violent
paflions of the mind, immoderate exercife, &c. It
takes place, however, for the mod part, when the venous
plethora hath fubfided for a confiderable time in the
fydem. For that reafon it commonly does not attack
people till pad the age of 60; and that whether the
patients are corpulent and have a (hort neck, or
whether they are of a lean habit of body. Till peo¬
ple are pad the age of childhood, apoplexy never
happens.
Prognojis. This difeafe very often kills at its firft
attack ; and few furvive a repetition of the fit; fo
that thofe who make mention of people who have fur-
vived feveral attacks of the apoplexy, have probably
midaken the epilepfy for it. In no difeafe is the
prognofis more fatal; fince thofe who feem to be
recovering from a fit, are frequently and fuddenly
carried off by its return, without either warning of its
approach, or poffibility of preventing it. The good
figns are when the difeafe apparently wears off, and
the patient evidently begins to recover; the bad
ones are when all the fymptoms continue and in-
creafe.
Cure. This is to be attempted, in the fird place, ^
by large and repeated bleedings; after which, the
fame remedies are to be ufed as in the ferous apo-
•26 Z 2 ple*y.
MEDICINE.
4768 M E D I
Practice plexy, aftermentioned. The body is to be bept in a
— "■ fomewhat ereft pofture, and the head kept up.
369 XCVII. The Serous Apoplexy. Sp. IT.
Apoplexia pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 7. Apoplexia ferofa,
Preyjinger, fp. 4. Morg. de caufis, &c. IV. LX.
Cams a hydrocephalo, Sauv. fp. 16.
Cataphora hydrocephalica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Cataphora fomnolenta, Sauv. fp. I.
Lethargus literatorum, Sauv. 7. Fan S<wieten
in Aphor. 1010. 1 y and 3 «•
Defcription. In this fpecies the pulfe is weak, the face
pale, and there is a diminution of the natural heat. On
difle&ion, the ventricles of the brain are found to con¬
tain a larger quantity of fluid than they ought; the
other fymptoms are the fame as in the former.
Caufes, See. This may arife from any thing which
induces a debilitated ftate of the body, fuch as de-
preffing paflions of the mind, much ftudy, watching,
Sec. It may alfo be brought on by a too plentiful
ufe of diluting, acidulated drinks. It doth not,
however, follow, that the extravafated ferum above-
mentioned in the ventricles of the brain is always the
caufe of the difeafe, fince the animal-humours are
very frequently obferved to ooze out in plenty through
the coats of the containing veflels after death, though
no extravafation took place during life.
Prognofis. This fpecies is equally fatal with the
other; and what hath been faid of the prognofis of
the fanguineous, may alfo be faid of that of the ferous,
apoplexy.
Cure. In this fpecies venefe&ion can fcarcely be
admitted : acrid purgatives, emetics, and ftimulating
clyfters, are recommended to carry off the fuperabun-
dant ferum ; but in bodies already debilitated, they
may perhaps be liable to the fame exceptions with
venefe£tion itfelf. Volatile falls, cephalic elixirs, and
cordials, are alfo preferibed; and in cafe of a hemiplegia
fupervening, the cure is to be attempted by aperient
ptifans, cathartics, and fudorifics ; gentle exercife, as
riding in a carriage ; with fuch ftimulating medicines
as are proper in a palfy. See below.
370 XCVIII. Hydrocephalic Apoplexy, or Dropjy of the
Brain. Sp. III.
Hydrocephalus interior, Sauv. fp. 1.
Hydrocephalus internus, Whytt's works, pag. 725.
London Med. Obf. vol. iv. art. 3, 6, and 25.
Gaudelius de hydrocephalo, apud Sandifort The-
faur. vol. ii.
Hydrocephalus acutus, Quin, Dijf. de hydroce¬
phalo, 1779.
Afthenia a hydrocephalo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Hijlory and defcription. This difeafe has been ac¬
curately treated within thefe few years by feveral
eminent phyficians, particularly the late Dr Whytt,
Dr Fothergill, and Dr Watfon; who concur in opinion
with refpedl to thefeat of the complaint, the moft of its
fymptoms, and its general fatality. Out of twenty
patients that had fallen under Dr Whytt’s obferva-
tion, he candidly owns that he had been fo fortunate
as to cure only one who laboured under the charac-
teriftic fymptoms of the hydrocephalus; and he fu-
CINE. Part II.
fpefts that thofe who imagine they have been more PkacticI
fuccefsful, had miftaken another diftemper for this. 
It is by all fuppofed to confift in a dropfy of the ven¬
tricles of the brain; and this opinion is fully efta-
bliflied by difle&ions. It is obferved to happen more
commonly to healthy, a&ive, lively children, than to
thofe of a different difpofition.
Dr Whytt fuppofes that the commencement of this
difeafe is obfeure; that it is generally feme months
in forming ; and that, after feme obvious urgent fymp¬
toms render afiiftance neceffary, it continues feme
weeks before its fatal termination. This, in general,
differs from what has hitherto been obferved by Dr
Fothergill; the latter informing us, that he has feen
children, who, from all appearance, were healthy and
adtive, feized with this diftemper, and carried off in
about fourteen days. He has feldom been able to
trace the commencement of it above three weeks.
Though the hydrocephalus be moft incident to
children, it has been fometimes obferved in adults;
as appears from a cafe related by Dr Huck, and from
fomc others.
Thofe who are feized with this diftemper, ufually
complain firft of a pain in fome part below the head ;
moft commonly about the nape of the neck and
fhoulders ; often in the legs; and fometimes, but more
rarely, in the arms. The pain is not uniformly acute,
nor always fixed to one place ; and fometimes does
not affeA the limbs. In the latter cafe, the head and
ftomach have been found to be moft difordered ; fd
that when the pain occupied the limbs, die ficknefs
or head-ach was lefs confiderable; and when the
head became the feat of the complaint, the pain in
the limbs was feldom or never mentioned. Some had
very violent fickneffes and violent head-achs, alternate¬
ly. From being perfe&ly well and fportive, fome
were in a few hours feized with thofe pains in the
limbs, or with ficknefs, or head-ach, in a flight
degree, commonly after dinner; but fome were ob¬
ferved to droop a few days before they complained of
any local indifpofition. In this manner they continued
three, four, or five days, more or lefs, as the children
were healthy and vigorous. They then commonly
complain of an acute deep-feated pain in the head,
extending acrofs the forehead from temple to temple ;
of which, and a ficknefs, they alternately complain
in fbort and affe&ing exclamations; doling a little in
the intervals, breathing irregularly, and fighing much
while awake. Sometimes their lighs, for the fpace
of a few minutes, are tnceffant.
As the difeafe advances, the pulfe becomes flower
and irregular, the ftrokes being made both with
unequal force and in unequal times, till within a
day or two of the fatal termination of the diforder,
when it becomes exceeding quick ; the breathing be¬
ing at the fame time deep, irregular, and laborious.
After the firft accefs, which is often attended with
feverilh heats, efpecially towards evening, the heat of
the body is for the moft part temperate, till at laft it
keeps pace with the increafing quicknefs of the pulfe.
The.head and praecordia are always hot from the firft
attack. The fleeps are ftiort and difturbed, fome¬
times interrupted by watchfulnefs ; befides which there
are darlings, the pupils of the eyes are much dilated,
and during fleep great part of the white of them is
ipart II. MED'
;3|i AcTicE expofed to view. The patients are averfe to light,
unwilling to be difturbed for any purpofe, and can
bear no pofture but that of lying horizontally. One
or both hands are moft commonly about their heads.
The urine and ftools come away infenfibly. At
length the eyelids become paralytic, great heat ac¬
companied with fweat overfpreads the whole body,
refpiration is rendered totally fufpiriou's, the pulfe in-
creafe in Its trembling undulations beyond the poflibi-
lity of counting, till the vital motions entirely ceafe}
and fometimes a fpafm concludes the fccne.
Many of the fymptoms above enumerated are fo
common to worm cafes, teething, and other irritating
caufes, that it is difficult to fix upon any which
particularly characterize this difeafe. The mod pe¬
culiar feem to be the pains in the limbs, with ficknefs
and inceffant head-ach; which, though frequent in
other difeafes of children, are neither fo uniformly
nor fo conftantly attendant as in this. Another cif-
cumftance obferved to be familiar, if not peculiar to
this diftemper, is, that the patients are not only
collive, but it is likewife with the greateft difficulty
that ftools can be procured. Thefe are generally of
a very dark greenilh colour, with an oilinefs or a glafiy
bile, rather than the flime which accompanies worms;
and they are, for the moft part, extremely offenfive.
No pofitive conclufion can be drawn from the appear¬
ance of the urine ; it being various, in different fubjefts,
both in its colour and contents, according to the
quantity of liquor they drink, and the time between
the difeharges of the urine. From their unwillingnefs
to be moved, they often retain their water twelve or
fifteen hours, and fometimes longer. In complaints
arifing from worms, and in dentition, fpafms are
more frequent than in this diforder. Children fubjed
to fits are fometimes feized with them a few days be¬
fore they die. Sometimes thefe continue twenty fouf
hours inceffantly, and till they expire.
Caufes. The caufes of internal hydrocephalus
are very much unknown, though fome fuppofe it to
proceed from a rupture of fome of the lymphatic vef-
fels of the brain. In many cafes it feems to be here¬
ditary; and as it attacks children rather than adults, it
would feem to be occafioned by a laxity, rather than
a rupture, of the veffels.
Prognofis and Cure. Till very lately this diforder
was reckoned totally incurable ; but now it is found
that mercury, if applied in time, will remove every
fymptom. This remedy was firft thought of by
Dr Percival of Manchefter, afterwards by Dr Dob-
fon of Liverpool, and its efficacy is now afeertain-
ed beyond a doubt. The method of exhibiting this me¬
dicine in order to effedt a cure, as well as the inutili¬
ty of other medicines, will fully appear from the fol¬
lowing cafes.
Case I. By Dr Percival.
“ September 4. 1777. Mafter H. a child at the
bread, aged feven months, has laboured about a fort¬
night under a flow irregular fever. His eyes have
been now and then a little diftorted ; he has been af-
feftedwith fbme degree of ftupor ; his gums have been
inflamed and tender; and his mouth uncommonly dry.
No tooth has yet made its appearance. An emetic
has been alminiftered ; a blifter applied to his back ;
CINE. 4769
and his belly has been kept foluble by repeated fmall Practice
dofes of magnefla. During the a&ion of the blifter, he ~“
was thought to be much better, but he foon relapfed
into his former flate.
“ About three o’clock this morning, he was con-
vulfed: at nine, I faw him ; and, from his countenance,
inftantly fufpefted a dropfy of the brain. The fymp¬
toms confirmed my apprehenfions. Pits flein was hot;
yet his pulfe beat only 78 ftrokes in a minute, which
were irregular. The pupils of his eyes were confider-
flbly, but unequally, dilated ; npr did they contra&
much when a lighted candle was fuddenly held before
them. He often fquinted, efpecially with the right
eye, and feemed to take.no notice of any obje&s around
him. He refufed the breaft, and feldom fwallowed till
the lips and tongue had been ftimulated with a fea¬
ther. During feveral days pa ft, he had been frequent¬
ly obferved to rub the end of his nofe when his hand
was at liberty; and, notwithftanding his ftupor, he
had been uncommonly watchful. I examined his
head, and found a manifeft tumour of the bregma,
which had never before been noticed. Convinced by
all thefe circumftances that the child laboured under
the hydrocephalus internus, and that he was now in
the fecond ftage of that diforder, I dire&ed ten grains
of the unguentum mercuriale mitius to be rubbed inter
his thighs every three hours, till the mouth fhould be
affefted, and a tea-fpoonful of the following mix¬
ture to be given whenever the convulfive fymptoms re¬
curred.
Sails ammon. vol. 9i. Sued Lemon. 3vi. Mofch.-
opU mudlagine gum. Arabic, faint, gr. vi. Sacch.
alb. q. f. ad gratiam. M.
M Small blifters were applied'on each fide of the
head, juft below the bregma;, and a folded rag, fre¬
quently moiftened with brandy, was laid upon the tu¬
mour, to promote abforption. An emetic had been-
given early in the morning, by which a large quantity
of bile was difeharged ; and a veficatory had alfo been
applied to his leg.
“ September 5. nine o’clock. The child has had
frequent convullions in the night ; his right eye is
much diftorted ; and it has been remarked, that he
feldom moves the right-hand. The pulfe beat 120
ftrokes in a minute. Two fcruples of the mercurial
ointment have been ufed, and he has taken five grains
of mufk. A large difeharge of ferum has been produ¬
ced by the blifters. Five o’clock, P. M. the tumour
of the head is fenfibly diminifhed ; the child’s mouth
is now moift, and often filled with faliva ; and his
tongue appears to be fwolen. His pulfe beat 146
ftrokes in a minute. I dire&ed another blifter to be
applied to the head.
“ September 6. His convulfions have been much
flighter; his eye is frequently diftorted ; and the pu¬
pils of each are more-contraded. The ftnpor is con-
fiderably abated ; the child feems to take fome notice,
diftinguifttes tafte, and fwallows freely. The mufk
has been continued ; and half a dram more of the mer¬
curial ointment has been confumed. A clyiter was in-
jeded laft night, but ineffedually : I therefore pre-
feribed a grain of jalap, mixed with an equal quantity
of fugar, to be given' every three hours, till a motion
to ftool fucceeded.
“ September 7. The child has paffed the night
more
4770 M EDI
Practice more comfortably, but not free from convulfions. His
head has fweated profufely, and the blifters have run
much. The tumour of the bregma is confiderably re¬
duced. The jalap operated gently lail night, and the
mercurial undiion has been twice repeated. There is
an evident mitigation of all the fymptoms.
“ September 8. About eleven o’clock laft night,
the child was attacked with fevere convulfions, which
recurred frequently till fix o’clock this morning. He
has had a fliort fleep, and is now compofed. His
pnlfe beats 140 ftrokes in a minute ; his heat is mode¬
rate ; and his fliin foft and perfpirable. The mercu¬
rial ointment has been again ufed ; but, tho’ his gums
and tongue are fore and very moift, his breath is not
offenfive. I dire&ed a grain of calomel to be imme¬
diately given, to procure a Ilool; and a blifter to be
applied to the occiput.
“ September 10. He has pafled two nights almoft
entirely free from convulfions. Ten grains of the mer¬
curial ointment have been again rubbed into his thighs.
The dofe of calomel occafioned three very offenfive
ftools ; and directions are given to repeat it, as he is
again coffive. The blifter applied to the occiput, like
the others, has produced a very copious difcharge.
The tumour of the head is now fcarcely perceptible.
Pulfe 120.
“ September 12. At 12 o’clock laft night, the
convulfions recurred with greater violence than ever,
and ftill continue. Two teeth have almoft protruded
through the upper, and the fame number through the
lower gum. Pulfe 160, tremulous and irregular. I
directed that the child ffiould be immediately put into
a warm bath, and that the following remedies ftiould
be adminiftered,
& InfuJ. rad. valer. fortijfinii §ii.
Afffetid. elettte M. f. Enema Jlatim injickn-
dum.
Tin ft. valer. volat. 3ii. Dentur gutter jii. Sub¬
in de e cocbleari parvulo infuji rad. valer. fylv. fub
forma tbeee parati.
“ The convulfions continued, but with lefs violence;
and the child expired about one o’clock in the after¬
noon.”
On this cafe the Dodtor makes the following obfer-
vations.
“ The deplorable cafe which I have related ap¬
pears to have originated from the irregular adtion pro¬
duced in the fyftem by dentition, and from the want
of a due fecretion of faliva in the mouth, by which the
fluid difcharges were probably increafed in the ven¬
tricles of the brain. That thefe difcharges were di-
triinifhed, and that the extravafated water was abforb-
ed, by the powerful adtion of the mercury, may be
prefumed from the mitigation of all the fymptoms
which fucceeded the falivation. And I am inclined to
believe, that the convulfions under which the child
expired were more owing to the irritation of his gums
by the protrufion of four teeth, than to any remain¬
ing water in the brain ; for the tumour of the head
had entirely difappeared, and after death there was
a manifeft depreffion of the bregma. During the
fpace of a week, 110 grains of the unguentum mer-
curiale mitius, which contains about 22 grains of mer¬
cury, was confumed, in the ufual way of fridfion.
Perhaps half of this quantity might be abforbed, and
CINE. Part II.
carried into the courfe of circulation ; to which may Pkactk
be added, part of the two grains of the calomel admi- "
niftered internally. The fymptoms of the falivation
were not violent; and the effedfs of the mercury did
not appear formidable or alarming, even to the pa¬
rents of the child, who were apprifed of the nature of
the diforder, and fully approved of the trial of this
new method of treating it.”
Case II. By Dr Dobson.
“ On the 13th of February 1775, I was called to
the only fon of Mr C. a gentleman of this place: the
child was between three and four years of age ; had
been indifpofed about eight days ; and had frequently
complained of pain in his head and wearinefs, and pains
in his limbs; had been fick by fits, and fometimes vo¬
mited; was feverifti, and could not bear the light.
“ I was much alarmed on hearing this account, as
the hydrocephalus internus had already proved fatal to
three children of this family, who had all been under
my care. And that this had been the difeafe was evi¬
dent, both from the fymptoms and the appeartnees pn
diffe&ion. But my alarm was much farther increafed
on examining the little patient. The pulfe I found
very frequent and irregular. The head hot, the cheeks
fiufhed, the pupils dilated, and a great degree of ftra-
bifrnus. There remained no doubt with refpeft to the
nature of the difeafe.
“ An emetic, feme calomel powders, and a purga¬
tive, had been adminiftered, without affording any re¬
lief. I direfted the pediluvium, and emetic tartar to
be given in fuch dofes as to excite naufea.
“ February 14th. The fymptoms the fame, with
frequent ftartings, difturbed fleep, and toffing from
fide to fide on the pillow. A blifter was applied be¬
tween the ftioulders, the pediluvium repeated, and the
fmetic tartar continued.
“ 15th. Comatofp, reftlefs, and (hrieking by fits.
The pulfe flower than in health, and the eyes infenfible
even to the impreflions of ftrong light.
“ As I had no hope of doing any thing effectual
for the recovery of my patient, I paid my vifits, pre-
feribed, and gave directions with a foreboding and
heavy heart. Anxioufly, however, confidering the cafe
in different points of view, and fully convinced that it
was vain to purfue the ufual line of practice, it oc¬
curred to me, that mercurials, fo far urged as to enter
the courfe of circulation, and affeCt the falivary glands,
might poflibly reach the fyftem of abforbents in the
ventricles of the brain, and thus remove the extravafa¬
ted fluid.
“ The fliort continuance of the difeafe, and the ap¬
parent ftrength of my patient, were favourable to the
trial of this method. No time, however, was to be loft.
The parents were confulted, and readily gave their
fanftion to the propofal; for they were convinced, that,
unlefs fome powerful fteps were taken, this their only
fon muft be numbered with thofe of their children
who had already fallen a facrifice to the difeafe.
“ The mercurial courfe, therefore, was commenced,
and urged on with caution and expedition. In 48
hours the breath began to be offenfive; the gums were
reddifh and fwelled ; and the fymptoms of the difeafe,
fo far a® could be diftinguilhed, were fomewhat abated.
In 48 hours more theptyalifm came on, and the difeafe
was
II. M E D I
cEwas evidently declining. Between the 15th and 2id
he took 20 grains of calomel, and one drachm of the
ftrongeft mercurial ointment was likewife rubbed in
well upon the legs and thighs. The dofe of calomel
was one grain, mixed with a little fugar, and repeated
at fuch intervals as the circumftances of the cafe point¬
ed out.
“ After the 22d no more mercurials were admini-
ftered ; a moderate ptyalifm continued for five or fix
days, then gradually ceafed, and the difeafe was en¬
tirely removed. The bark was then given, as the bed
tonic remedy after the mercurial courfe, and as the bed
prefervative againd a relapfe. The drabifmus I obfer-
ved was the lad fymptonr which difappeared.
“ From the 15th, no other medicines were ufed ex¬
cept mercurials. The three fiders of the above pa¬
tient, who all died of this difeafe,. were treated with
bliders ; and to one of them they were applied in fuc-
cefiion to the head, behind the ears, and between the
Ihoulders.”
Case III. By Dr Percival.
“ One of my own children, a girl, aged three years
and three months, has lately been a fevere fufferer un¬
der this alarming malady. As foon as the charaderidic
fymptoms of the difeafe clearly manifeded themfelves,
I laid afide all other remedies, convinced, by repeated
obfervation, of their infufficiency and trufted folely,
though with much folicitude, to the internal and ex¬
ternal ufe of mercury. In 48 hours, figns of amend¬
ment appeared, and her recovery was perfected in
fix days. During this fpace of time, thirteen grains
of calomel were adminiftered, and feven fcruples of
unguentum mercwiale fortius carefully rubbed into her
legs.”
Case IV. By Mr John Mackie Surgeon in Hun¬
tington.
John Algood, aged 27, of a thin habit of body,
accudomed for four or five years pad to work in a
tan-yard in a very dooping podure, was attacked in
the beginning of May with an irregular intermitting
fever, accompanied with much pain in his joints.
Thefe complaints continued till about the middle of
June, when he was feized with a violent and condant
pain in the back-part of his head, attended with great -
giddinefs, noife in his head and ears, dimnefs of fight,
&c. and his fever became more continued. He lay in
this date upwards of a month,, without receiving any
benefit from fome medicines which he took during, this
period.
Mr Mackie was called to him in the middle of July,
and found him labouring under the following fymp¬
toms: A fixed pain on the right fide and back part of
his head, which was frequently fo acute as to make
him quite outrageous, crying out, tearing his hair,
beating himfelf on the head, &c. He had fuch a gid¬
dinefs, that, unlefs ftrongly held, he could not fnpport
himfelf a moment in an upright pofture. He could not
bear the light; and, when he did venture to open his
eyes, could not fee objedts diftin&ly. His pupils were
uncommonly dilated ; and his right eye feemed drawn
outward, and rather contradfed in its volume. He com¬
plained of a ftrange palpitating noife in bis head and
cars; and faid^ he felt at times as if there was a weight
CINE. 4771
of water falling from one fide of his head to the other. Practice
He was, in general, fenfible; but, on alking him two
or three queftions together, he became confufed, and,
like a perfon with an oppreffed brain, anfwered with
hefitation, quite wide of the queilion, and often oppo-
fite to what he meant. Along with thefe, he had a
hot fkin, fmall quick pulfe, third, a foul tongue, urine
in fmall quantity and high-coloured; he was emacia¬
ted, fick, coftive, and fweated much; had often a kind
of ftupor, but very little deep. Once in the 24 hours
he had generally a remiffion (of three or four hours
continuance) of the febrile fymptoms, but of none of
the other complaints.
July 16th. Ordered three or four leeches to be ap¬
plied to each temple immediately ; an emetic to be ta¬
ken in the evening, and a cooling purge to-morrowr
morning.
17th. In the evening found the leeches had taken
away a good deal of blood, and the vomit and purge
operated well. No change in the complaints, except
that the ficknefs is a little abated. He fcreamed greatly
on attempting to raife his bead from the pillow.
Ordered his head to be fiiaved, and a fliarp blifter
to be applied all over the occiput, large enough to co¬
ver the nape of the neck; alfo one on the infide of the
leg. Internally,—5,. Nitri puri, dr. fs. Gum. cam¬
phor, gr. iv. M. f. pulvis; quarta quaque hora fumendus
durante febrili calore. S=. Pulv. corf. Peruvian, dr. i.
Pulv. rad. valerian, fylv. dr. fs. M. f. pulvis, exhiben-
dus quamprimum remifioStppat eat, fo repentendus ft ul¬
tra boras tres pergat. Thin milk-gruel and barley-
water for drink.
July 19th. The blifters have difcharged much, and
he has taken the medicines pundtually; but the fever'
and other complaints remain as before. Pulfe very ir¬
regular; pain in the head, and reftleffnefs, extreme.
Left off the camphire; and in its ftead added to each
nitrous powder, tartar emetic, gr. ■£. Dteffed the
blifters with the unguent, ad veficatoria.
21ft. Two dofes of the bark and valerian were gi¬
ven during the two laft remifflons of the fever, which
were full four hours each ; but to-day there appears
no kind of amendment. All the fymptoms continue
much the fame. Shrieked out much, and talked inco¬
herently. Has had no ftool fince he took his phyfic.
Ordered a laxative glyfter to be thrown up dire&ly,
and the medicines to be continued as on the 19th.
23d. The glyfter procured two motions. Has
fweated profufely through the laft 48 hours. Blifters
have run freely. The two laft diurnal remifiions not
quite fo diftinft. No abatement of the other com¬
plaints. The pain, gidddinefs, ftupor, contortion of
the eyes, &c. remain in as great a degree as ever. Mr
Mackie now left off all other medicines, and ordered
ten grains of calomel, made into a bolus with conferee-
of rofes, to be taken at bed-time : at the fame time,
a dram of the ftrong mercurial ointment was direftcd
to be rubbed into the ankles ; and both to be repeated
every night.
25th. Found no alteration. Fever and other fymp¬
toms the fame. Blifters heal, having been dreffed thel'e
two days with bafilicon. The calomel, and mercurial
friftion, ordered to be continued as on the 23d.
26th. Mr Mackie found him complaining much
of being griped. Had two purging ftools in the lalf
24>
4772
Practice
M E D I
24 hours. His gums were a little tender, and his
breath beginning to be tainted. In other refpe&s as
ufual. Left off the calomel, and ordered a double
quantity of the mercurial ointment to be rubbed into
his thighs every night.
28th. He had had a calmer night than any thefe
two months part. For the firft time, he faid the pain
of his head was abated ; he looked more compofed ;
his (kin felt cooler; his pulfe more full, and not fo
quick. He complained of his mouth being fore, and
his tongue fwelled ; and had difcharged a good deal
of faliva in the night. Only one dram of the oint¬
ment to be rubbed in, for the two next nights.
30th. He fpit about three quarts during the lad
48 hours, and complains of much heat in his mouth ;
but all his other complaints better. Pain in his head
almoft gone, excepting now and then a (hoot. Gid-
dinefs much abated. He faid he often felt a trickling
kind of motion, as of water running along the infide
of his temples ; but this fenfation was without pain.
He could fit up in bed, and feed himfelf; was fen-
fible, and in fpirits. Pulfe regular, and not above
70 in a minute. He has had a remifiion of up¬
wards of fix hours to-day ; ordered the ointment to
be left off.
Aug. iff. Continues to fpit freely. Had yefterday
a fmart return of the fever; which, however, only held
him about 12 hours. To-day there is a perfeft re-
miffion, and he is in every refpedt greatly mended,
bias had fome hours good fleep. Complains very
little of pain. Got out of bed for the firft time ; fat
up three hours ; and could even bear the light with¬
out being difturbed by it. Complained of being
hungry. Allowed plenty of milk-porridge and fmall
broth.
3d. The fpitting keeps up to about a quart in the
24 hours. Found him out of bed to-day, and almoft
without complaints. He faid his head was well; and
that he only wanted ftrength, and to get rid of his
fever and fore mouth. The remiffions were now almoft
as long as the paroxyfms, being about 12 hours each.
Has taken no medicine internally fince he left off the
calomel, and was coftive. Ordered a dofe of rhubarb ;
and, after its operation, a dram of the bark every four
hours during the remiflions.
6th. The fpitting begins to decline. He has had
no fever for the laft 24 hours. He fleeps well; and
has an appetite, if the forenefs of his mouth would let
him eat. Headach and giddinefs gone ; but his pu¬
pils ftill continue much dilated. Ordered him another
rhubarb-purge, and the bark to be continued every fix
hours.
9th. Has had no fever, or other complaints. Spit¬
ting inconfiderable ; mouth better ; afped more na¬
tural ; is able to walk about, and mends daily. Allow¬
ed him a more generous and fubftantial diet, and con¬
tinued the bark twice a-day for another week.
From this time, he continued to get ftrength apace;
had good nights, good appetite, a perfed freedom
from headach and fever; and, on the 23d, went to
work, being in every refped quite well, and has con¬
tinued fo ever fince.
This patient did not feem to receive the fmalleft be¬
nefit from the blifters, or any thing elfe, till he took
thejnercury, which aded like a fpecific ; and the fe-
C I N E. Fart II.
ver feemed to be altogether fymptomatic, as it eafily Practi,
yielded after the other complaints were removed. “ ^
XCIX. Apoplexy from /Itrabilis. Sp. IV. 371
Apoplexia atrabiliaria, Sauv. fp. 12. Preyfinger,
fp. 6.
This takes place in the laft ftage of the diffufion of
bile through the fyftem, i. e. of the black jaundice,
and in fome cafes the brain hath been found quite
tinged brown. It cannot be thought to admit of any
cure.
C. Apoplexy from External Violence. Sp. V. 372
Apoplexia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Carus traumaticus, Sauv. fp. 5.
The treatment of this difeafe, as it arifes from
fome external injury, properly falls under the article
Surgery.
Cl. Apoplexy from Poifcns. Sp. VI. 373
Apoplexia temulenta, Sauv. fp. 3.
Carus a narcoticis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Lethargus a narcoticis, Sauv. fp. 3.
Carus a plumbagine,fp. 10.
Apoplexia mephitica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Afphyxia a mephitide, Sauv. fp. 9.
Afphyxia a mufto, Sauv. fp. 3.
Catalepfis a fumo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Afphyxia a fumis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Afphyxia a carbone, Sauv. fp. 16.
Afphyxia foricariorum, Sauv. fp. 1 r.
Afphyxia fideratorum, Sauv. fp. 10.
Carus ab infolatione, Sauv. fp. 12.
Carus a frigore, Sauv. fp. 15.
Lethargus a frigore, Sauv. fp. 6.
Afphyxia congelatorum, Sauv. fp. 5.
The poifons which bring on an apoplexy when ta¬
ken internally are thofe of the ftimulant and fedative
kind, as fpirituous liquors, opium, and the more vi¬
rulent kinds of vegetable poifons. The vapours of
mercury, or of lead, in great quantity, will fome-
times produce a fimilar effed; though commonly they
produce rather a paralyfis, and operate flowly. The
vapours of charcoal, or fixed air, in any form, breathed
in great quantity, alfo produce an apoplexy, or a ftate
very fimilar to it; and even cold itfelf produces a fatal
deep, though without the apoplectic fnorting.—To
enumerate all the different fymptoms which affed the
unhappy perfons who have fwallowed opium, or any
of the (tronger vegetable poifons, is impoflible, as they
are fcarce to be found the fame in any two patients.
The ftate induced by them feems to differ fomewhat
from that of a true apoplexy ; as it is commonly at¬
tended with convulfions, but hath the particular di-
ftinguiftiing fign of apoplexy, namely, a very difficult
breathing or fnorting, more orlefs violent according to
the quantity of poifonous matter fwallowed.
Of the poifonous effeds of fixed air, Dr Percival
gives the following account. “ All thefe noxious va¬
pours, whether arifing from burning charcoal, the fer¬
menting grape, the Grotti di Cani, or the cavern of
Pyrmont, operate nearly in the fame manner. When
accumulated and confined, their eft'eds are often in-
ftantaneous ; they immediately deftroy the adion of
II, M E D I
the brain and nerves, and In a moment arreft the vital
motions. When more diffufed, their effe&s are flower,
but ftill evidently mark out a direct affe&ion of the
nervous fyftem.
“ Thofe who are expofed to the vapours of the fer¬
menting grape, are as inftantly deftroyed as they
would be by the ftrongeft ele&rical (hock. A ftate of
infenfibility is the immediate effedt upon thofe animals
which are thruft into the Grotti di Cani, or the ca¬
vern of Pyrmont: the animal is deprived of motion,
lies as if dead ; and if not quickly returned into the
frefli air, is irrecoverable. And if we attend to the
hiftories of thofe who have fuffered from the vapours of
burning charcoal, we {hall in like manner find, that
the brain and moving powers are the parts primarily
affedled.
“ A cook who had been accuftomed to make ufe of
lighted charcoal more than his bufinefs required, and
to ftand with his head over thefe fires, complained for
a year of very acute pain in the head ; and after this,
was feized with a paralytic affedlion of the lower
limbs, and a flow fever.
“ A perfon was left reading in bed with a pan of
charcoal in a corner of the room. On being vifited
early the next morning, he was found with his eyes
{hut, his book open and laid on one fide, his candle
extinguiflied, and to appearance like one in a deep
fleep. Stimulants and cupping-glaffes gave no relief;
but he was foon recovered by the free accefs of frertx
air.
“ Four prifoners, in order to make their efcape, at¬
tempted to deftroy the iron work of their windows, by
the means of burning charcoal. As foon as they com¬
menced their operations, the fumes of the charcoal
being confined by the clofenefs of the prifon, one of
them was ftruck dead ; another was found pale, fpeech-
lefs, and without motion ; afterwards he fpoke inco¬
herently, was feized with a fever, and died. The other
two were with great difficulty recovered.
“ Two boys went to warm themfelves in a ftove
heated with charcoal. In the morning they were
found deftitute of fenfe and motion, with countenan¬
ces as compofed as in a placid fleep. There were fome
remains of pulfe; but they died in a Ihort time.
“ A fifherman depofited a large quantity of char¬
coal in a deep cellar. Some time afterwards, his fon,
a healthy ftrong man, went down into the cellar with
a pan of burning charcoal and a light in his hand. He
had fcarcely dtfeended to the bottom, when his candle
went out. He returned, lighted his candle, and again
defeended. Soon after, he called aloud for affiftance.
His mother, brother, and a fervant, hafted to give him
relief; but none of them returned. Two others of the
village {hared the fame fate. It was then determined
to throw large quantities of water into the cellar;
and after two or three days, they had accefs to the
dead bodies.
“ Ccelius Aurelianus fays, that thofe who are in¬
jured by the fumes of charcoal become cataleptic.
And Hoffman himfelf, in another part of his works,
enumerates a train of fymptoms which in no refpeft
correfpond with his idea of fuffocation. Thofe who
fuffer from the fumes of burning charcoal, fays he,
have fevere pains in the head, great debility, faintnefs,
ftupor, and lethargy.
Vol. VI. i
CINE, 477.3
“ It appears from the above hiftories and obferVa- Practice
tions, that thefe vapours exert their noxious effe&s on 
the brain and nerves. Sometimes they occafion hid¬
den death ; at other times, the various fymptoms of a
debilitated nervous fyftem, according as the poifon is
more or lefs concentrated. The olfa&ory nerves are
firll and principally affefted, and the brain and ner¬
vous fyftem by fympathy or confent of parts. It is
well known, that there is a ftrong and ready confent
between the olfadtory nerves and many other parts of
the nervous fyftem. The effluvia of flowers and per¬
fumes, in delicate or irritable habits, produce a train
of fymptoms, which, though tranfient, are analogous
to thofe which are produced by the vapours of char¬
coal ; viz. vertigo, ficknefs, faintnefs, and fometimes
a total infenfibility. The female malefa&or, whom
Dr Mead inoculated by putting into the noftrils dof-
fils of cotton impregnated with variolous matter, was,
immediately on the introdu&ion, affli&ed with a moll
excruciating headach, and had a conftant fever till af¬
ter the eruption.
“ The vapours of burning charcoal, and other poi-
fonous effluvia, frequently produce their prejudicial,
and even fatal effeds, without being either offenfive
to the fmell or oppreffivc to the lungs. It is a mat¬
ter of importance therefore, that the common opinion
ftiould be more agreeable to truth ; for,where fuffoca¬
tion is fuppofed to be the effed, there will be little
apprehenfion of danger, fo long as the breaft keeps
free from pain or oppreffion.
“ It may be well to remember, that the poifon it-
felf is diftind from that grofs matter which is offenfive
to the fmell; and that this is frequently in its moft
adive ftate when undiftinguiftied by the fenfe Were
the following cautions generally attended to, they
might in fome inftances be the happy means of prefer-
ving life. Never to be confined with burning charcoal
in a fmall room, or where there is not a free draught
of air by a chimney or fome other way. Never to
venture into any place in which air has been long pent
up, or which from other circumftances ought to be
fufpeded ; unlefs fuch fufpeded place be either pre-
vioufly well ventilated, or put to the left of the light¬
ed candle. For it is a Angular and well-known fad,
that the life of flame is in fome circumftances fooner
affeded and more expeditioufly extinguifhed by noxi¬
ous vapours, than animal-life. A proof of which I
remember to have received from a very intelligent cler¬
gyman, who was prefent at a mufical entertainment in
the theatre at Oxford. The theatre was crouded; and
during the entertainment, the candles were obfervtd to
burn dim, and fome of them went out. The audience
complained only of faintnefs and languor; but had
the animal effluvia been ftill further accumulated or
longer confined, they would have been extinguiftied as
well as the candles.
“ The moft obvious, effedual, and expeditious means
of relief to thofe who have unhappily fuffered from
this caufe, are fuch as will diflodge and wafti away the
poifon, reftore the energy of the brain and nerves, and
renew the vital motions. Let the patient therefore be
immediately carried into the open air, and let the air
be fanned backwards and forwards to affift its a&ion:
let cold water be thrown on the face; let the face,
mouth, and noftrils, be repeatedly wafhed; and a* fopn
27 A as
4/74 MEDICINE. Part II.
Practice pra&icable, p;et the patient to drink fome cold wa- With regard to the pernicious effe&s of cold, there Practice
ter. But if the cafe is too far gone to be thus relie- is no other way of countera&ing them but by the ap-
ved, let a healthy perfon breathe into the mouth of plication of external heat. We are apt to imagine,
the patient ; and gently force air into the mouth, that the fwallowing confiderable quantities of ardent
throat, and noftrils. Fri&ions, cupping, bleeding, fpirits may be a means of making us refill the cold,
and blifters, are likewife indicated. And if, after the and preventing the bad effe&s of it from arifing to
inftant danger is removed, a fever be excited, the me- fueh an height as to deftroy life ; but thefe do not
thod of cure mull be adapted to the nature and prevail- appear to be in the lead pofTefled of any fuch virtue
ing fymptoms of the fever.” in thofe countries liable to great excelfes of cold.
With regard to the poifon of opium, Dr Mead recom- The Peruvian bark, by (lengthening the folids, as
mends the following method of cure. Befidesevacuations well as increafing the motion of the fluids, is found to
by "vomiting, bleeding, and bliftering, acid medicines anfwer better than any other thing as a prefervative:
and lixivial falts are proper. Thefe contrad the relaxed but when the pernicious effe&s have already begun to
fibres, and by their diuretic force make a depletion difcover themfelves, nothing but increafing by fome
of the veffels. Our author fays he hath given repeated means or other the heat of the body can polfibly be
dofes of a mixture of fait of wormwood and juice of depended upon: and even this mull be attempted
lemons, with extraordinary fuccefs. with great care ; for as, in fuch cafes, there is gene-
Of a kind fomewhat akin to the poifon of opium rally a tendency to mortification in fome of the ex-
feetns to be that of laurel-water, a Ample water diftil-
]ed from the leaves of the lauro-cerafus or common
laurel. The bad effe&s of this were firft obferved in
Ireland, where it had been cuftomary to mix it with
brandy for the fake of the flavour ; and thus two
women were fuddenly killed by it. This gave occa-
fion to fome experiments upon dogs, in order to
afcertain the malignant qualities of the water in
queftion ; and the event was as follows : All the dogs
fell immediately into totterings and convulfions of the
limbs, which were prefently followed by a total para-
lyfis, fo that no motion could be excited even by
pricking or cutting them. No inflammation was found,
upon difleclion, in any of the internal membranes.
tremities, the fudden application of heat will certainly
increafe this tendency to fuch a degree as to deftroy
the parts. But for the external treatment of fuch
mortifications, fee the article Surgery.
CIII. Apoplexy from Pajfions of the Mind.
Sp. VII.
Carus a pathemate, Sauv. fp. i r.
Afphyxia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ecftafis catoche, Sauv. fp 1.
Ecllafis refoluta, Sauv. fp. 2.
Apoplexies from violent pafiions may be either
fanguineaus or ferous, though more commonly of the
The ntoft remarkable thing was a great fulnefs and former than the latter fpecics. The treatment is the
diftenfion of the veins, in which the blood was fo
fluid, that even the lymph in its veflels was generally
found tinged with red. The fame effedts were pro¬
duced by the water injedled into the inteftines by way
of clyfter.
To make the experiment more fully, Dr Nicholls
prepared fome of this water fo ftrong, that about a
drachm of heavy elfential oil remained at the bottom
bf three pints of it, which by frequent lhaking was
again quite incorporated with it. So virulent was
this water, that two ounces of it killed a middle-fixed
fame in either cafe. Or they may partake of the n
ture of catalepfy ; in which cafe the method of treat¬
ment is the fame with that of the genuine catalepfy.
See below.
CIV. The Cataleptic Apoplexy. Sp. VIII.
Catalepfis, Saaii. gen. 176. Lin. 129. Vog.z^o.
Sag. gen. 281. Boerh. 1036. Junck. 44.
Dr Cullen fays lie has never feen the catalepfy ex¬
cept when counterfeited ; and is of opinion that many
dog in kfs than half a minute, even while it was of thofe cafes related by other authors have alfo been
palling down his throat. The poifon appeared to counterfeited It is fa.d to come on fuddenly, being
ref,de entirely in the above-mentioned eflVntial oil, onI/ Preceded hY fome ^gour of body and m:nd ;
which comes over by diftillation, not only from the ?nd to .reCurn hY Pa!'0X>'1V"8i; rLhe P81,1"?13, are for
leaves of laurel, but from fome other vegetables; for fome minutes’ ^boutrh rarely.) for fome
ten drops of a red oil diftilled from bitter almonds,
when mixed with half an ounce of water, and given
to a dog, killed him in lefs than half an hour.
Volatile alkalies are found to be an antidote to this
poifon ; of which Dr Mead gives the following in-
ftance. About an ounce of ftrong laurel-water was
given to a fmall dog. He fell immediately into the
moll violent convulfions, which were foon followed by
a total lofs of his limbs. When he feemed to be
expiring, a vial of good fpirit of fal ammoniac was
held to his nofe, pnd a fmall quantity of the fame
forced down his throat: he inftantly felt its virtue;
and by continuing the ufe of it for fome time, he by
degrees recovered the motion of his legs ; and in two
hours walked about with tolerable ftrength, and was
afterwards quite well.
fome minutes, fometimes (though rarely) for fome
hours, deprived of their fenfes, and all power of
voluntary motions; but conftantly retaining the po-
fition in which they were firft feized, whether lying or
fitting; and if the limbs are put into any other
pofture during the fit, they will keep the pofture in
which they are placed. When they recover from the
paroxyfm, they remember nothing of what palled
during the time of it, but are like perfons awaked
out of fleep.—Concerning the cure of this diforder we
find nothing which can be depended upon among
medical writers.
CV. Apoplexy from Suffocation, Sp. IX. 376
Afphyxia fufpenforum, Sauv. fp. 4.
Alphyxia immerforum, Sauv. fp. 1.
This is the kind of apoplexy which takes place in
thefe
fart IT. M E D I
actice tbofe who are hanged or drowned. For the treatment
of thofe perfons, fee the articles Drowning and
Hanging.
Betides the fpecies above-mentioned, the apoplexy
is a fymptom in many other diftempers, fuch as fevers
both continued and intermitting, exanthemata hyfteria,
epilepfy, gout, worms, ifchuria, and fcurvy.
Genus XLV. PARALYSIS, the Palsy.
Paralyfis, Boerh. 1057.
Hemipleg ia, Sauv. gzn. 170. Lin. 103. Vog.22%
Paraplexia, Sauv. gen. 171.
Paraplegia, Lin. 102. Vog. 227.
Paralyfis, Sauv. gen. 169. Lin. 104. Vog. 226
Junck. 1 15.
Atonia, Lin. 120.
377 CVI. The Partial Yamy. Sp. I.
Paralyfis, Sauv. gen. 169. Lin. 104. Vog. 226
Junck. 115.
Paralyfis plethorica, Sauv. fp. I.
Paralyfis ferofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
Paralyfis nervea, Sauv. fp. 1 x.
Mutitas a gloffolyfi, Sauv. fp. I.
Aphonia paralytica, Sauv. fp. 8.
378 CVII. Hemiplegia, or Pa/Jy of one fide of the
Body. Sp. II.
Hemiplegia, Sauv. gen. 170. Lin. 108. Vog. 228.
Sag. gen. 276.
Hemiplegia ex apoplexia, Sauv. fp. 7.
Hemiplegia fpafmodica, Sanv. fp. 2.
Hemiplegia ferofa, Sauv. fp. 10.
379 CVIII. Paraplegia, or Palfy of o-ne half of the
Body taken trafverfely. Sp. III.
Paraplexia, Sauv. gen. 171. Sag. gen. 277.
Paraplegia^ Lin. 102. Vog. 227.
Parapkxia fanguinea, Sauv. fp. 2.
Paraplexia a fpina bifida, Sauv. fp. 3.
Paraplexia rheumatics, Sauv. fp. 1.
Defcription. The palfy (hows itfelf by a fudden
lofs of tone and vital power in a certain part of the
body. In the (lighter degrees of the difeafe, it only
affeds a particular mufcle, as the fphin&er of the anus
or bladder, thus occafioning an involuntary difeharge
of excrements or of urine; of the mufcles of the tongue,
which occafions ftammering, or lofs of fpeech ; of
the mufcles of the laxynx, by which the patient be¬
comes unable to fwallow folids, and fometimes even
liquids alfo.—In the higher degrees of the difeafe, the
paralytic affedion is diffufed over a whole limb, as the
foot, leg, hand, or arm ; and fometimes it affeds a
whole fide of the body, in which cafe it is called
hemiplegia; and fometimes, which is the moft violent
cafe, it affeds all the parts, below the wafte, or even
below the head, though this laft is exceedingly rare.
In thefe violent cafes, the fpeech is either very much
impeded, or totally loft. Convulfions often take
place in the found fide, with the cynic fpafm or in¬
voluntary laughter, and other diftortions of the face.
Sometimes the whole paralytic part of the body be¬
comes livid, or even mortifies before the patient’s
death y and fometimes the paralytic parts gradually
2
CINE. 47
decay and Ihrivel up, fo as to become much lefs than t'RAc
before.  
Caufesy Sic. Palfies muft commonly fupervene the
different fpecies of coma, efpecially the apoplexy.
They are alfo occafioned by any debilitating power
applied to the body, efpecially by exceffes in venery.
Sometimes they are a kind of crifis to other diftempers,
as the colic of Poidou, and the apoplexy. The hemi¬
plegia efpecially often follows the laft mentioned
difeafe. Aged people, and thofe who are by any other
means debilitated, are fubjed to palfy; which will
fometimes alfo affed even infants, from the repulfion
of exanthemata of various kinds. Palfies are alfo
the infallible confequences of injuries of the large
nerves.
Prognofts. Except in the (lighter cafes of palfy, we
have little room to hope for a cure; however, death
doth not immediately follow even the moft fevere pa¬
ralytic affedions. In an hemiplegia it is not uncom¬
mon to fee the patients live feveral years; and even in
the paraplegia, if death does not enfue within two or
three weeks, it may not take place for a confiderablfe
time. It is a promifing fign when the patient feels a
flight degree of painful itchinefs in the affeded parts ;
and if a fever (hould arife, it bids fair to cure the pal¬
fy. When the fenfe of feeling remains, there is much
more room to hope for a cure than where it is gone, as
well as the power of motion. But when we obferve
the fielh to wafte, and the (kin to appear witliered
and dry, we may look upon the difeafe to be incu¬
rable. Convulfions fupervening on a palfy are a fatal
fign.
Cure. Many remedies have been recommended in
palfies: but it muft be confeffed, that, except in the
(lighter cafes, medicines feldom prove effedual; and
before any fcheme of cure can be laid down, every cir-
cumftance relative to the patient's habit of body and
previous date of health (hould be carefully weighed.
If an hemiplegia or paraplegia (hould come on after an
apoplexy, attended with thofe circumftances which
phyficians have fuppofed to denote a vifeid (late of the
blood, a courfe of the attenuant gums, with fixed al¬
kaline falts, and chalybeate waters, may do fervice;
to which it will be proper to add fri&ioits with the vo¬
latile liniment all down the fpine: but in habits where
the blood is rather inclined to the watery date, it will
be neceffary to give emetics from time to time; to ap¬
ply blifters, and cut iffues.
The natural hot baths are often found ufeful in pa¬
ralytic cafes; and where the patients cannot avail
themfelves of thefff, an artificial bath may be tried by
diffolving fait of fteel in water, and impregnating the
water with fixed air. Friftions of the parts, and
fcourging them with nettles, have alfo been recom¬
mended, and may do fervice, as well as volatile and
ftimulating medicines taken inwardly.
CIX. The Palsy from Poifont. Sp. IV.
Paralyfis metallariorum, Sauv. fp. 22.
Hemiplegia faturnina, Sauv. fp. 14.
This kind of palfy arifes moft frequently from lead
taken into the body, and is a confequence of the cp-
lica pi&onum, under which it is paniculaily treated.
See below.
27 A ^ CX.
47/6
Practice
“i8T“
3S2
3*3
M E D I
CX. TREMORj or Trembling.
Tremor, Sauv. gen. 129. Lin. 139. Vog. 184.
Sag. 236.
This by Dr Cullen is reckoned to be always fymp-
tomatic either of palfy, afthenia, or convulfions ; and
therefore cannot be treated of by itfelf.
Order II. ADYNAMIA.
Adynamije, Vog. Clafs VI.
Defedtivi, Lin. Clafs VI. Order I.
Leipopfychiae, Sauv. Clafs VI. Order IV. Sag.
Clafs IX. Order IV.
Genus XLVI. SYNCOPE, or Fainting.
Syncope, Sauv. gen. 174. Sag. 94. Vog. 274.
Sag. 280. yunck. 119.
Leipothymia, Sauv. gzn. 173. Lin. 9$. Vog.2’]^.
Sag. 279.
Afphyxia, Sauv. gen. 175. Lin. 95. Vog. 275.
Sag. 281.
Virium lapfus et animi dtliquia. Hoffm. III. 267.
CX. The Cardiac Syncope. Sp. I.
Syncope plethorica, Sauv. fp. 5. Scnac. Tr. de Cceur,
p. 540.
Syncope a cardiogmo, Sauv. fp. 7. Senac. de
Cceur, 414. Morgagn. de Sed. XXV. 2. 3. 10.
Syncope a polypo, Sauv. fp. 8. Senac. p. 471.
Syncope ab hydrocardia, Sauv. {^.12. Senac. SH.
Schreiber Almag. L. III. $ 196.
Syncope lanzoni, Sauv. fp. 18. Lanzsn. Op. II.
p. 462.
Afphyxia valfalviana, Sauv. fp. 13.
CXI. Occafional Syncope. Sp. II.
Leipothymia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac'
p. 544.
Syncope pathetica, Sauv. fp. 21.
Afphyxia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Syncope ab antipathia, Sauv. fp. 9. Senac. p. 554.
Syncope a veneno, Sauv. fp. 10. Senac. p.546.
Syncope ab apoftematis, Sauv. fp. xi. Senac.
P- 554-
Syncope a fphacelo, Sauv. fp. 14. Senac. p. 553.
Syncope ab inanitione, iS«au. fp. 1. Senac. p. 536.
Syncope a phlebotomia, Sauv. fp. 4.
Syncope a dolore, Sauv. fp. 2. Senac. p. 583.
Afpyxia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Afphyxia neophytorum, Sauv. fp. 17.
Defcription. A fyncope begins with a remarkable
anxiety about the heart; .after which follows a fudden
extinction, as it were, not only of the animal-powers
and adtions, but alfo of the vital powers, fo that the
patients are deprived of pulfe, fenfe, and motion, all
at once. In thofe cafes which phyficians have diftin-
guiftied by the name of leipothymia, the patient does
not entirely lofe his fenfes, but turns cold and pale ;
and the pulfe continues to beat, though weakly ; the
heart alfo feems to tremble rather than beat; and the
refpiration is juft perceptible. But in the true fyn¬
cope or full afphyxia, not the fmalleft fign of life can
be perceived; the face hath a death-like palenefs, the
CINE. Part
extremities are cold, the eyes fhut, or at lead troubled; Pra
the mouth fometimes fhut,. and fometimes gaping wide
open ; the limbs flaccid, and the ftrength quite gone ;
as foon as they begin to recover, they fetch deep and
heavy fighs.
Caufes, &c. Fainting is occafioned mod common¬
ly by profufe evacuations, efpecially of blood ; but it
may happen alfo from violent paffions of the mind, from
forfeits, exceffive pain, &c. People of delicate con-
ftitutions are very fubjedt to it from flight caufes; and
fometimes it will arife from affedtions of the heart and
large veflels not eafy to be underftood. Fainting is al¬
fo a fymptom of many diforders, efpecialiy of that fa¬
tal one called a polypus of the heart, of the plague, and
many putrid difeafes.
Prognofs. When fainting happens in the begin¬
ning of any acute diftemper, it is by no means a good
omen; but when it takes place in the increafe or at the
height of the difeafe, the danger is fomewhat lefs;
but in general, when fainting comes on without any
evident caufe, it is to be dreaded. In violent hsemor-
rhages it is favourable ; as the bleeding veflels thus
have time to contradf and recover themfelves, and
thus the patient may efcape.
Cure. When perfons of a full habit faint through
excefs of pafiion, they ought to be blooded without
delay, and fliould drink vinegar or lemon-juice diluted
with water; and, after the bowels are emptied by a
clyfter, take a paregoric draught, and go to bed.
The paflion of anger, in a peculiar manner, affefls
the biliary fecretion, caufes an oppreflion at the fto-
mach, with naufea and retching to vomit, and a bitter
tafte in the mouth, with giddinefs: thefe fymptoms
feem to indicate an emetic ; which, however, in thefe
cafes muft be carefully avoided, as it might endanger
the patient, by bringing on an inflammation of the
ftomach.
The general effects of a fudden fright have been
mentioned on a former occafion. When thefe are fo
violent as to require medical aid, our firft endeavours
muft be to take off the fpafmodic conftriftion, and re-
ftore freedom to the circulation ; by bleeding, if the
habit be at all inclined to fulnefs ; and by giving a
mixture, with equal parts of the vinum antimoniale
and elixir paregoricum, in fome agreeable vehicle,
which will bring on fleep and encourage perfpiration.
It was formerly mentioned, that convulfions, or eveij
an epilepfy, may be brought on by frights; which
fliould make people cautious of playing fooliih tricks
in this way.
When a furfeit, or any fpecies of faburra, occafion*
a leipothymia, an emetic is the immediate remedy, as
foon as the patient, by the help of acrid ftimulants,
fliall be fo far roufed as to be able to fwallow one : in
thefe cafes, tickling the fauces with a feather dipt in
fpirit of hartftiorn, will be proper, not only to roufe
the patient, but alfo to bring on vomiting.
A fyncope is moft commonly brought on by profufe
difeharges or evacuations, either of the blood or of the
fecreted humours.
In order to revive the patients, they ought to be
laid along in a horizontal pofture, in an airy place ;
the legs, thighs, and arms, are to be rubbed with hot
flannels ; very ftrong vinegar, or fait of hartftiorn, or
the fpirit of this or of fal ammoniRC are to be held
to
II. MED I
to the noftrils, and rubbed into them, or, being pro¬
perly diluted, poured down the throat; cold water is to
be fprinkled on the face and neck ; and when bythefe
means the patient (hall be fufficiently revived, wine
boiled up with fome grateful aromatic, is to be given
in the proper quantity.
In the fainting confequent upon profufe uterine hae¬
morrhages, it will be a fafer praftice to abftain from
all heating and ftimulant things ; as life, in thefe
cafes, is preferred by the coagulation of the blood in
the extremities of the open veffels; which might be
prevented, by the pouring in hot wine or volatile al¬
kaline fpirits.
When a fyncope is the confequence of the too vio¬
lent operation of either an emetic or cathartic, the
tin&ura thebaica, mixed with fpiced wine, is the mod;
efficacious remedy; but the opiate muft be given gra¬
dually, and in very fmall doles.
A fyncope, or even afphyxia, wherein the patient
fhall lie for feveral hot^rs, is frequent in hyfteric confti-
jtutions ; and during the fit requires fetid antifpafmo-
dics, together with acrid ftimulants: to prevent re¬
turns, nothing anfwers better than the bark joined
with chalybeates.
CXI. DYSPEPSIA, or Difficulty of Digestion.
Genus XLVI.
Dyfpepfia, Vog. 277.
Apepfia, Vog.z’jG.
Diaphora, Vog. 278.
Anorexia, Sauv. gen. 162. Lin. 116. 5^. gen.
268*
Cardialgia, Sauv. gen. 202. Lin. Vog. 157.
Sag. gen. 160.'
Gaftrodynia, Sauv. gen. 203. Sag. gen. 161.
Soda, Lin. 47. Vog. 161.
Naufea, gen. 250. Un. 182. Vog. i$g. Sag.
gen. 185.
Vomitus, Sauv. gen. 251. Lin. 183. Vog. 214.
Sag. gen. 186.
Flatulentia, Sauv. gen. 271. Lin. 165. Vog. 127.
Sag. gen. 207. ,
The idiopathic Species are.
Anorexia pituituofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Anorexia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 9.
Anorexia exhauftorum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Anorexia paralytica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Naufea ex cacochylia, Sauv. fp. 11.
Vomitus pituitofus, Sauv. fp. 26.
Vomitus ruminatio, Sauv. fp. 6.
Vomitus a faburra, Sauv. fp. 2.
Vomitus a crapula, Sauv. fp. 1.
Vomitus lafteus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Flatulentia infantilis, Sauv. fp 5.
Flatulentia acida, Sauv. fp. 1.
Flatulentia nidrofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
* Cardialgia bradypepta, Sauv. fp. 9.
Cardialgia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cardialgia ladtantium, Sauv. fp. 11.
Cardialgia flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cardialgia paralytica, Sauv. fp.7.
Gaftrodynia faburralis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Gaftrodynia flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 2.
Gaftrodynia periodynia, Sauv. fp. 7.
C I N E.
Gaftrodynia aftringenj, Sauv. fp 9. 1
Gaftjodynia atterens, Sauv. fp. 10.
Gaftrodynia a frigore, Sauv. fp. 18.
Befides thefe there are a great number of fympto-
matic Species.
Defcription. It is by no means eafy to define ex¬
actly the diftemper called dyfpepjia, when confidered
as an original difeafe, feeing there are very few mala¬
dies which fome way or other do not (hew themfelvcs
by an affection of the ftomach ; and much more diffi¬
cult (fill muft it be to enumerate all its fymptoms. The
moft remarkable, however, and the moft common, are
the following : Want of appetite ; diftenfion of the
ftomach when no food hath been taken for fome time
before ; flight dejeftion of fpirits ; a gradual decay of
the mufcular ftrength ; languor, and averfion from mo¬
tion ; the food which is taken without appetite is not
well digefted ; the ftomach and inteftines are much di-
ftended with flatus, whence the patients are tormented
with fpafms, gripes, and ficknefs: frequently a lim¬
pid water, having an acid or putrid tafte, is brought
up ; fometimes the food itfelf is thrown up by mouth¬
fuls ; and fometimes, though rarely, the fame is fwal-
lowed again, after the manner of ruminating ani¬
mals. While matters are in this fituation, the heart
fometimes palpitates, and the breath is quick, and
drawn with difficulty ; the head achs and is giddy ;
and fometimes both thefe fymptoms are continual, and
very violent, infomuch that the patient is not only
tormented with pain, but flaggers as if he w^as drunk.
By reafon of the too great acefcency or putrefaction
of the aliment, a cardialgia or heartburn comes on,
and in this fituation a fpontaneous diarrhoea fome¬
times carries off the difeafe ; but in other cafes there
is an obftinate coftivenefs, attended with colic-pains.
Frequently the pulfe is quick, fometimes flow, but
always weak : the circulation is fo languid that the
blood can fcarce reach the extreme veffels, or at lead
ftagnates in them, fo that the face becomes livid,
fwelled, and has an unufual appearance : and at the
fame time that the circulation and nervous power are in
this languid ftate, the perfpiration becomes lefs co¬
pious ; the {kin becomes dry and corrugated; the na¬
tural heat, efpecially of the extremities, is much di-
miniflied ; the tongue is white; and an uninverfal laxity
takes place, infomuch that the uvula and velum pen¬
dulum palati are fometimes enlarged to fuch a degree
as to become extremely troublefome. The patient is
either deprived of reft, or wakes fuddenly out of his
fleep, and is difturbed by frightful dreams; at the fame
time that the mind feems to be affe&ed as well as the
body, and the perfon becomes peevifti, fretful, and
incapable of paying attention to any thing as ufual.
At laft he&ic fymptoms come on, and the whole frame
becomes fo irritable, that the flighteft caufe excites an
univerfal tremor, and fometimes violent vomiting and
diarrhoea. Sometimes the falivary glands are fo re¬
laxed, that a falivation comes on as if excited by mer¬
cury; the ferum is poured out into the cavity of the
abdomen and cellular fubftance of the whole bo¬
dy, and the patient becomes affe&ed with anafarca or
afcites.
Caitfes, &c. The caufes of dyfpepfia may beany
thing which debilitates the fyftem in general, but in a
par-
47;7
4778 M E D I
Practice particular manner affe&s the ftomacK. Such are o-
pium taken in immoderate quantities, which hurts
by its fedative and relaxing powers ; fpirituous liquors
drunk to excefs ; tobacco, tea, coffee, or any warm
relaxing liquor, taken in too great quantity ; acid, un¬
ripe fruits ; vomits or purges too frequently taken; an
indolent fedentary life, &c. &c. All thefe aft chief¬
ly upon people of a weak and delicate habit ; for the
robuft and hardy feldom labour under a dyfpepfia, or
at moft a very flight one.
Prognojis. When a dyfpepfia firfl occurs, it is fre¬
quently removed without great difficulty; when it is
fymptomatic, we muft endeavour to cure the primary
difeafe ; but when it frequently returns with fymptoms
of great debility, heefic, or dropfy, we have great
reafon to dread the event.
Cure. A radical cure of dyfpepfia is only to be ex¬
pelled from tonic medicines, which can remove from
the ftomach and fyftem that debility on which the dif¬
eafe depends. But, previous to their ufe, it will be ne-
ceffary to evacuate the contents of the alimentary ca¬
nal by vomits or purgatives. If there is a tendency to
putrefcency, antifeptics muft; then be exhibited ; but
more frequently there is a prevailing acidity, which
creates an intolerable heart-burn. To palliate this
fymptom, magnefia alba may be given; which is much
preferable to the common teftaceous powders, as being
purgative when diffolved in an acid, while the others
are rather aftringent. In the third volume of the Me¬
dical Obfervations, we have an account of two cafes of
dyfpepfia attended with a very uncommon degree of
cardialgia, in which magnefia was fo fuccefsful, that
we can fcaree doubt of Its efficacy in (lighter degrees
of the diforder. They were communicated by Dr
Watfon.
“ A woman, aged .34, the mother of feveral chil¬
dren, was taken, in the fourth month of her pregnan¬
cy with violent vomitings ; Which growing daily wmrfe,
notwithftanding the endeavours of her apothecary to
reftrain them, brought on at the end of a month fuch
fevere pains in the ftomach, and fpafms in her abdo¬
men, as to occaGon abortion. The vomitings were not
lelfened by this event, but grew worfe, and frequently
brought on general convuliions to fuch a degree, that
fhe was many times fuppofed to be at the point of
death.
“ Scarce any medicine ftaid with her, (he brought
up almoft inftantly whatever was given her as nourifh-
ment, either in a folid or liquid .form. She was ex¬
ceedingly pale, and very much emaciated ; her fle(h
was cold to the touch ; and, though her urine was
little in quantity, it was perfedly limpid. She had a
continual third, and was, in a confiderable degree, co-
ftive. Her pulfe was flow and quick, and (he was fre¬
quently tormented with the hiccough. The pain in
her ftomach was fevere and conftant, and whatever (he
brought up was (harp to fuch a degree, as to make her
mouth and throat very fore. Thefe parts upon exa¬
mination appeared high-coloured, and in many places
excoriated ; and the pain (he felt in her flomach upon
fwallowing any liquor, that had the lead degree of
acrimony, or was more than luke-warm, made it pro¬
bable the ftomach itfclf, in its internal furface, was af-
fe&ed in the fame manner.
“ In this wretched date I was confulted; and muft
CINE. Part
confefs that I was much at a lofs how to relieve a pa-PRA
tient fo debilitated, and whofe flomach was in fo dif-' "
eafed a (late, that it feemed incapable of retaining any
appropriated remedies long enough to correfl the acri¬
mony of the juices, and reflore the fecretions to a more
mild and natural (late. Anti-emetics of various kinds
had been tried without effed, particularly faturated fo-
lutions of alkaline fait in juice of lemons. Stomachic
medicines of the warm and aromatic kind (he could not
bear, on account of their poignancy ; and, tho’ nothing
could fo fpeedily correct the almott cauftic acid of the
gaftric juice as folutions of alkaline falts, neither the
fauces or gullet could bear their acrimony.
My expedations of relieving this patient, fmall as
they were, depended upon my being able to neutra¬
lize, and thereby leflen, the ftimulus of the acid of the
ftomach. To accomplifh this was not very eafy, as no
medicine in fmall dofes could in any confiderable de¬
gree corred fo intenfe an acid ; and, in the prefent fi-
tuation, it was difficult to get any medicine to flay
long enough to exert its effeds. To difeharge how¬
ever what acid matter might be already accumulated
in the flomach, I direded that the patient (hould drink
plentifully of fmall, warm, unfalted mutton-broth, and
vomit with it fo long that it (hould be difebarged with
no other tafte than that of broth. This was complied
with, and a large quantity drank. The pain in her
ftomach ceafed upon this for more than two hours, and
was after that time apparently coming on with the
fame violence as before. Upon which I ordered a
drachm of magnefia to be given in two ounces of veal-
broth. This kept down, and eafed her; I therefore
direded the fame dofe to be repeated as often as the
pain returned, without any regard to the quantity that
the whole might amount to, fuppofing that the pain
continued fevere. This was done : and in three days
fhe took three ounces of magnefia, of which very
few dofes were vomited up, and (he was purged confi-
derably.
“ This medicine was continued in a fomewhat lefs
quantity for three days longer, in which (he took two
ounces more of magnefia ; by this time the vomitings
ceafed, the convulfions left her, (he had no pains in
the ftomach, and her mouth and fanees loll their in-
tenfely red colour and forenefs ; nor did even her eruc¬
tations longer indicate any acidity.
“ Befides veal-broth (he was allowed boiled rice,
and now then fome rice gruel-with a fmall quantity of
brandy ; and after a few days more (he could re¬
tain boiled chicken, and other light, folid, animal-
food.
“ When her ftomach was in this (late, fhe took li¬
berally of decoft. cort. Peruvian, with a fmall portion
of French brandy, by which and her nourifhment, (he
recovered her ftrength furprifingly. To this medi¬
cine, as (he was during the latter part of her illnefs
confiderably anafarcous, were added fome prepara¬
tions of fteel; and in about a month (lie perfectly re¬
covered.
“ When this patient’s ftomach was relieved, the
thirft, the general and partial fpafms, and other com¬
plaints, which were merely fymptomatic, foon ceafed ;
and what remained of her cure was by no means dif¬
ficult.
44 Since the above-recited cafe, I was confulted in
another
Irt II. . M E D I
tice another, in almoft every refpeft fimilar, except that
—~~ the former began in pregnancy. The vomitings at¬
tended with acidity had continued more than a month;
the patient’s ftomach reje&ed every kind of food and
medicine ; fhe was debilitated to a great degree, and
univerfally anafarcows.
“ Upon being fent for, I dire&ed for her magne-
fia, much in the fame manner as for the former pa¬
tient ; and in a very few days her vomitings ceafed,
her ftomach became ftronger, and in lefs than a fort¬
night the anafarca difappeared. But it was a confi-
derable time, as this*perfon was more advanced in
years than the former, before ihe recovered her
flrength, notwkhftanding my beft endeavours for that
purpofe. She at length however perfectly recovered.”
85 CXII. HYPOCHONDRIASIS, the Hypochon¬
driac Affection. Genus XLVII.
Hypochondriafis, Sauv. gen. 220. Lin. 76. Vog.
218. Sag. 332.
Morbus hypochondriacus, Boerh. 1098.
Malum hypochondriacum, Baffin. III. 64. Junck.
36-
Hypochondriafis melancholica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Defcription. The fymptoms of hypochondriafis are,
firetching, prefiing, griping, and tormenting pains
under the ribs, and chiefly in the left fide; which
fometimes are exafperated, and become pungent, burn¬
ing, or lancinating. Frequently there is an inflation
of the left hypochondriacum, which fometimes be¬
comes ftationary, and by Hippocrates was taken for a
fymptotn of an enlarged fplten. When thefe fymp¬
toms takes place in the right hypochondrium, they are
commonly attended with colic-pains, uncertain flying
heats, efpecially imthe head, with a tranfient rednefs
of the face, and very frequently an cedematous fwell-
ing of the feet fucceeds; and befides thefe, all the other
fymptoms of dyfpepfia occur, together with limpid
urine, and thofe unaccountable affedtions of mind com¬
mon in hyfteric patients, though generally in a fome-
what lefs degree than in them.
Caufss, See. The general caufes of the hypochon¬
driac affe&ion are faid to be a plethora, and preterna¬
tural thicknefs of the blood; fupprefiions of cuftomary
evacuations; high and full diet, together with a
fparing quantity of drink ; an hereditary difpofition ;
indolence ; atony of the inteftines; violent pafitons of
the mind, See.
Prognojis. The hypochondriac affedlion, when left
to itfeif, is more troublefome than dangerous; but, if
improperly treated, may bring on various difeafes of a
more dangerous nature, fuch as the hypochondriac
melancholy; bloody urine and nephritis, jaundice,
vertigo, palfy, apoplexy, &c.
Cure. This is to be attempted by fuch medicines
as attenuate the viferd juices, and reftore the tone of
the fyftem* and which may be all comprehended un¬
der bleeding, gentle evacuants, ohalybeatea, the Pe¬
ruvian bark, and exergife, efpecially riding on horfe-
back, which in this difeafe is greatly preferable to
any other. When the circumftances of the pa¬
tient can afford it, a voyage to Spain, Portugal, or
forne of the wanner countries in Europe, will be of
great fervice.
CINE. 4779
Practice
CXIII. CHLOROSIS, the Green-sickness. ' 386 ~
Genus XLVHI.
Chlorofis, Sauv. gen. 309. Lin. 222. Vog. 305.
gen. 135. Boerh. 1285. Hoffm. iii. 311.
Junck. 86.
Chlorofis virginea, Sauv. fp. 1.
a. Chlorofis amatoria.
Defcription. This difeafe ufually attacks girls a
little after the time of puberty, and firft fhtws itfeif
by fymptoms of ‘ dyfpepfia. But a diftinguiftiing
fymptom is, that the appetite is entirely vitiated, and
the patient will eat lime, chalk, aflies, fait, &c. very
greedily; while at the fame time there is not only a
total inappetence to proper food, but it will even ex¬
cite naufea and vomiting. In the beginning of the
difeafe, the urine is pale, and afterwards turbid ; the
face becomes pale, and then affumes a greenifh colour;
fometimes it becomes livid or yellow: the eyes are
funk, and have a livid circle round them; the Hps
lofe their fine red colour; the pulfe is quick, weak,
and low, though the heat is little fhort of a fever,
but the veins are fcarcely filled ; the feet are frequent¬
ly cold, fwell at night, and the whole body feems
covered with a foft fwelling; the breathing is diffi¬
cult : nor is the mind free from affe&ion as well as
the body ; it becomes irritated by the flighteft caufes;
and fometimes the patients love folitude, become fad
and thoughtful. There is a retention of the menfes
thoughout the whole courfe of the diforder ; and at laft,
all the the bad fymptoms increafing, a leucophleg-
mafia, anafarca, atrophy, and death, fucceed.
Caufer. The catife of chlorofis is thought to be an
atony of the mufcular fibres of the alimentary canal,
efpecially of the ftomach, joined with a fimilar atony
of the perfpiratory veffels over the whole furface of
the body, and the whole depending on an atony of
thofe fmall arteries which pour out the menftrual
blood. This atony maybe occafioned by the fame
caufes which bring on dyfpepfia and hypochondriafis*
but very frequently arifes from love and other paflions
of the mind.
Prognofs. The chlorofis in all cafes is tedious,,
though it doth not generally prove fatal; but we can
never promife a certain cure unlefs the menfes make
their appearance.
Cure. The remedies here in general are the fame
as in the dyfpepfia and hypochondriafis; only in the
chlorofis ftronger purgatives may be made ufe of:
thofe which ftimulate the refhim are uieful by ftimu-
lating alfo the veffels of the uterus; and for this reafotv
alfo venery is to be indulged where it can lawfully be
done. The cold bath is alfo extremely proper.
Order III. SPAS ML
Spasmi, Sauv. Clafs IV. Vog. Clafs V, Sap.
Clafs VIII.
Motorii, Lin. Clafs. VII.
Morbi fpafmodici et convulfivi, Hoffm. III. 9.
Spafmi et convulfiones, Junck. 43, 34.
Epilepfia, Boerh. 1071, 1088.
CXIV.
4780
Practice
38? '
M E D I
CXIV. The TETANUS. Genus XLIX.
Tetanus, Sauv. gen. 122. Lin, 127. Vog, x8o.
Sag. gen. 228.
Catochus, $auv. gen. 123. Lin. 128. Vog. \%i;.
Sag. gen. 229.
Opifthotonos, Vog. 181.
Epifthotonos, Vog. 182.
On this diftemper Dr Lionel Chalmers hath pub-
lifhed a diflertation in the firfl: volume of the Medical
Obfervations, which being fuperior to any thing that
hath appeared in other medical writers on the fubjeft,
we fliall here lay before the reader.
“ Of all the difeafes to which man is fubjeft, none
deferves more to be confidered than the opifthotonos
and tetanus, either with regard to the variety of
painful fymptoms which almoft. without intermiflion
diftraft the fick, or the danger of the difeafes them-
felves, from which few recover, in comparrfon of the
number they attack. In both, the vital aftions are
very imperfedtly performed, moft of thofe which are
called natural, being as it were fufpended at once,
and fo far is the patient from being able to execute
any voluntary motion, that the whole machine un¬
dergoes the moft excruciating diftortions, from the
violent and unnatural contraflions of the mufcles.
Happy it is for the inhabitants of the more temperate
climates, that fuch difeafes appear rarely among them ;
but in thofe countries which lie in the more fouthern
and warmer latitudes, they are endemic, efpecially to
negro Haves. In South-Carolina, they fhew them-
felves at all feafons, but not fo often in winter,
more frequently in fpring and autumn ; and are moft
common in the fummer, when people work abroad
and are alternately expofed to the fcorching heat of
the fun and heavy fhowers, which often happen fud-
denly, and greatly alter the temperature of the air.
Others are feized with the opifthotonos, after fleeping
without doors, that they may enjoy the deceitful re-
frefhment of the cool night-air, when the weather is
warm: one youth chofe to cut off his hair and
fhave his head on a warm day in March, and went to
bed without a cap ; but the weather changed, and
became cold in the night, and he was found rigid with
that difeafe next morning.
“ Thefe difeafes fo rarely appear as originals in
Europe, that a good hiftory of them cannot be expefted
from the phyficians who praftife in that part of the
world ; nor has any thing like a full defcription been
given of them by any ancient or modern author
which I have feen. Hippocrates indeed takes notice
of them in many places, and feems to regard them
only as confequences of other difeafes, or of wounds
or ulcers of the nervous or tendinous parts, of which
fymptomatic kind of opifthotonos he gives three re¬
markable cafes in lib. V. § VII. de Morb. vulg.
and repeats them in another place; but the few fymp¬
toms he recounts do not fhew themfelves with us.
Galen, Ccelius Aurelianus, Aretasus, &c. feem only
to have copied Hippocrates, with the addition of
fomc fuppofititioua fymptoms, which really do not
appear ; and the little that Bontius fays of it, is very
faulty.
“ Among the numerous clafs of fpafmodic difeafes,
there are three which diftinguifh themfelves in a very
CINE. Part H.
particular manner, on which the names of PractI
toms, opijlhotonos, inH tetanus, have been juftly enough "1
beftowed, as being expreffive of the pofture into which
they throw and confine the patient. When therefore
thofe mufcles which bend the head, neck, and body
forwards, fuffer fuch involuntary, violent, and conti¬
nued contraftions, as fix the chin to the breaft, in-
curvate the fpine and body, and retain the fick in this
painful and prone pofture, the difeafe is called emprojl-
kotonos. When the pofterior mufcles are fimilarly af¬
fected, fo that the head is drawn towards thfe fpine,
and the fpine itfelf is recurvated, it has then the name
of opijlhotonos; although in fadt, in this, all thofe
mufcles which aft in deglutition, bend the head for¬
wards, or turn it to either fide, are equally contrafted
with thofe which raife the head and fpine. The teta¬
nus differs from, or rather is compounded of, both the
others; for in this the patient is found rigid and in¬
flexible, being as it were braced between the oppofite
contraftions of the anterior and pofterior mufcles; yet
even here the head is much retrafted.
“ I never faw the emprojlhotonos; and (hall only
fpeak of the opijlhotonos and tetanus, the firft being by
far the moft common, and in the laft ftage of which
the tetanus frequently fupervenes. And let it be ob-
ferved, that the following defcription by no means re-
fpefts fuch fymptomatic contraftions as often happen
immediately before death, both in acute and chronic
difeafes; neither will it agree with that fpurious opijl¬
hotonos or tetanus, which appear fometimes in the firft
and fecond ftages of quotidian intermittents in this
country, however they may emulate the true difeafes
in fome of their fymptoms.
“ Stad. I. The opijlhotonos, contrary to what Bon¬
tius afferts, often comes on gradually and by {lighter
approaches, the patient complaining rather of an unea-
fy ftiffnefs in the back-part of the neck and about the
fhoulders, than of any acute pain, with fome degree
of a general laflitude. Thefe increafe, and become
fo troublefome when he attempts to turn his head, or
to bend it forward, as to oblige him to walk very
ereft; for he can by no means look downward, nor to
either fide, without turning his whole body. He can¬
not open his jaws without pain; and has fome difficul¬
ty in (wallowing, which difcourages him from attempt¬
ing to eat. At times he feelsa fudden and painful trac¬
tion under the cartilago enftformis, which ftrikes thro*
to the back, and inftantly increafes the rigidity about
the neck and fhoulders, draws the head backward a
little, and fhuts the jaws clofer. The paid under the
Jlernum returns more frequently and with greater vio¬
lence ; and the other contraftions become fo ftrong,
that the head from this time continues much retrafted,
and he now refufes nourifhment, as fwallowing is at¬
tended with great pain, and occafions a return of the
fpafm ; which extends along the fpine quite to the
lower extremities, fo that they will no longer fup-
port him, and he is under the neceffity of going to
bed.
“ In this manner paffes over the firft ftage of the
opijlhotonos, which fometimes takes up three or four
days ; the patient, as well as thofe about him, mif-
taking the firft appearances of it for that rheumatic
complaint, which is commonly called a crick in the
neck : but it fometimes forms itfelf much quicker, and
in-
"Tart II. MEDI
^actice invades the unfortunate perfon with the whole train of
its mifchievous fymptoms, in a few hours : in which
cafe, the danger may truly be eftimated from the vio¬
lence of the firft attack; for fuch generally die in 24,
36, or 48 hours, and very rarely furvive the third
day. But when it is lefs acute, few are loft after the
ninth or eleventh; which number of days it would
not be pofiible for them to complete, unlefs the vio¬
lence of the difeafe was in a good meafure fubdued ;
although I had one who recovered, after having been
fubjeft to its tyrannical attacks daily for fix weeks.
In this ftage the pulfe is flow, and very hard, and the
belly is bound ; blood taken away feems not to be
altered from the natural ftate, fo that no indication
can be deduced therefrom, and only varies with regard
to laxity or compaction, according to the age of the
perfon and feafon of the year.
“ Stad. II. The fpafm under the fternum (which
is the pathognomic fymptom of this difeafe) becomes
more violent, returning every to or 15 minutes ; and
never fails to be inftantly fucceeded by a ftronger re-
traftion of the head, with great rigidity, and pain all
round the neck, and along the fpine to the lower ex¬
tremities which are fuddenly put to the ftretch. The
countenance is very pale and contra&ed ; the jaws are
that moment fnapped together, and cannot afterwards
be opened fo wide as to receive the end of one’s little
finger, an attempt to do which, by way of experi¬
ment, furely hurries on the fpafm. The maftoid, co-
racohyoid and fternohyoid mufcles, as well as all the
others concerned in deglutition, and the deltoid and
peftorals, are moft violently contracted, fo that the
fhoulders are ftrongly raifed forward, and the arms are
ftretched out or drawn acrofs the body; but the wrifts
and fingers feemed not to be affeCted.
“ Such is the condition of the patient in the time
of the fpafm, which ceafes in a few feconds : after
which the ftioulders and arms recline, and the inferior
extremities relax; yet not fo entirely, but that fuch a
I degree of rigidity for the moft part remains, as will not
permit them to bend, when this is attempted by ano¬
ther perfon ; for as to the fick himfelf, he cannot at
all move them. The mufcles on the fides and fore¬
part of the neck continue ftill contracted, altho’ not
fo ftrongly ; but their aCfion is overcome by the num¬
ber and ftrength of the pofterior ones ; fo that there-
traftion of the head conftantly remains. He breathes
quick for fome minutes, as if he had been exceffively
exercifed ; and the pulfe is fmall, fluttering, and irre¬
gular, but both become more calm and flow. The
face is fometimes pale in the intervals, but oftener
flulhed ; and the whole countenance expreffes ftrong
appearances of the moft melancholy diftrefs, as well
becaufe of the dread he has of a return of the fpafm,
which he is fure will foon happen, as from the pain
he fuffers by the prefent contractions, and the more
general and fevere ones which he has fo lately fu-
ftained. The tongue is ftiff and torpid ; but fo far
as it can be feen, is not foul. The belly is always
bound, and cannot eafily be loofened. In drinking, the
liquid pafles with great difficulty to the ftomach, even
in the fmalleft quantity ; and if the fpafm ftiould feize
him at that time, which an attempt to fwallow for the
moft part occafions, the liquor returns through the
nofe with fome force. The patients delire to lie ftill as
. Vol. VI.
CINE. 4781-
much as poffible; and avoid drinking, fpeaking, or be- Practice
ing moved, either of which are apt to occafion a re- '
turn of the fpafm.
“ Stad. III. In this laft ftage, the patient is re¬
duced to the moft calamitous and diftrefsful circum-
ftances ; for he is on a continual rack, according to
the moft literal meaning of that word, the fpafm re¬
turning oftener than ohee in a minute, is much more
violent, and holds him longer, fo that he has fcarcely
any remiffion. The anterior mufcles of the whole bo¬
dy now fuffer equal contraClions with the pofterior ;
but the laft overcome the force of the others, fo that
the fpine is ftrongly recurvated, and forms a hollow
arch with the bed, and he refts on the back part of the
head and the heels. The belly is flat, and is drawn
inward ; and the mufcles are fo rigidly contra&ed, that
they will not give way to preflure, and do not feem in
the lead to yield to the defeent of the diaphragm in
infpiration, the feveral mufcles about the neck, fides,
and abdomen, being plainly diftinguilhable from each
other. Although the lower extremities are always ri¬
gid in this ftate, yet are they fo fuddenly and violent¬
ly diftended in the time of the fpafms, that were it
not for the ftanders-by, he would be projefled feet
foremoft off the bed; while others again are as it
were pufhed upward with fuch a fpring, that the head
is ftruck with great force againft whatever happens to
be in the way, the thighs and legs being in this cafe
no lefs rigid than the other parts. The tongue is
fpafmodically darted out, and is often miferably torn,
as the teeth are that moment fnapped together, fo that
it is neceffary to prevent this by keeping the handle of
a fpoon, wrapped round with foft rags, between the
teeth, when this can be done. At the time that the
tongue is thus thruft out, the mufcular flefh, which
lies between the arch of the lower jaw and head of the
trachea, feems to be drawn upwards within the throat.
The countenance it very much contracted, and he is
in a foam of fweat, the heat being very great; and the
pulfe between the fpafms is exceeding quick, fmall,
and irregular, although the heart throbs fo ftrongly,
that its motions may be plainly feen, and a palpita¬
ting fubfultory kind of undulation may not only be
felt, but perceived all over the epigaftric region. The
eyes are watery and languid, and a pale or bloody
froth bubbles out from between the lips. The jaws
are for the moft part locked fall, fo that it is impof-
fible to give drink or nourilhment, nor could he fwal¬
low if any thing was put into his mouth. In this ftate
they are commonly delirious : and as they cannot fub-
fift many hours, under fo great a fufpenfion of the vi¬
tal and natural fun&ions, a mortal anxiety enfues and
releafes them ; oftener a continued and fevere fpafm
finilhes the tragedy, when it was before almoft at an
end : but moft frequently « general convulfion puts a
eriod to their fufferings ; and whichever way this
appens, they for the moft part relax juft before death.
“ In the tetanus, the general fymptoms are nearly
the fame as in the opifthotonos, except that from the
firft attack, the lateral, abdominal, and other anterior
mufcles, are equally contrafted with the pofterior ones;
and the arms become rigid as well as the lower extre¬
mities. The abdomen is always flat and rigid as in
the laft ftage of the opifthotonos, and its contents feem
to be thruft up into the thorax, which at the fame
27 B time
M E D I
ice time appears to be much dilated. There are here al-
fo fome intervals between the fpafms, in the time of
which the cheeks are drawn towards the ears, fo that
{ill the teeth may be feen as in the fpafmus cynicus.
Deglutition is more free in this than in the other dif-
eafe; yet fo far is the Tick from being equally balan¬
ced between the contra&ions of the oppofite mufcles,
that the head is retracted and the fpine is recurvated,
although not quite fo much as in the opifthotonos.
And the fpafm, which commences under the fternum,
is likewife common to the tetanus, which terminates
as the other, and on the fame fatal days. But who¬
ever recovers from either, labours long under a general
atonia ; and they cannot for fome months raife them-
felves from a fupine or recumbent pofture without pain,
nor without help for fome time.”
Progtiojis and Cure. There has never been any thing
like a crifis obferved in thefe frightful cafes, or favour¬
able termination from the mere efforts of nature, and
therefore all the phyfician’s dependence mull; be upon
art. Fortunately it has been found, that opium is ca¬
pable of giving fome relief, if adminittered in proper
time, and the difeafe happens not to be in the moft vio¬
lent degree: the warm bath mud alfo be brought in
aid; and the patients fhould lie horizontally in the
bath, and while in it have the whole body extremely
well rubbed: when taken out, they are not to be dried,
but immediately put to bed wrapt in the foftefl blan¬
kets ; and while they remain there, the belly ought
either to be ftuped, or two or three bladders filled with
warm water kept conftantly lying on it. The bowels
at the fame time mud, if pofiible, be kept open, by
folutions of manna and fal polychreji, or fome other
purging fait, mixed with oleum ricini; or if that fhould
not be at hand, with oil of fweet almonds and a little
tin&ure of fena. The opiates are to be given in large
and frequently repeated dofes; fuch as a grain of the
extraftum Thebaicum, or 20 drops of the tincture, every
fecond or third hour; and it will be fafed not to trud
to the Thebaic tinfture which is kept ready prepared
in the fhops, but order the neceffary dofe of folid opium,
and either give it in pills, or diffolve it in fome conve¬
nient liquid. If fwallowing fhould be difficult, or the
jaws clofed up, the opium mud be given in clyders;
for during the whole courfe of the difeafe it will be
of fervice to order emollient clyders to be injefted from
time to time, fince thefe will anfwer not only as a re¬
laxing fomentation, but alfo contribute to keep the in-
tedinal canal perfectly free.
When the patients recover, they continue for a long
time very relaxed and weak ; and no wonder, fince it
is the nature of all fpafmodic affeCtions to leave be¬
hind them extreme weaknefs and relaxation of the muf-
cular fibres. In order to perfeCt the recovery, a courfe
of the cortex and the Peruvian balfam is be tried;
and the fpine may be rubbed with fpirituous liniments,
or with a mixture of rum and Barbadoes tar: but thefe
and all other dimulating things, either internally or
externally, during the. violence of the fpafms, mud be
•omitted, fince all of them, as well as bliders, are found
to exafperate the difeafe.
This, in general, is the plan of treatment recom¬
mended by Dr Chalmers.
The fame dreadful diforders frequently attack
young children in the warm climates. Dr Hillary
CINE. Part II.
tells us, that they will there arife from the famePRAcTi
caufes which ufually produce convulfions in • them
in Britain, viz. a retention of the meconium or
fird excrement after birth; or from a glutinous mat¬
ter which is too often found in the intedines of
young children foon after the other is difeharged ^
or from a cheefy matter from the coagulation of
the milk by an acid in the domach; or from hard
excrements ; or from fomething taken in by the
mouth which is over acrid, or too hard to diged,
which irritates their tender bowels, and fo produces
ftartings and convulfive fpafms, W'ith all the other
fymptoms which precede and accompany joonvulfions
in young children in England ; and fhews how much
more readily and eafily the nerves are affedted and ir¬
ritated in that warm climate, and the tetanus produced
from a much lefs caufe there, than it is in England,
where it is but feldom feen. But thefe caufes not be¬
ing timely removed, their acrimony is increafed,
partly by the heat of the climate, and partly by the
fever which they produce, which dill renders them
more acrid, and fo increafes the irritation of their
bowels, that it fird brings on darlings, then convul¬
five fpafms, and regular convulfion-fits; which, if not
foon removed, ufually end in a perfed tetanus there, and
the difeafe is but feldom cured in fuch young children
when it arrives at that date: For when the child lies
in this miferable, rigid, immoveable condition, upon
moving its hands or feet in the mod gentle manner,
or foftly touching any part of its body, or giving it
the lead motion, even feeling its pulfe in the mod
gentle, tender manner, or the lead noife, or even
touching its clothes, will bring on the convulfive
fpafms, and caufe it to be drongly convulfed back¬
wards, or drawn into a rigid draight line, drongly ex¬
tended and immoveable like a datue, and will fo re¬
main immoveable out of either of thofe podures for a
confiderable time, a minute or two ; and when the
difeafe is arrived at this degree, our author thinks it
is never cured. But if the phyfician is called in time,
before the tetanus has come on, (which is too feldom
the cafe there,) though he finds drong convulfive
fpafms have feized the child, or that it has had a con¬
vulfive fit or two, it may mod commonly he relieved,
the coming of the tetanus be prevented, and the life
of the babe faved, as Dr Hillary has more than
once feen, by removing and carrying off the irri¬
tating caufe which dimulates their tender bowels, by
fuch gentle evacuations as are fuitable to their age;
and then quieting and compofing the irritation of
their nerves with fuitable anodynes, and correfting the
remaining acrimony of the nutritious juices in the
prima via.
To anfwer which intentions, the following method,
with variations pro re nata et pro ratione a tat is, as the
caufe is different, hath been found to anfwer the de-
fired effeft the bed: R Seri laSiis |ij. Sapon. Venet. 9j.
Manna chalab. 3ij. vel iij. 01. amigd. dul. ^fs. Fani-
culi dul.gut. \).Balf. Peruv.gut. v. Mifce,fi. enema quant
primum injicienda.
And if the fymptoms of the approaching tetanus
will permit, he gives fomething of the following na¬
ture to affid the operation of the clyfter, and to carry
off the acrimony the fooner: Aq. fem. faniculi ^iij.
Magnef. alba fifs. Ocul. cahcr. prap. jj. Syr. e cichor.
cum
Part ir. M E D I
r'actice cum rheo, rofar. folut. ana jlij. Mifce. Or, Aq. fern*
feniculi 3iij. Sapon. amigdai 3fs. Magnef. alba 3fs. Syr.
e cichor. cum rhco, manna; opt. ana 3ij. 01. a7nigd. dul.
3iij. Mifce: Exhibe cochl. parv. vel duo pro rat tone
a tat is otnni femihora, vel omni bora, donee refpond.
alvus.
Two or three ftools being obtained by thefe, the
following is exhibited in order to abate the convulfive
twitchings, and prevent the tetanus from coming on:
5= Aq. fem. faniculi ^iij. Magnef. alba 3fs. Ocul. carter,
prap. 5j. Mofcbi orient, gr. iij. Spir. C. C. ver.gut. xv.
Syr. e mecon. Jfs. Mifce: Exhibe cochl. parv. (a child’s
fpoonful) ter quaterve de die, vel fepius, urgent .con-
vulf. vel fpafm.
But if the fymptoms (hew that the tetanus is more
immediately coming on, fo that we have no time to
wait till the operation of the clyfter and opening
laxative be over, fomething of the following nature
muft be immediately given ; or the tetanus will come on,
and' moft probably prove fatal to fuel) tender babes.
\ Aq. faniculi Mofchiorient.gr.). Tinft. Thebaic,
gut. iiij. Syr. e mecon. 3ij. Mifce pro duobus dof. de qui-
bus exhibe unam quam primum, et alteram Ji convul.
fpafn. redeunt.
This may be thought a bold attempt, to give tinft.
Thebaica to fuch a tender young infant: but it is to
be confidered that the little patient will certainly die
if the tetanus feize it, and that it will come on if
this do not prevent it ; and our author has known
a bold ignorant old midwife give four or five drops
of that tindlure to a very young infant without
any prejudice more than its dofing three or four
hours, though not in this cafe, but in one much lefs
violent.
The clyfter may be given at the fame time, and
the opening laxative not long after it: though it may
retard the operation of that for fome time, yet it
operates foon after, and gives relief; after which the
other medicines, and fomenting the body and anoint¬
ing it as before, may be ufed, if the phyfician finds it
neceffary; alfo a little of the laxative mixture may be
given once or twice a-day, if the above julep does not
anfwer that intention of keeping the child’s body
open for a few days afterwards, which in this cafe is
generally found neceflary to be obferved.
Thefe methods and medicines may be varied accord¬
ing to circumftances. For neither the fame method, nor
fame medicines, will anfwer in all cafes, tho’ the difeafe
be the fame ; but they muft be changed as the\caufes
differ, or the conftitution of the fick, or the time of
the difeafe, or as fome other circumftances may re¬
quire: which is a thing of great importance, not only
in this, but in the cure of moft other difeafes; where¬
fore it is mentioned here, chiefly to caution the practi¬
tioners in the Weft-Indies.
When proper medicines are thus timely and ju-
dicioufly given in this cafe, they feldom fail to carry
off the irritating caufe, quieten and eafe the nerves,
remove the convulfions and fpafms; and confequently
prevent the tetanus's coming on, and the death of the
patient. But if calling in the phyfician be deferred till
the tetanus has already ftrongly feized the child, as is
too often the cafe here, neither warm bathing, foment¬
ing, nor any other methods or medicines whatever, will
remove it or its caufes, nor fave the life of the little
CINE. 4783
tender patient. Practice
Dr Chalmers gives an account of his having cured
one child feized with a tetanus, by purging with an
infufion of rhubarb; to which a few grains of mufk,
and a little ol. tartar, per deliq. were added, together
with the warm bath, and the frequent injedion of
glyfters made with an infufion of camomile-flowers,
to each of which was added a fmall portion of Caftile
foap. It is much to be regretted, however, that in
thofe cafes where the afliftance of the medical art is
moft wanted, it moft generally fails. We have been
affured by a gentleman who pradifed for fome time
in the warm parts of America, that out of 30 cafes of
the tetanus he had feen, not one of the patients reco¬
vered, though he had given opium to the quantity of
20 grains thrice a-day; and others, he was affured, had
taken 30 grains thrice a-day. In the beginning of the
difeafe, the medicine produced a violent head-ach; but
towards the end, it had no manner of effed whatever.
In two patients, the difeafe came on from the flightefl:
caufes imaginable. The one accidentally fell in at¬
tempting to avoid a loaded cart, and put the heel of
his (hoe upon one of his thumbs in rifing; the other,
in avoiding the fame cart, (lightly ruffled the (kin of
his nofe. Both were feized with the tetanus; and
both died, notwithftanding all poffible affiftance was
given. The former had his thumb amputated, with ¬
out effed.
In the Edinburgh Phyfical and Literary Effays,
Vol. III. Dr Donald Monro, deferibes a new method
of cure, communicated to him by a gentleman who
was formerly a praditioner in Jamaica. While
this gentleman pradifed in that ifland, he had un¬
der his care a great number of cafes of tetanus at¬
tended with the locked-jaw. At firft, he ufed to
give very freely of opium, mu(k, and other medicines
of this clafs; to bleed, and make other evacuations;
while he ufed baths, fomentations, embrocations, and
other external applications, but all without the lead
fuccefs; and, as he had loft a great many patients
without being fo lucky as to make one cure, he began
to believe that this diforder alw-ays proved fatal, and
was not to be cured by medicine, notwithftanding
what fome praditioners had alleged. However,
having received an unexpected hint concerning the
ood effeds of the mercurial ointment in fuch cafes,
e refolved to try it; and ordered the firft patient
that offered to be put into a warm room, and to be
rubbed two or three times a-day with the ointment,
till fuch time as a falivation was raifed; when he with
pleafure obferved, that, as foon as the mercury began
to affed the mouth, the convulfions of the mufcles of
the jaws, as well as all the other fpafms and convul*
fions, ceafed, and the patient was freed of all his com¬
plaints. After this, he treated every cafe of this kind
which came under his care in the fame manner, and
cured twelve, which were all who applied to him for
advice fo early in the diforder that there was time to
bring the mercury to the mouth before the fatal pe¬
riod was expeded. A few died, in whom the difeafe
was fo far advanced before he faw them that there
was not time to raife a falivation. None of the cafes
which were under this gentleman’s care in the Weft
Indies were the confequences of wounds or capital
operatipns; nor has he had any opportunity of trying
27 B 2 it
4784
PRACTicp.it fince in cafes of the locked jaw, which fometimes
follows capital operations, owing to his having given
over pra£ticc : but he thinks, that, from the fimila-
rity of the complaint, there is no doubt but that the
mercurial fri&ions would be equally efficacious in fuch
cafes, as when the diforder comes from catching cold
or other ftich caufes.
In the fecond volume of the Medical Tranfaftions,
we have an account of a cure performed by means
very different from any of thofe above related, by Dr
William Carter at Canterbury.—On the 17th of May
T767, the doftor was called to a ftrong healthy man,
in the 21ft year of his age, and who had been con¬
fined to his bed for three weeks. What gave rife to
his prefent diforder was a wound on the inner ancle of
his right leg, which he had received fix weeks before
from a joiner’s chifel. At that time his mouth was
fo far clofed, as to admit only the molt liquid nou-
rilhment, which he conftantly fucked through hia
teeth : but his legs and jaw, and the whole length
of the fpina dorfi, were quite immovable, being as
ftiff and rigid as thofe of a perfon long dead; his
head was drawn backward, and he was frequently
ftronglyconvulfed. The motion indeed of both his
arms was but a little impaired. From the beginning
to the end, his fight, hearing, and memory, conti¬
nued perfeft ; his appetite was good ; and his fenfes,
in the day-time, entire, though fometimes wandering
in the night. As to his pulfe, that was regular ; if
it deviated at all from the pulfe of a perfon in health,
it was rather flow than quick, and fomewhat fuller
than natural. Such was the fituation of his patient;
a detail of which had been given before the doftor fet
out on his journey, which he undertook with a deter¬
mined refolution to make ufe of the method recom¬
mended by Dr Silvefter, in the firft vol. of Medical
Obfervations and Inquiries, publifhed in the year 1757,
(and which has been related from Dr Chalmers and Dr
Hillary.) But, on his arrival at the houfe, he found
great quantities of the extraftam thebaicum diffolved
had been already given him ; and that, for the five
laft days, he had taken no lefs than 28 grains of that
medicine, with 50 grains of mulk, in the fpace of 24
hours, without any fenfible effeft, except the bring¬
ing on a confufed fleep, out of which he frequently
awoke in great hurries, attended with a violent pain
in the head, which alraoft deprived him of his fenfes.
The doftor was afraid to extend the dole ; and foon
determined to take fome other method, though at a
lofs what method to purfue, as, during a courfe
of almoft 30 years practice, nothing of the fame
kind had ever fallen under his cognizance before.
Refle£ling, however, that this diforder had always
been deemed of the fpafmodic kind, and that the
good effefts produced by the extrattum thebdicum
mull probably be owing to the relaxing and re-
folving faculty of that medicine, he dire&ed a
felifter to be applied between the (boulders; the
whole length of the fpine, and jaw, to be anointed
with the oleum laterithm; and a purge, confifting of
the tindiura facra jalapii and the Jyrupuj de rhamno
cathartico, to be given him. This was repeated
three feveral times afterwards, at the diftance of
three or four days between each dofe. On the in¬
termediate4 days, he was ordered the oleum fuccinit
Part II.
the foetid gum, and the oleum amygdalinum. Of Practic«||
the firft he took 30 drops, of the gum 20 grains, and
of the laft four ounces, in nycthemeri fpatio. By
thefe means, and thefe only, the convulfions foon
ceafcd, and he grew daily better and better, till at
the end of a fortnight he was able to walk about his
room, and in lefs than three weeks became in all
refpefts well, fome fmall weaknefs in the parts only
excepted. The jaw was relieved firft, after that the
fpine, and laft of all the legs. A pain and uneafinefs
in the places affe&ed, neither of which he had felt
before, were the forerunners of his approaching a-
mendment.
From all this it feems reafonable to conclude, either
that there is no certain remedy for tetanus in all cafes,
or that the medicines which prove effedtual in one
conftitution will fail in another. Thus, it is poffible,
that in cafes where opium proves ineffediual, mercury
may be a remedy; and on the contrary, where mercury
fails, opium may be effeftual ; and even where both
are ineffeftual, the antifpafmodics recommended by Dr
Carter may be of ufe. It is therefore neceffary for
phyficians to be extremely careful to obferve the effedts
of the firft dofes of their remedies : for if the fymp-
toms fhew not the leaft appearance of remiffion after a
large dofe of opium, it is improbable that it can be
cured by a repetition of the medicine; and as no time
can be loft with fafety, it will then be proper to apply
mercurial ointment, or whatever elfe may be judged
proper.—In the Medical Commentaries indeed we have
an account of the cold bath being ufed as a remedy,
by Thomas Cochran furgeon at Nevis. The patient
was an Eaft Indian boy who had been gored by a cow
and afterwards expofed to a rainy damp air for fome
hours. Mr Cochran aferibes his cure to the cold bath,
which was applied by dafhing the water upon his body.
But as the patient at the fame time got laudanum at
firft in the quantity of 200 drops a-day, and afterwards
in ftill larger dofes; and had befides his throat and
fhoulders anointed with warm oil of turpentine, was
bled, and had lenient glyfters and laxatives; it is by
no means eafy to fay what lhare the cold bath had in
his cure, or whether it had any at all. Mr Cochran,
however, fays he has heard of fome cafes being treated
fuccefsfully by cold water and the bark in St Euftatia
and St Kitts, and in another letter mentions his having
ufed the cold bath in other cafes of tetanus with fuc-
cefs. This remedy is now alfo ufed by fome Engliffi
phyficians.
Genus XLIX. TRISMUSy or the Locked Jaw.
Trifmus, Sauv. gen. 117, Z;». 124. Sag. gen. 223^
Capiftrum, Veg. 208.
CXV. The Locked Jaw in Children under two months 588
old. Sp. I.
Trifmus nafeentium, Saitv. fp. 1. Heijier Comp..
Med. Pradt. cap. xv. § 10. Clegbornon the Dif-
eafes of Minorca, Introd. p. 33. Hofer m Adt.
Helvet. tom. i. p. 65.
This diftemper is fo clofely connetfted with the te¬
tanus, that it ought rather to be accounted a fymptom
of the tetanus than a primary difeafe. The trifmus of
young
MEDICINE.
dPart IT. MED
twacttceyoung children we have accordingly difcuffed under
Tetanus.
1^*389 CXVI. The Trismus from Wounds or Cold. Sp. II.
Trifmus traumaticus, Saim. fp. 2. Lond. Med.Obf.
Vol. I. art. 1. 7. Vol. II. 34. Vol. III. 31.
Vol.IV. 7.
Angina fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 18. Z<wingeri Aft.
Helvet. Tom. III. p. 319.
Convulfio a nervi punftura, Sauv. fp. 2.
Trifmus catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 15. ^///ory’s Barba-
^ does, 221. Lond. Med. Obf. Vol. IV. 7.
The internal remedies proper in all cafes of the lock¬
ed jaw, from whatever caufe it may proceed, have been
already mentioned under Tf.tanus : the external treat¬
ment of wounded parts which may give occafion to it
belongs to the article Surgery.
J 390 CXVII. CONVULSION. Genus L.
Convulfio, Sctuv. gen. 128. Lin. 142. Vog. 191.
Sag. gen. 235.
Convulfio univerfalis, Sauv. fp. 11.
Hieranofos, Lin. 144. Vog. 190.
Convulfio habitualis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Convulfio intermittens, Sauv. fp. 16.
Convulfio hemitotonos, Sauv. fp. 15.
Convulfio abdominis, Sauv. fp. 10.
Convulfio ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. r.
Convulfio ab onanifmo, Sauv. fp. 13.
Scelotyrbe feftinans, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcription. When convulfions attack only parti¬
cular parts t>f the body, they are generally attend¬
ed with fome kind of paralyfis at the fame time, by
which means the affefted parts are alternately con-
vulfed and relaxed; a permanent convulfion, or un¬
natural contraftion, of particular mufcles, is called a
fpafrn, or cramp. Thefe partial convulfions may attack
almoft any part of the body; and are not unfrequent-
ly fymptomatic, in fevers, the cholera morbus, &c.
The involuntary ftartings of the Undons, the picking
0/ the bed-clothes, &c. in acute difeafes, &c. are all
©f them convulfive diforders.
Caufes. Convullions, not only of particular parts,
but alfo over the whole body, often take place from
caufes not very evident. Sometimes they feem to de¬
pend on a certain delicacy or irritability of the nervous
fyftem, which is framed with fuch exquifite fenfibility
as to be ftrongly affefted by the flighteft caufes. De¬
licate women are often fubjeft to hyfterical convulfions,
as alfo hypochondriac people. Convulfions,. however,
often take their rife from wounds, irritations of the
ftomach and inteftines by worms, poifons, violent ca¬
thartics and emetics, &c.; and very often they are
fymptomatic, as in dentition, the fmall-pox, and many
kinds of fevers.
Prognofis. Except in fome few cafes, convulfive dif¬
orders are always to be dreaded ; but lefs in young
people than in fuch as are advanced in life. Thofe
which attack girls under the age of puberty will ge¬
nerally ceafe on the appearance of the menfes; and
boys have likewife a chance of being relieved «s they
advance in life : but in grown up people, unlefs the
caufe is very evident, a cure is hardly to be expefted.
Cure. See Epilepsy, below.
CINE. 4785
CXVIII. CHOREA, or St Vitus’s Dance. ^CT-
Genus LI. 39*
Scelotyrbe, Sauv. gen. 136. Sag. 243.
Chorea, Lin. 139.
Scelotyrbe chorea Viti, Sauv. fp. 1.
Chorea St. Viti, Sydenh. Sched. Monit.
Defcription. This difeafe fhews itfelf firft by a kind
of lamenefs or inftability of one of the legs, which
the patients draw after them in a ridiculous manner:
nor can they hold the arm of the fame fide ftill for a
moment; for if they lay it on their breaft, or any
other part of their body, it is immediately forced away
by a convulfive motion. If they are defirous of drink¬
ings they ufe a number of odd gefticulations before
they can bring the cup to their mouths, becaufe their
arms are drawn this w'ay and that by the convulfions
which affeft them.
Caufesy Sic. The general caufe of St Vitus’s dance
is a debility of the fyftem ; and hence we find it at¬
tacks only weakly boys, and more efpecially girls,
when under the age of puberty. But the particular
caufes determining the mufcles to be affefted in fuch
and fuch a manner are entirely unknown.
Prognofts. As this diforder fcarce ever attacks any
perfons but fuch as are under the age of puberty, there
is almoft a certain profpeft of its being then cured, tho’
generally the diforder is eafily removed before that time.
Cure. See Epilepsy.
CXIX. RAPHANIA. Genus LIE 392r
Raphania, Lin. 155. Vog.i^x. A;>z. Amcen. Acad.
Vol. VI.
Convulfio raphania, Sauv. fp. 7.
Eclampfia typhodes, Sauv. fp. 1. Sennert de febr.
1. iv. cap. 16. Gregor. Horft. Open tom. II. 1. viii.
obf. 22. Brunner in Ephem. Germ. D, iii. A. ii.
obf. 224. Willifch. ibid. cent. vii. obf. 13. Wepfer
de Affeft. Capitis, obf. 120. Brejlauer Samm-
lungiyiy, Julio, Septembri, & Decembr. Ibid.
1723, Januar. A. N. C. Vol. VII. obf. 41.
Bruchnann. Com. Norimb. 1743, p. 50.-
Defcription. According to Sauvages, this diftemper
begins with a lafiitude of the limbs, tranfient colds
and (hiverings, pain of the head, and anxieties of the
prsecordia. Then come on fpafmodic fiartings of the
fingers and feet; alfo of the tendons and mufcles,con-
fpicuous below the fitin. The difeafe is attended with
heat, fever, delirium, ftupor, conftriftion of the breaft:,
fuffocating dyfpncea, lofs of voice, horrid convulfions
of the limbs, preceded by a formication, or fenfation
as of ants or other fmali infefts creeping on the parts.
In this ftate of the difeafe, the convulfive paroxyfms
are attended with moft violent pains in the limbs, vo¬
miting,or diarrhoea, with the palling of worms, thirft,.
and in young people an unnatural hunger, j It conti¬
nues from ten days to three months. About the ele-
leventh or twentieth day, fome are relieved by copious
fweats, or purple exanthemata; while others fall into a
tabes, with ftupor, or ftiffnefs of the joints.
Caufes, &c. This difeafe is frequently epidemic in
Suabia and other parts of Germany; where it is faid to
be produced by feeds of radilhes, which are often mix¬
ed, with rye in that country; and from this fuppofed
eaufie
4786 M E D I
Practice caufe the difeafe takes Its name.
Cure. See Epilepsy.
Genus LIII. EPILEPSY, or Falling-Sickness.
Epilepfia, Sauv. gen. 134. Lin. 143. Vog. 188.
Sag. gen. 24. Boerh. 1071. Hoffm. III. 9. Junck.
54-
Eclampfia, Sauv. gen. 133. 180. Sag. gen. 240.
253 CXX. The Cerebualis, or depending on
an affeftion of Brain. Sp. I.
Epilepfia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Eclampfia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 7.
Epilepfia cache&ica, Sauv. fp. 2. ?
394 CXXI. The Sympathica, or Sympathetic Epilepfy,
with a fenfation of fomething riling from a certain
part of the body towards the Head. Sp. II.
Epilepfia fympathica, Sativ. fp. 8.
Epilepfia pedifymptomatica, Sauv. fp. 6.
395 CXXII. The Occasionalis, or arifing from
various irritating Caufes. Sp. II.
Epilepfia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Eclampfia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Epilepfia a dolore, Sauv. fp. 10.
Epilepfia rachialgica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Eclampfia a doloribus, Sauv. fp. 4.
a. Rachialgica.
b. Ab otalgia.
c. A dentitione.
Eclampfia parturientium, Sauv. fp. 3.
Eclampfia verminofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eclampfia ab atropa, Sauv. fp. 11.
Eclampfia ab cenanthe, Sauv. fp. 12.
Eclampfia a cicuta, Sauv. fp. 13.
Eclampfia a coriaria, Sauv. fp. 14.
Epilepfia exanthematica, Sauv. fp. 11.
Epilepfia cache&ica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Epilepfia ftomachica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Eclampfia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 5.
Epilefia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Eclampfia ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. 8.
Epilepfia neophytorum, Sauv. fp. 15.
Defcription. The epilepfy often attacks fuddenly,
and without giving any warning: but more frequently
is preceded by a pain in the head, lafiitude, fome dt-
fturbance of the fenfes, unquiet deep, unufual dread,
dimnefs of fight, a noife in the ears, palpitation of the
heart, coldnefs of the joints, and in fome there is a
fenfation of formication, or a cold air, &c. afcending
from the lower extremities towards the head. In the
fit, the perfons fall fuddenly to the ground (whence the
name of the failing-ftcknefs')^ frequently with a violent
cry. The thumbs are (hut up clofe in the palms of the
hands, and are with difficulty taken out; the eyes are
diftorted, fo that nothing but the whites are to be
feen; all fenfation is fufpended, infomuch, that by no
fmell, noife, or otherwife, nor even by pinching the
body, can they be brought to themfelves; they froth
at the mouth, with a hilling kind of noife; the tongue
is frequently lacerated by the teeth, and there is a vio¬
lent convulfive motion of the arms and legs. Some¬
times, however, the limbs, inftead of being agitated by
CINE. Part It
convulfive motions, are all ftiff, arid the patients are as Practic
immoveable as a ftatue. In children the penis is erec-  
ted; and in youflg men there is an emiffion of the fe-
men, and the urine is often thrown out to a confiderable
diftance. At length there is a remiffion of the fymp-
toms, and the patients recover after a longer or (horter
interval; when they complain of a pain, torpor, and
heavinefs of the head, with a laffitiidc of all the joints.
Caufes, &cc. The diffe&ion of epileptic fubjedts has
(hewn a variety of morbid appearances, which may be
fuppofed to have contributed to the difeafe ; fuch as,
indurations in the brain or meninges ; caries of the in¬
ternal furface of the cranium; projections of the boney
fubftance of the fame, preffing upon the brain; collec¬
tions of ferum or purulent matter, and earthy concre¬
tions within the fcull ; befides many others which are
recorded by Bonetus, Morgagni, and Lieutaud. But
often the caufes are impoffible to be difcovered ; for
even in thofe who have died of the difeafe, the brain
and all other parts of the nervous fyftem have been ap¬
parently found. The difeafe will attack ftrong as well
as weak people; and in thofe who are fubjedt to it,
any confiderable excefs in drinking, a forfeit, violent
paffion, or venery, See. will certainly bring on a fit.
Some have epileptic paroxyfms returning periodically
after confiderable intervals; and the difeafe hath been
thought to have fome dependence on the phafes of the
moon.
Prognojls. If the epilepfy comes on before the time
of puberty, there are fome hopes of its going off at
that time. But it is a bad fign when it attacks about
the 21 (t year, and ftill worfe if the fits grow more fre¬
quent ; for then the animal-funttions are often deftroy-
ed, as well as thofe of the mind, and the patient be¬
comes ftupid and foolifh. Sometimes it will terminate
in melancholy or madnefs, and tometimes in a mortal
apoplexy or palfy. It hath fometimes, however, been
obferved, that epilepfies have been removed by the ap¬
pearance of cutaneous difeafes, as the itch, fmall-pox,
meafles, &c. While the difeafe is recent, therefore,
we are not to defp'.'r of a cure; but if it is of long
Handing, or hereditary, there is very little reafon to
expedt that it can be removed.
Cure. In all convulfive diforders, excepting thofe
which are cured by nature about the time of puberty,
the cure by artificial means is very difficult. Number-
lefs fpecifics have been recommended, but all of them
have failed of anfwering the expedtation. When the
caufe can be difcovered, that mult be removed. In
other cafes, the cold bath, valerian root, caftor, mufk,
opium, the foetid gums, Peruvian bark, with the whole
tribe of nervous and antifpafmodic medicines, have
been recommended: but none of thefe, or indeed any
combination of them, have been found generally ufe-
ful; though the (lighter, or fymptomatic cafes, may of¬
ten be removed by them.
Of late the calx, improperly called the flowers, of zinc,
have obtained fuch reputation in convulfive diforders as
to be received into the Edinburgh difpenfatory. They
were propofed by DrGaubiusas an antifpafmodic, in his
Adverfaria; and their efficacy hath fince been confirmed
by various obfervations. In an inaugural differtation
publiffied by Dr Hart at Leyden, the medical virtues of
the flowers of. zinc are confidered. He obferves, that
they have long been ufed externally, chiefly for inflmn-
mations
/i'Part II. M E D I
swactice mations of the eyes from acrid lymph. Glauber firft
propofed the internal ufe of them; and Gaubius difco-
vered them to be the remedy of the celebrated empiric
Luddemannus, under the title of luna jixata. After
this he exhibited them with fuccefs in convulfive and
fpafmodic difeafes. Our author fuppofes, that they atft
either as abforbents, or as pofiefiing a fpecific virtue :
but is a ftrong advocate for their efficacy, on whatever
principles they may operate; and, in favour of his opi¬
nion, relates feven cafes in which they proved fuccefs-
ful. A girl of 17 was feized with a flight chprea from
a fright; and when the difeafe had continued fix days,
began to take the flowgrs of zinc, by which her difor-
der was removed in lefs than three weeks. Her cure
required only 16 grains of the calx. In a few months
the complaints returned, from the fame caufe; and were
removed by four grains of the medicine divided into
ten dofes.—A boy of about four years old, labouring
under a real epilepfy, fufpefted to be hereditary, was
! cured by a grain of the flowers of zinc taken every
day for fome time.—A man 50 years old, thrown into
convulfions from a violent paffion, was cured by a grain
of the calx taken every two hours. The difeafe had
gone off upon venefe&ion and the ufe of fome other re¬
medies; but returned again in two weeks, when it was
finally removed by the zinc.—The two laft cafes are
related from Dr Gaubius, who affirms that he has ufed
the flowers of zinc in cafes of the chincough, hyfteric
hiccough, and fpafmus cynicus ; that they frequently
did more than other medicines, but were by no means
fuccefsful in every cafe. The other cures mentioned
by Dr Hart are fimilar to thofe above-mentioned, and
it does not appear that he ever faw a confirmed epi¬
lepfy cured by this medicine.
In the firft volume of Edin. Medical Commentaries>
p. 204, we have an account by Mr Benjamin Bell,
of a man affli&ed with a confirmed epilepfy, who
was confiderably relieved by the flowers of zinc.
He was about 35 years of age, and had been fub-
jeft to the difeafe for 10 years. At firft the pa-
roxyfms did not return oftener than once a month: but
becoming gradually more frequent, they came at laft
to be in a manner continual, rnfomuch that he would
have ten, eleven, or twelve attacks in a day, and very
feldom had an interval of 24 hours. His memory and
^ judgment were fo much impaired, that he could fcarce
anfwer a queftion diftinfily, though he had ufed a great
variety of medicines. About three years before ap¬
plying to Mr Bell, he had violent rheumatic pains in
his limbs, which left fuch an extreme debility that he
was never afterwards able to get out of bed without
the affiftance of two or three people.
On the 22d of Odlober 1772, Mr Bell found him in
the above-mentioned condition, and prefcribed as fol¬
lows:
Fhr. Zinc. gr. x-xiv.
Ext. Gent. ji. M. f. maff. et divid. in pil. xxiv. cap.i.
m. & v.
He continued to take two pills a-day till the firft of
November, without any fenfible benefit. The dofe was
then doubled, and continued till the 12th ; when the fits,
though equally violent, became lefs frequent. The me¬
dicine was gradually augmented to ten pills thrice a-
day; and the confequence was, that his memory and
underftanding returned, the fits became much llighter
CINE. 4787
and lefs frequently repeated, though the difeafe could Practick
not be radically fubdued.
In a young man labouring under the epilepfy, in
whom the fits were preceded by an aura epileptica, or
fenfation like air arifing from the infide of the knee-
joint, the difeafe was alfo relieved, but not cured.
Dr Percival relates fome cafes of epilepfy which
feem to have been cured by the flowers of zinc; and
in other cafes, where the difeafe was not entirely remo¬
ved by it, the fpafms were neverthelefs much mitigated.
He did not obferve that it promoted any evacuation;
except that in fome, upon being firft taken, it occa-
fioned a little ficknefs, . which went off with a ftool.
He adds, that thofe apothecaries who do not prepare
this medicine themfelves, are in great danger of being
impofed upon, as it is fometimes a mere corrofion of
the zinc by an acid, and even imperfe&ly wa/hed'.
The good effe&s of flowers of zinc as an antifpaf-
modic are alfo attefted by Dr Haygarth of Chefter
and Dr White of York. The former gives a left of
their goodnefs which may be of ufe to thofe who do
not prepare them, namely, that the true flowers of
zinc when ftrongly heated become yellow, but reaffume
their white colour on being allowed to cool. The lat¬
ter gives a cafe of hieranofos, or ftrange convulfions of
almoft all the mufcles of the body, cured by zinc,,
after a number of other remedies had failed. The pa¬
tient, however, had been formerly much relieved by
Ward’s antimonial pill.
In Dr Home’s clinical experiments and hiftories, al¬
fo, the flowers of zinc are mentioned as having been
found ferviceable upon trial in the Royal Infirmary of
Edinburgh. Of lie other principal remedies which
have been recommended for the epilepfy and other
convulfive diforders allied to it, we nave the following
account by the fame author.
1. The coldrbath was tried in one who had a convnl-
five diforder of one fide, but the fymptoms were ren¬
dered much worfe by it.
z. Venefeftion. Not to be depended on in-convul¬
fions.
3. Eleftr.icity, In two convulfive cafes this was of
no fervice. See the fedtion on Elediricity^ below.
4. Epifpajlics. Do not feem to be powerful anfl-
fpafmodics.
5. Valerian. In nine convulfive cafes, for which
this remedy hath been reckoned almoft a fpecific, it
not only made no cure, but could fcarcely be reckoned
to do any good. Dr Home fuppofes that it a&s as a
bitter tonic, fomething like the ferpentaria Virginiana.-
“ Tho’much ufed at prefent, (fays he), it has always,
appeared to me a weak, often a hurtful, medicine.”
6. Mufk. Six convulfive patients treated with large-
dofes of this-remedy, were neither cured nor in theleait
relieved.
7. Cajfor feems to be unworthy of the confidence
formerly put in it. It is indeed poffeffed of a fedative
power, and therefore may be ufeful in fpafnaodic
feverifh cafes.
8. Afafeetida hath confiderable antifpafmodic'
powers, but is not always fuccefsful. It heats and
quickens the pulfe; and is therefore improper in cafes-
attended with inflammation. It difagrees with fome
from a peculiarity of conftitution ; exciting pain in the.
ftomach, and vomiting ; but this can be known only
aft etv
4788 M E D I
Practice after the exhibition of the medicine.
* 9. Cortex Peruviams. Of feven fpafmodic cafes,
fix were either cured or mitigated. An epilepfy of
eight years (landing was very much relieved by taking
the bark for a month, and one of two years (landing
by taking it for ten days. But the medicine is of a
heating nature, and therefore is not to be employed in
cafes attended with inflammatory fymptoms.
10. Peony-root was given to two epileptic patients
without the lead fuccefs.
11. Vifcus quercinus, or mifletoc, was given in the
quantity of two fcruples five times a-day to an epileptic
patient, without fuccefs.
12. Extra flam byofciami, was given to an epileptic
patient, to one affli&ed with the hemitotonos, and to
one who laboured under the hyfteric affection, without
the lead good effeft.
13. Folia aurantiorum, were exhibited with the like
bad fuccefs. Five drachms of the powdered leaves
were taken at once without any fenfible effeft.
14. Cardamine pratenfis, in three epileptic cafes was
not attended with any fuccefs.
15. Opium, did no good.
16. Cuprum ammoniacale, made no cure in four cafes
of epilepfy in which it was tried.
Genus LIV. PALPITATIO, Palpitation
of the Heart,
Palpitatio, Sam. gen. 130. Lin. 132. Vog. 213.
Sag. 237. Hoffm. III. 83. Junck. 33.
The palpitation of the heart is fometimes fo vio¬
lent, that it may be heard at a confiderable didance.
It may proceed from a bad conformation of the heart
itfelf, or fome of the large vedels. It may alfo be
occafioned by wounds or abfcefles in the heart; or it
may proceed from polypous concretions or ofllfications
<if that vifcus, or from plethora, fear, or fpafmodic
affeftions of the nervous fyfiem. When it proceeds
from difeafes of the heart or large vefiels, it is
abfolutely incurable. In fpafmodic cafes, the re¬
medies above-related may be ufed. If the patient is
plethoric, bleeding will probably remove the diforder,
at lead for the prefent.
Genus LV. ASTHMA.
Afthma, Sauv. gen. 145. Lin. 161. Vog. 268.
Sog. gen. 282.
Adhma convulfivum et fpafmodica flatulentum,
Hoffm. III. 94.
Afthma fpadicum, Junck. tab. 51.
CXXII. The Spontatieous Asthma. Sp. I.
Afthma humidum, Sauv. fp. 1. Flatulentum, Floytr
on the Afthma, chap. i.
Afthma convulfivum, Sauv. fp. 2. Willis Pharm.
rat. P. II. feft. i. cap. 12.
Allhma hyftericum, Sauv. fp. 3. Floyer on the
Allhma, chap. i.
Afthma ftomachicum, Sauv. fp. 8. Floyer, Scheme
of the Species of Afthma. Periodic Afthma 6.
Orthopncca fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Orthopncea hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 4.
CINE. Part II.
CXXIII. The Exanthematic Asthma. Sp. II. t>RACfl j
Afthma exanthematicum, Sauv. fp. n. 397 ■
Afthma cacheticum, Sauv. fp. 13.
CXXIV. The Plethoric Asthma. Sp. III. 398
Afthma plethoricum, Sauv. fp. 15.
The afthnaa is a chronic difeafe, which may conti¬
nue to give very great diftrefs, at intervals, for a confi¬
derable number of years. Sir John Floyer, when he
wrote his celebrated treatife, had laboured under re¬
peated paroxyfms for 30 years.
The common diftinftion is into humid dry ; the
former is accompanied with an expedloration of mucus
or purulent matter, but the latter is not fo attended.
In the genuine humoral afthma, the patients are obli¬
ged to lean forward ; the infpiration is (hort and fpaf¬
modic ; and the exfpiration very flow.
Afthmatic perfons have generally fome warning of
the attack, from a languor, lofs of appetite, oppref-
fion, and fwclling of the ftomach from flatulence,
which precede the fit, but it is ufually in the middle
of the night, that the violent difficulty of breathing
comes on.
The duration of the paroxyfm is uncertain, as it will
fometimes terminate in three or four hours, while at
other times it (hall continue for as many days;
nay, it has been known to laft three weeks with¬
out intermiffion. While it fubfifts, the patient is in
very great diftrefs, not being able to lie in bed,
nor fcarcely to fpeak or expe&orate, fo great is
the difficulty of breathing; and yet, notwithftand-
ing all this apparent interruption to the freepaflage of
the blood through the lungs, an inflammation here
feldom or never iupervenes a fit of the afthma. As the
paroxyfm wears ofiT, and the breathing becomes free,
there is more or lefs of an expe&oration of mucus; and
the urine, from being pale and limpid, becomes high-
celoured, and lets fall a copious fediment.
In order to obtain relief in the fit, we mull fome¬
times bleed, unlefs extreme weaknefs or old age (hould
forbid, and repeat it according to the degrees of
ftrength and fulnefs : a purging clyfter, with a folu-
tion of afafoetida, mull be immediately injeiled ; and
if the violence of the fymptoms (hould abt fpeedily
abate, it will be proper to blifter the nape of the neck.
In the height of the paroxyfm, an emetic might be
followed by dangerous fymptoms, as it would increafe
the accumulation of blood in the vefiels of the head ;
but vomiting will often prevent a fit of the afthma,
efpecially if the ftomach (hould chance to be loaded
with any fort of faburra. A very (Irong infufion of
roafted coffee has been found togiveeafe in an afthma¬
tic paroxyfm.
Dr Pringle fays it is the bed abater of the paroxyfnw
of the periodic afthma that he has feen. The coffee
ought to be of the bed Mocco, newly burnt, and made
very ftrong immediately after grinding it. He com¬
monly ordered an ounce for one di(h ; which is to be
repeated frefh after the interval of a quarter, or half an
hour ; and which is to be taken without milk or fugar.
The medicine in general is mentioned by Mufgrave in
his treatife de Arthritide anoinala ; but he firft heard
of it from a phyfician in Litchfield, who had been in-
formetP
ufart II. M E D I
iiiAcTicK formed by the old people of that place, that Sir John
Floyer, during the latter part of his life, kept free from,
or at leaft lived eafy under his afthma, from the ufe of
very ftrong coffee. This difcovery, it feems, he made
after the publication of his book upon that difeafe.
Dr Percival fays he has frequently dire&ed coffee in
the aflhma with great fuccefs.
In the intervals of the fits, perfons fubjeft to the afth-
ma, efpecially the humid fpecies, fhould take eme¬
tics from time to time. An infufion of tobacco is an
emetic that has been found very ferviceable in fome
afthmatic cafes; and fmoking or chewing the fame
has been known to prevent the frequency and feverity
of the paroxyfms. They fhould alfo ufe the lac am¬
moniac!, with a due proportion of oxymel fcilliticum
and 'vinum antimoniale, with a view to promote expec¬
toration ; or the gum ammoniac, and others of fimilar
virtues, may be formed into pills, and combined with
fioap, as beforementioned for the dyfpncea pituitofa ;
or a mafs may be compofed of afafcetida and balfam
of Tolu, with fyr. ex allio; and thefe pills may be
wafhed down by a medicated wine, impregnated with
fquills, horfe-radifh root, and muftard-feed; or a
ftrong bitter infufion, with a little antimonial wine.
In fome cafes crude mercury will be found fervice¬
able ; in others flowers of fulphur, made into an elec¬
tuary with honey or fyrup of garlic; and if, not-
withftanding the ufe of thefe things, a coftive habit
fhould prevail, it will be neceflary, from time to time,
to give a few grains of the pil. Rufi, foap and aloes,
I or a mafs of equal parts of rhubarb, fcammony, and
foap.
The dry or fpafmodic aflhma, during the extreme
violence of the fit, is beft relieved by opiates ; and
fometimes very large dofes are required. But* in order
to obtain permanent relief, nothing is found to anfwer
! better than the radix ipecacuanha, in fmall dofes.
Three, five, eight or ten grains, according to the
ftrength and conftitution of the patient, given every
other day, have been produ&ive of the happieft ef-
fefts; aifting fometimes as an evacuant, pumping
up the vifcid phlegm ; at others, as an antifpafmodic
or fedative. Ifliies are generally recommended in both
fpecies, and will often be found ufeful.
Changes of weather are ufually felt very fenfibly by
afthmatic people, who in general cannot live with to¬
lerable eafe in the atmofphere of large cities ; though
we fliall fometimes meet with patients who agree bet¬
ter with this air, which is fo replete with grofs effluvia
of various kinds, than with the pureft that can be
found in country fituations. And fome are found who
breathe with the moft eafe in a crowded room, with a
fire and candles.
A light diet of meats that are eafy of digeftion, and
not flatulent, is requifite for afthmatic people ; and the
exercife of riding is indifpenfably neceflary.
When the afthma is found to depend on fome other
difeafe, whether it be the gout or an intermittent fe¬
ver, or when it proceeds from the ftriking in of fome
cutaneous eruption, regard mult always be had to the
primary difeafe : thus, in the ajlhma arthriticum, fi-
uapifms to the feet, or bliftering, will be abfolutely
iieceflary, in order, if poffible, to bring on a fit of the
gout. And when the dregs of an ague give rife to an
afthma, which is termed febriculofum, and invades at
Vol. VI. 2
CINE. 4789
regular intervals, we muft have recourse to the cortex. Pr act it!
The ajlhma exanthematicum will require blitters or iflues,
to give vent to the acrid matters which were repelled
from the furface of the body ; and courfes of fulphu-
reous waters, goat’s whey, and fweetening diet-drinks,
or perhaps mercurial alteratives, in order to correct
the tharpnefs of the juices.
Genus LVI. DYSPNOEA, or Habitual Diffi¬
culty of Breathing.
Dyfpnoea, Sauv. gen. 144. Lin. 160. Fog. 267.
Sag. 251. Junck. 32.
CXXV. The Catarrhal Dyspnoe^. Sp. I. 399
Afthma catarrhale, Sauv. fp. 16.
Afthma pneumonicum, Willis Pharm. Pat. P. II.
fe£l. 1. cap. 12.
Afthma pituitofum, Hojjfvi- III. feft. ii. cap. 2. $ 3.
Afthma pneumodes, Sauv. fp. 17.
This is readily known by the fymptoms of pneumo¬
nia and catarrh attending it, and towards the removal
of thefe fymptoms the care of the phyfician muft be
principally dire&ed.
CXXVL The Dry Dyspnoea. Sp. II.
Dyfpncea a tuberculis, ahydatibus, &c. Sam. fp.2. 4°<?
4. 5. 20.
Orthopncea a lipomate, Sauv. fp. »8.
This is generally accompanied with a phthifia pul-
monalis ; but Sauvages mentions one fpecies of phthi-
fis to which the dry dyfpnoca feems more particularly
to belong. The patients fall away by degrees, and
have a great difficulty of breathing, continual thirft,
and little or no fpitting. When opened after death,
their lungs are found not to be ulcerated, but fhrivel-
led and contrafled as if they had been fmoke-dried.
Goldfmiths and chemifts are faid to be fubjeft to this
difeafe by reafon of the vapours they draw in with
their breath. Our author doth not mention any par¬
ticular remedy. Shortnefs of breath arifing from tu¬
bercles, as they are termed, or a fcirrhous enlarge¬
ment of the lymphatic glands which are difperfed
through the lungs, is commonly found in fcrofulous
habits, and may be diftinguifhed by the concomitan-
cy of thofe external fwellings and appearances which
particularly mark the fcrofula. This fpecies of dyfp¬
ncea generally ends in a phthifis. Courfes of goat’s
whey, and of fea-water, have been known to do fer-
vice^ but it muft be confefied, that a perfeft cure is
feldom obtained. Iflues are of ufe in thefe cafes, as
they appear to prevent the ill effe&sofan over-fulnefs,
if it fhould happen at any time to fupervene.
CXXVII. Dyspnoea from Changes in the Weather. 4°*
Sp. III. (Sauv. fp. 12.)
This feems to be a difeafe entirely fpafmodic, and
the antifpafmodics already related are accordingly in¬
dicated.
CXXVIII. The Dyspnoea from Earthy Subfiances 402
formed in the Lungs. Sp. IV.
Sauvages mentions this difeafe as much more com¬
mon in brutes than in the human race: but Dr Cullen
mentions his having feen fome inftances of it; and we
27 C have
479° M E D I
Practice have feveral accounts by different authors of calculous
matters being coughed up by people labouring under
a dyfpnoea, and threatened with confumption. In
three cafes of this kind which fell under Dr Cullen’s
infpe&ion, there was no appearance of earthy or ftony
concretions in any other part of the body. The cal¬
careous matter was coughed' up frequently with a little
blood, fornetimes with mucus only, and fometimes
with pus. In one of thefe cafes, an exquifitely formed
phthifis came on, and proved mortal: in the other two
the fymptoms of phthifis were never fully formed; and
after fome time, merely by a milk-diet and avoiding
irritation, the patients entirely recovered.
Sauvages alfo greatly recommends milk in thefe
cafes, and foap for diffolving the concretions. The
reafon why brutes are more fubjeA to thefe pulmo¬
nary calculi than mankind, is, that they very feldom
cough, and thus the ftagnating mucus or lymph con¬
cretes into a kind of gypfeous matter.
403 CXXIX. The Watery Dyspnoea. Sp. V.
Dyfpncea pituitofa, Sauv. fp. x.
Orthopncea ab hydropneumonia, Sauv. fp. 12.
This may arife from too great a defluxion of mucus
on the lungs, or from an effufion of ferum, as is men¬
tioned under the pneumonia. The treatment of the
difeafe may be gathered from what has been already
faid under the heads of pneumonia, catarrh, empye¬
ma, &c.
4°4 CXXX. The Dyspnoea from Corpulency. Sp. VI.
Othopnoea a pinguedine, Sauv. fp. 6.
There have been many inftances of fuffocation and
death occafioned by too great corpulency. Thefe fa¬
tal effefts, however, may be almoft always avoided if
the perfons have refolution to perfifl in an a&ive and
very temperate courfe of life; avoiding animal-food,
much fleep, and ufing a great deal of exercife. In the
third volume of the Medical obfervations, however,
there is an extraordinary inftance of internal obefity
which neither (hewed itfelf externally, nor could be
removed by any medicines.
Other fpecies of dyfpnoea have been treated under
Phthisis. It is frequently fymptomatic of difeafes
of the heart and large veffels, or fwellings of the ab¬
domen, &c.
4oc CXXXI. PERTUSSIS, the Chincough.
^ Genus LVII.
Pertuffis Sydenham, Ed. Leid. p. 200. 311. 312.
Huxhatn&e acre, ad. ann. 1732.
Tufiis convulfiva, five ferina, Hoffm. III. in.
Tuffisferina, Sauv. fp. 10. Sag. fp. 10.
Tufiis convulfiva, Sauv. fp. 11. Sag. fp. n.
Amphimerina tufficulofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
Defcription. This difeafe comes on at firft like a com¬
mon cold ; but is from the beginning attended with a
greater degree of dyfpnoea than is common in that dif¬
eafe ; and there is a remarkable affeftion of the eyes,
as if they were fwelled, and a little pulhed out of their
fockets. By degrees the fits of coughing become
longer and more violent, till at laft they are plainly
convulfive, fo that for a confiderable time the patient
sannot refpire, and when at laft he recovers his breath,
CINE. Part II.
infpiration is performed with alhrill kind of noife like Practice I
the crowing of a cock. This kind of infpiration 1
ferves only as an introdudfion to another convulfive fit
of coughing, which is in like manner followed by an¬
other infpiration of the fame kind; and thus it conti¬
nues for fome time, very often till the patient vomits,
which puts an end to the paroxyfm at that time.
Thefe paroxyfms are attended with a violent determi¬
nation of the bipod towards the head, fo that the vef¬
fels become extremely turgid, and blood not unfre-
quently flows from the mouth and nofe. The difeafe is
tedious, and often continues for many months. It is
not commonly attended with fever.
Gaufes, &c. The chincough is an infeflious difor-
der, and very often epidemic; but the nature of the
contagion is not underftood. It generally attacks
children, or adults of a lax habit, making its attack
generally in the fpring or autumn ; and thofe children
who live upon unwholefome watery food, or breathe
unwholefome air, are moft liable to its attacks, and
fuffer moft from them. In general it may be con¬
cluded, that whatever weakens the folids, or tends to
bring on a diffolution of the fluids, predifpofes to this
difeafe.
Progmjis. The chincough is not very often fatal.
In children under two years of age it is moft danger¬
ous ; and kills them by producing convulfions, fuffo¬
cation, inflammation, and fuppuration of the brain,
ruptures, and incurvation of the fpine. In pregnant
women it will produce abortion; and, in adults, in¬
flammations of the lungs, and all the confcquences of
pneumonia, more frequently than in children. From
a long continuance of the difeafe patients will become
afthmatic, ricketty, and fcrophulous. It is generally
reckoned a good fign when a fit terminates by vomit¬
ing ; for in this difeafe there feems to be a prodigious
increafe of the fecretion of mucus, and the vomiting
affords great relief.
Cure. The moft approved remedies in this difeafe
are vomits, purges, bleeding, and the attenuating pec¬
torals, for the other kinds generally do hurt. But
large evacuations of any kind are pernicious. In the
Medical Obfervations, Vol. III. Dr Morris recom¬
mends caftor and the bark ; but in cafes attended with
any degree of inflammation, the latter muft certainly
do hurt, and the former will generally be infignifi-
cant. Dr Butter, in a differtation exprefsly on the
fubjeft, inftances 20 cafes of it cured by the ex-
trad of hemlock. He direds half a grain a-day for
a child under fix months old; one grain for a child
from fix months to two years ; afterwards allowing
half a grain for every year of the patient’s age till he
be 20: beyond that period, he direds ten grains to
be given for the firft day’s confumption, gradually in-
creafing the dofe according to the effed. If the pa¬
tient has not two ftools a-day, he advifes magnefia or
polychreft fait to be added to the hemlock mixture.
By this method he fays the peculiar fymptoms of the
difeafe are removed in the fpace of a week ; nothing
but a flight cough remaining. The ufe of hemlock,
however, hath by no means become univerfal in con-
fequence of this publication, nor indeed is the remedy
at prefent much ufed in cafes of chincough or any
other difeafe. The remedy moft to be depended up¬
on in this difeafe is change of air. The patient, as fooo
as
Jart II. M E D I
*ictice as the difeafe is fully formed, ought to remove to
~t' fome other part of the country ; but there is no occa-
fion for going to a diftant place ; a mile or two, or
frequently a fmaller diftance, will be fufficient; and in
this new habitation he muft remain till the diforder
goes off, which it will generally do in a Ihort time :
tho’ fome recommend frequent changes of air and habi¬
tation. But it will not do to take the patient out daily,
and return to his town-habitation at night. If the difeafe
is attended with fever, bleeding and other antiphlogiftic
remedies are proper. Dr Buchan recommends an oint¬
ment made of equal parts of garlic and hog’s lard ap¬
plied to the foies of the feet. It ought to be put
on a rag and applied like a plafter. Opiates may
fometimes be ufeful, but in general are to be a-
voided.
406 CXXXII. PYROSIS, the Heart-Burn.
Genus LVIIL
Pyrofis, Saav. gen. 200. Sag. 15S.
Soda, Lin. 47• Vog. 154.
Scotis, the Water-Brash.
Pyrofis Suecica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Cardialgia fputatoria, Saii’v. fp. 5.
This difeafe, whether confidered as primary or fymp-
tomatic, hath already been fully treated under Dy¬
spepsia.
Genos LIX. COLICA. The Colic.
Colica, Sauv. gen. 204. Lin. 50. Vog. 160. Sag.
162. Junck. 106.
Colica fpafmodica et flatulenta, Hoffm. II- 284.
Rachialgia, Sauv. gen. 211. Sag. 168.
Ileus, Sauv. gen. 252. Vog. 162. Sag. gen. 187.
Iliaca, Lin. 185.
Dolor et fpafmus iliacus, Hoffm. II. 263.
Paffio iliaca, Junck. 107.
407 CXXXIII. The Spafmodic Colic. Sp. I.
Colica flatulenta, pituitofa, &c. Sauv. fp. t. 2. 5.
6. 7. Ileus phyfodes, volvulus, inflammatorius,
&c. Ejufd. fp. 1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9.
Defcription. The colic is chiefly known by a vio¬
lent pain in the abdomen, commonly about the umbi¬
lical region. The pain refembles various kinds of
fenfations, as of burning, twilling, boring, a ligature
drawn very tight, &c. The belly is generally coltive,
though fometimes thefe is a violent evacuation of bi¬
lious matters upwards and downwards. In thefe cafes
the difeafe is fometimes accompanied from the begin¬
ning with a weak and intermitting pulfe, cold fweats,
and fainting. In fome the difeafe comes on gradual¬
ly, beginning with an habitual coftivenefs 5 and if
purgatives are taken, they do not operate. The pain
comes on generally after a meal, and foon occafions
naufea and vomiting. Sometimes the difeafe is attend¬
ed with pyrexia, violent third, and a full pulfe ; the
vomiting becomes more violent, and excrementitious
matters are thrown up with the mod exqnilite pain and
tendon of the abdomen ; an hickup comes on, which
continues obdinately; till at lad a ceffation of pain and
foetid breath indicates a mortification of the intedines,
CINE. 4791
and approaching death. Sometimes the periftaltic Pr a. i ick
motion of the intedines is fo totally inverted, that all
the contents of the intedines are evacuated by the
mouth, and even clyders will be vomited; which con-
ftitutes that difeafe commonly called the iliac paffion.
Caufcs, &c. Colics may arife from any fudde*
check given to perfpiration, as by violent cold applied
to any part of the body, efpecially to the lower ex¬
tremities and abdomen. Very frequently they areoc-
cafioned by audere, acid, or indigedible aliments ta¬
ken into the domach. By any of thefe, a violent co¬
lic, or indeed an iliac paffion, may be occafioned ; for
Dr Cullen judly obferves, that this lad, though com¬
monly accounted a different fpecies of difeafe, differs
from a colic in no other way than in being in every
xefpeft in a much higher degree. In thofe who have
died of this difeafe and been differed, the gut hath
fometimes been found twided; but more commonly
there hath been an introfufeeption of the intedine, that
is, one part of the gut feems to have entered within
the other. In the Edinburgh Medical Effays, Vol. III.
we have a diflertation on the ufe of the warm bath in
the bilious colic, in which the author derives the difor¬
der from a fpafmodic condri&ion of the intedine occa-
lioned by the acrimony of the bile. By this, he fays,
the intedine is not only contradled into an unufual
narrownefs, but coats of it have been found, upon
diffeftion, fo clofely joined, that no paifage could
be made downwards more than if they had been
Arongly tied by a ligature. The formation «f the in-
trofufeeptio he explains by quoting a paffage from
Peyerus, who made the following experiment on a
frog. Having irritated the intedine of the animal in
feveral different places, he obferved it to contradl at
thofe places mod violently, and to protrude its contents
upwards and downwards wherever the relaxed date of
the part would permit; by which means the contents
were heaped together in different parts. Hence fome
parts of the intedine being dilated much more than
enough, by reafon of the great quantity of matter
thrown into them, formed a kind offack which readi¬
ly received the conftri&ed part into it. If this hap¬
pens in the human body, there is the greated danger
of a mortification, becaufe the part which is condric-
ted, and at any rate difpofed to inflammation, hath
that difpofition very much increafed by its confinement
within the other, and by the preffure of the contents
of the alimentary canal from the domach downwards
upon it. An iliac paffion may alfo arife from the
drangulatiim of part of the intedine in a hernia ; and
even a very fmall portion of it thus drangulated may
occafion a fatal difeafe. In the Medical Obfervations,
Vol. IV. however, we have an account of an iliac paf¬
fion arifing from a very different caufe, which could
neither have been fufpedied nor cured by any other way
than theoperation of^rf/frc&w^'jor opening the abdomen
of the patient, in order to remove the caufe of the dif¬
order. The patient, a woman of about 28 years of age,
died after fuffering extreme torture for fix days. The
body being opened, fome quantity of a dirty colour¬
ed fluid was found in the cavity of the abdomen. The
jejunum and ileon were greatly didended with air. A
portion of the omentum adhered to the tnefentery, near
that part where the ileon terminates in the caecum.
27 C 2 From
4792 M E D I
Practice From this adhefion, which was clbfe to the fpine, there
ran a ligamentous cord or procefs about two inches
and a half long, unequally thick, in fome places not
thicker than a packthread ; which by its other extre¬
mity adhered to the coats of the ileon, about two
inches above the ceecum. This cord formed a circle
with the mefentery, large enough to admit a hen’s egg
to pafs through it. The chord had formed a noofe
(in a manner difficult to be explained), which included
a doubling of about two inches of the lower end of the
ileon ; and was drawn fo tight, that it not only put a
flop to the pafTage of every thing through the bowels,
and brought on a gangrene of the ftrangulated part,
but it had even cut through all the coats of the inte-
ftine on the oppofite fide to the mefentery, and made an
aperture about an inch long. In the Memoirs of the
Academy of Surgery are mentioned feveral limilar cafes.
Prognojis. The colic is never to be reckoned void
of danger, as it may unexpedledly terminate in an
inflammation and gangrene of the inteftines. Thofe
fpecies of it which are attended with purging mu ft be
confidered as much lefs dangerous than thofe in which
the vomiting is very violent. The iliac paffion, or
that attended with the vomiting of faeces, is always
to be accounted highly dangerous; but if the paflage
through the inteftines is free, even though their pe-
riftaltic motion ffiould be inverted, and clyfters eva¬
cuated by the mouth, there is much more hope of a
cure, than when the belly is obftinately coftive, and
there is fome fixed obftruftion which feems to bid de¬
fiance to all remedies.
Cure. As the chief danger in colics arifes from an
inflammation and confequent mortification of the in¬
teftines, it is efientially neceflary, in the firft place, to
diminifh the tendency to a pyrexia, if there fliould
happen to be any. This is accompliihed by bleeding,
emollient inje&ions, warm bathing, and cooling me¬
dicines taken inwardly. Dr Porter, in the efiay above-
mentioned, ftrongly recommends the warm bath in
thofe colics attended with violent evacuations of bile.
He fuppofes it to do fervice by relaxing the conftric-
tion of the inteftines, and thus preventing or removing
the introfufceptio. In the mean time opiates may be
given to eafe the pain, while every method is tried, by
cathartics and glyfters of various kinds, to procure a
ftool. In obftinate cafes, where ftimulating cathartics
have proved ineffe£tual,the milder kinds, fuchas manna,
fenna, oleum ricini, &c. will fucceed ; but where every
thing of this kind fails, recourfe muft be had to fome
of the more extraordinary methods. Some have re¬
commended the fwallowing of leaden bullets, on a fup-
pofition that by their weight they would force through
the obftru&ion into the gut; but thefe feem much
more likely to create than to remove an obftruftion.
It is impoffible they can a£t by their gravity, becaufe
the inteftines do not lie in a ftraight line from the
pylorus to the anus ; and though this were actually
the cafe, we cannot fuppofe that the weight of a leaden
bullet could prove very efficacious in removing either
a fpafmodic conftridlion, or an obftruftion from any
other catife. But when we confider, not only that the
inteftines confift of a great multitude of folids, but that
their periftaltic motion (by which only the contents
are forced through them) is inverted, the futility of
his remedy muft be evident. It might rather be
CINE. Part II.
fuppoied to aggravate the difeafe ; as the lead, byPRAcri
its preffiire, would tend to fix the introfufception
more firmly, or perhaps pu(h it (till further on. The
fame thing may be faid of quickfilver: not mention
the pernicious confequences to be apprehended from
fwallowing large quantities of this mineral, even
if it ftiould prove efficacious fn relieving the pa¬
tient for the prefent. Another method hath been
propofed, in the Medical Eflays, for relieving the
miferable patients in this diforder, which at leaft
can be attended with no bad confequences, and in
many cafes hath been known to do fervice. The pa¬
tient is to be taken out of bed, and made to walk about
on the cold floor of a damp apartment. At the fame
time, porringers of cold water are to be daihed on
his feet, legs, and thigs; and this muft be continued
for an hour or longer, if a ftool is not procured be¬
fore that time, though this will generally be the
cafe much fooner. The exercife doth not at all im¬
pair the patient’s ftrength, but rather adds to it; and
fome very remarkable inftances are adduced in the
6th volume of the Medical Eflays, where this proved
effeftual after all other medicines had failed. In one
perfon the difeafe had come on with an habitual
coftivenefs, and he had been fora week tormented with
the moft violent pain and vomiting, which could be
flopped neither by anodynes nor any other medicines,
the fliarpeft clyfters being returned unaltered, and all
kinds of purgatives thrown up foon after they were
fwallowed ; but by the above-mentioned method, a
ftool was procured in 35 minutes, and the patient re¬
covered. In fome others the coftivenefs had continued
for a much longer time.—Other remedies are, the
blowing air into the inteftines by means of a bellows,
and the inje6ling clyfters of the fmoke of tobacco.
But neither of thefe feem very capable of removing
the difeafe. They can affeft only the parts below
the obftrudlion ; while, to cure the difeafe,. it is ne¬
ceflary that the obftrufled parts themfelves flionld be
reached by the medicine, and therefore we have not
many well-attefted inftances of their fuccefs. The
cold water gives a general and very confiderable
fliock to the fyftem, cheeks the perfpiration, and thus
drives the humours inward upon the inteftines, by
which they receive a much more effe&ual ftimulus than
can be fuppofed to arife from any kind of clyfter.
But when all methods have failed, the only chance
the patient can have for life is by a manual operation.
See Surgery.
In thofe colics which are attended with faintings,
&c. from the beginning, and which generally attack
hyfteric women and other debilitated perfons, all kinds
of evacuations are pernicious; and the cure is to be
attempted by anodynes and cordials, which will feldom
fail of fuccefs.
CXXXIV. Colica Pictonum ; the Colic of
Poittou. Sp. II. 4°8
Rachialgia Pi&onum, Sauv.fy. 1.
Rachialgia metallica, Sauv. fp. 3. *
Colica Pidtonum Citejii et fuccedentium auflorum.
Another caufe to which violent colics are frequent¬
ly to be aferibed, and which often gives occafion to
them where it is very little fufpedfted, is lead, or
fome
MEDICINE.
sPart II.
alt act ice fome folution or fume of it, received into the body.
‘ To this caufe is evidently owing the colics to which
plumbers, lead-miners, and fmelters of lead, are fub-
}e£t. To the fame caufe, though not fo apparent at
firft fight, are we to afcribe the Devonfiiire colic,
where lead was received into the body diflblved in
cyder, the common drink of the inhabitants of that
county. This hath been proved by experiment; for
lead hath been extra&ed from cyder in quantity fuffi-
cient to produce pernicious effedls on the human
body. The colic of Poidou, and what is called the
dry belly-ache in the Weft Indies, are of the fame
nature ; for which reafon we give the following ge¬
neral defcription of the fymptoms of all thefe dif-
eafes.
The patient is generally firft feized with an acute
pain at the pit of the ftomach, which extends itfelf
down with griping pains to the bowels. Soon after
there is a diftenfion, as with wind; and frequent reach-
ings to vomit, without bringing up any thing but
fmall quantities of bile and phlegm. An obftinate
coftivenefs follows, yet fometimes attended with a
tenefmus, and the bowels feem to the patient as if
they were drawn up towards the back ; at other times
■they are drawn into hard lumps, or hard rolls,
which are plainly perceptible to the hand on the belly,
by ftrong convulfive fpafms. Sometimes the coats of
the inteftines feem to be drawn up from the anus and
down from the pylorus towards the navel. When a
ftool is procured by artificial means, as clyfters, &c.
the fseces appear in little hard knots like ftieep’s dung,
called fcybals, and are in fmall quantity. There is,
however, ufually an obftinate coftivenefs ; the urine
is difcharged in fmall quantity, frequently with pain
and much difficulty. The pulfe is generally low,
though fometimes a little quickened by the violence
of the pain ; but inflammatory fymptoms very feldom
occur. The extremities are often cold, and fometimes
the violence of the pain caufes cold clammy fweats
and fainting. The mind is generally much affe&ed,
and the fpirits are funk. The difeafe is often tedious,
efpecially if improperly treated, infomuch that the
patients will continue in this miferable ftate for twenty
or thirty days fucceffively; nay, inftances have been
known of its continuing for fix months. In this cafe
the pains at laft become almoft intolerable r the pa¬
tient’s breath acquires a ftrong fetid fmell like excre¬
ments, from a retention of the fseces, and an abforp-
tion of the putrid effluvia from them by the ladteals.
At laft, when the pain in the bowels begins to abate,
a pain comes on in the (houlder-joints and adjoining
muffles, with an unufual fenfation and tingling along
the fpinal marrow. This foon extends itfelf from
thence to the nerves of the arms and legs, which be¬
come weak; and that weaknefs inereafes till the
extreme parts become paralytic, with a total lofs of
motion, though a benumbed fenfation often remains.
Sometimes, by a fudden metaftafis, the brain becomes
affefted, a ftupor and delirium come on, and the
nervous fyftem is irritated to fuch a degree as to pro¬
duce general convulfions, which are frequently followed
by death. At other times, the periftakic motion of
the inteftines is inverted, and a true iliac paffion is
produced, which alfo proves fatal in a ffiort time.
Sometimes the paralytic affediion of the extremities
goes off, and the pain of the bowels returns with its
former violence; and on the ceffation of the pain in
the inteftines, the extremities again become paralytic,
and thus the pain and palfy will alternate for a very
long time.
Cure. Various methods have been attempted for
removing this terrible difeafe. The obftinate coftive¬
nefs which attends it, made phyficians at firft exhibit
very ftrong purgatives and ftimulating clyfters. But
thefe medicines, by increafing the convulfive fpafms of
the inteftines, were found to be pernicious. Balfam
of Peru, by its warm aromatic power, was found to
fucceed much better; and Dr Sydenham accordingly
prefcribed it in the quantity of 40 drops twice or
thrice a-day taken on fugar. This, with gentle pur¬
gatives, opiates, and fome drops of the hotter effential
oils, continued to be the medicine commonly em¬
ployed in this difeafe, till a fpecific was pubftilhed by
Dr Lionel Chalmers of South Carolina. This Receipt
was purchafed by Dr Chalmers from a family where
it had long been kept a fecret. The only unufual
medicine in this receipt, and on which the efficacy of
it chiefly if not wholly depends, is Roman vitriol-
This muft be diffolved in water, in the quantity of
one grain to an ounce, and the dofe of the folution
is a wine-glafsful given faffing for nine fucceffive
mornings. For the firft four or five days this me¬
dicine difcharges much seruginous bile both ways r
but the excretions of this humour leffen by degrees ;
and before the courfe is ended, it hath, little other
effedl than to caufe fome degree of fqueamifhnefs, or
promote a few bilious (tools, or perhaps may not
move the patient at all. At the time of ufing this
medicine the patients (hould live upon broth made of
lean meat, gruel, or panado ; but about the feventh
or eighth day, they may be allowed bread and boiled
chicken. Here the copper feems to do fervice by
itstonic power ; and for the fame reafon, alum, recom¬
mended by Dr Percival, moll probably cures the
difeafe. He fays he hath found this very efficacious in
obftinate affeftions of the bowels, and that it gene¬
rally proves a cure in the (lighter cafes of the colica
piftonum. It was given to the quantity of fifteen
grains every fourth, fifth, or fixth hour; and the
third dofe feldom failed to mitigate the pain, and
fometimes entirely removed it. Among purgative
medicines, the oleum Ricini is found to be the mod
efficacious.
CXXXV. The Colic from Cojiivenefs. Sp. III.
Colica ftercorea, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ileus a fecibus induratis, Sauv. fp. z.
For the treatment of this fpecies, fee above.
CXXXVI. The Accidental Colic. Sp. IV.
Colica Japonica,—accidentalis,—ladtentium,—a ve-
neno, Avai;. fp. 10. 14. 18. zo.
Cholera ficca auriginofa a fungis venenatis, ejufd.
fp. 2.
When colics arife from acrid poifonous matter taken
into the ftomach, the only cure is either to evacuate
the poifon itfelf by vomit, or to fwallow fome other
fubftance which may decompound it, and. thus render
it ina&ive. The mod common and dangerous fub-
ftances
4793
Practice
409.
410
479+
Practice {lances of this kind are corrofive mercury and arfemc.
The former is eafily decompounded by alkaline fait;
and therefore a folution of fait of tartar, if fwallowed
before the poifon hath time to induce a mortification
of the bowels, will prove a certain cure. Much more
uncertain, however, is the cafe when arfenic is fwallow¬
ed, becaufe there is no certain and fpeedy folvent of
that fubttance yet known. Milk hath been recom¬
mended as efficacious; and lately folution of hepar ful*
phuris. The latter may poffibly do fervice; as arfe¬
nic unites readily with fulphur, and hath its pernicious
qualities more obtunded by that than by any other
known fubftance: but indeed, even the folvent powers
of this medicine are fo weak, that its effefts as well as
thofe of others muft be very uncertain. See Chemi¬
stry, n° 466.
Some kinds of fungi, when fwallowed, are apt to pro¬
duce colics attended with ftupor, delirium, and convul-
* See M ^ons ’ an<^ t^ie ^ame f°metimes happens from eating a
fe/w.6 ^ large quantity of mufcles *. Some of the fungi, doubt-
lefs, may have an inherent poifonous quality ; but ge¬
nerally they as well as the roufcles aft on a different
principle. Their pernicious effefts happen moll com¬
monly when they are taken on an empty Itomach ; and
are then occafioned by their adhering fo clofe to its
coats, that it cannot exert its powers, and the whole fy-
ftem is thrown into the utmoft diforder. The malady
may therefore be very eafily prevented ; but when once
it hath taken place, it cannot be removed till either a
vomiting is excited, or the ftomach hath recovered itfelf
in fuch a manner as to throw off the adhering matter.
411 CXXXVII. Colic of New-born Infants from a Re¬
tention of the Meconium. Sp. V. {Sauv. fp. 19.)
This diforder would be prevented were children al¬
lowed immediately to fuck their mothers, whofe milk
at firft is purgative. But as this is not commonly done,
the child is frequently troubled with colics. Thefe,
however, may be removed by a few grains of ipeca¬
cuanha, a grain of emetic tartar, or a drop or two
of antimonial wine. By thefe means the ftomach is
cleanfed by vomiting, and the belly is generally loofen-
ed; but if this laft effeft doth not happen, fome gentle
purge will be neceffary.
,I2 CXXXVIII. The Colic from a Callojity of the Colon,
Sp- VI.
It is in a manner impolfible to difcover this diftem-
per before the patient’s death; and though it fhould,
it doth not admit of a cure.
413 CXXXIX. The Colic from JnteJUnal Calculi. Sp.VII.
(Sauv. fp. XO. 15.)
When certain indigeftible bodies, fuch as cherry-
ftones, plum-ftones, fmall pieces of bones, &c. are
fwallowed, they frequently prove the bafis of calculi,
formed by an accretion of fome kind of earthy matter,
and, being detained in fome of the flexures of the inte-
ftines, often occafion very violent colics. Thefe calculi
do not difcover themfelves by any peculiar fymptoms,
nor do they admit of any method of cure. In the Me¬
dical Effays we have an inftance of colics for fix years,
occafioned by calculi of this kind. The concretions
were at laft paffed by ftool; and their paffage was pro¬
cured by caufmg the patient drink a large quantity of
Part II.
warm water, with a view to promote the evacuation of Practjcj
bile, a redundancy of which was fuppofed to be the
caufe of her diforder.
Genus LX. CHOLERA, the Cholera Morbus.
Cholera, Sauv. 253. Lin. 186. Vog. 110. Sag. 188.
Hoffm. II. 165.
Diarrhoea cholerica, Junck. 112.
CXL. The Spontaneous Cholera, coming on without 41+
any manifeft caufe. Sp. I.
Cholera fpontanea, Sauv. fp. I. Sydenh. feft. iv
cap. 2.
Cholera Indica, Sauv. fp. 7.
CXLI. The Cholera, from acrid matters 415 '
taken inwardly. Sp. II.
Cholera crapulofa, Sauv. fp. 11.
Cholera a venenis, Sauv. fp. 4. 5.
The cholera {hews itfelf by enormous vomiting and
purging of corrupted matters, with violent pain, infla¬
tion and diftenfion of the belly. Sometimes the pa¬
tients fall into univerfal convulfions ; and fometimes
they are affefted with violent fpafms in particular
parts of the body. There is a great thirft, fmall and
unequal pulfe, cold fweats, fainting, coldnefs of the
extremities, and hickup ; and death frequently enfues
in 24 hours. The cure of this diftemper is effefted by
giving the patient a large quantity of warm water, or
very weak broth, in order to cleanfe the ftomach of the
irritating matter which occafionsthe difeafe, and injec¬
ting the fame by way of clyfter, till the pains begin to
abate a little. After this, a large dofe of laudanum is
to be given in fome convenient vehicle, and repeated
as there is occafion. But if the vomiting and purging
have continued for a long time before the phyfician is
Called, immediate recourfe muft be had to the lauda¬
num, becaufe the patient will be too much exhaufted
to bear any further evacuations. Sometimes the pro-
penfity to vomit is fo ftrong, that nothing will be re¬
tained, and the laudanum itfelf thrown up as foon as
fwallowed. To fettle the ftomach in thefe cafes, Dr
Douglas, in the Medical Effays, recommends a decoc¬
tion of oat-bread toafted as brown as coffee; and the de-
coftion itfelf ought to be of the colour of weak coffee.
He fays he does not remember that this decoftion was
ever vomited by any of his patients. An infufion of
mint-leaves in good fnnple mint-water is alfo faid to
be very efficacious in the fame cafe.
Genus LXI. DIARRHOEA, or Looseness.
Diarrhoea, Sauv. gen. 253. Lin. 187. Vog. 105,
Sag. gen. 189. Junck. 112.
Hepatirrhcea, Sauv. gen. 246.
Cholerica, Lin. 190.
Cceliaca, Sauv. gen. 255. Lin. 189. Vog.\o<y. Sag.
gen. 199.
Lienteria, Sauv. gen. 256. Lin. 188. Sag. gen.191.
Vog. 108.
Pituitaria, & leucorrhois, Vog. in. 112.
CXLTI. The Diarrhoea from Surfeit. Sp. I. 416
Diarrhoea ftercorofa & vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1. 2.
This is occafioned by the too great quantity of mat¬
ter
MEDICINE.
II. M E D I
e ter thrown into the alimentary canal; and what is dif-
- charged hath not the appearance of excrements, but is
much whiter, and of a thinner confidence. Voracious
people who do not fufficiently chew their food, gor¬
mandizers, and even thofe who Hammer in their fpeech,
are faid to be liable to this difeafe. In (lighter cafes
it is removed without any medicine, or by a dofe of
rhubarb ; but where the matters have acquired a pu¬
trid taint, the diforder may be exceedingly protrafted
and become dangerous. In this cafe lenient and anti-
feptic purgatives are to be made ufe of, after which the
cure is to be completed by aftringents.
CXL1II. The Bilious Diarrhoea. Sp. II.
{Sauv. fp. 8.)
This diftemper (hews it(elf by copious (tools of a
very yellow colour, attended with gripes and heat of
the bowels, third, bitternefs, and drynefs of the mouth,
yellownefs of the tongue, and frequently follows an
intermitting or bilious fever. When the fever is gone,
the diarrhoea is to be removed by acidulated and cool¬
ing drinks, with fmall dofes of nitre.
CXLIV. The Mucous Diarrhoea. Sp. III.
Diarrhoea ladtentiuns, Sauv. fp. 19.
Dyfenteria Parifiaca, Sauv. fp. 3.
Diarrhoea ab hypercatharfi, Sauv. fp. 16.
Dyfenteria a catharticis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Pituitaria, Fog. ill.
Leucorrhois, Fog. 112.
Diarrhoea pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 4.
Coeliaca mucofa, Sauv. fp. 3.
Diarrhoea ferofa, Sauv. fp. 10.
a. Diarrhoea urinofa.
This kind of diarrhoea, befides the matters ufually
excreted, is attended with a copious dejection of the
mucus of the intedines with great pain; while the
patient daily pines away, but without any fever.—
Perfons of all ages are liable to it, and it comes on
ufually in the winter-time; but is fo obdinate, that it
will fometimes continue for years. In obdinate loofe-
nefies of this kind, vomits frequently repeated are of
the greated fervice. It is alfo very beneficial to keep
the body warm, and rub the belly with dimulating
ointments; at the fame time that adringent clyders,
rhubarb, and domachic medicines, are to be exhibit¬
ed. Starch clyders are very often efficacious.—Some
kinds of loofenefe are contagious; and Sir John
Pringle mentions a foldier who laboured under an
obdinate diarrhoea, who infe&ed all thofe that ufed
the fpme privy with himfelf. In the loofenefs which
frequently followed a dyfentery, the fame author tells
us that he began the cure with giving a vomit of ipe¬
cacuanha, after which he put the patients 6n a
courfe of adringents. He ufed a mixture of three
drachms of extradl of logwood, diffolved in an
ounce and a half of fpirituous cinnamon-water, to
which was added feven ounces of common water, and
two drachms of japonic tinfture. Of this the patient
took two fpoonfuls once in four or five hours, and
fometimes alfo an opiate at bed-time. He recom¬
mends the fame medicine in obdinate diarrhoeas of all
kinds. A decoftion of fimarauba bark was alfo found
effeftual, when the dyfenteric fymptoms had gone off.
CINE. 4795
Dr Huck, who ufed this remedy in North-America,Pract,cs
alfo recommends it in diarrhceas. Two or three' ’ '
ounces of it are to be boiled in a pound and a half of
water to a povind, and the whole quantity taken
throughout the day. He began with the weakeft
decoction; and, when the domacb of the patient could
eafily bear it, he then ordered the dronged: but at
the fame time he acknowledges, that, unlefs the fick
found themfelves fendbly better within three days from
the time they began the medicine, they feldom after¬
wards received any benefit from it. But when all
adringents have failed, Sir John Pringle informs us,
he hath known a cure effefted by a milk and farina¬
ceous diet; and he thinks in all cafes the diforder
would be much more eafily removed, if the patients
could be prevailed on to abdain entirely from fpirituous
liquors and animal-food. If the milk by itfelf (hould
turn four on the domach, a third part of lime-water
may be added. In one cafe he found a patient receive
more benefit from good butter-milk than from fweet-
milk. The chief drinks are deco&ions of barley,
rice, calcined hartlhorn, toad and water, or milk and
water.
CXLV. The Coeliac Passion. Sp. IV. 419
Cceliaca chylofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Cceliaca laftea, Sauv. fp. 4.
There are very great differences among phyficians
concerning the nature of this difeafe. Sauvages fays,
from Aretaeus, it is a chronic flux, in which the ali¬
ment is difchargtd half digeded. It is attended with
great pains of the domach, refembling the pricking
of pins; rumbling and flatus in the intedines; white
dools, becaufe deprived of bile, while the patient be¬
comes weak and lean. The difeafe is tedious, periodi¬
cal, and difficult to be cured. Sauvages adds, that
none of the moderns feem to have obferved the difeafe
properly; that the excrements indeed are white, on
account of a deficiency of the bile, but the belly is
bound as in the jaundice. Dr Cullen fays there is a
dejeftion of a milky liquid of the nature of chyle;
but this is treated by Vogel as a vulgar error. He
accufes the moderns of copying from Aretaeus, who
mentions white fxces as a fymptom of the didemper;
from whence authors have readily fallen into the no¬
tion that they never appeared of any other colour in
perfons labouring under the cceliac paffion. This error
quickly produced another, which hath been very ge¬
nerally received; namely, that the chyle was thrown
out of the lafteals by reafon of fome obdru&ion there,
and thus paffed along with the excrements; of which
he fays there is not the lead proof, and agrees with
Aretaeus that the whitenefs is only occafioned by the
want of bile. He endeavours to prove at length, that
the coeliac paffion can neither be occafioned by an ob-
dru&ion of the la&eals, nor of the mefenteric glands;
though he owns that fuch as have died of this difeafe
and were differed, had obdru&ions in the mefenteric
glands; but denies that all thofe in whom fuch ob-
dru&ions occur, are fubjeft to the cceliac paffion. He
confiders the didemper as arifing from a cachexy of
the domachic and intedinal juices; and dire&s the cure
to be attempted by emetics, purgatives, antifeptics,
and tonics, as in other fpecies of diarrhoea.
CXLVI. The
4796
Fi<''i;i’";'! CXLVI. The LirsTEP.v. Sp. V.
420 Lienteria fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 2.
The lientery, according to Sauvages, differs from
the cceliac paffion only in being a flighter fpecies of
the difeafe. The aliment paffes very quickly through
the inteftines, with fcarce any alteration. The pa¬
tients do not complain of pain, but are fometimes af-
fefted with an intolerable hunger., The cure is to be
attempted by ftomachics and tonics, efpecially the
Peruvian bark.
42r CXLV1I. The Hepatic Flux. Sp. VI.
Hepatirrhoea inteftinalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
The hepatic diarrhoea is by Sauvages defcribed as
a flux of bloody ferous matter like the wafliings of
flefh, which percolates through the coats of the in-
teflines by means of the anaftortiofing veffels. It is
the cceliac paffion of Trallian ; and which, according
to Sauvages, rarely, if ever, occurs as a primary dif¬
eafe. It hath, however, been obferved to follow an
inflammation of the liver, and then almoft always
proves fatal.
Genus LXII. DIABETES, ox too great a Quan¬
tity of Urine.
Diabetes, Sauv. gen. 263. Lin. 197. Vog. 115.
Sag. gen. 199. Junci. 99. Dobjbn, Med. Ob-
fervat. Vol. V. p. 298. Hotne’s Clinical Experi¬
ments, fe<3:, xvi.
Diurefis, Vog. 114. ,
422 CXLVIII. The Diabetes with fweet Urine. Sp. I.
Diabetes Anglicns, Sauv. fp. 2. Mead on Poifons,
Effay I. Ejufdem Monita Med. cap. ix. fed. 2.
Dobfon in Lond. Med. Obferv. Vol. V. art. 27.
Myers Diff. inaug. de Diabete. Edinb. 1779.
Diabetes febricofus, Sauv. fp. 7. Sydenh. Ep. refp.
ad. R. Brady.
423 CXLIX. Diabetes with infipid Urine. Sp. II.
M. Lifter Exerc. Medicin. II. de Diabete.
Diabetes legitimus, Sauv. fp. 1. Areteeus de morb.
diuturn. lib. ii. cap. 2.
Diabetes ex vino, Sauv. fp. 5. Ephem. Germ. D. I.
A. II. Obferv. 122.
Defcription. The diabetes firft flvews itfelf by a
drynefs of the mouth and thirft, white frothy fpittle,
and the urine in fomewhat larger quantity than ufual.
A heat begins to be perceived in the bowels, which at
firft is a little pungent, and gradually increafes. The
thirft continues to augment by degrees, and the pa¬
tient gradually lofes the power of retaining his urine
for any length of time. It is remarkable, that, tho’
the patients drink much, the quantity of urine always
exceeds what is drank. In Home’s Clinical Experi¬
ments we have an account of two patients labouring
under this difeafe: one of them drank between 10
and 12 Englifh pints a-day, without being fatisfied.
The quantity was greater in the forenoon than in the
afternoon. In the other the cafe was reverfed. He
drank about four pints a-day, and more in the after¬
noon than the forenoon. The former paffed from 12
to 15 pints of Urine a-day; the latter, u or 12j
Part II.
fo that his urine always exceeded his drink by eight, Practic*
or at leaft feven pints. When the urine is retained a   ^
little while, there is a fwelling of the loins, ilia, and
teftes,* the ftrength gradually decays; the fkin is dry
and flirivelled ; cedematous fwellings arife in various
parts of the body, but afterwards fubfide without re¬
lieving the difeafe in the leaft; and the patient is fre¬
quently carried off by convulfions.
The moft Angular phenomenon in this difeafe is,
that the urine feems to be entirely or very much di-
vefted of an animal-nature, and to be largely impreg¬
nated with a faccharine fait fcarce diftinguifhable
from that fold in the fhops. This difcovery was firft
made by Dr Dobfon of Liverpool, who made fome
experiments on the urine of a perfon labouring under
a diabetes, and who made 28 pints of urine every day,
taking during the fame time from 12 to 14 pounds ef
folid and liquid food. Some of this urine being fet
by, fell into a fpontaneous effervefcence, changed firft
into a vinous liquor, and afterwards into an acetous
one, before it became putrid and offenfive. Eight
ounces of blood taken from the fame patient, lepa-
rated into craffamentum and ferum; the latter being
fweet to the tafte, but lefs fo than the urine. Two
quarts of the urine, evaporated to drynefs, left a white
cake weighing four ounces two drachms and two
fcruples. This cake was granulated, and broke eafily
between the fingers: it fmelled fweet like brown fu-
gar; neither could it by the tafte be diftinguiftied from
fugar, except that it left a flight fenfe of coolnefs on
the tongue. The experiment was repeated after the
patient was recovered to fuch a degree as to pafs only
14 pints of urine a-day. There was now a ftrong
urinous fmell during the evaporation; and the refiduum
could not be procured in a folid form, but was black-
ifli, and much refembled very thick treacle. In Dr
Home’s patients, the ferum of the blood had no pre¬
ternatural fweetnefs; in one of them the craffamentum
was covered with a thick inflammatory cruft. In one
of thefe patients the urine yielded an ounce and a
half, and in the other an ounce, of faccharine matter
from each pound. It had^however, an urinous fmell,
and a faline tafte mixed with the fweet one; and the
urine of one fermented with yeaft, we are told, into
“ tolerable fmall-beer.” Both thefe patients had a
voracious appetite, and perpetual gnawing fenfe of
hunger; as had alfo Dr Dobfon’s patient. The in¬
fipid urine of thofe affedted with diabetes hath not
been examined by phyficians.
Cauftes. Thefe are exceedingly obfcure and uncer¬
tain ; fpafms of the nervous fyftem, debility, and every
thing inducing it, but efpecially ftrong diuretics and
immoderate venery, have been accufed as bringing on
the diabetes. It hath, however, occurred in perfons
where none of all thefe caufes could be fufpefted; nor
have the beft phyficians been able to determine it.—
Diffedtions have only ihewn that the kidneys were in
an enlarged and lax ftate. In one of Dr Home’s
patients who died, they fmelled four; which ftiewed
that the urine peculiar to diabetes came from the kid¬
neys, and was not fent dire&ly from the inteftihes by
a retrograde motion of the lymphatics, as fome ima
gine.
Prognoftt. The diabetes is rarely cured, unlefs when
taken at the very beginning, which is feldora done;
and
MEDICINE.
lifart II. M E D I
practice and in a confirmed diabetes the prognofis muft. there-
fore be unfavourable.
Cure. The only hopes of a cure in this diftemper
are from aftringent and firengthening medicines. Dr
Dobfon’s patient was relieved by the following reme¬
dies; which, however, were frequently varied, as none
of them produced their good effcdts for any length of
time; The bark in fubftance, with fmall dofes of rhu¬
barb; deco&ion of the bark, vvith the acid elixir of vi¬
triol; the cold infulion of the bark, of which he drank
from a quart to two quarts daily; Dover’s powder;
alum-whey ; lime-water ; antimonials combined with
tinftura Thebaic a. The warm bath was ufed occafion-
ally when the fltin was remarkably hot and dry, and
the patient complained of reftlelTnefs arid anxiety. The
tincture of cantharides was likewife tried; but he could
never take more than 25 drops to a dofe, without ex¬
citing great unealineis in his bowels. The body was
kept conttantly open, either with rhubarb, .or the infu-
fton of fena joined with rhubarb. His common drikns
were rice-water, barley-water, lime-water and milk;
lime-water alone; fage, balm, or mint-tea; fmall-beer,
fimple water, and water acidulated with the vitriolic
acid. In feven months, thefe remedies, in whatever
manner varied, made no further progrefs in removing
the difeafe. In Dr Home’s patients, all thefe medi¬
cines, and many others, were tried without the lead
good effeft; infomuch that he ufes this remarkable ex-
prellion : “ Thus, thefe two patients have exhaulled
all that experience had ever recommended, and almoll
Iali that theory could fugged; yet, in both cafes, the
difeafe has refilled all the means of cure ufed.” It is
remarkable, that though feptics were given to both, in
fuch quant’ty as evidently to produce a putrefcency in
the prinue via, the urine remained unaltered both in
quantity and quality.
424 CLII. HYSTERIA, Hysterics. Genus LX1II.
Hyderia, Sauv. gen. 135. Lin. 126. Vog. 219.
Sag. gen. 242.
Malum hydericum, Hoffm. III. 50. Janck. 36.
Affe&io hyderica, Willis de Morb. Convulftv. cap. 5,
jo, 11. Sydenham Diff. Epid. ad G. Cole, Whytt
on Nervous Diforders.
Defcription. The hyderia is a convulfive difeafe
which comes on at uncertain intervals, fometimes lon¬
ger and fometimes fhorter, but at no dated time. The
Iparoxyfms commonly begin with a languor and debi¬
lity of the whole body; yawning, dretching, and red-
Itflhefs. A fenfe of coldnefs, alfo, in the extremities,
almoft always precedes, and for the mod part remains
during the whole time of, the paroxyfm. To this fome-
tines fucceeds a fenfe of heat; and the two fenfations
alternate with each other in different parts of the body.
Ttie face is fometimes flulhcd and fometime pale; and
fomrtimes the palenefs and flulhing come alternately.
Tnerr is a violent pain in the head; the eyes become
dim, and pour out tears; there is a rumbling and in¬
flation of the intedines; a fenfalion is felt like that of
a globe afcending from the lower part of the abdomen
or Hypogadrium, which fometimes feems to roll along
the whole alimentary canal. It afcends to the domach,
fometimes fuddenly, fometimes (lowly; and there pro¬
duces a fenfe of inflation and weight, together with
anxiety, naufea, and vomiting. At lad it comes up to
Vol. VI. i
CINE. 4799
the throat, where it produces a fenfe of fuffocation,Practice
and difficulty of breathing or fwallowing. AH this 
time there are the mod violent pains both in the ex¬
ternal and internal parts of the abdomen; the mufcles'
are convulfed; the navel is drawn inwards ; and there
are frequently fuch fpafms of the intedines, that nei¬
ther clyders can be injefted, nor even flatus pafs down¬
wards. Sometimes the paroxyfm remits after thefe
fymptoms have continued for a certain time, but more
frequently the patients fall into fainting fits; fometimes
they lie without motion, as if they were in a deep
deep; fometimes they beat their breads violently and
continually with their hands, and fometimes they are
feized with general convullions, and the difeafe pots
on the appearance of an epilepfy. In fome patients the
extremities become cold and diff, and the body has the
appearance of one in a catalepfy. Sometimes a mod
violent beating pain takes place in fome part of the
head, as if a nail was driving into it, and all vifible ob-
je&s feem to turn round; grievous pains attack the
loins, back, and bladder, and the patients make a fur-
prifing quantity of urine as limpid as water; which lad
is one of the hired figns of the difeafe. The mind is
very much affedled as well as the body. Sometimes
the patients are tormented with vain fears ; fometimes
they will laugh, at other times cry immoderately; and
fometimes their temper becomes fo peevifh and fretful,
that they cannot enjoy a moment’s quiet.
Caufes, &c. The general caufe of hyderia is
thought by the bed phylicians to confid in a too great
mobility and irritability of the nervous fydem, and of
confequence may be brought on by whatever debili¬
tates and renders the body irritable. Hence the dif¬
eafe mod frequently attacks females of a weak and lax
habit of body, though there are fome indances of men
alfo attacked by it. The difeafe generally comes on
between the time of puberty and the age of 35, and
makes its attacks during the time of mendruation more
frequently than at any other. It alfo more ufually
feizes barren women and young widows, than fuch as
are bearing children.
Prognojis. Though the appearance of this difeafe
is fo very terrible, it feldom proves mortal unlefs by-
wrong treatment: but notwithdanding this it is ex¬
tremely difficult of cure, and rarely admits of any
thing elfe than being palliated ; for though it (honld
feem to be conquered by medicine for a time, it very
quickly returns, and that from the flighted caufes.
Cure. The mod powerful remedy hitherto difeo-
vered in hyderic cafes is opium, or the folution of it
called laudanum. By this commonly the mod violent
paroxylms are dopped, though it is intufficient to ac-
complilh a radical cure. In Home’s Clinical Experi¬
ments we find an inltance of a cure performed by ve-
nefe&ion, though this remedy hath been generally
condemned in hyderical cafes. Afafastida feems to
dand next in virtue to opium; though with fomc it
difagrees, and occaftons pains in the domach and vor
miting. jEther will alfo frequently remove an hyderic
fit: but its effe&s are of (hurt duration; and if it do
not effeA a cure foon after its exhibition, no fervice is
to be expe&ed either by perfeverance in the ufe of it
or by increaftng the dofe, and with fome conditutions
it difagrees to fuch .a degree as to occafion convulfions.
If the patient is feized with a violent fit, fo that (he
27 D can
4800 M E D I
■Practice can fwallow nothing, which is frequently the cafe, it
™ will be proper to apply feme ftrong volatile alkali to
her nofe; or if that be not at hand, the vapour of
burning feathers is fometimes very efficacious. A
plafter of galbanum and afafcetida will alfo prove fer-
viceable: but it muft be remembered, that none of
thefe things will prevent the return of the difeafe; and
therefore a radical cure is to be attemped by exercife,
the Peruvian bark, chalybeates, mineral waters, and
other tonics.
Genus LXIV. HYDROPHOBIA, the Dread of
Water.
Hydrophobia, Sauv. gen. 231. Lin. 86. Fog. 30.
Sag. gen. 343. Boerh. 1138. Junck. 124. Mead
on poifons. Default fur la rage. Sauv. diff. fur
la rage, fames on canine madnefs. Dally, Vir¬
tues of cinnabar and mufk againil the bite of a
mad dog. Nugent on the hydrophobia. Choifel,
Nouvelle methode pour le traitement de la rage.
Journal de Medicine, paffim. Medical Obf. and
Inquiries, vol. iii. art. 34. vol. v. art. 20. 26.
and App. Med. Tranfatt. vol. ii. art. 5. 12. and
15. Heyfcham, Diff. inaug. de rab. canin. E-
dinb. 1777. Parry, Diff. inaug. de rab. conta-
giof. five canin. Edinb. 1778. Andry, Re-
cherches fur la rage, 1778. Vaughan, Cafes of
hydrophobia, fecond edit. 1778.
CLII. Hydrophobia Rabiofa, or Hydrophoby con-
fequent on the Bite of a Mad Animal. Sp. I.
Hydrophobia vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1.
Defcription. This difeafe commonly does not make
its attack till a confiderable time after the bite. In
fome few inftances it hath commenced in feven or
eight days from the accident; but generally the pa¬
tient continues in health for 20, 30, or 40 days, or
even much longer. The bite hath been healed long
before that time, frequently with the greateft eafe;
though fometimes it refifts all kinds of healing appli¬
cations, and forms a running ulcer which difcharges
a quantity of matter for many days. It has been
faid, that the nearer the wounded place is to the fa-
livary glands, the fooner the fymptoms of hydro¬
phobia appear. The approach of the difeafe is
known by the cicatrix of the wound becoming
high, hard, and elevated; pains flioot from it to¬
wards the throat: fometimes it is furrounded with li¬
vid or red ftreaks, and feems to be in a ftate of in¬
flammation ; though frequently there is nothing re¬
markable to be obferved about it. The patient be¬
comes melancholy, loves folitnde, and hath a ficknefs
at ftomach. Sometimes the peculiar fymptom of the
difeafe, the dread of water, comes on all at once. We
have an inftance of one who, having taken a vomit cf
ipecacuanha for the ficknefs he felt at his fiomach, was
feized with the hydrophobia in the time he was drink¬
ing the warm water. Sometimes the difeafe begins
like a common fore throat; and the forenefs daily in-
creafing, the hydrophobic fymptoms fhew themfelves
like a convulfive fpafm of the mufcles of the fau¬
ces. In others, the mind feems to be primarily af¬
fected, and they have a real dread of water or any li¬
quid before they try whether they can fwallow it or
CINE. Part II.
not. Dr James, in his treatifeon canine madnefs, men-Practic**
tions a boy fent out to fill two bottles with water, who —I
was fo terrified by the noife of the liquid running into
them, that he fled into the houfe crying out that he
was bewitched. He mentions alfo the cafe of a far¬
mer, who, going to draw fome ale from a calk, was ter¬
rified to fuch a degree at its running into the veffet,
that he ran out in a great hafle with the fpigot in his
hand. But in whatever manner this fymptom comes on,
it is certain that the moft painful fenfations accompany
everyattempt to fwallow liquids. Nay, the bare fight of
water, of a looking-glafs, of any thing clear or pel¬
lucid, will give the utmoft uneafinefs, or even throw
them into convulfions.
With regard to the afFe&ion of the mind itfelf in
this difeafe, it does not appear that the patients are
deprived of reafon. Some have, merely by the dint
of refolution, conquered the dread of waterj though
they never could conquer the convulfive motions which
the contafl. of liquids occafioned: while this refolution
hath been of no avail; for the convulfions and other
fymptoms increafing, havealmoft always deftroyed the
unhappy patients.
In this difeafe there feems to be an extreme fenfibi-
lity and irritability of the nervous fyftem. The eyes
cannot bear the light, or the fight of any thing white*
the lead touch or motion offends them, and they want
to be kept as quiet and in as dark a place as poflible.
Some complain of the coldnefs of the air, frequently
when it is really warm Others complain of violent
heat; and have a great defire for cold air, which yet
never fails to increafe the fymptoms. In all there is a
great flow of vifeid faliva into the mouth ; which is ex¬
ceedingly troublefome to the patients, as it has the
fame effeft upon their fauces that other liquids have.
This therefore they perpetually blow off with violence,
which in a patient of Dr Fothergill’s occafioned a
noife not unlike the hollow barking of a dog, and
which he conjeftures might have given rife to the com¬
mon notion that hydrophobous patients bark like
dogs. They have an infatiable thirft; but are unable
to get down any drink, except with the utmoft diffi¬
culty ; though fometimes they can fwallow bread
foaked in liquids, flices of oranges, or other fruits.
There is a pain under the fcrobiculus cordis, as in
the tetanus; and the patients mournfully point to
that place as the feat of the difeafe. Dr Vaughan is -
of opinion that it is this pain, rather than any difficul¬
ty in fwallowing, which diftreffes the patient on every
attempt to drink. The voice is commonly plaintive and
mournful; but Dr Vaughan tells us there is a mixture
of fiercenefs and timidity in the countenance which he
cannot deferibe, but by which he could know a hy¬
drophobous perfon without alking any queftions.
In this diftemper, indeed, the fymptoms are fo va¬
rious, that.they cannot be enumerated ; for we will ftl-
dom read two cafes of hydrophobia which do not dif¬
fer very remarkably in this refpeft. Some feem to
have at times a furious delirium, and an inclination to
fpit at or bite the byltanders; while others (hew ho
fuch inclination, but will even fuffer people to wipe
the infide of their mouths with the corner of a hand¬
kerchief in order to clear away the vifeid faliva which
is ready to fuffocate them. In fome male patients there
is an involuntary ere&ion of the penis, and emiffion of
the
ce the femen ; and the urine is forced away by the frequent
return of the fpafms. In a letter from Dr Wolf of War-
faw to Henry Baker, F. R. S. dated Warfaw Sept. 26th
1767, we have the following melancholy account of
the cafes of five perfons who died of the hydro¬
phobia, “ None of them quite loft their right fen-
fes; but they were all talking without intermiffion,
praying, lamenting, defpairing, curfing, fighing, fpit-
ting a frothy faliva, fcreeehing, fometimes belching,
retching, but rarely vomiting. Every member is con-
vulfed by fits, but moft violently from the navel up to
the breaft and cefophagus. The fit comes on every
quarter of an hour ; the fauces are not red, nor the
tongue dry. The pulfe is not at all feverilh, and when
the fit is over nearly like a found pulfe-. The face
rows pale, then brown, and during the fit almoft
lack ; the lips livid : the head is drowfy, and the
ears tingling ; the urine limpid. At laft they grow
weary ; the fits are lefs violent, and ceafe towards the
end ; the pulfe becomes weak, intermittent, and not
very quick ; they fweat, and at laft: the whole body
becomes cold. They compofe themfelves quietly as
if to get fleep, and fo they expire. The blood let out
a few hours before death appears good in every re-
fpe&. A general obfervation was, that the lint and
drefiings of the wounds, even when dry, were always
black, and that when the pus was very good in co¬
lour and appearance.” In one of Dr Wolf’s patients
who recovered, the blood flunk intolerably as it was
drawn from a vein; and one of Mr Vaughan’s patients
complained of an intolerable fetid fmell proceeding
from the wounded part, though nobody but himfelf
could perceive it. In general, the violent convulfions
ceafe a (hort time before death ; and even the hydro¬
phobia goes off, fo that the patients can drink freely.
But this does not always happen ; for Mr Vaughan
mentions the cafe of a patient, in whom, “ when he had
in appearance ceafed to breathe, the fpafmus cynicus
was obfervable, with an odd convulfive motion in the
mufcles of the face ; and the ftrange contrariety which
took place in the aflion of thefe produced the moft
horrid affemblage of features that can well be concei¬
ved. Of this patient alfo it was remarkable, that in
the laft hours of his life he ceafed to call for drink,
which had been his conftant requeft ; but was perpe¬
tually afking for fomething to eat.”
The hydrophobia feems to be a fymptom peculiar
to the human race; for the mad animals which com¬
municate the infeQion, do not feem to have any dread
of water. Dr Wolf, in the letter above quoted, fays
in general, that cattle bit at the fame time and by
the fame animal (a mad wolf) which bit the perfons
whole cafes he relates, died nearly with the fame
frightful raging as the men ; but fays nothing of their
having any hydrophobia : nay, Dr James and fome
others affert, that the hydrophobia is not always an
attendant on rabies canina in the human race ; and
indeed it is certain that the difeafe has proved mor¬
tal after this terrible fymptom hath been removed.
“With regard to the fymptoms of madnefs in dogs,
they are very equivocal; and thofe particularly enu¬
merated by fome authors, are only fuch as might be
expe&ed in dogs violently heated or agitated by be¬
ing violently purfued and (truck. One fymptom in¬
deed, if it could be depended upon, would determine
2
the matter; namely, that all other dogs avoid and
run away from one that is mad ; and even large dogs
will not attack one of the fmalleft fize who is infe&ed
with this difeafe. Upon this fuppolition they point
out a method of difcovering whether a dog who hath
been killed was really mad or not, namely, by rubbing
a piece of meat along the inlide of his mouth, and
then offering it to a found dog. If the latter eats it,
it is a fign the dog was not mad ; but if the other
rejedls it with a kind of howling noife, it is certain
that he was. Dr James tell us, that among dogs the
difeafe is infe&ious by (laying in the fame place ; and
that after a kennel hath been once infe&ed, the dogs
put into it will be for a confiderable time afterwards
in danger of going mad alfo. A remedy for this, he
fays, is to keep geefe for fome time in the kennel.
He rejefts as falfe the opinion that dogs when going
mad will not bark; though he owns that there is a
very confiderable change in their bark, which becomes
hoarfe and hollow.
Caufes, &c. In no difeafe whatever are we more
at a lofs to difcover the caufes than in the hydro¬
phobia. In dogs, foxes, and wolves, it feems to
come on fpontaneoufly ; though this is contefted by
fome authors. It is fait), that the caufes commonly
affigned, viz. heat, feeding upon putrid flefti, want
of water, &c. are not fufficient for producing the
diftemper. It does not appear that madnefs is more
frequent among dogs in the warm than in the cold
climates ; nay, in the ifland of Antigua, where the
climate is very hot, and the water very fcarce, the
dogs are faid not to be fubjeft to this diftemper. As
to putrid aliment, it feems natural for dogs to prefer
this to any other, and they have been known to fubfift
upon it for a long time without any detriment. For
thefe reafons, they think the difeafe arifes from a
fpecific contagion, like the fmall pox and meafles a-
mong the human race, which, being once produced
by caufes unknown, continues to be propagated by the
intercourfe which dogs have with each other, as the
difeafesjuft mentioned continue to be propagated among
the human race by means of the intercourfe which
they have with one another.
With regard to the immediate caufe among man¬
kind, there is not the leaft doubt that the hydro¬
phobia is occafioned by the faliva of the mad animal
being mixed with the bloi-d. It doth not appear that
this can operate through the cuticula; but, when that
is rubbed off, the fmalleft quantity is fufficient to com¬
municate the difeafe, and a (light fcratch with the
teeth of r, mad animal hath been found as pernicious
as a large wound. It is certain alfo, that the infection
hath been communicated by the bites of dogs, cats,
wolves, foxes, weafels, fwine, and even cocks and
hens, when in a (late of madnefs. But it does not
appear that the diftemper is communicable from one
hydrophobous perfon to another, by means of the
bite, or any other way. Dr Vaughan inoculated a
dog with the faliva of a hydrophobous child, but the
animal continued free from difeafe for two months j
and though the doctor promifed to inform the public
if it ffiould happen to occur afterwards, nothing hath
hitherto appeared on that fubjeft. A nurfe alfo fre¬
quently killed this child during the time of his diforder,
-but no bad confequence enfued.
27 D 2
When
48c2 M E D I
Practic* When we attempt to Inveftigate the nature of the
~ ‘ caufe of the hydrophobia by diffeftions, our inquiries
are commonly difappointed. In two bodies opened
by Dr Vaughan, there was not the lead morbid ap¬
pearance ; in the very fauces, where we might have
expe&ed that the difeafe would have (hewn itfelf mod
evidently, there was not the lead appearance even of
inflammation. The domach, intedines, diaphragm,
eefophagus, &c. were all in a natural date : neither
do we find in authors of credit any certain accounts of
morbid appearances in the bodies of hydrophobous
perfons after death. Dr Vaughan therefore con¬
cludes, that the poifon a&s upon the nervous fydem;
and is fo wholly confined to it, that it may be doubt¬
ed whether the qualities of the blood are altered by it or
not; and that it a&s upon the nerves by impairing and
didurbing their fun&ions to fuch a degree as fpeedily
to end in a total extin&ion of the vital principle.
As to the difficulty in fwallowing generally believed to
accompany the dread of water, he treats it as mifre-
prefentation, as well as that the cefophagus with the
^rriufcles fubfervient to deglutition are fpecially con¬
cerned in this difeafe. The principal foundation of
the evil, he thinks, reds on a morbid fenfibility both
of the external and internal fauces. For the fight of a
liquid, or the application of any fubdance to the in¬
ternal fauces, but more efpecially of a fluid, inflantly
excites the mod painful feelings. Nay, the fame
fymptoms are produced by touching the external fau¬
ces with a fluid, or by the contaft of cold air with
thefe parts ; and nearly in as great a degree. But a
folid or a fluid fubdance being conveyed into the cefo¬
phagus, the tranfit into the domach is accomplifhed
with little or no impediment ; fo that in faft the diffi¬
culty is furmounted before the patient is engaged in
the aftion of fwallowing. Nor is the excruciating
pain which never fails to be the compainion of every
attempt to drink, felt in the fauces and throat: it is,
he fays, at the fcrobiculus cordis ; to which the differ •
ers applies his hand. From this lad circumdance,
therefore, from the prefence of the rifus fardonius,
from the mufcles of. the abdomen being forcibly con-
trafted, and from the fenfe of fuffocation which feems
to threaten the patient with immediate death, Dr
Vaughan has been led to think that in the hydrophobia
a new fympathy was edablidied between the fauces, the
diaphragm, and the abdominal mufcles
Prognojis. When a perfon is bit, theprognofis with
regard to the enfuing hydrophobia is very uncertain.
All thofe who are bit do not fall into the difeafe ;
nay, Dr Vaughan relates, that out of 30 bit by a mad
dog, only one was feized with the hydrophobia.
During the interval betwixt the bit and the time the
difeafe comes on, there are no fymptoms by which
we can judge whether it will appear or not. When
once it hath made its appearance, theprognofis is ex¬
ceedingly fatal.
Prevention and Cure. It hath been generally al¬
lowed by practitioners, that though the hydrophobia
may be prevented, yet it can feldom or ever be cured
after it has made its appearance. A great number of
different methods of prevention have been attempted.
Bathing in cold water, efpecially in the fea, and
drinking fea-water for a certain time, have been pre-
fcribed, and by fome accounted a certain preventative.
CINE. Part II.
When this was known to fail, a long courfe of anti- Pk acticJ
phlogiftic regimen, violent fubmerfion in water even
to danger of drowning, and keeping the wounded
place open with cauteries, were recommended.—To
this extreme feverity Dr Mead objedfed ; and in his
treatife on this fubjeft endeavours to ffiew, that in all
ages the greateft fuccefs hath been reaped from diure¬
tics, for which reafon he propofes the following powder:
“ Take arti-coloured ground-liverwort, half an ounce ;
black-pepper, two drachms: reduce them feparately to
powder, then mix them together.” But this medi¬
cine, which was inferted in former editions of the
London Difpenfatory under the name of Pulvis Anti-
tyjfus, has long loft its credit.
There is a famous Eaft-India medicine, compofed of
24grainsofnative and asmuchfaftitious cinnabar, made
into a powder with 16 grains of mulk. This is called
the Tonquin medicine, and muft be taken in a tea-cup-
full of arrac or brandy ; and is faid to fecure the pa¬
tient for 30 days, at the expiration of which it is to
be repeated ; but if he has any fymptoms of the
difeafe, it muft be repeated in three hours, which is
faid to be fufficient for a cure. The firft dofe is to be
taken as foon after the bite as poffible.
Another celebrated remedy is Palmarius’s powder,
compofed of the leaves of rue, vervain, fage, poly¬
pody, wormwood, mint, mugwort, balm, betony,
St John’s-wort, and leffer centaury. Thefe herbs
muft be gathered in their prime, dried feparately in
the (hade, and then powdered. The dofe is a drachm,
or a drachm and an half, taken every day.
A remedy which might promife to be more effica¬
cious than any of thofe hitherto mentioned is mercury.
This hath been recommended in frifHons, and to be
taken inwardly in the form of calomel and turbith-
mineral, in order if poffible to raife a flight falivation,
on which the efficacy was thought to depend. Befides
this, venefe&ion, opium, the bark, camphire, have
have been tried in very large quantities; the warm
bath ; and, in (hort, every thing which human in¬
vention could fuggeft; but with what fuccefs, can bed
be judged from the following well-authenticated cafes.
In the beginning of December 1728, a young
gentleman, aged 17, was bit by a dog in the middle-
finger of the right-hand about the middle of the nail.
In the beginning of January 1729, he complained of
pain in that finger reaching along the back of the
hand to the elbow. In the night between the fixth
and feventh days of that month, he became hot and
reftlefs: emollient and anodyne fomentations were ap¬
plied ; but the pain became very (harp, and the hy¬
drophobia came on in the night-time. He was
blooded ; but became worfe every hour, and at laft
quite furious and outrageous. The bandage was
thrown off from his arm, and he loft about 20 ounces
of blood befides what had formerly been taken from
him. This, however, made no abatement of the
fymptoms, and he died the fame night.
In 1753, a woman, feized with the hydrophobia in
confeqnence ofthebiteof a dogfuppoftdto be mad, was
treatedinthe following manner byDrNugent. Firft/he
was blooded to about 15 ounces ; fhe took 15 grains of
mulk in powder, and alongft with it a pill of two
grains of pure opium, every three hours. A plafter
of galbanum, with half an ounce of pure opium, was
tPart It. MEDICINE.
3i(i actick laid to her neck and throat. She began to take thefe the pulvh Palmarii. The mufctis citiereus terrejlris
medicines on a Saturday morning, an hour or two could not be got, or it would alfo have been pre-
after the dread of water had commenced. In the fcribed. Belides the general treatment, two were
evening Hie was a little eafier at intervals. The mulk rubbed daily with a drachm of mercurial ointment,
and opium pill were continued as before, and the and had their purges with calomel. Two took every
hand that was bit was ordered to be chafed with day four ounces of vinegar, three drachms tinfture of
warm falad oil feveral times a-day. Only two pa- poppies, and half an ounce of every night,
pers of powder and two pills were taken in the night, One took every day t6 grains of camphire, with four
for the lad made her fick and vomit. She had little fcruples of faltpetre, and at night half an ounce of
or no fleep, but lay pretty quiet.1—On Sunday, 20 rob fambuci. Two took 24 grains of mufk, with 50
ounces of blood w’ere taken away, and a clyfter with grains of cinnabar. Other two took from 40 to 60
antimonial wine inje&ed: the pills and powders were drops of fpirit of fal ammoniac with quick-lime, and
continued as before. On Sunday evening Ihe could the laft took a fcruple of cryftallized fait of tartar
fwallow liquids a little better, and (he lay quiet moft made by the mixture of a little fpirit of fal ammoniac
of the night. On Monday her fwallowing was greatly with a folution of that fait.
better. The mufk and opium were continued, and One of the firft who ufed the mercurial ointment
twelve Ounces more of blood were taken from her; was feized with the hydrophobia on the 22d day, im-
the plafter was renewed with only two drachms of mediately after being well purged with calomel. He
opium, and the oil was ufed as before. At night fhe was blooded copionfly, plunged abundantly in cold
was better; her hand eafy ; and by a continuance of water, and had feveral clyfters adminiftered, without
thefe remedies fhe recovered.—This was the cafe which effedt. Two pounds of oil, and as much of drink,
chiefly brought opium into reputation. were poured down by force: alfo a drachm of foap
The following cafes publifhed by De Saolt, a of tartar and half a drachm of mufk were given in
Frenchman, firlt brought mercury into reputation.— three dofes. He then began to drink freely, but
Four men were bitten by the fame wolf, oq the fame died the third day. His companion then left off the
day, at the fame hour. They were dipped in fait- ufe of mercury, and took 80 drops a-day of Dippel’s
water, and came back perfuaded that they had no- animal-oil, till he had taken fix drachms of it; after
thing to fear. Some days after, one of them felt a which he went on with 100 drops daily of vinous fpirit
numbed pain about his fears, while the fears themfelvcs of fal ammoniac made with alkali,
grew hard and rofe like an embroidery: he was One of thofe who took the vinegar fell fick the
foon after feized with the ufual fymptoms, as did alfo 33d day. He was immediately blooded, and vomited
another. The fon of the former likewife began to with ipecacuanha. This man was too ftrong to make
feel a pain about the cicatrices, and a fwelling with experiments on by force: he refufed every thing, and
hardnefs; as did alfo the fourth. They were ordered died the third day. His companion, an old man, be-
to rub a drachm and a half of the mercurial or blue gan to be feized in the fame manner: he was purged
ointment upon the cicatrices and about the whole with falls, took the morfuLs balfami Peruvian!, and
arm. This was repeated three days fucceffively, and drank lemonade. He recovered, and ufed afterwards
then every other day: after the fifth fridtion, he al- too drops of fpirit of fal ammoniac daily. This was
lowed an interval of two days. Befides this, they the patient formerly mentioned, whofe blood had the
took every day a drachm and an half of Palmarius’s fetid fmell.
powder. After the third fridtion the cicatrices grew The man who ufed the camphire fell fick the 33d
flat and foft, the pain went off, their courage returned, day. He was thrice copionfly blooded, was plunged
and their mind refumed its former tranquillity. forcibly into the coldeft water for the fpace of two
Buthowfarmercury, or indeed any thing elfe, is from hours, and was nearly drowned. He was clyltered
being a fpecijic in the hydrophobia, will appear from with effedt. He himfelf forced down, with incredible
the following account of Dr Wolf’s patients.—In averfion and labour, a great quantity of drink ; by
the middle of April 1767, feventeen people and a which he vomited more than 50 times abundance of
great number of cattle were bitten in the neighbour- frothy flime. He took feveral ounces of oil, and fe-
hood of Warfaw by a mad wolf. One of thefe, an veral bolufes of callor and opium, of each four grains,
officer, was brought into the city that fame day, and without effedt; and died the fourth day.
had the beft advice of the furgeons and phyficians in A girl who ufed the mufk with cinnabar, fell ill
that place ; befides which, he took the bark very the 6zd day, and died the third day after. No farther
copioufly with camphire. He continued well till attempt was made to fave her life, fhe being then at a.
the feventh week, when he became hydrophobous, and diltance. Her companion, a pregnant woman, then
died. left off the mufk, and took in its (lead vinous fpirit of
Eleven of the others applied to Dr Wolf on the fal ammoniac,
ninth day. Their wounds were all deeply fcarified; A woman who had taken nothing, fell ill on the
diligently wafhed and fomented with vinegar, fait, 40th day. She fuffered terribly in the night, but
and theriaca; and kept open till the 80th day, in lefs in the day-time. Befides the ufual fymptoms, fhe ■
thofe who lived fo long. Every two weeks they had great pain and fwelling in her belly. In the
were blooded largely, and were purged every week fpace of two days fhe drank about two bottles of
with falts and jalap. Their diet was moftly vege- brandy, but would talle no other liquor. The Dodlor .
table, and their drink whey and water. They all ordered her to mix an equal quantity of oil with her
eat as much as could be got of the herbs matrifylva brandy, and to take every day two bolufes of caflor
and anagallis jlore pumceo; and they all took often of and opium. She recovered; and at laft took two
dofea
4805
Practice
4804 M E D I
Practice dotes of turbith-mineral, by which (he was vomited
"and purged.
After the 80th day, all the furviving people took
thrice the turbith-mineral, except the pregnant wo¬
man ; and they afterwards continued their alkaline me-
medicines to the 100th day.
On thefe cates Dr Wolf makes the following ob-
fervations.—“ Thus we fee, that the bark, the mer¬
cury, the acids, the mulk, the feeding on the moft
famous herbs, the fweating, the cura antiphlogijlica,
are no fpecifies. I don’t know what to fay to the
alkalies: the danger is not yet over; and there are
ft ill four people who uted nothing, in as good health
as my patients.”
The following cafe by Dr Raymond of Marfeilles,
fliews the inefficacy of mercury even as a preventative.
—On the 19th of July 1765, Mr Boyer, aged 25, of
a bloated cachettic habit, was bit by a mad dog in the
inferior part of the leg : the wound extended half way
round, bled freely, and was like a great fcratch. The
atient’s legs had been fwelled for a conliderable time
efore the accident; and there were alfo two ulcers in
the other leg. Some hours after the accident, the ac¬
tual cautery was applied to the wound. The Dr was
not prefent at this operation ; but the part around the
bite was rubbed with mercurial ointment immediately
after, and the efchar was drefled with the fame oint¬
ment. The efchar was feparated on the firft day, but
the dreffing was continued till the wound was cicatri-
fed. The fecond day a bolus of four grains of turbith
and eight grains of camphire was exhibited. This
procured a confiderable evacuation both by vomit and
ftool, and a fpitting alfo came on. The third day
the bitten leg was rubbed with mercurial ointment: in
the fpace of a month the fri&ions were repeated five
times on both legs, three drachms of mercurial oint¬
ment being ufed in each fri&ion. During the fame
time the bolus was five times repeated ; and this treat¬
ment kept up a flight falivation to the 40th day. The
evening of the third day he took the Tonquin medicine,
called alfo Sir George Cobb's powder, in a bolus; which
vomited him brifkiy. This powder was repeated feven
or eight times in the month, generally with the fame
effed. During the firft feven or eight days he got four
times, in the morning, a drachm of the anagallis flore
pnniceo, frefh gathered and powdered. The 41ft day,
the turbith bolus was prefcribed for the feventh time ;
he was bathed in the fea, and continued the bathing
for two days more. On the 74th he was feized with
the diftemper; and died on the 76th, feemingiy fuffoca-
ted or ftrangled, his mouth covered with flaver, and
his face bloated. He loft his fenfes not above half a
quarter of an hour before his death. The pulfe was
quiet the whole time. The Dodor fays he has
reafon to fufped the wound was not well cauterized.
Another inftance is mentioned, by the fame author,
of a pregnant woman bit by the fame dog and on the
fame day with Mr Boyer, who was never feized with
the diftemper. She was treated in much the fame
manner with him, and falivated a little more. But
flie was bit through a fhamoy leather fhoe, which
muft neceflavily have cleaned the animal’s teeth of the
poifonous faliva before they reached her fkin, and to
this we are naturally led to afcribe herfafety. One of
Dr Wolf’s patients alfo was a pregnant woman, and
CINE. Part If
was not feized with the diftemper. Perhaps women Pxactic* i
in a ftate of pregnancy may be lefs liable to this di- |
(temper than others.
The fame author tells us, “ there are many examples
of the inefficacy of mercurial fridions. A furgeon of
Marfeilles treated a girl about 12 years of age bit by
a mad dog, with mercurial fridions; applying them as
in the lues venerea : yet (he died of the hydrophobia
on the 55th day. Her wound was not cauterized.”
In the following cafe all the moft powerful remedies
were tried.—Inthe afternoon of the 29thof Aug. 1778,
Dr Vaughan was called to a boy of eight years of age
labouring under a hydrophobia. He had been bit on
the wrilt by a cat about a month before; of which the
marks remained, but without any ulcer, or even the
fmalleft appearance of inflammation. About the middle
of the day before Dr Vaughan faw him, he began to
complain of a pain in the part bitten, which afcended up
the arm, and affeded the temple on that fide; foon af.
ter which he fwallowed liquids with reludance and dif¬
ficulty. He was put into the warm bath for three
quarters of an hour, during which time he was eafier:
he had a clyftcr of five ounces of frefh broth, and 30
drops of laudanum, injeded immediately after his co¬
ming out of it; a liniment confiding of three drachms
of ftrong mercurial ointment, with the fame quantity of
oil of amber, was rubbed upon the (boulders and back;
two pills of a grain of flowers of zinc, and half a grain
of cuprum ammoniacale, were taken every three or four
hours; and a medicated atmofphere was prepared for
him, by burning gum ammoniac in his room. As thefe
remedies were not attended with any good effed, each
dote of pills was ordered to contain two grains of cm-
prum ammoniacale, the fame quantity of opium, three
grains of flowers of zinc, and ten grains of afafoetida;
whilft a folution of that fetid gum, with a drachm of
laudanum, was adminiftered as a clyfter. Thefe pills,
though repeated every four hours, afforded not the
fmalleft relief, nor did they (hew the lead adion on the
frame. At laft the Dodor refolved to put in pradice
the defperate remedy mentioned by Van Helmont, of
throwing the patient into cold water, and keeping him
there till he is almoft drowned. With this view a large
tub of cold water, well faturated with common fait, was
prepared, into which the poor boy was plunged over
head and ears, and there held until he ceafed to ftruggle.
He was then taken out again, and the fame operation
repeated until he became fo quiet that the Dodor was
under apprehenfions that a total extindion of life
would take place. He was then wrapped up in a
blanket and put to bed, and he remained more quiet
than he had formerly been; but all his former reftleff-
nefs foon returned, his pulfe funk, and he died about
two o’clock in the morning.
The laft celebrated antidote againft the poifon of a
mad dog hath been known for fome years by the name
of the Ormjkirk medicine. The true compofition of
this is kept a fecret by the proprietors: however, it
hath been analyted, and the following compofition
publifhed by Dr Heyfhatn as perfcdly fimihr to it in
ail refpeds.
“ Take half an ounce of chalk, three drachms of
Armenian bole, ten grains of alum, one drachm of
elecampane in powder; mix them all together, and
add fix drops of oil of anife.”
They
ifart II. M E D I
r»!ic'picE They muft certainly be very credulous who can put
’T' " confidence in fuch an infignificant medicine as a prefer-
vative againft the hydrophobia : however, there is a
poffibility that there may be fome unknown ingredient
in the genuine powder; for it is difficult to analyfe
powders after the ingredients are thoroughly mixed
together. The efficacy of the medicine therefore muft
depend on the virtues of that unknown ingredient, if
any fuch there is. The following cafes, however, too
well determine that it is not infallible, as was at firft
pretended.
On the 14th of February 1774, Mr Bellamy of
Holborn, aged 40, was bit by a cat, which was killed
the fame morning. The following day he took the
celebrated Ormikirk medicine, fold by Hill and Berry
in Hill-Street, Berkeley Square, and conformed in
every refpe£t to the direAions given by the vender. A
fcrvant-maid, who was bitten in the leg before her ma¬
tter was bitten, likewife took the fame remedy. About
the middle of April Mr Bellamy complained of a pain
in his right knee, which he fuppofed to be rheumatic,
and which continued and increafed till the 7th of June,
when he got fome pills of calomel, ipecacuanhae, and
pil. fapon. from an apothecary, with Huxham’s tinc¬
ture of the bark in fmall dofes. In fix days more he
had a titillation in the urethra, a contra&ion of the
fcrotum and penis to a degree of pain, and an emif-
fion of femen after making water, to which he had
frequent calls. The medicines were difcontinued; and
on the 16th of that month the hydrophobia came on,
and Dr Fothergill was called. Six ounces of blood were
taken from his arm, and a bolus of a fcruple of native
cinnabar and half a fcruple of mufic was given every
four hoars. The diftemper manifeftly increafed thro’
the day. In the evening a clyfter was inje&ed, and
feveral times repeated during the night; he had been
put into the warm bath, and two drachms of ftrong
mercurial ointment rubbed into his legs and thighs by
himfelf. He was greatly relieved by the warm bath
while he continued in it, but the fymptoms returned
, with increafed violence in the night. The next day,
being greatly worfe, he was blooded to as great a
quantity as he could bear, had the warm bath and
clyfters repeated, and half an ounce of mercurial oint¬
ment rubbed into his thighs and legs. Pills of opium
were prefcribed, but he did not take them. He died
the fame night, at half an hour after 12. This patient
was a man of great refolution, and could in part con¬
quer his averfiop at water. He feemed to have total¬
ly forgot the accident of the bite; and cafually faid,
that he thought this diforder refembled the hydropho¬
bia, without fuppofing that he was affiifted with that
diftemper at the time.—The bite on the girl’s leg re-
fufed to heal, battled the art of a young furgeon who
attempted to cure it, and continued a running ulcer
for a long time. She did not fall into the hydropho¬
bia. Hence Dr Fothergill thinks it probable, that
keeping the wounds made by the teeth of mad animals
open for a long time, would probably be of fervice as
a preventative ; but in fome of Dr Wolf’s patients,
thefe artificial drains appear not to have been attended
with fuccefs.
On the 16th of November 1773, Thomas Nourfe,
a ftrong healthy boy of 14, was admitted into the Lei-
cefter infirmary; having been that day mouth bitten
CINE. 4805
by a mad fox-hound. The wound was a large lacerated Practice
one on the cheek, and bled very freely on being inflicted^
The day after he was bit he went to the fea, where he
was dipped with all the feverity ufually pra&ifed un¬
der fo difagreeable an operation. The Ormjkirk Me¬
dicine was alfo adminiftered with all due care. It was
bought of the perfon in Leicefter who is deputed by
the proprietor to fell it for him. A common ad he five
plafter was applied to the part after fea-bathing; and
in the courfe of a month, without any further trouble,
the wound was healed ; excepting a fmall portion,
fomewhat more than an inch in length, and in breadth
about one-tenth. This yielded no difcharge, and was
quite in a cicatrizing ftate. Five days before his ad-
miffion into the infirmary, he began to complain of a
tightnefs over his temples, and a pain in his head: in
two days the hydrophobia began to appear; and at its
commencement, he complained of a boiling hear tu his
ftomach, which was continually attending to the fauces.
The difeatt was pretty ftrong when be came to the in¬
firmary. He got a bolus of a ttruple of mutti with
two grains of opium ; then a compofition of 15 grains
of mufk, one of turbith mineral, and five grains of
opium, was direfted to be taken once in three hours:
an ounce of the ftronger mercurial ointment was to be
rubbed on the cervical vertebrae and fhoulders, and an
embrocation of two ounces of laudanum, and half an
ounce of acetumfaturninum, was directed to be applied
to the throat. But by this laft he was thrown into
convulfions, and the fame effefl. followed though his
eyes were firft covered with a napkin. The embroca¬
tion was therefore changed for a plafter of three
drachms of powdered camphire, half an ounce of opium,
and fix drachms canfefiio De?nocriti. By thefe medi¬
cines the difeafe ttemed to be foroewhat fufpended, but
they returned with violence in the evening. His me¬
dicine was repeated at ttven; and at eight, five grains
of opium were exhibited without muik or turbith. At
nine, another ounce of mercurial ointment was rubbed
upon the fiioulders, and half an ounce of laudanum
with fix ounces of mutton-broth was injedfed into tho
inteftines, but to no purpofe. A larger dofe of opium
was then given, but with as little effedt as the former,
and he died the fame night.
In the month of September 1774, a farmer, aged
25, was bit by a mad dog, whofe teeth made a flight
wound in the fore-finger of the left hand. He was dip¬
ped, as nfual, in the fea; and drank the tta-water fo»
i'ome time on the fpot, which operated brifldy as a
purge. He continued well till the 6th of June follow¬
ing, when he firft felt a pain in that hand >nd arm; for
which he bathed in a river that evening, fuppofing that
it had' been a rheumatic complaint. The next day he
was fick; and in the evening was feized with a violent
vomiting, which continued all that night and till the
middle of the next day, when it was fueceeded by the
hydrophobia. He was treated with the warm bath j
had a purgative clyfter inje&ed; and as foon as it had
operated, a ttcond was given, confifting of four ounces
of oil, and half an ounce of laudanum: half an ounce
of ftrong mercurial ointment was rubbed on the fauces,
and the part was afterwards covered with the cataplaf-
ma e cymino, to which was added an ounce of opium.
An embrocation was applied to the region of the fto¬
mach with ccouinued friction, confifting of half an
ounce
4806
•p n act ice ounce oF j^. y2?/. ammoniac, ten drachms of oil olive,
fix drachms of oil of amber, and ten drachms of lauda¬
num. Two ounces of ftrong mercurial ointment were
rubbed upon the (boulders and back; and as a further
means of kindling a ptyalifm fpeedily, he received the
fmoke of cinnabar into the mouth by throwing a
drachm of that fubftance now and then upon a hot
iron : he was alfo directed to take every four hours
a bolus of 15 grains of mulk, three grains of turbith
mineral, and four grains of opium. He was eafier
while in the Warm bath, and during the application of
the ointment; but died the fame night about two
o’clock.
Many other in (lances might be adduced of the in¬
efficacy of this pretended fpecific: the danger of ac-
quiefcing in which, will, it is hoped, create a due de¬
gree of caution in thofe to whom they who are fo un¬
fortunate as to be bit by a mad animal may commit
themfelves. Of the great variety of remedies which
have had their day of reputation, there is not one
which has not pofieffed the credit, fome time or other,
of preventing the noxious effefts arifing from the bite
of a mad dog. A more adequate experience has with
all of them difcovered the deception. It was above
obferved, that the hydrophobia is by no means the in¬
fallible confequence of being bit by a mad animal;
and that of between 20 and 30 perfons who were bit
by the dog which gave the fatal wound to one of Dr
Vaughan’s patients, not one felt the lead ill effe&
but himfelf. “ In the above number (fays the Doc¬
tor) were fome who took the Ormfltirk Medicine ;
others went to the falt-water ; and a part of them
ufed no remedy, who yet fared equally well with the
mod attentive to their injury. The fame thing has
often happened before; and much merit, I doubt not,
has been attributed to the medicine taken, from that
celebrated one of Sir George Cobb, down to the in¬
fallible one which my good Lady Bountiful’s receipt-
book furniffies.”
From all that has been faid the reader will judge how
far the hydrophobia is capable of being fubdued by any
of themedicinal powers which have yet been tried. Some
eminent phyficians affert that it is totally incurable; and
allege that the indances recorded by different authors of
its cure have not been the genuine kind, but that which
comes on fpontaneoufly, and which is by no means fo
dangerous. Indeed two of Dr Wolf’s patients reco¬
vered, where the difeafe feems to have been perfectly
genuine: but in thefe the poifon feemed to vent itfelf
partly on fome other place befides the nervous fy-
ftem. In one the blood was evidently infefted, as
it had an abominable foetor; and the other had a
violent pain and fwelling in the belly. In all the
others, it feemed to have attacked only the nervous
fydem; which perhaps hath not the fame ability to
throw off any offending matter that the vafcular fydem
hath.
There is, however, a poffibility that the prodigious
affe&ions of the nerves may arife only from a vitiated
flate of the gadric juices; for it is well known, that
the mod terrible convulfions, nay, the hydrophobia
itfelf, wTill arife from an affeftion of the domach, with¬
out any bite of a mad animal. This feems to be
fomewhat confirmed from one of Dr Wolf’s patients,
who, though he vomited more than 50 times, yet dill
Part II.
threw up a frothy matter, which was therefore evi- PRAcnd
dently fecreted into the ttomach, jud as a continual   ^
vomiting of bilious matter (hews a continual and ex¬
traordinary fecretion of bile. Dr Wolf himfelf adopt*
this hypothefis fo far as to fay, that perhaps the ferum
may become frothy; but in blood drawn from a vein
not the lead fault appears either in the ferum or craffa-
mentum. He affirms, however, that the duodenum
appears to be one of the parts fird and principally af-
fedled; and as it is not inflamed, it would feem that
the affe&ion it fudains mud arife from the vitiated flate
of its juices.
Be this as it will, however, in the hydrophobia, the
domach feems totally, or in a great meafure, to lofe
the power which at other times it poffeffes. Two
grains of cuprum ammoniac ale were repeatedly given
to a child of eight years of age without effedt; but
this dofe would occafion violent vomiting in a drong
healthy man. Something or other therefore mud’
have prevented this fubdance from adling on the net-
vous coat of the flomach; and this we can only fup-
pofe to have been the exceedingly difordered date of
the gadric juice, which occafioned fuch violent irrita¬
tion through the whole body, that the weaker dimulus
of the medicine was entirely lofl. It would feem
proper therefore to confider the domach in hydro-
phobic cafes as really containing a poifonous matter,
which could not be expelled by vomiting, becaufe it
is renewed as fad as evacuated. The indication
therefore mud be, to change its nature by fuch medi¬
cines as are certainly more powerful than the poifon;
and this indication will naturally lead us to think of
large dofes of alkaline falls. Thefe, it is certain, will
dedroy any animal-fubdance with which they come in
contact, and render even the poifon of ferpents in-
a&ive. By exhibiting a few dofes of them, larger no
no doubt than what could be fafely done on other oc-
cafions, we would be certain to change the date of
the domachic juices; and thus might free the patient
from thofe intolerable fpafms which always occafion
death in fuch a fliort time. Dr Wolf feems in¬
clined to think that volatile alkalies were of fer-
vice; but the above hypothefis would incline us to
ufe rather the fixed kind. At any rate, it feems
vain for phyficians to trnd much to the power of
opium, mercury, muflc, or cinnabar, either fingly, or
combined in any poffible way. The bark hath alfo
failed, and the mod celebrated fpecifics have been
found ineffe&ual. Alkalies are the next mod powerful
remedies which the materia medica affords, and they
cannot be more unfuccefsful than the others have ge¬
nerally been.
Another remedy which feems adapted to change the
nature of the gadric juices is ardent fpirits. In one
of Dr Wolf’s patients two bottles of brandy feem to
have effected a cure. The oil mixed with it was of
no efficacy in other cafes, and the opium and turbith
feem not to have been exhibited till the word was pad.
In this cafe the difeafe feems to have attacked the
vafcular as well as the nervous fydem.
In all the patients the warm bath feems to have been
a palliative, and a very powerful one, and as fuch it
ought never to be ommitted, though we can by no
means trull to it as a radical cure; and the above hi-
dories abundantly (hew, that though the warm bath
and
M E D I C l N E.
II. M E D I
and opium may palliate for a ihort time, the caufe on
which the fpafms depend is ftill going on and increa-
fing, till at lad the fymptoms become too ftrong to be
palliated even for a moment by arty medicine however
powerful. At any rate, the abovementioned hypo-
thefis fuggefts a new indication, which, if attended
to, may perhaps lead to ufeful difcoveries. In cafes
where putrefcent bile is abundantly fecreted, columbo
root and vegetable acids are recommended to change
the nature of the poifon which the body is perpetually
producing in itfelf. Where corrofive mercury hath
been fwallowed, alkaline fait is recommended to de-
ftroy the poifon which nature cannot expel by vomit¬
ing ; and why (hould not Something be attempted to
deftroy the poifon which the ftomach feems to fecrete
in the hydrophobia, and which nature attempts to ex¬
pel, though in vain, by violent efforts to vomit ?
But whatever plan may be purfued in the hopes of
curing this dreadful malady after any of the fymptoms
have made their appearance, we ought, in every in-
ftance of the accident that gives rife to it, diredt our
immediate care to prevention, as being perhaps the only
real ground of hope: And the moft certain and effi¬
cacious way of preventing the ill confequences, is in-
ftantly (if it may be done) to cut out out the piece in
the place that happens to be bitten. Dr James, in¬
deed, fays, that he would have little opinion of cut¬
ting or cauterifing if ten minutes were fuffered to
elapfe from the receiving of the bite before the opera¬
tion was performed. But in an inaugural differtation
lately publifhed at Edinburgh by Dr Parry, the author
is of opinion that excifion will be of ufe a confiderable
time after the bite is received. He adopts this opi¬
nion from what happens in the fmall-pox, where the
blood doth not feem to receive the infedtion till fome
days after inoculation hath been performed. A fecond
inflammation, he tells us, then takesplace, and the infec¬
tion is conveyed into the blood. In like manner, when
thehydrophobous infedlion is about to be conveyed into
the blood, according to him, the wound, or its cica¬
trix, begins again to be inflamed; and it is this fecond
inflammation which does all the mifchief. Excifion,
or the cautery, will therefore be effedtual any time be¬
twixt the bite and the fecond inflammation of the
wound. Without implicitely trufting to this dodtrine,
however, or confidering it as in any degree afcertained
in what manner the poifon diffufes itfelf, by what marks
its progrefs may be known, or how foon the fyftem
may be irremediably tainted with its malignity, it is
undoubtedly fafeft not to lofe unneceffarily a moment’s
time in applying the knife. This, or a dilation of
the wound if it be fmall, Dr Vaughan confiders as the
only prophyladtics that can be depended upon. In the
latter cafe, he diredts to fill the wound with gunpowder,
and fet fire to it; which would produce a laceration of
the part, and poffibly the adiion of ignited powder up¬
on the poifon may have its ufe.
CLII. The S/’OT/tatffCfc.f Hydrophobia. Sp. II.
Hydrophobia fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 2.
This difeafe very much refembles the former, fo that
it has undoubtedly been often miftaken for it. It has
been known to come on in an inflammation of the fto¬
mach, where it was cured by repeated and large
blood-letting ; in hyfteria, where it was cured by o-
Vol. VI. i
C I N E.
plum, mufk, or other antifpafmpdics; and in putrid P
fevers, where it was cured by evacuating the inteftinal
canal of the putrid matters by repeated clyfters. A
very good method ofdiftinguifl'iing the two is, that in
the ipontaneous hydrophobia the patient is much
more delirious, than in the genuine fpecies. In
the inftance mentioned in the Medical Effays of
this fymptom attending the inflammation of the fto¬
mach, the patient raved in the mojl extraordinary
manner. Dr Raymond fays he remembers a fpon-
taneous hydrophobia attended ‘with mddnefs; and in
almoft all the cafes of hydrophobia which are faid to
have been cured, the patient was very delirious. Dr
Nugent’s patient was very frequently delirious, and
dreaded dogs as well as water. In the Medical Tranf-
a&ions a cafe is communicated by W. Wrightfon fur-
geon in Sedgefield, Durham, of fuccefs-*
fully treated. This madnefs indeed came on after the
bite of a dog faid to be mad : but it appeared only
four days after the accident happened, and was attend¬
ed with fymptoms very unlike any of thofe abovemen¬
tioned ; for he fuddenly ftarted up in a fit of delirium,
and ran out of the houfe, and after being brought in
caught hold of the hot bars of thfc grate which held
the fire: Whereas, in the true hydrophobia, the pa¬
tients dread the fire, light, or any thing which makes
a ftrong impreffion on the fenfes, exceedingly. It is
robable, therefore, that this was only a fpontaneous
ydrophobia, efpecially as it readily yielded to vene-
fe6tion, 30 drops of laudanum, and pills of a grain
and an half of opium given every three hours, fome
bolufes of muflc and cinnabar, &c. while in fome of
the former cafes as much opium was given to a boy
as would have deprived of life the ftrongeft healthy
man had he fwallowed it; and yet this amazing quan¬
tity produced fcarce any effeft. This patient alfo
dreaded the fight of a dog.
Order VI. VESANI^E.
Paranoiac, Vog. Clafs IX.
Deliria, Sauv. Clafs. VIII. Ord. III. Sag. Clafs XI.
Ord. III.
Ideales, Lin. Clafs V. Ord. I.
CLIV. AMENTIA ; Folly, or Idiotifm.
Genus LXV.
Amentia, .SVrav. gen. 233. Vog. 337. Sag.
Morofis, Lin.\o6.
Stupiditas, morofis, fatuitas, Vog. 336.
Amnefia, Sauv. gen. 237. Sag. 347.
Oblivio, Lin. 107. Veg. 338.
Memoriae debilitas, Junck. 120.
CLV. MELANCHOLIA, Melancholy Madnefs.
Genus LXVI.
Melancholia, Sauv. gen. 234. Lin. 71. Vog. $$2.
Sag. 347. Boerh. 1089. Junck. 121.
Daimonomania, Sauv. gen. 236. Sag. 348.
Daemonia, Lin. 69.
Vefania, Lin 70.
Paraphobia, Lin. 75.
Athymia, Vog. 329.
Delirium melanchoiicum, Hoffm. III. 251.
Erotomania, Lin, 82.
27 E Nor
4§o8
Practice Noftalgia, Setuv. gcD. 226. Lbt. 83. Sag. 338.
* Junck. 125.
Melancholia nervea, CL Lorry de melancholia, P. I.
429 CLVI. MANIA, Raving or Furious Madnefs.
Genus LXVII.
Mania, Sauv. gen. 235.- Lin. 68. Vog. 331. Sag.
349. Boerh. 1118. Junck. 122. Battie on
Madnefs.
Paraphrofyne, Lin. 66.
Amentia, Lin. 67.
Delirium maniacum, Hoffm. III. 251.
Although thefe diftempers may be confidered as
diftincl genera, yet they are fo nearly allied, and fo
readily change into each other, that it fufficiently ju-
ftifies the treating of them all at once.
The diftinguilhing chara&eriftic of madnefs, accord¬
ing to Dr Battie, is a falfe perception; and under this
general character may be comprehended all kinds of
what is called from the moft filly ftupidity and
idiotifm to the mod furious lunacy. Frequently the
different kinds of madnefs are changed into each other
by the cafual excitement of fome paffion : thus, an
idiot may become furioufly mad, by being put in a
violent paffion ; though this does not fo often happen
as the change of melancholy into the raving madnefs,
and vice verfa.
It is a very furprifing circumftance, that mad peo¬
ple are not only lefs liable to be feized with infeftious
diforders than thofe who are in perfe& health, but
even when labouring under other difeafes, if the pa¬
tients chance to be feized with madnefs, they are fome-
times freed from their former complaints. Of this kind
Dr Mead relates two very remarkable inftances.
On the other hand, it has been known, that an in¬
termittent fever, fupervening madnefs of long Hand¬
ing, has proved a cure for the madnefs ; the fenfes ha¬
ving returned, when the fever terminated. Dr Monro
faw two inftances of this himfelf; and mentions it as
an obfervation of his predeceffor in the care of Beth-
lem hofpital.
Another remarkable circumftance is, that immode¬
rate joy, long continued, as effeftually diforders the
mind as anxiety and grief. For it was obfervable in
the famous South-Sea year, when fo many immenfe
fortunes were fuddenly gained, and as fuddenly loft,
that more people had their heads turned, from the pro¬
digious flow of unexpefted riches, than from the en¬
tire lofs of their whole fubftance.
Mad people, efpecially of the melancholic kind,
fometimes obftinately perfevere in doing things which
muft excite great pain ; whence it fhould feem as if
their minds were troubled with fome diftrafting no¬
tions, which make them patiently bear the prefent di-
ftrefs, left more fevere tortures ffiould be inflifted ; or
poffibly they may think, that, by thus tormenting the
body, they render themfelves more acceptable to the
divine Being, and expiate the heinous fins of which
they may imagine themfelves to have been guilty.
Cure, &c. All the fpecies and degrees of madnefs
which are hereditary, or that grow up with people from
their early youth, are out of the power of phyiic ; and
fo, for the moft part, are all maniacal cafes of more than
one year’s Handing, let them arife from what fonrce fo-
Part IT.
ever. Very often, mere wafte, or the dregs of fome actiJ
particular difeafe, fuch as an ague, the fmall-pox, or
a nervous fever, (hall occafion different degrees of
foolifhnefs, or madnefs. In thefe cafes, the cure mull
not be attempted by evacuations; bnt, on the con¬
trary, by nourilhing diet, clear air, moderate exercife,
and the ufe of wine : whereas, in almoft all the other
maniacal cafes which arife from different fourcps, and
which come on in confequence of intemperate living,
violent paffions, or intenfe thinking, it is generally
held, that evacuations of every kind are neceffary, un-
lefs theconftitution of the patient be fuch as abfolutely
forbids them.
Blood is moft conveniently drawn either from the
arm or jugulars; and if the weaknefs be fuch as ren¬
ders it improper to take away much blood, we may
apply cnpping-glaffes to the occiput.
Vomiting, in weakly people, muft be excited by the
vinum ipecacoanse; but, in the more robuft, by emetic
tartar, or antimonial wine : the moft efficacious ca¬
thartics, are the infufion or tinfture of black hellebore,
or infufion of fena, quickened with tindfture of jalap ;
but if there be fuppreffion of the menfes, or hsemor-
rhoidal difcharge, then aloetic purges will be more pro¬
per. In general, mad people require very large do¬
les, both of the emetics and cathartics, before any
confiderable operation enfues.
Dr Monro affures us, that the evacuation by vomit¬
ing is infinitely preferable to any other: the prodigi¬
ous quantity of phlegm, with which the patients in
this difeafe abound, he fays, is not to be got the bet¬
ter of but by repeated vomits; and he obferves, that
the purges have not their right effefi, or do not ope¬
rate to fo good purpofe, until the phlegm is broken
and attenuated by frequent emetics. He mentions the
cafe of a gentleman who had laboured under a melan¬
choly for three years, from which he was relieved en¬
tirely by the ufe of vomits, and a proper regimen. In-
crealing the difcharge by urine, is alfo of the greateft
moment, efpecially when any degree of fever is pre-
fent. The cutaneous difcharges are alfo to be promo¬
ted, for which purpofe the hot bath is of the higheft
fervice in maniacal cafes. Hoffman afferts, that he
has feen numerous inftances, both of inveterate melan¬
choly and raging madnefs, happily cured by means of
warm bathing ; bleeding and nitrous medicines having
been premifed. Camphor has alfo been highly com¬
mended; but, if we believe Dr Locker of Vienna, not
very defervedly. Having found very good effedls from
a folution of this medicine in vinegar, he took it for
granted that all the fuccefs was owing to the cam-
Ehor; therefore, in order to give it a fair trial, he fe-
:6ted feven patients, and gave it in large dofes of half
a drachm twice a-day. This was continued for two
months, and the dodlor was furprifed to find that
only one of his patients received any benefit. He then
returned the other fix back to the camphorated julep
made with vinegar, and in a few weeks four of them
recovered the ufe of their reafon. This inclined him
to think that the virtue depended folely on the vine¬
gar, and accordingly he began to make the trial.
Common vinegar was firft given: but after a little while
he fixed on that which had been diftilled, and gave
about an ounce and half of it every day ; the patients
having been previoully prepared by bleeding and pur-
giBg»
MEDICINE.
UPart II.
siAcTicrgJng, which wa* repearted according as it was found
' neccffary. He gives a lift of eight patients who were
cured by this method; fome in fix weeks, others in
two months, and none of them took up more than
three months in perfe&ing the cure. He does not in¬
deed give the ages of the patients, nor mention the cir-
cumftances of the cafe ; only fays, they began the vi¬
negar fuch a day, and were difcharged cured on fuch
another day; and he adds, that they all continued well
at the time of his writing.
Dr Locker informs us, that this medicine aft*
chiefly as a fudorific ; and he obferved, that the more
the patients fweated, the fooner they were cured : it
was alfo found to promote the menftrual difcharge in
fuch as had been obftru&ed, or had too little of this
falutary evacuation.
Both reafon and experience (hew the neceffity of
confining fuch as are deprived of their fenfes ; and no
fmall (hare of the management confifts in hindering
them to hurt themfelves, or do mifchief to other ptr-
fons. It has fometimes been ufual to chain and to
beat them: but this is both cruel and abfurd ; fince
the contrivance called the Jirait luaijlcoat anfwers
every purpofe of reftraining the patients, without hurt¬
ing them.
Thefe waiftcoats are made of ticken, or fome fuch
ftrong fluff; are open at the back, and laced on like
a pair of flays ; the fieeves are. made tight, and long
enough to cover the ends of the fingers, where they
are drawn clofe with a ftring, like a purfe, by which
contrivance the patient has no power of his fingers;
and, when laid on his back in bed, and the arms
brought acrofs the cheft, and faftened in that pofition
by tying the fleeve-ftrings round the waift, he has no
ufe of his hands. A broad ftrap of girth-web is then
carried acrofs the breaft, and faftened to the bedftead,
by which means the patient is confined on his back ;
and if he fhould be fo outrageous as to require further
reftraint, the legs are fecured by ligatures to the foot
of the bed.
It is of great ufe in pra&ice to bear in mind, that
oil mad people are cowardly, and can be awed even by
the menacing look of a very expreffive countenance ;
and when thofe who have charge of them once imprefs
them with the notion of fear, they eafily fubmit to any
thing that is required. The phyfician, however,
fhould never deceive them in any thing, but more efpe-
<cially with regard to their diftemper : for as they are
generally confcious of it themfelves, they acquire a
kind of reverence for thofe who know it; and by
letting them fee that he is thoroughly acquainted with
their complaint, he may very often gain fuch sn afeen-
dant over them that they will readily follow his di-
re&ions.
It is a more difficult matter to manage thofe whofe
madnefs is accompanied either with exceffive joy, or
with great deje£Hon and defpondency, than thofe
who are agitated with rage : and all that can be done
is to endeavour to excite contrary ideas, by repreffing
the immoderate fits of laughter in the one kind by chi¬
ding or threatening, (taking care, however, not abfo-
lutely to terrify them, which can never be done without
danger, and has often added to the mifery of the un¬
happy fufferer) ; and difpelling the gloomy thoughts in
the-other, by introducing pleafing concerts of mufic,
4809
or any other fpecies of entertainment which the pa- Practicx
tients have been known to delight in while they had
the ufe of their reafon.
Though bliflering the head has generally been
directed. Dr Mead fays he has oftener found it to do
harm than fervice: but he recommends iffues in the
back ; and advifes to keepr the head always clofe
ffiaved, and to wafh it from time to time with warm
vinegar. Opium is ufually forbidden in maniacal
cafes, as fuppofing that it always increafes the di-
fturbance ; but there are inftances where large dofes
of this medicine have been found to prove a cure,
and perhaps if it were tried oftener we ftiould find
powerful effe&s from it: there certainly cannot much
harm enfue from a few dofes, which may be immedi¬
ately difufed if they (hould be found to exafperate the
difeafe.
The diet of maniacal patients ought to be perfe&ly
light and thin : their meals {hould be moderate ; but
they {hould never be fuffered to live too low, efpecially
while they are under a coorfe of phyfic : they fhould
be obliged to obferve great regularity in their hours j
even their amufements {hould be fuch as are beft fuited
to their difpofition ; and after the difeafe appears to
be fubdued, chalybeate waters and the cold bath will
be highly proper, to ftrengthen their whole frame, and
fecure them againft a relapfe.
CLVIII. ONEIRODYNIA, Uneasiness in
Sleep. Genus LXVIII.
Somnium, Vog. 339.
Somnambulifmus, Sam. gen. 221. Lin. 77. Sag.
333-
Hypnobatafis, Vog. 340.
Nodambulatio, 'Junck. 124.
Ephialtes, Sam. gen. 138. Lin. 163. Sag. 245.
Incubus, Vog. 211. Janck. 50.
The greateft uneafinefs which people feel in fleep,
is that commonly called the inculus or night-mare.
Thofe felted with it feem to have a weight on their
breads and about their prascordia. Sometimes they
imagine they fee fpeftres of various kinds which op-
prefs or threaten them with fuffocation. Neither
does this uneafinefs continue only while they are
afleep ; for it is fome time after they awake before
they can turn themfelves in their beds or fpeak ; nay,
fometimes, though rarely, the diftemper hath proved
mortal.—The incubus rarely feizes people except
when the ttomach is oppreffed with aliments of hard
digeftion, and the patient lies on his back. It is to
be cured by eating flight flippers, and railing the
head high; or, if it become very troublefome, anti-
fpafmodic medicines are to be adminiftered, and the
body ftrengchened by chalybeates. The fame method
is to be followed by thofe who are fubjeft to walking
in their fleep; a pra&ice which muft neceffarily be
attended with the greateft danger.
MEDICINE.
27 E 2
CLASS
43io
Practice
M E D I
CLASS III. CACHEXIiE.
Cachexias, Sauv. Clafs X. Sag. Clafs VIII. Sag.
Clafs III.
Deformea, Lin. Clafs X.
Order I. MARCORES.
Macies, Sauv. Clafs X. Order I. Sag. Clafs III.
Order I.
Emaciantes, Lin. Clafs X. Order I.
CLIX. TABES, or Wasting of the Body.
Genus LXIX.
Tabes, Sauv. gen. 275. Lin. zo^. Vog. 306.
Sa°. 100.
This diforder Is occafioned by the abforptlon of
pus from fome ulcer external or internal, which pro¬
duces an heftic fever. The primary indication there¬
fore muft be to heal the ulcer, and thus take away the
caufe of the difeafe. If the ulcer cannot be healed,
the patient will certainly die in an emaciated ftate.
But for the proper treatment of the tabes proceeding
from this caufe, fee below, Ulcer, Siphylis, Scro-
phula, Scurvy, &c. alfo the article Surgery.
^32 CLX. ATROPHY, or Nervous Consumption.
Genus LXX.
Defcription. This is a wafting of the body, without
any remarkable fever, cough, or difficulty of breath¬
ing ; but attended with want of appetite, and a bad
digeftion, whence the whole body grows languid,
and waftes by degrees.—Dr Cullen, however, afferts,
that fome degree of fever, or at leaft of increafed
quicknefs of the pulfe, always attends this difeafe.
Caufes. Sometimes this diftemper will come on
without any evident caufe. Sometimes it will arife
from paffions of the njfnd ; from an abufe of fpiri-
tuous liquors; from exceffive evacuations, efpecially
of the femen, in which cafe the diftemper hath got
the name of tabes dorfalis. It will arife from mere old
age, or from famine.
Prognojis. This diftemper, from whatever caufe
it may arife, is very difficult to cure, and often ter¬
minates in a fatal dropfy.
Cure. Stomachic and nervous medicines are only
to be depended upon in this cafe. The PeruviaH
bark, elixir of vitriol, and chalybeates, are excellent ;
and the diet ftiould be as light and nutritive as
poffible. In that fpecies of the diftemper occaftoned
by venereal excefles, it is fo effentially neceffary to ab-
ftain from them, that without it the beft remedies
will prove ufeful. But this is fo feldom complied with,
that the tabes dorfalis almoft always proves mortal.
Order II. I NTU M E S C ENT I iE.
Intumefcentiae, Sauv. Clafs X. Ord. II. Sap. Clafs
III. Ord. II.
Tumidofi, Lin. Clafs X. Ord. II.
,,3 CLXI. POLYSARCIA, or Corpulency.
Genus LXXI.
Polyfarcia, Sauv. gen. 279. Lin. 213. Fog. 540.
Sag. 160. Steatite?, Vog. 390.
CINE. Part II.
In a natural and healthy ftate, the fat, or animal Practh
oil, is not allowed to diffufe itfelf throughout the cel-'
lular interftices at large, but is confined to the places
where fuch an oily fluid is neceflary, by a particular
apparatus of diftinft veficles. But in many conftitu-
tions the oily part of the blood appears to exceed the
requifite proportion, and eafily feparates from the other
conftituent parts; and then it is apt to accumulate in
fuch quantities, that we may fuppofe it to burft thofe
veficles which were originally deftined to hinder it
from fpreading too far.
The increafe of the omentum particularly, and the
accumulation of fat about the kidneys and mefentery,
fwell the abdomen, and obftruft the motions of the
diaphragm ; whence one reafon of the difficulty of
breathing which is peculiar to corpulent people; while
the heart, and the large vefiels conne&ed therewith,
are in like manner fo encumbered, that neither the fy-
ftaltic nor fubfultery motion can be performed with
fufficient freedom, whence weaknefs and flownefs of the
pulfe: but when the whole habit is in a manner over¬
whelmed with an oily fluid, the enlargement of the
cellular interftices will necefiarily interrupt the general
diftribution and circulation throughout the nervous
and vafcular fyftems; impeding the aftion of the muf-
cular fibres, and producing infenfibility, fomnolency,
and death.
Thefe cafes are the more deplorable, as there is but
little profpeft of a cure. For the animal oil is of too
grofs a nature to be eafily taken up by abforption:
and we know, that when fluids are accumulated in the
cellular fyftem, there are only two ways in which they
can be carried off or efcape ; namely, by the abforb-
ents, which take their rife from the cellular interftices,
and through the pores of the fkin by tranfudation.
Another misfortune is, that the difeafe fteals on fo
imperceptibly, that it becomes inveterate by the time
that people begin to think of purfuing the proper
means of relief.
Soap has been propofed as a remedy to melt down
and facilitate the abforption of the fat in corpulent
people; and Dr Fleming fome years ago publi/hed a
little treatife, wherein he recommends this medicine,
and relates the cafe of a gentleman who is faid to have
received confiderable benefit from it. But perhaps the
foap-lees would be more powerful, and might be more
eafily taken, ftieathed, as hereafter direfled when re¬
commended as a diffolvent of the ftone.
Lieutaud advifes to take acetum fcilliticum in fmall
dofes, with frequent purging and briflc exercife. But
it will feldom happen that the patients will be found
Efficiently fteady to perfift in any of thefe courfes, it
being the nature of the diforder to render them irrefo-
lute and inattentive to their condition. Therefore the
principal ufe of rules muft be with a view to preven¬
tion ; and perfons who are difpofed to corpulency fliould
take care in time to prevent it from becoming an ab-
folute difeafe, by ufing a great deal of exercife, not
indulging in fleep, and abridging their meals, efpeci¬
ally that of (upper. Salted meats are lefs fattening
than fuch as are frefti; and drinking freely of coffee is
recommended to corpulent people.
But Dr Fothergill obferves, that a drift adherence
to vegetable diet reduces exuberant fat more certainly
than
*
art II. M E D I
ACTicEthan any otlier means that he knows of; and gives two
 cafes wherein this regimen fuccecded remarkably well.
The famous Dr Cheyne brought himfelf down in this
way, from a molt unweildy bulk, to a reafonable de¬
gree of weight ; as he himfelf informs us.. See
Cheyne.
4,4. CLXII. PNEUMATOSIS, Emphysema, or Windy
Swelling. Genus LXXII.
Pneumatofis, Sau-u. gen. 280. Vog. 391 Sag. 107.
Emphyfema. Sauv. gen. 1$. Lin. 288. Vog. 392.
Leucophlegmatia, 214.
The emphyfema fometimes comes on fpontaneoufly;
but more frequently is occafioned by wounds of the
lungs, which giving vent to the air, that fluid in-
finuates itfelf into the cellular texture, and often blows
it up to a furprifing degree. It mud be obferved,
however, that it is only in cafes of laceration of the
lungs where this difeafe can take place; for in a
fimple wound, the effufion of blood always prevents
the air from getting out. The cure is to be accom-
plifhed by the fcarifications and compreffes, and in
fome cafes only by the paracentefis of the thorax. See
Surgery.
„ CLXII. TYMPANITES, the Tympany.
435 Genus LXX1II.
Tympanites, Sauv. gen. 291. Lin. 219. Vog.
316. Sag. 118. Boerh. 226. Jufick. S’],
Affedtio tympanitica, Hoffm. III. 339.
Meteorifmus, Sauv. gen. 292.
This is an inflation of the abdomen, and is of two
Linds : x. That in which the flatus is contained in the
inteftines, in which the patient has frequent explo-
fions of wind, with a fwelling of the belly frequently
unequal. 2. When the flatus is contained in the cavity
of the abdomen ; in which cafe the fwelling is more
equal, and the belly founds when ftruck, without any
confiderable emiflion of flatus. In both cafes the reft
of the body falls away.
Caufes, See. The tympany fometimes takes place
in thofe who have been long troubled with flatulencies
in the flomach and inteftines. It happens frequently
to women after abortion ; to both fexes after the fup-
preflion of the haemorrhoids ; and fometimes from te¬
dious febrile diforders injudicioufly treated.
Prognofis. This difeafe is generally very obftinate,
and for the moft part proves fatal by degenerating in¬
to an afeites. Sometimes, if the patient be healthy
and ftrong, the difeafe may terminate favourably, and
that the more readily if it has followed fome other dif-
order. A he&ic confumption, dry cough, and ema¬
ciated countenance in a tympany, with a fwelling of
the feet, denote approaching death in a very ihort
time.
Cure. The cure of the tympany is to be attempt¬
ed by carminative, refolvent, and ftomachic medicines,
gentle laxatives, and at laft tonics^-efpecially chaly-
beates. In the Edinburgh Medical Effays, Vol. I.
we have a very remarkable hiftory of a tympany by
Dr Monro fenior. The patient was a young woman
of 22 ^ais of age, who fell into the diftemper after
having a tertian ague in which (he was badly treated.
She became a patient in the Edinburgh Infirmary the
CINE. 4811
24th of March 1730; took feveral purgatives, fome PRAc-rrcg
dofes of calomel; ufed the warm bath ; and had an an- "
tihyfteric plafter applied over the whole belly, but
with very little effefi:. She was monllroufly diftended,
infomuch that the fltin feemed to be in danger of
burfting : her breathing was much ftraitened ; and the
fwelling gradually decreafed without any evacuation.
The returns and degree of this fwelling were very un¬
certain ; and when the belly was moft detumefied, fe¬
veral unequal and protuberant balls could be felt over
the whole abdomen, but efpecially at its fides. Her
ftomach was good, fhe had no third, and her urine
was in proportion to the quantity fhe drank. She was
very coftive, had her menfes at irregular periods, but
no oedematous fwellings appeared in the feet or any
where elfe. In this fituation fhe continued from the
time of her admiflion till the 21ft of June, during
which interval fhe had only her menfes twice. Through¬
out this fpace of time it was obferved, 1. Several
times, upon the falling of the fwelling, fhe complained
of a headach ; once of pains throughout all her body,
once of a giddinefs, twice of a naufea and vomiting, and
the laft time threw up green bile ; and once her fto¬
mach fwelled greatly, whilft the reft of the abdomen
fubflded. 2. During the flowing of the menfes fhe
did not fwell, but became very big upon their flop¬
ping. 3. Blooding and emetics, which were made ufe '*
of for fome accidental urgent fymptoms, had no very
fenfible effedl in making the tympany either better or
worfe. 4. She never had paflage of wind either way,
except a little belching fome days before the firft
monthly evacuation.
Some time before the laft eruption of the menfes
the purgatives were given more fparingly, and the
dofes of the antihyftencs of the ftrongeft kind, fuch.
as aflafeetida, oleum C. C. See. mixed with foap, were
given in large dofes, accompanied with the hotter an-
tifcorbutics as they are called, as horfe-radifh and
ginger-root infufed in ftrong-ale with fteel. The pa¬
tient was ordered to ufe frequent and ftrong friftions
to all the trunk of her body and extremities, and to
ufe moderate exercife. Immediately before the men-
ftrua began to flow, clyfters of the fame kind of me¬
dicines were injeded. The menfes were fn fufficient
quantity; but as foon as they ceafed, her belly increa-
fed in its circumference four inches and a half, but
foon fubflded. She then complained of pains, which
a gentle fweat carried off. Borborygmi were for the
firft time obferved on the fame day, June 25th ; and
having taken fome tinftura facra at night, flie pafled
a fmall quantity of blood next day by ftool. This was
the firft appearance of the return of the haemorrhoids,
to w'hich flie had been formerly fubjeft.
The two following days her faponaceous, antihy-
lleric, and antifcorbutic medicines being ftill conti¬
nued, (he had fuch explofions of wind upwards and
downwards, that none of the other patients would
remain in the fame room, nay fearee on the fame floor
with her. Her belly became lefs, and fofter than it
had been from the firft attack of the difeafe ; her me¬
dicines; with a dole of fyrup of buckthorn at proper
intervals, ftill were continued, only the proportion of
fteel was increafed ; her flatulent difeharge went on
fuccefsfully, and Ihe gradually recovered her former
health.
CLIV.
M E D I
rR_A.CIl.icLIV. PHYSOMETRA, or Windy Swelling of
43® the Uterus. Genus LXXIV.
Phyfometra, gerf 290. Sag. 119.
Hyfterophyfe, Vog. 7,17.
The treatment of this is not different from that of
the tympany.
437 CLV. ANASARCA, or Watery Swelling over
the Whole Body. Genus LXXV.
Anafarca, Sauv. gen. 281. Lin. 215. Vog. 313.
rag. 108. Boerh. 1225. Hoffm.YW. 322. Junck.
87. Monro on the Dropfy. Milman Animad-
verfiones de hydrope 1779.
Phlegmatia, Sauv. gen. 282.
Angina aquofa, Boerh. 791.
In this difeafe the feet firft begin to fwell, efpe-
cially in the evening, after exercife, and when the
patient has flood or fat long; which fwelling rifes fre¬
quently to the thighs. By lying in bed, the fwelling
becomes lefs, or even almoft difappears. In the pro-
grefs of the difeafe, the fwelling often rifes to the hips,
loins, and belly, and at lafl covers the whole body.
This difeafe, befides the other fymptoms hereafter men¬
tioned under Ascites, is attended with a remarkable
. difficulty of breathing.—For the cure, fee Ascites.
43 Only it may be here noticed, that in anafarca it is
ufual to fcarify the feet and legs By this means the
water is often ditcharged: but the operator muft be
cautious not to make the incifion too deep; they ought
barely to penetrate through the fkin ; and efpecial care
mufl be taken, by fpirituous fomentations and proper
digeftives, to prevent a gangrene. Dr Fothergill ob-
ferves, that the fafefl and moft efficacious way of ma¬
king thefe drains is by the inftrument ufed for cup¬
ping, called a fcarificator ; and he always orders it to
be fo applied as to make the little wounds tranfverfe-
ly ; as they not only difcharge better, but are alfo
longer in healing, than when made longitudinally.
CLXIV. HYDROCEPHALUS, or Water in the
Head. Genus LXXVI.
Hydrocephalus, Sauv. gen. 285. Lin. 216. Boerh.
1217.
Hydrocephalum, Vog. 384.
This differs from the hydrocephalus formerly men¬
tioned, as the water is colledled in the external parts of
the head, whereas the former is entirely within the
fkull. In the fifth volume of the Medical Obferva-
tions we have an account of a very extraordinary cafe
of this kind. The patient was a child only of a few
days old, and had a tumour on his head about thefize
of a common tea-cup, which had the appearance of a
bladder diftended with water; near the apex was a
fmall opening, through which a bloody ferum wasdif-
charged. In other refpe&s the child was healthy. No
application was ufed but a piece of linen dipt in bran¬
dy. The tumour continued to increafe for many
months; at the end of which time the membrane con¬
taining the water appeared equally thick with the other
part of the fcalp, except one place about the fize of a
Hulling, which continued thin, and at times appear¬
ed as if it would burfl. He continued in this fitua-
tion for about 17 months, when the circumference of
CINE. Part II.
the head was 20 inches, the bafe i6|-, the middle 18^, Paactki
and from the bafe to the apex near The water was ~
then drawn off, and the child died in two days. Al¬
moft all other cafes of this diftemper have proved fa¬
tal ; the futures of the fkull generally give way, and
the whole external part of the head is equally enlarged;
but in the inftance juft now given there was a deficien¬
cy of part of the bone.
CLXX. HYDRORACHTTIS, or Spina Bifida. 439
Genus LXXVI1.
Hydrorachitis, Sauv. gen. 287. Morgagn. defed.
XII. 9. etfeq.
Spinola, Lin. 289.
Spina bifida, 386.
CLXVI. HYDROTHORAX, or Dropsy of the 44®
Breafl. Genus LXXVI1I.
Hydrothorax, gen. 150. Vog. 311. Boerh.
1219.
For thefe two difeafes. See the article Surgery.
CEXVII. ASCITES, or Dropsy of the Abdo- 44f
men. Genus LXXIX.
Afcites, Sauv. gen. 288. Lin. 217. V«g. 314.
Sag. gen. 115. Boerh. 1226. Hoffm. III. 322.
Junck. 87. D. Monro on the Dropfy, 1765.
Milmant Animadverfiones de hydrope, 1779.
Defcription. This difeafe aflumes three different
forms: 1. When the water immediately wafhes the in-
teftines. ,2. When it is interpofed between the abdo¬
minal mufcles and peritonasum ; or, 3. It may be con¬
tained in facs and hollow glands, in which cafe it is
called the encyjied dropfy. Some phyficians of great re¬
putation have afferted, that the water was often placed
within the duplicatnre of the peritonseum : but this is
alleged by Dr Milman to be a miftake, as that mem¬
brane is looked upon by the beft anatomifts to be
Angle; and he thinks that the abovementioned phyfi¬
cians have been led into the miftake from obferving the
water collefted in the cellular fubftance of the peri-
tonaeum.
In the beginning of an afcites the patient becomes
languid, breathlefs, and hath an averfion at motion:
his belly fwelis; and when ftruck, the found of fluc¬
tuating water is perceptible; there is a difficulty of
breathing when the belly ispreffed. There is an almoft
continual thirft, which in the progrefs of the difeafe
becomes very urgent; the urine is thick, in fmall quan¬
tity, and red. The pnlfe is fmall and frequent ; and
as the belly fwells, the other parts wafte away. A
fever at laft arifes, which, conftantly increafing, at laft
carries off the patient. Thefe fymptoms are moft ur¬
gent where the waters are in immediate contaft with
the inteftines ; in the other kinds the reft of the body
is lefs wafted ; nor is there fo great thirft or difficulty
of breathing.
Caufes, &c. The immediate caufe of dropfy is a
greater effufion of ferum by the exhalent arteries
than the abforbents can take up. This may be occa-
fioned either by too great a quantity of liquid thrown
out by the former, or by an inability of the latter to
perform their office. This commonly happens in people
whofe bodies are of a weak and lax texture, and hence
women arc more fubjeft to this malady than men ;
chlorotic
fart IT. M E D I
3 actice chlorotic girls efpccially are very apt to become drop-
' fical.
Sometimes, however, this difeafe is occafioned by
a debility of the vital powers, by great evacuations of
blood, or by acute difeafes accidentally protracted
beyond their ufual period ; and although this caule
feems very different from a laxity of fibres, yet the
dropfy feems to be produced in a fimilar manner by
both. For the vital powers being debilitated by ei¬
ther of thefe caufes, naturally bring on a Certain de¬
bility and laxity of the folids ; and on the other hand
a debility of the folids always brings on a debility of
the vital powers; and from this debility of the vital
powers in both cafes it happens, that thofe humours
which ought to be expelled from the body are not, but
accumulate by degrees in its cavities. There is, how¬
ever, this difference between the two kinds of dropfy
ariling from thefe two different caufes. That in the one
which arifes from laxity, the folid parts are more in¬
jured than in that which arifes from a debility of the
vital powers. In the former, therefore, the water feems
to flow out from every quarter, and the body fwells
all over. But when the difeafe is occafioned by a de¬
bility of the vital powers, though the folids are lefs da¬
maged, yet the power of the heart being much di-
minifhed, and the humours fcarce propelled throngh
the extreme veffels, the thin liquids by which, in
a healthy itate the body is daily recruited, are car¬
ried by their own weight either into the cavities or
into the cellular texture. Hence thofe aqueous eflu-
fions which follow great evacuations of blood, or vio¬
lent loofeneffes, begin in the more depending parts of
the body, gradually afeending, till they arrive at the
cavity of the abdomen, or even the thorax.
But another and much more fufficient caufe for the
produftion of dropfy is an obftru&ion of the circula¬
tion ; and this may take place from polypi in the heart
or large veflels, and hard fwellings in the abdomen.
Inftances have been obferved of a dropfy arifipg from
fteatomatous tumours in the omentum, and many more
from a feirrhous liver or fpleen, aud from an infarc¬
tion and obftru&ion of the mefenteric glands, by which
means the lymph coming from the extremities is pre¬
vented from arriving at the heart.
Laftly, whatever, either within or without the vef¬
fels, contracts or ftiuts up their cavities, produces a
more copious and eafy tranfmifiion of the thin humours
through the exhalent arteries, at the fame time that it
prevents their return by the abforbent veins. This
hath been eftablilhed by experiment. For Lower ha¬
ving perforated the right fide of the thorax in a dog,
tied the vena cava, and fewed up the wound. The
animal languiflied for a few hours, and then died. On
difle&ion, a great quantity of ferum was found in the
abdomen, as if he had long laboured under an afeites.
In like manner, having tied the jugular veins of another
dog, a furprifing fwelling took place in thofe parts
above the ligatures, and in two days the creature died.
On difie&ion, all the mufcles and glands were vaftly
diftended, and quite pellucid, with limpid ferum. From
thefe experiments, and fome cafes of difeafe mention¬
ed by different authors, it appears, that when the
veins are obftrufted fo that they cannot receive the ar¬
terial blood, the ferum is feparated as by a filtre into
the mors open cavities and laxer parts of the body,
CINE. 4813
while the thicker part Magnates and is colle&ed in the Practice
proper blood-veCTels.
The too great tenuity of the humours is very fre¬
quently accufed as the caufe of droply, and many au¬
thors have afferted that dropfy might atife merely from
a fuperabundance of water in the blood. For this
fome experiments of Halefins are quoted, from which
they would infer, that when a great quantity of aque¬
ous fluid is introduced into the blood, the fuperfluotis
fluid ought by no means to pafs thro’ the extremities of
the fanguiferous arteries into the veins in the commo#
courfe of circulation, but by being effufed into the
cavities fhould produce a dropfy. But this can on¬
ly happen when the vital powers are very much dimi-
nifhed; for, in a natural ftate, the fuperfluous quantity
is immediately thrown out by the Ikin or the kidneys:
and agreeable to this we have an experiment of Schult-
zius, who induced a dropfy in a dog by caufing him
drink a great quantity of water ; but he had firft bled
him almoil ad deliquium, fo that the vital powers were
in a manner opprefled by the deluge of water. In this
manner do thofe become hydropic, who are feized with
the difeafe on drinking large quantities of water either
when wearied with labour, or weakened by fome kinds
of difeafes. Dr Fothergill relates an inftance of a
perfon who, being advifed to drink plentifully of bar¬
ley-water, in order to remove a fever, raflily drunk 12
pounds of that liquor every day for a month, and thus
fell into an almoft incurable diftemper. But if this
quantity had been taken only during the prevalence of
the fever, he would in all probability have fuffered no
inconvenience, as is probable from what we have for¬
merly related concerning the diata aquea ufed by the
Italians,
It is moreover evident from experiments, that, in a
healthy ftate, not only water is not depofited in the ca¬
vities, but that if it is injefted into them it will be ab-
forbed, unlefs fome laxity of the folids hath already
taken place. Dr Mufgrave injefted into the right
fide of the thorax of a dog, four ounces of warm wa¬
ter; whence a difficulty of breathing and weaknefs im¬
mediately followed. But thefe fymptoms continually
leflened, and in the fpace of a week the animal Teem¬
ed to be in as good health as before. Afterwards he
injedted 16 ounces of warm water into the left cavity
of the thorax in the fame dog ; the fame effedts fol¬
lowed, together with great heat, and ftrong pulfation
of the heart ; but he again recovered in the fpace of a
week. Laftly, he injedfed 18 ounces of water into
one fide of the thorax, and only fix into the other 5
the fame fymptoms followed, but vaniftied in a much
Ihorter time ; for within five days the dog was reftored
to perfedf health. During this time, however, he ob¬
ferved that the creature made a greater quantity of
urine than ufual.
The remote caufes of dropfy are many and Various.
Whatever relaxes the folids in fuch a manner ds to give
an occafton of accumulation to the ferous fluids, dif-
pofes to the dropfy. A lazy indolent life, rainy wet
weather, fwampy or low foil, and every thing which
conduces to vitiate the vifeera, or infenfibly to produce
obftruftions in them, paves the way for a dropfy.
Hence thofe ar? ready to fall into the difeafe who ufe
hard and vifeid aliments, fuch as poor people in fome
countries who ufe coaxfc brown bread, aud children
who
4814
Practice who are fed with unwholefome aliments; and the fame
thing happens to thofe who drink immoderately of fpi -
rituous liquors.
Prognofts. When the dropfy arifes from a fcirrhus
of the liver or fpleen, or any of the other vifcera, the
prognofis muft always be fatal, as alfo when it arifes
from diforders of the lungs. Neither is the cafe more
favourable to thofe in whom the fmall veffels are rup¬
tured, and pour out their liquids into the cavity of the
abdomen. Thofe certainly die who have polypi in the
veffels, or tumours compreffing the veins and veffels of
the abdomen. A dropfy arifing from obftruftions in
the menfenteric glands is likewife difficult to cure, whe¬
ther fuch obftrudlions arife from a bad habit of body,
dr from any other caufe; but if we can by any means
remove the difeafe of the glands, the dropfy eafily
ceafes. But in thofe who fall into dropfy without any
difeafe preceding, it is not quite fo dangerous; and
even though a difeafe hath preceded, if the patient’s
ftrength is not greatly weakened, if the refpiiatioB is
free, and the perfon is not affedled with any particu¬
lar pain, we may entertain great hopes of a cure. But
where a great lofs of blood is followed by a fever, and
that by a dropfy, the patients almoft always die, and
that in a fhort time; but they are very frequently cu¬
red who fall into this difeafe without any preceding
haemorrhage.
Cure. In the cure of this difeafe authors chiefly
mention two indications. 1. To expel the foperflu-
ous quantity of water; and, 2. To prevent its being
again collected. But before we proceed to fpeak of
the remedies, it is neceffary to take notice, that by
the animal ceconomy, if a great evacuation of a fluid
takes place in any part of the bod^r, all the other
fluids in the body are directed towards that part, and
thofe which lie as it were lurking in different parts
will be immediately abforbed, and thrown out by
the fame paffage. Hence the humours which in hy¬
dropic perfons are extravafated into the different cavi¬
ties of the body will be thrown into the inteftines,
and evacuated by purgatives ; or by diuretics will be
thrown upon the kidneys, and evacuated by urine.
It is not, however, only neceffary to excite thefe
evacuations in order to remove this malady, but
they muft be affiduoufly promoted and kept up till
the abundant humour is totally expelled. For this
reafon Sydenham has advifed purgatives to be admi-
niftered every day, unlefs, either through the too
great weaknefs of the body, or the violent operation
of the purgative, it (hall be neceffary to interpofe a
day or two now and then ; becaufe if any confiderable
intervals are allowed to take place between the exhi¬
bition of the purgatives, an opportunity is given to
the waters of collecting again. In this method, how¬
ever, there is the following inconvenience, that, when
the waters are totally evacuated, the ftrength is at
the fame time fo much exhaufted, that the diftemper
commonly returns in a very ftiort time. Hence almoft
our only hopes of curing a dropfy, confift in gently
evacuating the waters by means of diuretics. But
the efficacy of thefe is generally very doubtful. Dr
Freind hath long ago obferved, that this part of me¬
dicine is of all others the moft lame and imperfeft;
but a certain French phyfician named Bacher, lately
found a method of making the diuretics much more
Part II.
fuccefsful. His reputation became at laft fo great, Practicii
that the French king thought proper to purchafe his ’
fecret for a great fum of money. The bafis of his
medicine was hellebore-root, the malignant qualities
of which he pretended to correft in the following
manner. A quantity of the dried roots of black hel¬
lebore were pounded, and then put into a glazed
earthen veffel, and afterwards fprinkled “ fpiritu vini
annato alkaejl." They were fuffered to Hand for
twelve hours, ttirring them about twice or thrice du¬
ring that fpace of time. They were then fprinkled
again, and at laft good Rhenifli wine was poured on
till it flood fix fingers above the roots. The mixture
was frequently agitated with a wooden fpatula ; and
as the wine was imbibed by the roots, more was
poured on, fo as to keep it always at the fame height
for 48 hours. The whole was then put on the fire
and boiled for half an hour, after which the deco&ion
was violently preffed out; the fame quantity of wine
was added as at firft, and the mixture boiled as be¬
fore. After the fecond expreffion the woody refiduum
was thrown away as ufelefs. Both the drained liquors
are then mixed together with two parts of boiling
water to one of the deco&ion. The whole is then
evaporated in a filver veffel to the confiftence of a
fyrup. One part of the extraft is again added with
two parts of boiling water, and the whole infpiffated
as before.—By this means, fays he, the volatile nau-
feous acrid particles are feparated by evaporation,
and the fixed ones remain corredled and prepared for
medicinal ufes ; adding, towards the end, a ninth
part of old brandy, and evaporating to the con¬
fiftence of turpentine. Our author reafops a good
deal on the way in which this procefs correfts the me¬
dicine ; but tells us, that notwithftanding the improve¬
ment, his pills will not have the defired effeft unlefs
properly made up. For forming them, they ought to
be mixed with matters both of an invifeating and in¬
durating nature ; yet fo prepared that it will be readi¬
ly foluble in the ftomach, even of a perfon already
debilitated. For anfwering thefe purpofes, he chofe
myrrh and carduus benedi&us, and then gives the
following receipt for the formation of his pills.
“ Take of the extradt of hellebore prepared as above
diredted, and of folution of myrrh, each one ounce;
of powdered carduus benedi&us, three dtachms and a
fcruple. Mix them together, and form into a mafs,
dividing it into pills of a grain and an half each.”
The effedts of thefe pills were very furprifing. Dr
Daignan relates, that he gave them to 18 hydropic
patients at once; and thefe he divided into three
claffes, according to the degree of the difeafe with
which they were affe&ed. The firft clafs contained
thofe who laboured under an anafarca following in¬
termittent fevers. The fecond clafs contained thofe
who had an anafarca, together with fome degree of
afeites, arifing from tedious febrile diforders. All thefe
were cured ; but thefe two claffes confided of fuch cafes
as are moft eafily removed. But the third contained fix
who were feized with a moft violent anafarca and afei¬
tes, after being much weakened by tedious diforders,
and of confequence in whom the difeafe was very
difficult to be cured. Even of thefe, however, four
were cured, and the other two died. The body of
one of thefe being diffedkd, both fides of the cavity
MEDICINE.
fart II. M E D I
-pactice of the thorax were found to be full of a blackifli-red
water. The lungs were unfound; there was a poly¬
pous concretion in the right ventricle of the heart ;
the liver and fpleen were hard, and of a preternatural
bulk; and the glands of the mefentery were obllru&ed\
jmd infardted. In the other, the liver and paucreks
were fcirrhous, and the fpleen very hard.
The fame medicines were given by Dehorne to
eight perfons, fix of whom had both an anafarca and
afcites, but the other two only an afcites. Four of
tbefe recovered ; three died without being freed from
the dropfy ; one in whom the dropfy was cured, died
in a fhort time after, having for fome time before his
death become fpeechlefs.
By thefe patients ro of the pills were taken at
once; and the fame dofe repeated thrice, with an in¬
terval of an hour betwixt each dofe. At firft they
proved purgative, and then diuretic; by which lalt
evacuation they finally cured the difeafe.. But though
Becher was firmly of opinion that his pills cured the
dropfy by reafon of the above-related corre&ion; yet
it is certain, that, in the hands of other pra&itioners,
thefe very pills have failed, unlefs they alfo made ufe
of the fame regimen recommended by that phyfician ;
while, on the other hand, it is certain that different me¬
dicines will prove equally efficacious in dropfical cafes,
provided this regimen is made ufe of.
For a great number of ages it hath been recom¬
mended to dropfical patients to abftain as much as pof-
fible from drink, and thus to the torments of their dif¬
eafe was added that of an intolerable third:; and how
great this torment was, we may underftand from an
example of a friend of king Antigonus, who, having
been clofely watched both by order of the phyficians
and alfo of the king, was fo unable to bear the raging
thirft occafioned by his difeafe, that he fwallowed his
own excrements and urine, and thus fpeedily put an
end to his life. Dr Milman. fhews at great length the
pernicious tendency of this pra&ice. He maintains
that it is quite contrary to the fentiments of Hippo¬
crates and the«beft ancient phyficians. He afferts,
that unlefs plenty of diluting drink is given, the beft
diuretics can have no effeft. He condemns alfo in the
ftrongell terms the practice of giving dropfical patients
only dry, har'd, and indigtftible aliments. Thefe would
opprefs the ftomach even of the moll healthy, and how
much more mull they do fo to thofe who are already
debilitated by labouring under a tedious diforder.? By
what means alfo are thefe aliments to be diffolved in
the ftomach, when drink it withheld ? In this difeafe
the faliva isvifcid, and in fmall quantity; from whence
it may be reafonably conjedlured, that the reft of the
fluids are of the fame nature, and the gaftric juices
likewife depraved. Thus the aliments lie long in the
flomach ; and if the vifcera were formerly free of ob-
ftrudlions, they are now generated; the ftrength fails;
perfpiration and other excretions are obftructed ; the
vifcid and pituitous humours produced by thefe kinds
of food float about the praecordia, and increafe the dif¬
eafe, while the furface of the body becomes quite dry.
Nay, fo much does this kind of diet confpire with the
difeafe, that tooo pounds of fluid will fomttimes be
imbibed in a few days by hydropic perfons who take
no drink. Even in health, if the body from any caufe
becomes dry, or deprived of a confiderable part of its
VOL. VI. I
CINE. 4815
juices, as by hunger, labour, &c. it will imbibe a con- PRAcncf-
fideVable quantity of moifture from the air; fo that we ~
muft impute the aboveraentioned extraordinary inhala¬
tion, in part at lead, tathe denial of drink, and to the
nature of the aliment given to the fick. The following
is the method, related by Dr Milman, of his praftice
in the Middlefex hofpital.
If the patient is not very much debilitated, he is
fometimes treated with the purging waters, and a deft
of jalap and calomel alternately. On the intermediate
days he gets a faline mixture, with 40 or 60 drops of
acetum fcilliticum every fixth hour; drinking with the
purgatives oat-gruel and fome thin broths. That he
might the better afeertain what fhare the liquids givert
along with the medicines had in producing a copious
flow of urine, he fometimes gave the medicines in the
beginning of the diftemper without allowing the drink:
but though the fwellings were ufually diminilhed a
little by the purgatives, the urine ftill continued fcanty,
and the patients were greatly weakened. Fearing,
therefore, left, by following thiscourfe, the ftrength of
the fick might be too much reduced, he then began bis
courfe of diuretic medicines, giving large quantities of
barley-water with a little fal diureticus; by which
means, fometimes in the fhort fpace of 48 hours after
the courfe was begun, the urine flowed out in very
large quantity: but as faline drinks are very difagree-
able to the tafte, a drink was compofed purpofely for
hydropic perfons, of half an ounce of cream of tartar
diffolved in two pounds of barley-water, made agree¬
ably fweet with fyrup, adding one or two ounces of
French brandy.
To this compofition Dr Milman was induced by
the great praifes given to cream of Tartar by fome
phyficians in hydropic cafes. In the Afla Bononienjia,
15 cafes of hydropic patients are narrated who were
cured only by taking half an ounce of cream of Tar¬
tar daily. But it is remarkable, that by thefe very
patients the cream of Tartar was taken for 20, 30,
nay 40 days, often without any perceptible effedt; yet
when diffolved in a large quantity of water, it Ihewed
its falutary effects frequently within as many hours, by
producing a plentiful flow of urine. This liquor if
now the common drink of hydropic patients in the ho¬
fpital abovementioned, of which they drink at pleafure
along with their medicines.
Among purgative medicines -Dr Milman recom¬
mends the radix fenek.e; but fays, the decoflion of it
according to the Edinburgh Dilpenfatory is too ftrong,
as he always found it excite vomiting when prepared
as there direfted, and thus greatly to dittrefs the pa¬
tients : but when only half an ounce or fix drachms
of the root are ufed to a pound of decoction, inftead
of a whole ounce as direfted by the Edinburgh col¬
lege, he finds it an excellent remedy ; and though it
may Igitutimes induce a little vomiting, and frequently
a naufea, yet it feldom failed to procure nine or tea
ftools a-day, and fometimes alfo proved diuretic. But
we muft take care not to be too free in the ufe of fe- *
neka, or any other purgative, if the patients are very
weak; and therefore, after having ufed purgatives for
fome time, it will be proper to depend upon diuretics
entirely for perfedling the cure; and of the fuccefs of
this method our author gives fome very remarkable in-
Itances. But he obferves, that after the dropfy is re-
27 F moved,
4816 M E D I
Practice moved, tlie patients will fometimes die without any evi-
dent caufe; and of this it is proper that the phyfician
fhould be aware. It is remarkable with what cafe a
flux of urine is induced in thofe who have a fcirrhoua
liver ; while on the other hand, in one who had the
mefenteric glands obftru&ed, along with a fcirrhofity
of the liver and vitiated Hate of the lungs, the moft
powerful diuretics proved inefFeftual. In fome cafes our
author thinks the kidneys may be fo prefled with the
weight of the water, as to be unable to perform their
office.
The water having been drawn off, we are to put
the patient on a courfe of flrengtheners; fuch as the
cortex and filings of iron, with fome of the warm aro¬
matics, and a due proportion of rhubarb infufed in
wine. Enjoin briik exercife and fridtions on the belly,
with fuch a courfe of diet as {hall be light and nourifli-
ing.
When the patient can by no other means be relieved,
the operation of paracentefis muft be had recourfe to.
See the article Surgery.
CLXVII. HYDROMETRA, or Dropsy of the
442 Uterus. Genus LXXX.
Hydrometra, Sauv. gen. 289. Sag. 116. Boerh.
1224.
CLXVIII. HYDROCELE, or Dropsy of the
443 Scrotum. Gen. LXXXI.
Ofcheocele, Sauv. gen. 41. Vog. 388.
Ofcheophyma, Sag. 44
Hydrops fcroti, Vog. 389.
Hydrops teftium, Boerh. 1227,
For the treatment of thefe two difeafes, fee Asci¬
tes above, and Surgery.
CLXIX. PHYSCONIA, or Swelling of the
-444 Belly. Genus LXXXII.
Phyfconia, Sauv. gen. 283. Vog. 325. Sag.
gen. 110.
Hypofarca, Lin. 218.
This may arife from a variety of caufes, as from a
fwelling of the liver, fpleen, kidneys, uterus, omentum,
ovarium, mefentery, intertines, &c. and fometimes it
arifes merely from fat. In the former cafes, as the vif-
cera are generally fcirrhous and indurated, the diftem-
per is for the moft part incurable ; neither is the pro-
fpe& much better where the difeafe is occafioned by a
great quantity of fat.
CLXX. RACHITIS, the Rickets.
Genus LXXXIII.
445
Rachitis, Sauv. gen. 294. Lin. 212. Vog. 312.
Sag. gen. 120. Boerh. 1480. Hoffm. III. 487.
Zeviani della Rachitide. Glijfon de Rachitide.
Defcription. This is one of the difeafes peculiar to
infancy. It feldom attacks children till they are nine
months, nor after they are two years old; but it fre¬
quently happens in the intermediate fpace between
thefe two periods. The difeafe (hews itfelf by a flac¬
cid tumour of the head and face, a loofe flabby (kin,
a fwelling of the abdomen, and falling away of the
other parts, efpecially of the mufcles. There is a
protuberance of the epiphyfcs of the joints; the ju-
C I N E. Part II.
gular veins fwell, while the reft decreafe; and the legs Pkactu
grow crooked. If the child has begun to walk be-
fore he is feized with this difeafe, there is a flownefs,
debility, and tottering in his motion, which foon
brings on a conftant defire of fitting, and afterwards
of lying down ; infomuch that nothing at laft is move-
able but the neck and head. As they grow older,
the head is greatly enlarged, with ample futures; the
thorax is compreffed on the fides, and the fternutn
rifes up ftiarp, while the extremities of the ribs are
knotty. The abdomen is protuberant, and the teeth
black and carious. In fuch patients as have died of
this difeafe, all the folids appeared foft and flaccid, and
the fluids diffolved and mucous.
Caufes. The rickets may proceed from fcrophulous
or venereal taints in the parents, and may be increafed
by thofe of the nurfe. It is likewife promoted by
feeding the child with aqueous and mucous fubftances,
crude fummer-fruits, fifh, unleavened farinaceous
aliment, and too great a quantity of fweet things.—
Sometimes it follows intermittent fevers, and chronic
diforders; and in fliort, is caufed by any thing which
tends to debilitate the body, and induce a vifcid and
unhealthy ftate of the juices.
Prognofis. The rickets do not ufually prove mortal:
but, if not cured in time, they make the perfon through¬
out life deformed in various ways; and often produce
very pernicious diiorders, fuch as carious bones ia
different parts of the body.
Cure. This is to be effe&ed by mild cathartics, al¬
teratives, and tonics, fuch as are ufed in other difeafes,
attended with-a debility of the fyftem and a vitiated
ftate of the blood and juices. In the Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, the medicine ufed for the cure of the
rickets is an oil extra&ed from the liver of the fkate-
fifli. The method of application is as follows. Firft,
the wrifts and ankles are rubbed with the oil in the
evening: this immediately raifes a fever of feveral
hours duration. When the fever from the firft rub¬
bing fubfides, the fame parts are rubbed again the
night following; and repeatedly, as long as the rub¬
bing of thefe parts continues to excite the fever.—
When no fever can be excited by rubbing the wrifts
and ankles alone, they are rubbed again along with
the knees and elbows. This increafed un&ion brings
on the fever again; and is pra&ifed as before, till it
no longer has that effe&. Then the vertebra and
Tides are rubbed, along with the former parts; and
this undlion, which again brings on the fever, is re¬
peated as the former. When no fever can be longer
excited by this un&ion, a flannel-fhirt dipped in the
oil is put upon the body of the patient: this brings
on a more violent and fenfible fever than any of the
former undlions; and is continued till the cure is com¬
pleted, which it commonly is in a fliort time.
A German phyfician, named Dr Strack, hath lately
publifhed a paper, in which he recommends the filings
of iron as a certain remedy in the rickets.. This
difeafe, he obferves, in general begins with children
when they are about l6 months old. It is feldom
obferved with children before they be one year old,
and feldom attacks them after they pafs two; and it.
is very generally worfe where it begins early than
where it begins late.,
For
II.
For effeding a cure, it is, he affirms, a matter of
the utmoffi confequence to be able to diftinguilh, very-
early, whether a child will be affli&ed with rickets or
not. And this, he aflures us, may be determined by
the following fymptoms: Palenefs and fwelling of the
countenance; and in that part of the cheeks which
ftiould naturally be red, a yellow colour, approaching
to that of fulphur. When that is the cafe, he dire&s
that a medicine (hould be immediately had recourfe
to which will retard the further progrefs of the dif-
eafe and remove what has already taken place. For
this purpofe, he advifes that five grains of the filings
of iron, and as much rhubarb, Ihould be rubbed up
with ten grains of fugar, and given for a dofe every
morning falling, and every evening an hour before
fupper. But if confiderable loofenefs Ihould be pro¬
duced, it will be neceflary, at firft, toperfill in the ufe
of one dofe only every day.
After a month's continuance in this courfe, ac¬
cording to our author, there in general enfues a keen
appetite for food, quick digeftion, and a copious flow
of urine; by means of which, the fulnefs of the face
and yellownefs of the completion are by degrees re¬
moved, while the natural colour of the countenance
and firmnefs of the body in general are gradually re-
ftored. This pratice, he affures us, has never failed
of fuccefs in any one inftance; not even in thofe
children born of parents greatly affli&ed with the
rickets.
When the bones of rickety children begin to
bend, they may fometimes be reftored to their natural
fhape by comprefles, bolfters, and proper fupports.
See the article Surgery.
Order III. I M P E T I G I N E S.
Impetigines, Sauv. Cl. X. Ord. V. Sag. Cl. III.
Ord. V.
CLXXI. SCROPHULA, or King’s-evil.
Genus LXXXIV.
Scrophula, Sauv. gen. 285. Vog. 367. Sag. 121.
Struma, Lin. 284.
Defcription. This difeafe fliews itfelf by hard,
fcirrhous, and often indolent tumours, which arife
by degrees in the glands of the neck, under the chin,
arm-pits, and different parts of the body; but moll
commonly in the neck, and behind the ears. In pro-
cefs of time, the cellular fubftance, ligaments of the
;oints, and even the bones themfelves, are affedted. In
fcrophula the fwellings are much more moveable than
thofe of the fcirrhous kind; they are generally fofter,
and feldom attended with much pain: they are te¬
dious in coming to fuppuration; are very apt to dif-
appear fuddenly, and again to rife in fome other part
of the body. We may likewife mention as cha-
rafteriftic circumftances of this difeafe, a remarkable
foftnefs of the fkin, a kind of fulnefs of the face,
generally with large eyes, and a very delicate com¬
plexion.
Caufes. A variety of canfes have been mentioned
as tending to produce fcrophula, viz. a crude indi-
geftible food; bad water; living in damp, low fitua-
tions ; its being an hereditary difeafe, and in fome
countries endemic, &c. But whatever may in diffe¬
rent circumftances be the exciting or predifpofing
48
caufes of the fcrophula, the difeafe itfelf either de-PRAc
pends upon, or is at leaft much conne&ed with, a de-“
bility of the conftitution in general, and probably of
the lymphatic fyfttm in particular, the complaint al¬
ways fhowing itfelf by fome affections of the latter.
And that debility has at leaft a confiderable influence
on its production is probable, not only from the ma-
nifeft nature of fome of the caufes faid to be pro*
doCtive of fcrophula, but likewife from fuch remedies
as are found moft ferviceable in the cure, which are all
of a tonic invigorating nature.
Prognofis. The fcrophula is a diftemper which often
eludes the moft powerful medicines, and therefore phyfi-
cians cannot with any certainty promife a cure. It is fel¬
dom, however, that it proves mortal in a (hort time, un-
lefs, it attacks the internal parts, fuch as the lungs, where
it frequently produces tubercles that bring on a fatal
confumption. When it attacks the joints, it frequent¬
ly produces ulcers, which continue for a long time, and
gradually wafte the patient; while in the mean time
the bones become foul and corroded, and death enfues
after a long fcene of mifery. The prognofis in this
refpeCt muft be regulated entirely by the nature of the
fymptoms.
Cure. It was long fuppofed, that fcrophula de¬
pended upon an acid acrimony of the fluids ; and this,
it is probable, gave rife to the ufe of burnt fponge,
different kinds of foap, and other alkaline fubftances,
as the bed remedies for acidity. But although a four-
nefs of the ftomach and prim# via does no doubt fre-
qoently occur in thefe complaints, yet it feems to be
entirely the confequence of that general relaxation
which in fcrophula fo univerfally prevails, and which
does not render it in the leaft neceflary to fnppofe a
general acefcency of the fluids to take place ; as the
oae very frequently, it is well known, even in other
complaints, occurs without the leaft fufpicion of any
acid acrimony exifting. This is alfo rendered very
probable from the indolent nature of fcrophulous tu¬
mours, which have been known to fubfift for years
without giving any uneafinefs; which could not have,
been the cafe, if an acid, or any other acrimony, had
prevailed in them.
Gentle mercurials are fometimes of ufe as refolvents
in fcrophulous Iwclh'ngs; but nothing has fuch confi¬
derable influence as a frequent and copious ufe of Pe¬
ruvian bark. Cold bathing too, efpecially in the fea,
together with frequent moderate exercife, is often of
Angular fervice here ; as is likewife change of air, efpe¬
cially to a warm climate.
In the fcrophulous inflammation of the eyes, or oph¬
thalmia ftrumofa, the bark has alfo been given with
extraordinary advantage: and we meet with an iu-
ftance of its having cured the gutta rofacea in the face;
a complaint which it is often difficult to remove, and
is extremely difagreeable to the fair fex.
From the various cafes related of tumefied glands it
appears, that when the habit is relaxed and the circu¬
lation weak, either from conftitution or accident, the
bark is a moft efficacious medicine, and that it adls as
a refolvent and difcutient. It will not, however, fuc-
ceed in all cafes; but there are few in which a trial
can be attended with much detriment. Dr Fothergill
obferves, that he has never known it avail much where
the bones arc affefted, nor where the fcrophulous tumour
27 F 2 is
MEDICINE,
4818 M E D I
Practice Is fo fituated as to be accompanied with much pain,
as in the joints, or under the membranous coverings
of the mnfcles ; for when the difeafe attacks thofe
parts, the periofteum feldom efcapes without fome in¬
jury, by which fhe bone will of conrfe be likewife af¬
fected. Here the bark is of no effeft : indead of lef-
fening, it rather increafes the fever that accompanies
thofe circumftances ; and, if it does not really aggra¬
vate the complaint, it feems at leaft to accelerate the
progrtfs of the difeafe.
Various are the modes in which the bark is admini-
flered ; biit Dr Fothergill makes ufe of a decoCtion,
with the addition of fome aromatic ingredients ;'nd a
fmall quantity of liquorice-root, as a form in which a
fufficient quantity may be given without exciting
difgull.
The powder foon becomes difagreeable to very
young patients; and the extraft feems not fo much to
be depended upon as may have been imagined. In
making the ext rail, it is expofed to fo much heat, as
mull have fomeeffeft upon its virtues, perhaps to their
detriment. In adminiltering it, likewife, if great care
lie not taken to mix it intimately with a proper ve¬
hicle, or fome very foluble fubhance, in weak bowels
it very often purges, and thereby not only difappoints
the pbyfician, but injures the patient. A fmall quan¬
tity of the cortex Winteranus added gives the medicine
a grateful warmth ; and a little liquorice, a few rai-
fms, gum arabic, or the like, added to the decoflion
before it is taken from the fire, by making the liquor
vifcid enables it to fufpend more of the fine particles
©f the bark ; by which procefe the medicine is not only
improved in efficacy, but at the fame time rendered
lefs difagreeable.
In indolent fwellings of thtf glands from vifcid hu¬
mours, fea-water alfo has been ftrongly recommended
by Dr Ruffel.
Dr Fothergill alfb acquaints us, that the cicuta is
not without a confiderable (hare of efficacy in remo¬
ving fcrophulous diforders. Jrle mentions the cafe of
a gentlewoman, about ?8 years of age, affli&ed from
her infancy with fcrophulous complaints, fevere oph-
thalmies, glandular fwellings, &c. cured by the ex¬
tra ftum cicutte taken conftamly for the fpace of a
year. He obferves, however, that when given to
children even in very fmall dofes, it is apt to produce
fpafmodic affetfions; for which reafon he rarely exhi¬
bits it to them when very young, or even to adults of
very irritable habits.
Our author gives feveral other inftances of the fuc-
cefs of cicuta in fcrophulous cafes, and even in one
which feemed to be not far removed from a confirmed
phthifis, but owns that it feldom had fuch good effe&s
afterwards ; yet he is of opinion, that where there are
fymptoms of tubercles forming, a ftrumous habit, and
a tendency to phthifis, the cicuta will often be fer-
viceable. It is anodyne, corrects acrimony, and pro¬
motes the formation of good matter. With regard to
the quality of the medicine, our author obferves, that
the extrad prepared from hemlock before the plant ar¬
rives at maturity, is much inferior to that which is
made when the hemlock has acquired its full vigour
and is rather on the verge of decline : juft when the
flowers fade, the rudiments of the feeds become'obfer-
vable, and the habit of the plant inclines to yellow,
CINE, Part IT.
feems the proper time to colleA the hemlock. It has PRAcriei
then had the full benefit of the fummer-heat, and the 
plants that grow in expofed places will generally be
found more virous than thofe that grow in the lhade.
The lefs heat it undergoes during the preparation, the
better. Therefore, if a confiderable quantity of the
dry powder of the plant, gathered at a,proper feafonj
is added, the lefs boiling will be neceflary, and the me-
cine will be the more efficacious. But let the extrafl
be prepared in what manner foever it may, provided it
is mads from the genuine plant, at a proper feafon,
and is not deftroyed by boiling, the chief difference
obfervable in ufing it is, that a larger quantity of one
kind is required to produce a certain effect than of
another. Twenty grains of one fort of extraft have
been found equal in point of efficacy to thirty, nay
near forty of another; yet both of them made from
the genuine plant, and moft probably prepared with'
equal fidelity. To prevent the tnconveniencies ariftng
from this uncertainty, it feems always expedient to
begin with fmall dofes, and proceed, ftep by ftepe
till the extraft produces certain effedfs, which feldom
fail to arife from a full dofe. Thefe effefts are diffe¬
rent in different conftitntions. But, for the moft part,
a giddinefs affedting the head, and motions of the
eyes as if fomething pufhed them outwards, are firft
felt ; a flight ficknefs, and trembling agitation of the
body ; a laxative ftaol or two. One or all thefe iymp^
toms are the marks of a full dofe, let the quantity in
weight be what it will. Here we muft flop till none
of thefe effedts are felt; and in three or four days, ad¬
vance a few grains more. For the general experience
of all who have ufed this medicine to any good pur-
pofe agree, that the cicuta feldom procures any bene¬
fit, though given for a long time, unlefs in as large
a dofe as the patient can bea-r without fuffering any of
the inconveniencies abovementioned.
Patients commonly bear a greater quantity of the
extradf at night than at noon, and at noon than
in the morning. Two ounces may be divided into
thirty pills, not gilt. Adults begin with two in the
morning, two at noon, and three or four at night,
with diredtions to increafe each dofe, by flic addition
of a pill to each, as they can bear it.
CLXXII. SYPHILIS, the Lues Venerea, or 44
French Pox. Genus LXXV.
Syphilis, Saw. gen. 3086. Lin. 6. Fog. 319,
Sag. 126.
Lues venerea, Boerh. 1440. Hoffm. III. 413. Junck.
96. AJiruc de lue venerea.
Astruc, who writes the hiftory of the lues venerea,
is fully convinced that it is a new difeafe, which
never appeared in Europe till fome time between
the years 1494 and 1496, having been imported
from America by the companions of Chriftopher
Columbus ? though this opinion is not without its op¬
ponents.
The venereal infedlion, however, cannot, like the
contagious miafmata of the fmall pox and fome
other difeafes, be carried through the air, and thus
fpread from place to place: for unlefs it is tranfmitted
from the parents to the children, there is no other
way of contr-adiing-the difeafe but by adtuaily touching
fome
t r. M E D I
feme perfon who is aflFsfted. Thus, when a nurfe
happens to labour under the difeafe, the infant that
fhe fuckles will receive the infe&ion ; as, on the other
hand, when the child is in/tfted, the nurfe is liable
to receive it: and there have even been inftances
known of lying in women being infefted very violent¬
ly, from having employed a perfon to draw their
breads who happened to have venereal ulcers in the
throat. It may be caught by touching venereal
fores if the cuticle be abraded or torn, and in this
way accoucheurs and midwives have fometimes been
infefted feverely. Dr Macbride fays, the mod inve¬
terate pox he ever faw, w’as caught by a midwife,
who happened to have a whitelow on one of her
fingers, whfn fhe delivered a woman ill of the lues
venerea.
But by far the mod ready way of contrafting this
difeafe is by coition, the genital parts being much more
bibulous than the red of the body. When the dif-
ordep is communicated} the places where the morbific
matter enters are generally thofe where it fird makes
its appearance ; and as coition is the mod ufual way
of contrafting it, fo the firft fymptoms ufually appear
on or near the pudenda.
The patient’s own account will, for the mod part,
help us to didingnidi the difeafe: but there are
fbmetimes cafes wherein we cannot avail ourfelves of
this information, and where, indead of confeffing,
the parties dial} conceal all circumdances; while, oti
the other hand, there are now and then people to be
met with, who perfua-de themfelves, that fymptoms
are venereal, which in reality are owing to fome other
c&nfe : and therefore it is of the utmod importance to
inform crarfelves thoroughly of the nature of thofe
fymptoms and appearances which may be confidered
as pathognomic figns of lues venerea.
In the fird place, when we find that the local
fymptoms, fuch as chancres, bnboes, phymofis, and
the like, do not give way to the ufual methods; or
when thefe complaints, after having been cured, break
out again without a freflt inieftion ; we may judly
fufpeft that the virus has entered the whole mafs of
lymph: but if at the fame time ulcers break out in the
throat, and the face is deformed by callous tubercles
covered with a brown or yellow fcab, we may be
affured that the cafe is now become a confirmed lues,
which will require a mercurial conrfe.
When eruptions of the furfuraceous and fuperficial
kind are venereal, they are not attended with itching;
and the fcale being picked off, the fkin appears of a
reddilh brown, or rather copper-colour, underneath ;
whereas leprous eruptions are itchy, throw off a grea¬
ter quantity of feales, and rife in greater blotches,
efpecially about the joints of the knees and elbows.
Venereal tubercles or pudules are ealily diflinguifhed
from carbuncles of the face, by not occupying the
cheeks or the nofe, nor as having a purulent apex, but
are covered at top, either with a dry branny feurf like
the fuperficial eruptions jull now mentioned, or elfe
with a hard dry fcab of a tawny yellow hue; they
particularly break out among the hair, or near to it,
on the forehead, or on the temples.
Venereal ulcers affefting the mouth are diftinguilh-
able from thofe which are fcorbutic, in the following
manner : r. Venereal ulcers firft affeft the tonfils,.fau-
C I N E. 4819
ces, and uvula; then the gums, but thefe very rarely : Practick
on the contrary, fcorbutic ulcers affeft the gums firft  
of all; then the fauces, tonfils, and uvula. 2. Vene¬
real ulcers frequently fpread to the nofe; fcorbutic ones
never. 3. Venereal ulcers are callous in the edges ;
fcorbutic ones are not fo. 4. Venereal ulcers are cir-
cumfcribed, and, for the moft part, are circular, at
lead they are confined to certain places ; fcorbutic ones
are of a more irregular form, fpread wider, and fre¬
quently affeft the whole mouth. 5. Venereal ulcers
are for the moft part hollow, and generally covered*
at bottom with a white or yellow flough ;. but fcorbu¬
tic ones are more apt to grow up into loofe fungi.
6. Venereal ulcers are red in their circumference, but
fcorbutic ones are always livid. 7. Venereal ulcers
frequently rot the fubjacent bones, the fcorbutic ones
feldom or ever. 8. And laftly, Venereal ulcers are
moft combined with other fymptoms which are known
to be venereal; fcorbutic ones with the diftinguifhing
figns of the feurvy, fuch as ftrait breathing, liftnefs-
nefs, fwelling of the legs, rotten gums, &c.
Another fure fign of the confirmed lues, are certain
deep feated nofturnal pains, particularly of the fhins,.
arms, and head. As for any fuperficial wandering
pains, that have no fixed feat, and which affeft the
membranes of the mufcles and ligaments of the joints,,
they, for the moft part, will be found to belong to
the gout or rheumatifm, and can never be confidered
as venereal unlefs accompanied with fome other evi¬
dent figns ; but with regard to the pains that are deep¬
ly feated, and always fixed to the fame place, and
which affeft the middle and more folid part of the ul¬
na, tibia, and bones of the cranium, and rage chiefly
and with greateft violence in the fore-part of the night,
fo that the patient can get no reft till morning ap¬
proaches, thefe may ferve to convince us that the dif¬
eafe has fpread itfelf throughout the whole habit, whe¬
ther they be accompanied with other fymptoms of the
lues or not. Gummata in the fiefhy parts, nodet in
the periofteum, ganglia upon the tendons, tophi upon
the ligaments, exojtofes upon the bones, and jici at
the verge of the anus, are all of them figns of the con¬
firmed lues : thefe are hard indolent fwellings; but as-
they fometimes arife independent of any venereal in¬
fection, and perhaps may proceed from a fcrophulous
taint, unlefs they are accompanied, or have been pre¬
ceded, by fome of the more certain and evident fymp¬
toms of the lues, we muft be cautious about pronoun¬
cing them venereal. When thefe fwellings* are not
owing to the fyphilitic virus, they are very feldonv
painful, or tend to inflame and fuppurate; whereas
thofe that are venereal ufualiy do, and if they lie up¬
on a bone generally bring on a caries.
Thefe carious nlcers are moft commonly met with
upon the ulna, tibia, and bones of the cranium ; and
when accompanied with nofturnal pains, we can ne¬
ver hefitate about declaring their genuine nature- Fre¬
quent abortions, or the exclufion of fcabby, ulcerated,
half-rotten, and dead fetufes, happening without any
manifelt caufe to dilturb the fetus before its time, or
to deftroy it in the womb, may be reckoned as a fure
fign that at leaft one of the parents is infefted.
Thefe then are the principal and moft evident figns of
the confirmed lues. There are others which are more
equivocal,, and which,, nnlefs we can fairly trace them-
bade.
4820
Paactic^- back to fome that are more certain, cannot be held as
tigns of the venereal difeafe : Such are, 1. Obftinate
inflammations of the eyes, frequently returning with
great heat, itching, and ulceration of the eye lids.
2. A tinging and hiding noife in the ears, with ulcers
or caries in the bones of the meatus auditorius. 3. Ob-
itinite head-achs. 4. Obflinate cutaneous eruptions,
of the itchy or leprous appearance, not yielding to the
milder methods of treatment. 5. Swellings of the
bones; and, 6. Wandering and obftinate pains. None
• of thefe fymptoms however can be known to be vene¬
real, except they happen to coincide with fome one or
other of the more certain figns.
Upon the whole, we are firft to diftinguifti and con-
fider the feveral fymptoms apart; and then, by com¬
paring them with each other, a clear judgment maybe
formed upon the general review.
Prognofis. Being thoroughly convinced that the cafe
is venereal, we are to confider, firft of all, whether it
be of a longer or ihorter date ; for the more recent it
is, it will, ceteris paribus^ be lefs difficult to remove.
But there are other circumftances which will affift us
in forming a prognoftic as to the event. As,
1. The age of the patient. This diforder is more
dangerous to infants and old people, than to fuch
as are in the flower and vigour of life, in whom fome
part of the virus may be expelled by exercife, or may
be fnbdued in fome degree by the ftrength of the con-
ftitution.
2. The fex. Though women are for the moft part
weaker than men, and therefore fhould feem lefs able
to refift the force of any difeafe, yet experience fhews
that this is eafier borne by them than by men : which
feems owing to the menftrual and other uterine dif-
charges, by which perhaps a good fhare of the virus
may be carried off immediately from the parts where
it was firft applied ; for it is obfervable, that whenever
thefe difcharges are obftrufted, or ceafe by the ordi¬
nary courfe of nature, all the fymptoms of this difeafe
grow worfe.
3. The habit of body. Perfons who have acrid
juices will be liable to fuffer more from the venereal
poifon than fuch as have their blood in a milder ftate;
hence, when people of a fcorbutic or fcrophulous ha¬
bit contract venereal diforders, the fymptoms are al¬
ways remarkably violent, and difficult to cure. And
for the fame reafons, the confirmed lues is much more
to be dreaded in a perfon already inclined to anafthma,
phthifis, dropfy, gout, or any other chronic diftem-
per, than in one of a found and healthy conftitution.
For, as the original difeafe is inereafed by the accef-
fion of the venereal poifon, fo the lues is aggravated
by being joined to an old diforder. The more nume¬
rous the fvmptoms, and the more they affedl the bones,
the more difficult the cure; but if the acrimony fhould
feize on the nobler internal parts, fuch as the brain,
the lungs, or the liver, then the difeafe becomes incu¬
rable, and the patient will either go off fuddenly in an
apople&ic fit, or fink under a confumption.
Cure. Some pra&itioncrs have affirmed, that the
difeafe may be totally extirpated without the ufe of
mercury : but, excepting in flight cafes, it appears from
the moft accurate obfervarions, that this grand fpeci-
fic is indifpenfable ; whether it be introduced through
sthe pores of the fkin, in the form of ointments, pla-
Part II.
fters, wafhes, &c. ; or given by the mouth, difguifedPs actio*
in the different (hapes of pills, troches, powders, or fo- —
lutions.
Formerly it was held as a rule, that a falivation
ought to beraifed,and a great difcharge excited. But
this is now found to be unneceffary : for, as mercury
ads by fome fpecific power in fubduing and correc¬
ting the venereal virus, all that is required is to throw
in a fufficient quantity of the medicine for this pur-
pofe ; and if it can be diverted from the falivary
glands, fo much the better, fince the inconveniencies
attending a fpitting are fuch as we ffiould always wifh
to avoid.
Mercury, when combined with any faline fubftance,
has its adivity prodigioufly incrcafed ; hence the
great variety of chemical preparations, which have been
contrived to unite it with different acids.
Corrofive fublimate is one of the moft adive of all
the mercurial preparations, infomuch as to become a
poifon even in very fmall dofes. It therefore cannot be
given in fubftance; but muft be diffolved, in order to
render it capable of a more minute divifion. We
may fee, by looking into Wifeman, that this is an old
medicine, though feldom given by regular pradition-
ers. How it came to be introduced into fo remote a
part of the world as Siberia, is not eafily found out;
but Dr Clerc, author of the Hiftoire Naturelle de
lHomme Malade, affures us, that the fublimate folu-
tion has been of ufe there time out of mind.
It appears to have been totally forgotten in other
places, until of late years, when the Baron Van Swie-
ten brought it into vogue ; fo that now, if we credit
Dr Locker, they ufe no other mercurial preparation
at Vienna. The number of patients cured by this re¬
medy alone in the hofpital of St Mark, which is under
the care of this gentleman, from 1754 to 1761 inclu-
five, being 4880.
The way to prepare the folution is, to diflblve as
much fublimate in any kind of ardent fpirit (at Vien¬
na they ufe only corn-brandy) as will give half a grain
to an ounce of folution. The dofe to a grown per¬
fon is onefpoonful mixed with a pint of any light pti-
fan or barley-water, and this to be taken morning
and evening: the patients fliould keep moftly in a
warm chamber, and lie in bed to fweat after taking
the medicine : their diet ftiould be light; and they
ought to drink plentifully throughout the day, of whey,
ptifan, or barley-water. If the folution does not keep
the belly open, a mild purge muft be given from time
to time ; for Locker obferves, that thofe whom it pur¬
ges two or three times a-day, get well fooner than
thofe whom it does not purge: he alfo fays, that it
very feldom affefts the mouth, but that it promotes
the urinary and cutaneous difcharges. This courfe is
not only to be continued till all the fymptoms difap-
pear, but for fome. weeks longer. The fhorteft time
in which Locker ufed to let the patients out, was fix
weeks ; and they were continued on a courfe of de-
coftion of the woods for fome weeks after they left
off the folution.
This method has been introduced both in Britain
and Ireland, though by no means to the exclulion of
others; but it appears, that the folution does not turn
out fo infallible a remedy, either in thefe kingdoms,
or in France, as they fay it has done in Germany. It
was
MEDICINE.
wait II.
Brcttce was feldom ever found to perform a radical cure, and
the frequent ufe of it proved in many cafes highly
prejudicial. It has therefore been fucceeded in prac¬
tice by a remedy firit recommended by Dr Plenck,
and fince improved by Dr Saunders ; confining of
mercury united with mucilage of gum arabic, which is
faid to render its exhibition ,perFe<Stly mild and fafe.
For particulars, we refer to Dr Saunders’s treatife.
But a late French writer, fuppofed to be Dr Petit,
in a fmall book, intitled, A parallel of the different
methods of treating the venereal difeafe^ inlifts, that there
is neither certainty nor fafety in any other method than
the repeated fridfions with mercurial ointment.
If therefore it is determined to have recourfe to
the mercurial fri&ions, the patient muft be prepa¬
red by going into the warm bath fome days fuccef-
lively ; having been previoully blooded if of a ple¬
thoric habit, and taking a dofe or two of fome proper
cathartic.
The patient being fitted with the neceffary appara¬
tus of flannels, is then to enter on the courfe.
If the perfon be of a robull habit, and in the prime
of life, we may begin with two drachms of the un-
uentum ctzruleum fortius, (Ph. Lond.) which is to
e rubbed in about the ankles by an affillant whofe
hands are covered with bladders: then having inter¬
mitted a day, we may expend two drachms more of the
ointment, and relt for two days; after which, if no
forenefs of the mouth comes on, ufe only one drachm ;
and at eyery fubfequent fri&ion afcend till the oint¬
ment lhall reach the trunk of the body ; after which
the rubbings are to be begun at the wrifts, and from
thence gradually extended to the ftioulders. In order
to prevent the mercury from laying too much hold of
the mouth, it muft be diverted to the Ikin, by keep¬
ing the patient in a conftant perfpiration from the
warmth of the room, and by drinking plentifully of
barley-water, whey, or ptifan ; but if, neverthclefs,
the mercury fhould tend to raife a fpitting, then, from
time to time, we are either to give fome gentle cathar¬
tic, or order the patient into a vapour-bath : and thus
we are to go on, rubbing in a drachm of the ointment
every fecond, third, or fourth night, according as it
may be found to operate; and on the intermediate days,
either purging or bathing, unlefs we ftiould choofe to
let the falivation come on; which, however, it is much
better to avoid, as we (hall thus be able to throw in a
larger quantity of mercury.
It is impollible to afcertain the quantity of mercury
that is neceflary to be rubbed in, as this will vary ac¬
cording to ctrcumftances; but we are always to con¬
tinue the friftions for a fortnight at lead, after all
fymptoms of the difeafe (hall have totally difappear-
ed ; and when we have done with the mercury, warm
bathing, and fudorific deco&ions of the woods, are
to be continued for fome time longer.
Some venereal cafes are fo very obftinate as not to
yield to mercury ; and fome of the particular fymp¬
toms will remain even after repeated courfes, particu¬
larly the nodes and fwellings of the periofteum. Thefe
are fometimes cured by a decoftion of the roots of me-
zereon, an ounce being boiled in a gallon of water
down to two quarts ; a pint of this decoQion is to be
confumed in the courfe of a day. Such other fymp¬
toms as are found to refift mercury, may perhaps be
472«
conquered by a long continuance of the deco&ion PkactjcS
of farfaparilla, aided by the warmth of a fouthern
climate.
This is a general (ketch of the methods of treat¬
ment f»r the confirmed lues; but for a complete hi-
ftory of the difeafe, and for ample directions in every
fit nation, we refer to Aftruc, and his abridger Dr
Chapman.—We have to add, however, that a method
of curing this difeafe by fumigation has been lately re¬
commended in France ; but it feems not to meet with
great encouragement. The moft recent propofal for
the cure of the venereal difeafe is that of Mr Clare,
and confifts in rubbing a fmal! quantity of mercury
on the infide of the cheek ; by which means we not
only avoid the inconveniencies of undlion, but alfo the
purgative effetfts that are often produced by this medi¬
cine when taken into the ftomach.
SCORBUTUS, the Scurvy. Genus LXXXVI.
Scorbutus, Sauv. gen. 391. Lin. 223. Vog. 318.
Sag. 127. Boerh. 1148. Hoffm. III. 369.
Junck. 91. Lind on the Scurvy. Hulme de fcor-
buto. Rouppe de morbis navigantium.
Befcription. The firft indication of the feorbutiedia-
thelis, is generally a change of colour in the face, from
the natural and healthy look to a pale and bloated com¬
plexion, with a Hftleflnefs, and averfion from every fort
of exercife ; the gums foon after become itchy, fwell,
and are apt to bleed on the (lighteft touch ; the breath
grows offenfive; and the gums, fwelling daily more and
more, turn livid, and at length become extremely fun¬
gous and putrid, as being continually in contaft with
the external air; which in every cafe favours the pu-
trefaftion of fubftances difpofed to run into that (late,
and ia indeed abfolutely requifite for the produftion
of aftual rottennefs.
The fymptoms of the feurvy, like thofe of every
other difeafe, are fomewhat different in different fub-
je&s, according to the various circumftances of confti-
tution ; and they do not always proceed in the fame
regular courfe in every patient. But what is very re¬
markable in this difeafe, notwithftanding the various
and immenfe load of diftrefs under which the patients
labour, there is no freknefs at the ftomach, the appe¬
tite keeps up, and the fenfes remain entire almoft to-
the very laft: when lying at reft, they make no com¬
plaints, and feel little diftrefs or pain ; but the mo¬
ment they attempt to rife, or ftir themfelves, then the
breathing becomes difficult, with a kind of ftraitnefa
or catching, and great oppreffion, and fometimes they
have been known to fall into a fyncope. This catch¬
ing of the breath upon motion, with the lofsof ftrength*
deje&ion of fpirit, and rotten gums, are held as the ef-
fential or diftinguifhing fymptoms of the difeafe. The
(kin is generally dry, except in the very laft ftage, when
the patients become exceedingly fubjeft to faintings,
and then it grows clammy and moift: in fome it has
an anferine appearance; but much oftener it is fmooth
and (hining; and, when examined, is found fpreadover
with fpots not rifing above the furface,. of a reddifh,
bluifh, livid, or purple colour, with a fort of yellow
rim round them. At firft thefe fpots are for the moft
part fmall, but in time they increafe to large blotches.
The legs and thighs are the places where they are
moftly feen; more rarely on the head and face. Many
have.-
MEDICINE.
4822
Practice have a fwelling of the legs, which is harder, and re-
" tains the imprefiion of the finger longer, than the com¬
mon dropfical or truly oedematous fwellings. The
flighted wounds and bruifes, in fcorbutic habits, dege¬
nerate into foul and untoward ulcers. And the ap¬
pearance of thefe ulcers is fo Angular and uniform, that
they are eafily diftinguifhed from all others. Scorbutic
ulcers afford no good digeftion, but a thin and fetid
ichor mixed with blood, which at length has the ap¬
pearance of coagulated gore lying caked on the furface
of the fore, not to be feparated or wiped off without
fome difficulty. The flelh underneath thefe floughs
feels to the probe foft and fpungy, and is very putrid.
Neither detergents, nor efcharotics, are here of any
fervice; for though fuch floughs be with great pains
taken away, they are found again at the next dreffing,
where the fame fanguineous putrid appearance always
prefents itfelf. Their edges are generally of a livid
colour, and puffed up with cxcrefcences of proud flefli
arifing from below the fkin. As the violence of the
difeafe increafes, the ulcers flioot out a foft bloody fui£
gus, which often rifes in a night’s time to a monftrous
lize; and although deftroyed by cauteries, a&ual or
potential, or cut away with the knife, is found at next
dreffing as large as ever. It is a good while, however,
before thefe ulcers, bad as they are, come to affeft the
bones with rottennefs.—Thefe appearances will always
ferve to affure us that an ulcer is fcorbutic; and (hould
put us on our guard with refpeA to the giving mercu¬
rials, which are the moft pernicious things that can be
adminiffered in thefe cafes.
Scorbutic people, as the difeafe advances, are feldom
free from pains; though they have not the fame feat
in all, and often in the fame perfon flvift their place.
Some complain of univerfal pain in all their bones; but
moft violent in the limbs, and efpecially the joints: the
rnoft frequent feat of their pain, however, is fome part
of the breaft. The pains of this difeafe feem to arife
from the diftraftion of the fenfible fibres, by the extra-
vafated blood being forced into the interftices of the
periofteum and of the tendinous and ligamentous parts;
whofe texture being fo firm, the fibres are liable to the
higher degrees of tenfion, and confequently of pain.
The ftate of the bowels are various: in fome there
is an obftinate coftivenefs; in others a tendency to a
flux, with extremely fetid ftools: the urine is alfo rank
and fetid, generally high-coloured ; and, when it has
flood for fome hours, throws up an oily fcum on the
furface. The pulfe is variable ; but moft commonly
flower and more feeble than in the time of perfect
health. A ftiffnefs in the tendons, and weaknefs in the
joints of the knees, appear early in the difeafe: but as
it grows mote inveterate, the patients generally lofc
the nfe of their limbs altogether; having a contra&ion
of the flexor-tendons iu the ham, with a fwelling and
pain in the joint of the knee. Some have their legs
monftroufly fwelled, and covered over with livid fpots
or ecchymofes; others have had tumours there; fome,
though without {welling, have the calves of the legs
and the flefli of the thighs quite indurated. As per-
fons far gone in the fcurvy are apt to faint, and even
expire, on being moved and brought but into the frelh
air, the utmoft care and eircumfpedlion are requifite
when it is neceffary to ftir or remove them.
Scorbutic patients are at all times, but more efpe-
Part II.
daily as the difeafe advances, extremely fubjeft top&ACTw[
profufe bleedings from different parts of the body ; as ~~
from the nofe, gums, inteftines, lungs, &c. and from
their ulcers, which generally bleed plentifully if the
fungus be cut away. It is not eafy to conceive a more
difma! and diverfified fcene of mifery than what is be¬
held in the third and laft ftage of this diflemper; it
being then that tKe anomalous and more extraordinary
fymptoms appear, fuch as the burfting out of old
wounds, and the diffolution of old fradtures that have
been long united.
Caufes. The Xtrva fcurvy hath been indifcriminate-
ly applied, even by phyfieians, to almoft all the dif¬
ferent kinds of cutaneous foulnefs; owing to fome
writers of the laft century, who comprehended fuch a
variety of fymptoms under this denomination, that
there are few chronic diftempers which may not be fo
called, according to their fcheme: but the difeafe
here meant is the true putrid feurvy, fo often fatal
to feamen, and to people pent up in garrifons with¬
out fufficient fupplies of found animal-food and frelh
vegetables; or which is fometimes known to be en¬
demic in certain countries, where the nature of the
foil, the general ftate of the atmofphere, and the
common courfe of diet, all combine in producing that
Angular fpecies of corruption in the mafs of blood,
which conftitutes this difeafe; fqr the appearances, on
differing fcorbutic fubjeftg, fufliciently Ihew that the
fcurvy may, with great prepriety, be termed a difeafe
of the blood.
Dr Lind has, in a poftfcript to the third edition of
his treatify on the fcurvy, given the refult of his
obfervations drawn from the diffeftion of a confiderable
number of vi&ims to this fatal malady, from which
it appears that the true fcorbutic ftate, in an advanced
ftage of the diftemper, confifts in numerous effufions
of blood into the cellular interftices of moft parts of
the body, fuperficial as well as internal; particularly
the gums, and the legs ; the texture of the former,
being almoft entirely cellular, (and thefe cells natu¬
rally occupied by pure blood), and the generally de¬
pendent ftate of the latter, rendering thefe parts, of
all others in the whole body, the moft apt to receive, ]
and retain, the ftagnant blood, when its crafis comes
to be deftroyed, and it lofes that glutinous quality
which, during health, hinders it from efcaping thro*
the pores in the coats of the blood-veffels.
A dropfical indifpofition, efpecially in the legs and
breaft, was frequently, but not always, obferved in the
fubjefts that were opened, and the pericardium was #
fometimes found diftended with water: the water,
thus collefted, was often fo lharp as to (hrivel the
hands of the diffe&or; and in fome inftances, where
the fkin happened to be broken, it irritated and
feftered the wound.
The flefhy fibres were found fo extremely lax and
tender, and the bellies of the mufcles in the legs and
thighs fo fluffed with the effufed ftagnating bk>od,
that it was always difficult, and fometimes impoffible,
to raife or feparate one mufcle from another. He
fays that the quantity of this effufed blood was ama¬
zing ; in fome bodies, it feemed mat almoft a fourth
part of the whole mafs had efcaped from the veffels ;
and it often lay in large concretions on the periofteum,
and in fome few inftances under this membrane, im¬
mediately
MEDICINE.
:t ir. m e d :
rice mediately on the 'bo*2. And yet, notwithftanding
 this difiblved and depraved ftate of the external flefhy
parts, the brain always appeared perfedtly found, and
the vifcera of the abdomen, as well as thofe in the
thorax, were, in general, found quite uncorrupted.
There were fpots indeed, from extravafated blood,
obferved on the mefentery, inteftines, ftomach, and
omentum ; but thefe fpots were firm, and free from
any mortified taint; and, more than once, an effufion
of blood, as large as a hand’s breadth, has been feen
on the furface of the ftomach ; and what was remark¬
able, that very fubjeft was not known while living to
have made any complaint of ficknefs, pain, or other
tliforder, in either ftomach or bowels.
Thefe circumftances, and apppearances, with many
Others that are not here enumerated, all prove to a de-
monftration the putrefcent ftate of the blood s and yet
Dr Lind takes no fmall pains to combat the idea of
the fcurvy’s proceeding from animal-putrefadUon; a
notion which, according to him, “ may, and hath
mifled phylieians to propofe and adminifter remedies
for it altogether ineffeftual.”
He alfo, in the preface to this third edition, talks
of the mifchief done by an attachment to delufive
theories; fays, “ it is not probable that a remedy for the
fcurvy will ever be difcovered from a preconceived hy-
othefis, or by fpeculative men in the clofet, who
ave never feen the difeafe, or who have feen at mod
only a few cafes of itand adds, “ that though a
few partial fadts and obfervations may, for a little,
flatter with hopes of greater fuccefs, yet more enlarged
experience muft ever evince the fallacy of all pofitive
aflertions in the healing art.”
Sir John Pringle, however, is of a very different
opinion : he “ is perfuaded, after long refledtion, and
the opportunities he has had of converfing with thofe
who, to much fagacity, had joined no fmall experi¬
ence in nautical pradfice, that upon an examination
of the feveral articles which have either been of old
approven, or have of late been introduced into the
navy, it will appear, that though thefe means may
vary in form and in mode of operating, yet they all
fome way contribute towards preventing putrefadfion ;
whether of the air in the clofer parts of a ftiip, of
the meats, of the water, of the clothes and bedding,
or of the body itfelf.”
What DrLind has above advanced is the more ftrange,
as, in the two former editions of his book, he embraced
-the hypothefis of animal-putrefadlion being the caufe
of the fcurvy ; and if thefe effufions of blood, from a
deftrudh’on of its crafis and the diffolved ftate of the
mufrular fibres, together with the rotten condition of
the mouth and gums, do not betray putrefcency, it is
hard to fay what does, or what other name we fliall
bellow on this peculiar fpecies of depravation which
conftitutes the fcurvy.
The blood, no doubt, derives its healthy pro¬
perties, and maintains them, from due fupplies of
wholefome food; while the infoluble, fuperfluous,
efftte, and acrid parts, are carried off by the feveral
difcharges of ftool, urine, and perfpiration.
Our fenfes of tafte and fmell are fufficient to in¬
form us when our food is in a ftate of foundnefs and
fweetnefs, and confequently wholefomej but it is from
Vol. VI. I
[ C l N E. . 4823
chemiftry that we muft learn the principles on which Practice
thefe qualities chiefly depend.
Experiments of various kinds have proved, that the
foundnefs of animal and vegetable fubftances depends
greatly, if not entirely, on the prefence of their
aerial principle; fince rottennefs is never obferved to
take place without an emifiion of fixed air from the
putrefying fubllance : and even when putrefadlion has
made a confiderable progrefs, if air can be transferred,
in fufficient quantity, from fome other fubllarce in
a ftate of effervefcence or fermentation, into the putrid
body, the offenfive ftnell of this will be deftroyed; and
if it be a bit of rotten flefti with which the experi¬
ment is made, the firmnefs of its fibres will be found
in fome meafure reftored.
The experiments of Dr Hales, as well as many
others made fince his time, fhew that the aerial prin¬
ciple is greatly connefted with, and remarkably a-
bundant in, the gelatinous parts of animal bodies,
and in the mucilage or farina of vegetables. But thefe
are the parts of our food which are mod particularly
nutritive ; and Dr Cullen, whofe opinion on this as
on every other medical fubjedt muft be allowed of
the greateft weight, affirms (in his Ledlures on the
Materia Medica), that the fubftances on which we
feed are nutritious only in proportion to the quan¬
tities of oil and fugar which they refpe&ively con¬
tain. This oil and fugar are blended together in
the gelatinous part of our animal-food, and in the
mucilaginous and farinaceous part of efculent vegeta¬
bles ; and, while thus intimately combined, are not
perceivable by our tafte, though very capable of be¬
ing developed and rendered diftindl by the power
of the digeftive organs ; for, in confequence of the
changes produced during digeftion, (in which, not¬
withftanding any cavilling that may be raifed about
terms, fermentation muft be allowed to have a prin¬
cipal ftiare), the oily and the faccharine matter be¬
come manifeft to our fenfes, as we may fee, and tafte,
in the milk of animals, (which is chiefly chyle, a
little advanced in its progrefs toward fanguification),
wherein the oil is obferved to feparate fpontaneoufly,
and from which a quantity of actual fugar may be
obtained by a very Ample procefs.
Thus much being premifed, we can now readily
comprehend how the blood may come to lofe thofe
qualities of fmoothnefs, mildnefs, and tenacity, which
are natural to it. For if, in the firft place, the fluids,
and organs fubfervient to digeftion, fhould be fo far
diftempered, or debilitated, that the nutritious parts
of the food cannot be properly developed, the blood
muft be defrauded of its due fupplies ; which will alfo
be the cafe, if the aliment (hould not originally con¬
tain enough of oily and faccharine matter, or ftiould
be fo circumftanced, from being dried or failed, as to
hinder the ready extrication of the nutritious parts ;
or laftly, if the natural difcharges fhould be inter¬
rupted or fufpended, fo that the fuperfluous, acrid,
and effete fluids are retained in the general mafs;
in all thefe iuftances the blood muft of neceffity run
into proportionate degrees of depravation.
And hence we may underftand how it may poffibly
happen, that when perfons are greatly weakened by
fome preceding diforder, and at the fame time de-
27 G ’ barred
4824 M E D I
Practice barred the ufe of proper bodily exercife, the fcorbutic
diathefis fhould take place, even though they enjoy
the advantages of pure air and wholefome diet. But
thefe are folitary cafes, and very rarely feen; for
whenever the fcurvy feizes numbers, and can be con-
fidered as an epidemic difeafe, it will be found to de¬
pend on a combination of the major part, or perhaps
all, of the following circumftances:
1. A moill atmofphere, and more efpecially if
cold be joined to this moifture. 2. Too long cefla-
tion from bodily exercife, whether it be from con-
ftraint, or a lazy flothful difpofition. 3. Deje&ion
of mind. 4. Negledi of cleanlinefs, and want of
fufficient clothing. 5. Want of wholefome drink,
either of pure water, or fermented liquors. And,
6. above all, the being obliged to live continually on
failed meats, perhaps not well cured, without a due
proportion of the milder farinaceous or mucilaginous
vegetables, fufficient tocorredl the pernicious tendency
of the fait, by fupplying the bland oil and faccharine
matter requifite for the purpofes of nutrition.
Prevention and Cure. The fcurvy may be prevent¬
ed, by obviating and corre&ing thofe circumftances
in refpeft of the non-naturals which were mentioned as
contributing to the difeafe, and laid down as caufes.
It is therefore a duty highly incumbent on officers
commanding at fea, or in garrifons, to ufe every pof-
fible precaution; and, in the firft place, to correft the
coldnefs and moifture of the atmofphere, by fufficient
fires : in the next, to fee that their men be lodged in
dry, clean, and well ventilated births, or apartments:
thirdly, to promote cheerfulnefs, and enjoin frequent
exercife, which alone is of infinite ufe in preventing
the fcurvy : fourthly, to take care that the cloathing
be proper, and cleanlinefs of perfon ftridtly obferved :
fifthly, to fupply them with wholefome drink, either
pure water, or found fermented liquors ; and if fpirits
be allowed, to have them properly diluted with wa¬
ter, and fweetened with melaffes or coarfe fugar: and
laftly, to order the faked meats to be fparingly ufed,
or fometimes entirely abftaincd from ; and, in their
place, let the people live on different compofitions of
the dried vegetables, frefh meat and recent vege¬
tables being introduced as often as they can poffibly
be procured.
A clofe attention to thefe matters will, in general,
prevent the fcurvy from making its appearance at all,
and will always hinder it from fpreading its influence
far. But when thefe precautions have been negledled,
or the circumftances fuch that they cannot be put in
praftice, and the difeafe hath aSually taken place,
our whole endeavour muft be to reftore the blood to
its original ftate of foundnefs: and happily, fuch is
the nature of this difeafe (which confirms the hypothe-
fis that it is feated in the grofs fluids, and particularly
the blood), that if a fufficiency of new matter, of the
truly mild nutritious fort, can be thrown into the cir¬
culation while the flefhy fibres retain any tolerable de¬
gree of firmnefs, the patient will recover ; and that in
a furprifingly fliort fpace of time, provided a pure air,
comfortable lodgings, fufficient cloathing, cleanlinefs,
and exercife, lend their neceffary aid.
This being the cafe, the plan of treatment is to be
conduced almoft entirely in the dietetic way; as the
change in the mafs of blood, which it is neceffary to
CINE. Part II.
produce, muft be brought about by thing* that can be Practim
received into the ftomach by pints, or pounds and not ”1
by thofe which are adminiftered in drops or grains,
drachms or ounces. For here, as the fubtile fluids are
not fenfibly affefted, and there is no diforder of the
nervous fyltem, we have no need of thofe adive drugs,
which are indifpenfibly neceflary in febrile or nervous
difeafes ; the fcorbutic diathefis being quite oppofite
to that which tends to produce a fever, or any fpecies
of fpafmodic diforder ; nay Dr Lind fays, he has re¬
peatedly found, that even the infedtion of an hofpital
fever is long refifted by a fcorbutic habit.
It will now naturally occur to the reader, what
thofe alimentary fubftances muft be which bid the
faireft to reftore the blood to its healthy ftate ; and he
needs fcarcely to be told, that they are of thofe kinds
which the ftomach can bear with pleafure though ta¬
ken in large quantities, which abound in jelly or mu¬
cilage, and which allow thefe nutritious parts to be
eafily developed; for though the vifeera in fcorbutic
patients may be all perfe&Iy found, yet we cannot ex-
pedl, that either the digeftive fluids, or organs, ftiould
poffefs the fame degrees of power, which enable them,
during health, to convert the crude dry farinacea, and
the hard faked flefh of animals, into nourifhment. We
muft therefore fearch for the antifcorbutic virtue in the
tender fweet flefh of graminivorous animals 5 in new
milk; apd in the mucilaginous juices of recent vege¬
tables, whether they be fruits, leaves, or roots. And
provided they be frefh, and fucculent, and of fuch
mildnefs as will permit them to be abundantly taken,
it is of little importance whether they be fweet or fourj
acefcent or alkalefcent; for fuch is the power of the
alimentary fermentation, that by the time the chyle is
ready to enter the lafteals, their native qualities are ob¬
literated, and the oily and faccharine matter which lay
hid in the mucilage entirely extricated.
The four juices of lemons, oranges, and limes, have
been generally held as antifcorbutics in an eminent de¬
gree, and their power aferibed to their acid; from an
idea that acids of all kinds are the only correftors of
putrefaftion. But the general current of pra&ical
obfervations fhews, and our experiments confirm it,
that the virtue of thefe juices (and, we prefume, of every
other that has been known to cure the fcurvy) de¬
pends on their aerial principle, and confequently re-
fides in the mucilage, whether it be fweet or four;
accordingly, while perfectly recent and in the mucila¬
ginous ftate, and efpecially if mixed with wine and fu¬
gar, the juices of any one of thefe fruits will be found
a moft grateful and powerful antifcorbutic.
Dr Lind obferving, “ that the lemon-juice, when
given by itfelf undiluted, was apt, efpecially if over-
dofed, to have too violent an operation, by occafion-
ing pain and ficknefs at the ftomach, and fometimes a
vomiting ; he therefore found it neceflary to add wine
and fugar. A pint of Madeira wine, and two ounces
of fugar, were put to four ounces and-a half of juice,
and this quantity was found fufficient for weak pati¬
ents to ufe in 24 hours: fuch as were very weak fipped
a little of this frequently, according as their ftrength
would permit; others who were ftronger took about
two ounces of it every four hours ; and when the pa¬
tients grew ftill ftronger, they were allowed eight
ounces of lemon-juice in 24 hours.”
While
rt II. MED!
rice While this very pleafant mixture, which is both a
cordial and an antifeptic, maybe had, it would be
needlefs to think of prefcribing any other ; but when
the frerti juice cannot be procured, we mull have re-
courfe to fuch other things as may be obtained. But
the various modes of combining and adminiftering
thefe, fo as to render them perfeftly agreeable to the
ftomach, muft always be regulated by circumftances,
and therefore it will be in vain to lay down particu¬
lar direftions; fince all that we have to do is, to fix
on fuch fruits and other frelh vegetables as can be
mod conveniently had and taken, and contrive to give
them in thofe forms, either alone or boiled up with
fiefh-meat into foups, that will allow the patients to
confume the greated quantities.
The fird promifing alteration from fuch a courfe is
ufually a gentle diarrhoea ; and if, in a few days, the
/kin becomes foft and moid, it is an infallible fign of
recovery ; efpecially if the patient gains drength, and
can bear being dirred or carried into the open air
without fainting.
But if the belly fliould not be loofened by the ufe
of the frelh vegetables, nor the (kin become foft and
moid, then they mud be affided by dewed prunes, or
a deco&ion of tamarinds with cream of tartar, in or¬
der to abate the codivenefs $ and by drinking a light
decoftion of the woods, and warm bathing, in order
to relax the pores of the Ikin ; for nothing contributes
more to the recovery of fcorbutic patients than mode¬
rate fweating.
With regard to particular fymptoms, antifeptic
mouth-waters compofed of a decoftion of the cortex
and tindure of rofes, with folution of myrrh, mud
be ufed occafionally, in order to cleanfe the mouth,
and give firmnefs fo the fpungy gums. Swelled and in¬
durated limbs, and diffened joints, mud be bathed with
warm vinegar, and relaxed by the deam of warm wa¬
ter, repeatedly conveyed to them, and confined to the
parts by means of clofe blankets: ulcers on the legs
mud never be treated with unduous applications
nor lharp efeharotics; but the drefling Ihould confid of
lint or foft rags, dipt in a drong decodion of Peruvian
bark.
This difeafe at no time requires, or indeed bears,
large evacuations, either by bleeding or purging ; and,
as hath been already mentioned, the belly mud only
be kept open by the frelh vegetables, or the milded
laxatives. But we are always to be careful that fcor¬
butic perfons, after a long abdinence from greens and
fruits, be not permitted to eat voracioully at fird, led
they fall into a fatal dyfentery.
All this, however, that has been laid down as ne-
celfary towards the cure, fuppofes the patients to be
in fituations where they can be plentifully furnilhed
with all the requifites; but unhappily thefe things are
not to be procured at fea, and often deficient in gar-
rifons: therefore, in order that a remedy for the feur-
vy might never be wanting, Dr Macbride, in the year
1762, fird conceived the notion, that infuCion of malt,
commonly called 'wort, might be fubdituted for the
common antifcorbutics, and it was accordingly tried.
More than three years elapfed, before any account
arrived of the experiment’s having been made; at
length, ten hidories of cafes were received, wherein
CINE.
the wort had been tried, with very remarkable fucceft;
and this being judged a matter of much importance to
the feafaring part of mankind, thefe were immediate¬
ly communicated to the public in a pamphlet with the
title of An hiforical account of a hew method of treat¬
ing the feurvy at fea.
This was in 1767 ; but fince that time a confider-
able number of letters and medical journals, fufficient
to make up a fmall volume, were tranfmitted to the
author, particularly by the furgeons of his Majedy’s
/hips that have been employed of late years for ma¬
king difeoveries in the fouthern hemifphere. Certain
it is, that in many indances it has fucceeded beyond
expeftation. In others it has fallen diort: but whether
this was owing to the untoward fituation of the pati¬
ents, or inattention on the part of the perfons who were
charged with the adminidration of the wort, not pre¬
paring it properly, or not giving it in fuflicient quan¬
tity, or to its own want of power, mud be colleded
from the cafes andjournals themfelves.
During Captain Cook’s lad voyage, the mod re¬
markable, in refpefl. of the healthinefs of the crew,
that ever was performed, the wort is acknowledged to
have been of fingular ufe.
In a letter which this very celebrated and fuceefs-
ful circumnavigator wrote to Sir John Pringle, he
gives an account of the methods purfued for prefer-
ving the health of his people ; and which were pro-
dudive of fuch happy effeds, that he performed “ a
voyage of three years and 18 days, through all thfc
climates from 520 north to 710 fouth, with the lofsof
one man only by difeafe, and who died of a compli¬
cated and lingering illnefs, without any mixture of
feurvy. Two others were unfortunately drowned, and
one killed by a fall; fo that out of the whole number
(118) with which he fet out from England, he loft
only four.
He fays, that much was owing to the extraordinary
attention of the admiralty, in caufing fuch articles to
be put on board as either by experience or conjedure
were judged to tend moft to preferve the health of fea-
men ; and with refped to the wort, he exprefieth
himfelf as follows.
“ We had on board a large quantity of malt, of
which was made fwcet wort, and given (not only to
thofe men who had manifeft fymptoms of the feurvy,.
but to fuch alfo as were, from circumftances, judged
to be moft liable to that diforder) from one or two to
three pints in the day to each man, or in fuch propor¬
tion as the furgeon thought neceffary, which fome-
times amounted to three quarts in the 24 hours: this
is without doubt one of the beft antifcorbutic fea-
medicines yet found out; and, if given in time, will,
with proper attention to other things, I am perfuaded,
prevent the feurvy from making any great progrefs
for a confiderable time: but I am not altogether
of opinion that it will cure it, in an advanced ftate,
at fea.”
On this laft point, however, the Captain and his
Surgeon differ; for this gentleman pofitively aflerts,
and his journal (in Dr Macbride’s pofteffion) confirms
it, that the infufion of malt did effed a cure in a con¬
firmed cafe, and at fea.
The malt, being thoroughly dried, and packed up
27 G 2 in
4825
Practice
4826 MED
Practice in fmall cafks, is carried to fea, where it will keep
_ £-oun^ jn every variety of climate, for at lead two
years: when wanted for ufe, it is to be ground in a
hand-mill, and the infufion prepared from day to day,,
by pouring three meafures of boiling water on one
of the ground malt; the mixture being well malhed,
is left to infufe for 10 or 12 hours, and the clear in¬
fufion then drained off. The patients are to dritik it
in fuch quantities as may be deemed neceflary, from
one to three quarts in the courfe of the 24 hours: a
panado is alfo to be made of it, by adding bifeuit,
and currants or raifins; and this palatable raefs is ufed
by way of folid food. This courfe of diet, like that
of the recent vegetables, generally keeps the bowels
fufficiently open ; but in cafes where coflivenefs ne-
verthelefs prevails, gentle laxatives mud be interpofed
from time to time, together with diaphoretics, and the
topical affidants, fomentations and gargles, as in the
common way of management.
Captain Cook was alfo provided with a large dock
©f four krout; (cabbage-leaves cut fmall, fermented
and dopped in the fecond dage of fermentation.) A
pound of this was ferved to each man, twice a-week,
while they were at fea. He had alfo a liberal ftipply
of portable foup; of which the men had generally an
ounce, three days in the week, boiled up with their
peafe ; and fometimes it was ferved to them oftener ;
and when they could get frefh greens, it was boiled up
with them, and made fuch an agreeable mefs, that it
was the means of making the people eat a greater
quantity of greens than they would otherwife have
done. And what was dill of further advantage,
they were furniihed with fugar, in lieu of butter or
oil, which is feldom of the fweeted fort; fo that
the crew were undoubtedly great gainers by the ex¬
change.
In addition to all thefe advantages of being fo
well provided with every necedary, either in the way
of diet or medicine, Captain Cook was remark¬
ably attentive to all the circumdances refpe&ing clean-
linefs, exercife, fufficient cloathing, provifion of pure
water, and purification of the air, in the clofer parts
of the (hip.
Newly brewed fpruce-beer (made from a deco&ion
of the tops of the fpruce-fir, and molafles) is an ex¬
cellent antifcorbutic ; afts in the fame way that the
wort does, and will be found of equal efficacy, there¬
fore may be fubdituted. But in fituations where
neither the one nor the other can be had, a mod falu-
tary mefs may be prepared from oatmeal, by infufing
it in water, in a wooden veflel, till it ferments, and
begins to turn fourifh; which generally happens, in
moderately warm weather, in the fpace of two days.
The liquor is then drained off from the grounds,
and boiled down to the confidence of a jelly, which
ip to be eat with wine and fugar, or with butter and
fugar.
Nothing is more commonly talked off, than a land-
feurvy, as a didinft fpecies of difeafe from this which
has been now deferibed ; but no writer has yet given
a defeription fo clear as to enable us to didinguifh it
from the various kinds of cutaneous foulnefs and erup¬
tion, which indeed are vulgarly termed fcorbutic, but
which are akin to the itch or leprofy, and for the mod
gart require mercurials.
I C I N E. Part IT.
CLXXIV. ELEPHANTIASIS. p*Ae'J,cil
GenusLXXXVIII. §
449 I
Elephantiafis, Sauv. gen. 302. Fog. 321. Sag.
gen. 128.
Elephantia Arabum, Fog. 322.
The bed account of this difeafe is that by Dr He-
berden, publifhed in the fird volume of the Medical
Tranfa&ions. According to him, frequently the firft
fymptom is a fudden eruption of tubercles, or bumps
of different fizes, of a red colour, more or lefs intenfe
(attended with great heat and itching), on the b.dy,
legs, arms, and face; fometimes in the face and neck
alone, at other times occupying the limbs only; the
patient is feveridi; the fever ceafing, the tubercles re¬
main indolent, and in fome degree feirrhous, of a livid
or copper colour, and fometimes of the natural colour
of the (kin, or at lead very little altered; and. fome¬
times they after fonie months ulcerate, difcharging a
fetid ichorous humour in fmall quantity, but never lau¬
dable pus.
The features of the face fwell and enlarge greatly;,
the part above the eye-brows feems inflated; the hair
of the eye-brows falls off, as does the hair of the beard;
but our author has never feen any one whofe hair has
not remained on his head. The altc tiafi arc ('welled
and fcabrous; the nodrils patulous, and fometimes af-
fefted with ulcers, which, corroding the cartilage and
feptum naji, occafion the nofe to fall. The lips are tu¬
mid; the voice is hoarfe; which fymptom hath been ob-
ferved when no ulcers have appeared in the throat, al¬
though fometimes both the throat and gums are ulce¬
rated. The ears, particularly the lobes, arc thickened,
and occupied by tubercles. The nails grow fcabrous
and rugofe, appearing fomething like the rough bark
of a tree ; and the didemper advancing, corrodes the
parts gradually with a dry fordid fcab, or gangrenous
ulcer; fo that the fingers and toes rot and feparate,
joint after joint. In fome patients the legs feem rather
polls than legs, being no longer of the natural (hape,
but fwelled to an enormous lize, and indurated, not
yielding to the preffure of the fingers; and the fuper-
ficies is covered with very thin feales, of a dull whiti(h
colour, feemingly much finer, and not fo white as thofe
obferved in the lepra Gracorum. The whole limb is
overfpread with tubercles, interfperfed with deep fif-
fures; fometimes the limb is covered with a thick moift
fcabby crud, and not feldom the tubercles ulcerate.
In others the legs are emaciated, and fometimes ulce¬
rated ; at other times affefted with tubercles without
ulceration. The mufcular fleflr between the thumb and
fore-finger is generally extenuated.
The whole (kin, particularly that of the face, has
a remarkably (hining appearance, as if it was varnilhed
or finely polifhed. The fenfation is very obtufe, or to¬
tally abolilhed; fo that pinching, or pun&uring the
part, gives little or no uneafinefs; and in fome patients
the motion of the fingers and toes is quite dedroyed..
The breath is very-offenfive; the pulfe in general weak
and (low.
The difeafe often attacks the patient in a different
manner from the above-deferibed, beginning almod in-
fenfibly; a few indolent tubercles appearing on vari¬
ous parts of the body or limbs, generally on the legs
®r arms, fometimes on the face, neck, or bread, and
fonae-
mart IT.
|||lctice fometimes in the lobes of the ears, increafing by very
flow degrees, without any diforder, previous or con¬
comitant, in refpeft of pain or uneafinefs.
To diftinguiih the diflemper from its manner of at¬
tacking the patient, our author ftyles the firft by Jhixtoriy
?nd the other by congejlion. That by fluxion is often
attended with a crapula, or forfeit from grofs foods;
whereby, perhaps, the latent feeds of the diforder yet
dormant in the mafs of blood are excited ; and proba¬
bly from frequent obfervations of his kind (the latt meal
always having the blame laid on it), it is, that, accord¬
ing to the received opinion there, either flfli, (the tun¬
ny, mackrel, and fhell-filh, in particular), melons, cu¬
cumbers, young garden-beans, or mulberries, eaten at
the fame meal with butter, cheefe, or any preparation
with milk, are judged liable to produce the diiiemper,
and are accordingly rcligioufly avoided.
Violent commotions of the mind, as anger, fear, and
grief, have more than once been obferved to have gi¬
ven rife to the diforder; and more frequently, in the fe¬
male fex, a fudden fuppreffion of an accuftoriled evacu¬
ation, by bathing the legs and feet in cold water at an
improper feafon.
The diforder by fluxion is what is the ofteneft en¬
deavoured to be remedied by timely application; that
by congeftion, not being fo confpicuous, is generally
either negle&ed or endeavoured to be concealed, until
perhaps it is too late to be cured, at leaft unlefs the
patients would fubmit to a longer courfe of medicine
and ftrifter regimen of diet than they are commonly
inclined to do.
Several incipient diforders by fluxion have been known
to yield to an antiphlogiftic method, as bleeding, fal
diuret. in the faline draughts, and a folution of crernor
tartari in water, for their common drink, (by this means
endeavouring to precipitate part of the peccant matter,
perhaps too grofs to pafs the pores by the kidneys);
and when once the fever is overcome, the cort. Peruv.
cum cort. faffafras, is the only method to be relied on.
The only topical medicine prefcribed by Dr Heberden
was an attenuating embrocation of brandy and alkaline
fpirit. By the fame method fame confirmed cafes have
been palliated. But, excepting in one patient, he never
faw or heard of a confirmed elephantiafis radically cu¬
red. He adds, however, that he never met with ano¬
ther poflefled with prudence and perfeverance enough
to profecute the cure as he ought.
CLXXV. LEPRA, the Leprosy.
450 Genus LXXXVIII.
Lepra, Sauv. gen. 303. Lin. 262. Sag. 129,
Lepra Grxcorum, Fog. 320.
This diftemper is but little known to phyficians in
the weftern parts of Europe. Wallis tells us, that it
firft begins with red pimples, or puftules, breaking out
in various parts of the body. Sometimes they appear
Angle; fometimes a great number arife together, efpe-
cially on the arms and legs: as the difeafe increafes,
frefh pimples appear, which, joining the former, make
a fort of clufters; all which enlarge their borders, and
fpread in an orbicular form. The fuperficies of thefe
puftules are rough, whitilh, and fcaly; when they are
fcratched the fcalts fall off, upon which a thin ichor
oozes out, which foon dries and hardens into a fcaly
4S27
cruft. Thefe cluflers of puftules are at firft fmall and Practice
few; perhaps only three or four in an arm or leg, and
of the fize of a filver penny. But if the difeafe be fuf-
fered to increafe, they become more numerous, and the
clufters increafe to the fize of a crown-piece, but not
exadtly round. Afterwards it increafes to fuch a de¬
gree, that the whole body is covered with a leprous
fcurf.—The cure of this diftemper is the fame with that
of the Elephantiasis.
CLXXV I. FRAMBOESIA, the Yaws.
Genus LXXXIX. +5*
Frambcefia. Sauv. gen. 125. Sag. 125.
Defcription The defcription which is given of this
diftemper by the anonymous author of a paper in the
iixth volume of the Edinburgh Medical Eflays, (art. 76.)
differs, in fome circumftances, from one that Sauvages
received from M. Virgile, an eminent furgeon of Mont¬
pelier, who pradifed 12 years in the ifland of St Do¬
mingo ; and therefore he diftinguifhes the frambxfia.
into two fpecies, Guineenjis, and Americana.
The frambcefia Guineenjis is faid by the firft men¬
tioned writer to be fo common on the coaft of Guinea
and other parts of Africa, that it feldom fails to at¬
tack each individual of both fexes, one time or other,
in the courfe of their lives; but moft commonly du¬
ring childhood or youth. “ It makes its appearance
in little fpots on the cuticle, level with the Ikin, at firft
no larger than a pin’s head, which increafe daily, and
become protuberant like pimples: foon after, the cu¬
ticle frets off, and then, inftead of finding pus, or
ichor, in this fmall tumour, only white floiighs or
fordes appear, under which is a fmall red fungus,
growing out of the cutis, increafing gradually to very
different magnitudes, fome lefs than the fmalleft wood
ftrawberry, fome as big as a rafpberry, and others ex¬
ceeding in fize even the largeft mulberries; which berries
they very much refemble, being knobbed as they are.”
Thefe protuberances, which give the name to the dif¬
eafe, appear on all parts of the body: but the greateft
numbers, and the largeft fized, are generally found in
the groins, and about the pudenda or anus ; in the
arm-pits, and on the face : when the yaws are very-
large, they are few in number; and when remarkably
numerous, they are lefs in fize. The patients, in all
other refpefts, enjoy good health, do not lofe their ap¬
petite, and feem to have little other uneafinefs than
what the fores occafion.
Mr Virgile defci ibes the fpecies of yaws that is com¬
mon among the Negroes of St Domingo, and which
Sauvages has Itemedframboejia Americana,beginning
from an ulcer that breaks out indiferiminately in dif¬
ferent parts of the body, though moft commonly on
the legs; at firft fuperficial, and not different from a
common ulcer in any other circumftances fave its not
healing by the ufual applications ; fooner or later,
numerous fungous excrefcences break out on the fur-
face of the body as before deferibed, like little berries,
moift, with a reddilh mucus. Befides thefe, the foies
of the feet and palms of the hands became raw, the-
Ikin fretting off, fo as to leave the mufcles bare; thefe
excoriations are fometimes moift with ichor and fome—
times dry, but always painful, and confequently verjr
diftreffing. They are alfo mentioned by the author of
the;
MEDICINE.
4828 MED
Practice the article in the Medical EiTays; and both he and
M. Virgile obferve, that there is always one excre-
fcence, or yaw, of an uncommon fize, which is longer
in falling off than the others, and which is conlidered
as the jnajier-yanv, and fo termed. Thefe two, are
the only accounts that have hitherto been publilhed of
this difeafe.
The yaws may be communicated by any kind of
contact; nay, it is even believed that flies often con¬
vey the infedlion, when, after having gorged them-
felves with the virulent matter by fucking the ulcers
of thofe who are difeafed, they make punftures in the
Ikin of fuch as are found, and thus inoculate them ; in
confequence of which, the diforder will foon appear,
provided the morbific difpofition of body be prefent.
It is believed, that the difeafe never appears twice
in the fame perfon ; fince all the Negroes who have
had the yaws in Africa, and have been cured there,
remain exempt from the diforder ever after ; and the
writer of the paper in the Medical Eflays affirms, that,
in nine years practice in the Weft Indies, he never
knew any patient to relapfe after having been once
thoroughly cured.
Prog/iojis. The yaws are not dangerous, if the cure
be fkilfully managed at a proper time; but if the pa¬
tient has been prematurely falivated, or has taken any
quantity of mercury, and his fkin been fuddenly cleared
thereby, the cure will be very difficult, if not imprac¬
ticable.
Cure. This is effefted by mercurial falivation, af¬
ter the virulent matter has been completely thrown out
to the furface of the body by fudorilics. The follow¬
ing are the particular direftions given on this head by
the author of the article in the Medical Eflays. The
yaws being an infeftious difeafe, as foon as they begin
to appear on a Negro, he mull be removed to a houfe
by himfelf; or, if it is not certain whether the erup¬
tion be the yaws or not, fhut him up feven days, and
look on him again, as the Jews were commanded to do
with their lepers, Lev. xiii. and in that time you may
be commonly certain.
As foon as you are convinced that it is the yaws,
give a bolus of flowers of fulphur, with camphire and
theriaca. Repeat this bolus every night for a fortnight
or three weeks, or till the yaws come to the height; that
is, when they neither increafe in fize or number: then
throw your patient into a gentle falivation with calo¬
mel given ip fnaall dofes, without farther preparation;
five grains repeated once, twice, or thrice a-day, is fuf-
ficient, as the patient can bear it. If he fpits a quart
in 24 hours, it is enough. Generally, when the fali¬
vation is at this height, all the yaws are covered with
a dry fcaly cruft or fcab; which, if numerous, look
terribly. Thefe fall off daily in fmall white feales; and
in ten or twelve days leave the Ikin fmooth and clean.
Then the calomel may be omitted, and the falivation
permitted to go off of itfelf. £A dram of corrofive
fublimate diffolved in an ounce of rum or brandy, and
the folution daubed on the yaws, will clear the fkin in
two days time.J
After the falivation, fweat the patient twice or thrice
in a frame or chair, with fpirits of wine; and give an
alterative eleftuary of aethiops and gum guaiac. He
may likewife ufe the decoftion of guaiacum and faffa-
fias fermented with melaffes, for his conftant drink
CINE. Part II.
while the ele&uary is taking, and a week or a fort-PractkIc
night after the deft nary is fpent. “
The mafter-yaw muft be confumed an eighth or a
tenth part of an inch below the fkin, vii\hMercur.corrof.
rub. h alum. ujl. an. part, ceqlial. and digefted with
Ung. bafd. fiav. ^j. and mercur. corrof. rub. 3j. and
cicatrized with lint preffed out of fpirits of wine, and
with the vitriol ftone.
After the yaws are cured, fome patients are afflifted
with carbuncles in their feet; which fometimes render
them incapable of walking, unlefs with pain.. The
method of cure is, by bathing and paring, to deftroy
the cuticle, and then proceed as in the mafter-yaw.
The gentle efcharotics are to be preferred, efpecially
here ; and all imaginable care is to be taken to avoid
the tendons and periofteum.
To children under fix or feven years old, at the pro¬
per time of falivating, (when the yaws are come to
their full growth), give a grain or two of calomel in
white fugar, once a-day, once in two days, or once in
three days, fo as only to keep their mouths a little fore
till the yaws dry, and, falling off in white feales, leave
the fkin clean. This fucceeds always, but requires a
longer time than in adults.
In St Domingo they falivated by unftion ; but it
does not appear that fuccefs always followed this
praftice. It is alfo ufual in that ifland to give the fo¬
lution of corrofive fublimate, along with a decoftion
of farfaparilla. Twelve ounces of this root, and 12
pounds of the coarfeft fugar, macerated for 15 days in
12 quarts of water, is mentioned as a fpecific, andfaid
to be the prefeription of an Englifh phyfician ; the
dofe is four ounces every fixth hour.
CLXXVII. TRICHOMA, the Plica Polonica,
or Plaited Hair. Genus XC. 4^3
Trichoma, Sauv. gen. 311. Sag. 137.
Plica, Lin. 313.
Plica five rhopalofis, Vog. 323.
This diforder is only met with in Poland and Li¬
thuania, and confifts of feveral blood-veffels running
from the head into the ends of the hairs; which cleave
together, and hang from the head in broad flat pieces,
generally about an ell ia length, but fometimes they
are five or fix yards long ; one patient hath more or
lefs of thefe, up to 20, and fometimes 30. They are
painful to the wearer, and odious to every fpeftator.
At the approach of winter an eruptive fever happens to
many in thefe countries : the eruptions principally in-
feft the head, and when at the height an ichorous hu¬
mour flows from them. In this ftate they are too ten¬
der to admit of being touched, and the matter running
down the hairs mats them together; the fkin by de¬
grees breaking, the ramifications of the capillary vef-
fels following the courfe of the hair, or prolonged out
of the fkin, are increafed to a vaft length.
No method of relief is known; for if the difeharge
be checked, or the veffels cut off, the confequence is an
increafe of more miferable fymptoms, and in the iffue
death. Sennertus fays, when all the morbid matter is
thrown out of the body the plicae fall off fpontancoufly.
He further obferves, that the only fafe praftice in this
cafe is, to folicit the peccant matter to the hairs, to
which it naturally tends; and that this is belt anfwered
I’urt II. M E D I
pIctice by lotions of bear’s-breech. Some fay that a decoc-
ij tion of the herb club-mofs, and its feeds, with which
the head is to be wafhed, is a fpecific.
„ CLXVIII. ICTERUS, the Jaund.ce.
Genus XCI.
Icterus, Lin. 224. Vog. 306. Boerh. 918. Junck.
90.
Aurigo, Sauv. gen. 306. Sag. 132.
Cachexia ifterica, Hoffm. III. 301.
Dcfcription. The jaundice firft fliews itfelf by a lift-
leffnefs and want of appetite, the patient becomes dull,
oppreffed, and generally coftive. Thefe fymptoms
have continued but a very (hort time, when a yellow
colour begins to diffufe itfelf over the tunica albuginea^
or white part of the eye, and the nails of the fingers ;
the urine becomes high-coloured, with a yellowifh fe-
diment capable of tinging linen; the ftools are whitifii
or grey. In fome there is a moft violent pain in the
epigaftric region, which is confiderably increafed after
meals. Sometimes the patient hath a continual pro-
penfity to deep 5 but in others there is too great watch-
fulnefs; and fometimes the pain is fo great, that tho’
the patient be fleepy he cannot compofe himfelf to reft.
The pains come by fits; and all the women who have
had the jaundice and born children, agree, that they
? are more violent than labour-pains. As the difeafe in-
creafes, the yellow colour becomes more and more deep;
an itching is felt all over the Hein; and even the inter¬
nal membranes of the vifcera, the bones, and the brain
itfelf, become tinged, as hath been fhewn from diflec¬
tions, where the bones have been found tinged fome¬
times for years after the jaundice hath been cured.
In like manner, all the fecretions are affefted with
the yellow colour of the bile, which in this difeafe is
diffufed throughout the whole mafs of fluids. The fa-
liva becomes yellow and bitter; the urine excelfively
high-coloured, in fuch a manner as to appear almoft
black ; nay, the blood itfelf is fometimes faid to ap¬
pear of a yellow colour when drawn from a vein; yet
Dr Heberden fays that he never faw the milk altered
in its colour, even in cafes of very deep jaundice. In
procefs of time the blood begins to acquire a tendency
to diflblution and putrefaftion ; which is known by
the patient’s colour changing from a deep yellow to a
black or dark yellow. Haemorrhages enfue from vari¬
ous parts of the body, and the patients frequently die
of an apoplexy ; though in fome the difeafe degene¬
rates into an incurable dropfy; and there have not been
wanting inftances of fome who have died of the dropfy
after the jaundice itfelf had been totally removed.
Caufis. As the jaundice confifts in a diffufion of
the bile throughout the whole fyftem, it thence fol¬
lows, that whatever may favour this diffufion is alfo to
be reckoned among the caufes of jaundice. Many dif-
putes have arifen concerning the manner in which the
bile is reforbed into the blood ; but it is now generally
agreed that it is taken up by the lymphatics of the
gall-bladder and biliary dudis. Hence, a jaundice
may arife from any thing obftrufting the paffage of
the bile into the duodenum, or from any thing which
alters the ftate of the lymphatics in fuch a manner as
to make them capable of abforbing the bile in its na¬
tural ftate. Hence, the jaundice may arife from fcirrhi
of the liver or other vifcera prefling upon the biliary
CINE. 4829
duffs, and obftrufling the paffage of the bile; from Practice
flatus diftending the duodenum, and iliutting up the
entrance of the dufhis communis choledochus into it;
from the fame orifice being plugged up by vifcid bile,
or other fordes : but by far the moft frequent caufe of
jaundice is the formation of calculi. Thefe are found
of almoft all fizes, from that of a fmall pea to that of
a walnut, or bigger; are of different colours; and
fometimes appear as if formed in the inward part by
cryftallization, but of lamellae on the outer part; tho*
fometimes the outward part is covered with rough and
fhining cryftals, while the inward part is lamellated.
Thefe enter into the biliary duffs, and obftrufl them,
caufing a jaundice, with violent pain for fome time ;
and which can be cured by no means till the (tone is
either paffed entirely through the duffus communis,
or returned into the gall-bladder. Sometimes, in the
opinion of many celebrated phyficians, the jaundice is
occafioned by fpafmodic conftriftions of the biliary
duftsj but this is denied by others^ and it is not yet
afeertained whether thefe duffs are capable of be¬
ing affefted by fpafm or not, as the exiftence of muf-
cular fibres in them hath not with certainty been dif-
covered. It cannot, however, be denied that violent
fits of paffion have often produced jaundice, fome¬
times temporary, but frequently permanent. This
hath been by fome deemed a fufficient proof of the
fpafmodic contraffion of the duffs; but their oppo¬
nents fuppofe, that the agitation occafioned by the
pafiion might pufti forward fome biliary concretion
into a narrow part of the duff, by which means a jaun¬
dice would certainly be produced, till the concretion
was either driven backward or forward into the duo¬
denum altogether.
In a very relaxed ftate of the body there is alfo an
abforption of the bile, as in the yellow fever; and in¬
deed in all putrid diforders there is a kind of yellowiflt
taint over the (kin, though much lefs than in the true
jaundice. The reafon of this is, that in thefe difor¬
ders there is ufually an increafed fecretion of bile,
commonly of a thinner confiftence than in a healthy
ftate, while the orifices of the lymphatics are probably
enlarged, and thus ready to abforb a fluid fomewhat
thicker than what they ought to take up in a healthy
ftate ; but thefe diforders are of (hort duration in com-
parifon with the real jaundice, which fometimes lafts
for many years.
It is obfervable, that women are more fubjeff ta
jaundice than men, which probably arifes from their
more fedentary life; for this, together with fome of
the deprefiing pafiions of the mind, are found to pro¬
mote the acceflion of the difeafe,. if not ahfolutely to
produce it. Pregnant women alfo are frequently at¬
tacked by the jaundice, which goes off after their de¬
livery.
Progno/tf. As jaundice may arife from many dif¬
ferent caufes, fome of which cannot be difeover-
ed during the patient’s life, the prognofis muft oa
this account be very uncertain. The only cafes
which admit of a cure are thofe depending upon bili¬
ary concretions, or obftruflions of the biliary dinfts by
vifcid bile; for the (tones are feldom of fuch a five
but that the duifts will let them pafs through, though
frequently not without extreme pain. Indeed this,
pain, though fo violent, and almoft intolerable to
■Practice the fick perfon, affords the heft prognofis; as the
 1 ‘.phyfician may readily affure his patient that there
is great hope of his being relieved from it. The
coming on of a gentle diarrhoea attended with bilious
ftool's, together with the ceffation of pain, are figns of
the difeafe being cured. We are not, however, al¬
ways to conclude, becaufe the difeafe is not attended
with acute pain, that it is therefore incurable; for
frequently the paffage of a ftone through the biliary
dudts is accompanied only with a fenfation of flight
uneafinefs.
Cure. When the jaundice arifes from indurated
fwellings or fcirrhi of the vifcera, it is abfolutely in¬
curable; neverthelefs, as thefe cannot always be dif-
covered, the phyfician mult proceed in every cafe of
jaundice as if it arofe from calculi. The indications
here are, I. To diflblve the concretions; and, 2. To
prevent their formation a fecond time. But unhap¬
pily the medical art hath not yet afforded a folvent
for biliary concretions. They cannot even be diffolved
when taken out of the body either by acids or alkalies,
or any thing befides a mixture of oil of tnrpentine and
fpirit of wine ; and thefe fubftances are by far too ir¬
ritating to be given in fufficient quantity to affeft a
concretion in the biliary dudts. Boerhaave obferves,
that difeafes of the liver are much worfe to cure than
thofe in any other part of the body; becaufe of the
difficulty there is in getting at the part affe&ed, and
the tedious and round-about paffage the blood hath
to it. The juice of common grafs hath indeed been
recommended as a fpeeific in the jaundice, but on no
very good foundation. Gliffon obferves, that black
cattle are fubjeft to biliary concretions when fed with
hay or dried draw in winter, but are cured by the
fucculent grafs in the fpring; and Van Swieten tells a
ftrange flory of a man who cured himfelf of the jaun¬
dice by living almoft entirely on grafs, of which he
^devoured fuch quantities, that the farmers were wont to
drive him out of their fields: but other pra&itioners
have by no means found this in -any degree effe&ual.
The only method of cure now attempted in the jaundice
is, to expel the calculus into the inteftines; for which
vomits and exercife are the principal medicines. The
former are juftly reckoned the moft efficacious me¬
dicines, as they powerfully fhake all the abdominal
and thoracic vifcera; and thus tend to diflodge any
obftrufting matter that may be contained in them.
But if there be a tendency to inflammation, vomits
muff not be exhibited till bleeding has been premifed.
We muff alfo proceed with caution if the pain is very
fliarp; for in all cafes where the difeafe is attended
with violent pain, it will be neceffary to allay it by
opiates before the exhibition of an emetic. There is
alfo danger, that, by a continued ufe of vomits, a done
which is too large to pafs, may be fo impafted in the
du&s, that it cannot even be returned into the gall¬
bladder, which would otherwife have happened. In
all cafes therefore, if no relief follows the exhibition
of the fecond or third dofe, it will be prudent to for¬
bear their farther ufe for fome time.
Of all kinds of exercife, that of riding on horfe-
back is moft to be depended upon in this difeafe. It
operates in the fame manner with vomits, namely, by
the fliake it gives to the vifcera j and therefore tfce
Part II.
cautions neceffary to be obferved in the ufe of vomits Practjce
are alfo neceffary to be obferved in the ufe of riding.
Cathartics alfo may be of fervice, by cleanfing the
prim# vi#t and foliciting a difcharge of the bile into
the inteftines; but they muft not be of too draftic a
nature, or they may produce incurable obftru&ions,
by bringing forward ftones that are too large to pafs.
Anodynes, the warm bath, and faponaceous medi¬
cines, are ferviceable by their relaxing quality. Soap
hath been fuppofed to do fervice as a folvent ; but this
is now found to be a miftake, and it a&s in no other
way than as a relaxant.
But when all means of relief fail, as in cafes of
fcirrhus, we can then only attempt to palliate the
fymptoms, and preferve the patient’s life as long as
poffible. This is beft accomplifhed by diuretics; for
thus a great quantity of bilious matter is evacuated,
and the fyftem is freed from the bad confequences
which enfue on its ftagnation in the habit. But even
this is by no means equal to the common evacuation
by ftool; nor can all the attempts to fupply the want
of bile in the inteftines, by bitters and other ftoma-
chics, reftore the patient to his wonted appetite and
vigour. If the pain be very violent, we muft on all
occafions have recourfe to opiates; or if the blood hath
acquired a tendency to diffolution, it muft be counter-
adted by proper antifeptics.
If the difeafe goes off, its return muft be prevented
by a cotirfe of tonic medicines, particularly the Peru¬
vian bark and antifeptics: but we can by no means be
certain that the jaundice will not return, and that at
any imaginable interval; for there may be a number
of ftones in the gall-bladder, and though one hath
paffed, another may very quickly follow, and produce
a new fit of jaundice; and thus fome people have con¬
tinued to be affedled with the diftemper, at fliort in¬
tervals, during life.
In the Eaft-Indies, mercury hath been lately re¬
commended as exceedingly efficacious in diforders of
the liver, efpecially thofe which follow intermitting
and remitting fevers. Dr Monro, in his Obferva-
tions on the means of preferving the health of fol-
diers, acquaints us, that he has feen fome i&eric cafes
which, he thought, received benefit from taking a
few grains of mercurius dulcis at night, and a purge
next morning; and this repeated two or three timesa-
week.
Infants are fubjeft to a temporary jaundice, com¬
monly called the gum> foon after birth, the caufe of
which is not well underftood. It differs remarkably
from the common jaundice; as, in the latter, the dif¬
eafe is firft difcoverable in the white of the eyes; but
though the fltin of infants in the gum is all over yel
low, their eyes always remain clear. The diforder
goes off fpontaneoufly, or by the ufe of a gentle pur¬
gative or two.
CLASS
MEDICINE.
];>art II.
r||ACTICE
M E D I
CLASS IV. LOCALES.
Vitia, Sauv. Clafs I. Lin. Cl. XL Vog. Cl. X.
Sag. Cl. I.
Plagae, Sag. Cl. II.
Morbi organic! Audlorum.
Order I. DYSESTHESIA.
Dyfefthefiae, Sauv. Cl. VI. Ord. I. Sag. Cl. IX.
Ord. I.
... CLXXIX. CALICO, the Cataract.
J Genus XCII.
Caligo, Sauv. gen. 153. Vog. 288. Sag. gen.
259.
Catarada, Lin. 109.
A catarafl is an obftruftion of the pupil, by the
interpofition of fome opaque fubftance which either
diminilhes or totally extinguirties the fight. It is ge¬
nerally an opacity in the cryftalline humour. In a
recent or beginning cataraH, the fame medicines are
to be ufed as in the gutta ferena; and they will fome-
times fucceed. But when this does not happen, and
the cataratt becomes firm, it muft be couched, or ra¬
ther extrafled; for which operation, fee Surgery.—
Dr Buchan fays he has refolved a recent cataraft by
giving the patient fome purges with calomel, keeping
a poultice of frelh hemlock conftantly upon the eye,
and a perpetual blifter on the neck.
CLXXX. AMAUROSIS, the Gutta Serena.
+55 Genus XCIII.
Amaurofis, Sauv. gen. 155. Lin. no. Vog. 238'
Sag. gen. 261.
Amblyopia, Lin. 108. Vog. 236.
A gutta ferena is an abolition of the fight without
any apparent caufe or fault in the eyes. When it is
owing to a decay or wafting of the optic nerve, it does
not admit of a cure; but when it proceeds from a com-
preflion of the nerves by redundant humours, thefe
may be in fome meafure drained off, and the patient
relieved. For this purpofe, the body muft; be kept
open with the laxative mercurial pills. If the patient
be young, and of a fanguijie habit, he may be bled.
Cupping with fcarifications on the back part of the
head will likewife be of ufe. A running at the nofe
may be promoted by volatile falts, ftimulating powders,
&c. But the molt likely means of relieving the pa¬
tient, are iffues or blifters kept open for a long time on
the back part of the head, behind the ears, or on the
neck; which have been known to reftore fight even af¬
ter it had been for a confiderable time loft.—Should
thefe fail,' recourfe muft be had tq a mercurial faliva-
tion; or, what will perhaps anfwer the purpofe better,
12 grains of the corrofive fublimate of mercury may
be diflblved in an Englifh pint and a half of brandy,
and a table-fpoonful of it taken twice a-day, drinking
half a pint of the deco&ion of farfaparilla after it.—
x Of late ele&ricity hath been much celebrated as effica¬
cious, when no other thing could do fervice. See be¬
low on Eleftricity.
In the amaurofis,' Dr Porterfield obferves, that it is
of the utmoft confequence to know of how long ftand-
Vol. VI. I
CINE. 4831
ihg the difeafe has been; which is not always eafily'Paacticb
done if one eye only is affe&ed. This is a very eflen-
tial point; becaufe an amaurofis of long (landing is al¬
together incurable. Mr Boyle mentions the cafe of a
man who had a cataraft for feveral years without know¬
ing it himfelf, though others did. He difcovered it
at laft by happening to rub his found eye, and was fur-
prifed to find himfclf in the dark. When a perfon
therefore has a gutta ferena only in one of the eyes, he
may think that the eye was but lately loft, though per¬
haps it hath been fo for years before. On the other
hand, he may imagine that a recent difeafe of this kind
is really of long (landing. But by inquiring at what
time he firft became fubjeiSf to miftakeS in all aftious
that require the diftance to be exadlly diftinguifhed,
as in pouring liquor into a glafs, fnuffing a candle,
threading a needle, we may difcover the age of the dif¬
eafe, and thence be affifted to form a more juft prog-
noftic with refpedl to its cure. Our author gives an
inftance of his conjefluring in this manner concerning
the cafe of a young lady who had difcovered a lofs of
fight in one of her eyes only the day before. The dif¬
eafe was thought to be of long (landing; but as the
Doftor found that (he had only been fubjedl to mi~
(lakes of the kind abovementioned for about a month,
he drew a favourable prognoftic, and the difeafe was
cured.
CLXXXI. DYSOPIA, or Depraved Vision.
Genus XCIV.
Amblyopia, Sauv. gen. 154. Sag. 258.
There are feveral fpecies referable to this genus,
viz.
1. Dyfopia Tenebrarum; 2. Dyfopia "Lvuiims.—
The former of thefe is properly the nyftalops, or night-
blindnefs, of ancient authors. But amongft both the
Greek and Latin writers, there is a diredl oppofition in the
ufe of this word nyftalops; forae faying it fignifies tho(e
who cannot fee by night, and others exprefs by it thofe
who cannot fee during the day, but during the night.
—The difference in the account of this diforder, as to
its appearing in the night or in the day, is reconciled
by coniidering it as of the intermitting kind: the dif¬
ference then will confift in the different times of its ap¬
proach; fo may be called periodical blindneft. Inter-
mittents appearing in a. variety of modes, and the fuc-
cefs of the bark in fome inftances of this fortof blind-
nefs, both favour the opinion of its being an intermit¬
tent difeafe of the eyes. See Land. Med. Tranf. Vol. L
and Land. Med. Obf. and Inquir. Vol. I. p. 111, &c.
3. Dyfopia Dissitorum, [Prejlytopia;) or the defedft
of thofe who fee only at too great a diftance. 4. Dyfo-
pia Proximorum, {Myopia?) or the defe& of thofe who
are JhortJighted.—Thefe are diforders which depend on
the original ftrufture or figure of the eye, therefore
admit of no cure. The inconveniencies arifing from
them may however be, in fome meafure, remedied by
the help of proper glades. The former requires the
aid of a concave, and the latter of a convex glafs.
5. Dyfopia Lateralis ; a defedt by which ohjedla
cannot be viewed diftindtly but in an oblique polition.
—Thus, in viewing an objedl placed on the left, they
turn them face and eye to the right, and vice verfa.—
This diforder may proceed from various caufes both
natural and accidental, fome of which admit of no re-
27 H medy,
45$
4832 M E D I
Practice medy. If it is occafioned by a partial adhefion of tha
  eye-lids, the hand of the furgeon is required: if by a
tranfverfe pofition of the pupil, fome mechanical con-,
trivance is neceflaryj (fee Strabifmusx below.) If it
is owing to an albugo covering part of the pupil, or
to a film rendering a portion of the cornea opaque, the
remedy for thefe affe&ions are to be here applied.
457 CLXXXII. PSEUDOBLEPSIS,. or Imaginary
Vision of Objects which do not exift. Genus XpV,
Suffufio, Sauv. gen. 217. Sag. 329.
Phantafma, Lin. 73. Sag* 289.
This very often takes place when the body is
difeafed, and then the patient is faid to be deliriousi
Sometimes, however, in thefe cafes, it does not amount
to delirium ; but the perfon imagines he fees gnats or
other infe&s flying before his eyes ; or fometimes,
that every thing he looks at hath black fpots in it,
which laft is a very dangerous fign. Sometimes alfo
fparks of fire appear before the eyes ; which appear¬
ances are not to be difregarded, as they frequently
precede apoplexy or epilepfy. Sometimes, however,
people have been affe&ed in this manner during life,
without feeling any other inconvenience. Such a dif-
order can rarely if ever be cured.
- CLXXXIIT. DYSECOEA, Deafness, or
450 of Hearing. Genus XCVI.
, CLXXXIV. PARACUSIS, or Depravation of
4^9 Hearing. Genus XCVII.
Paracufis, Sauv. gen. 159. Sag. 265.
Syrigmus, Sauv. gen. 219. Sag. 231.
The functions of the ear may be injured by wounds,
ulcers, or any thing that hurts its fabric. The hear¬
ing may likewife be hurt by exceffive noife ; violent
colds in the head; fevers; hard wax, or other fub-
ftances (licking in the cavity of the ear ; too great a
degree of moitture or drynefs of the ear. Deafnefs is
very often the effeA of old age, and is incident to
moil people in the decline of life. Sometimes it is
owing to an original fault in the ftru&ure or forma¬
tion of the ear itfelf. When this is the cafe it admits
of no cure ; and the unhappy perfon not only conti¬
nues deaf, but generally likewife dumb, for life.
When deafnefs is the effeft of wounds or ulcers of
the ears, or of old age, it is not eafily removed.
Wherrit proceeds from cold of the head, the patient
muft be careful to keep his head warm, efpecially in
the night; he (hould likewife take fome gentle purges,
and keep his feet warm, and bathe them frequently in
lukewarm water at bed-time. When deafnefs is the
effeft of a fever, it generally goes off after the pa¬
tient recovers. If it proceeds from dry wax (licking
in the ears, it may be foftened by dropping oil into
them ; afterwards they muft be fyringed with warm
milk and water.
If deafnefs proceeds from drynefs of the ears, which
may be known by looking into them, half an ounce
of the oil of fweet almonds, and the fame quantity of
liquid apodeldoch, or tindlure of afafoetida, may be
mixed together, and a few drops of it put into the ear
every night at bed-time, flopping them afterwards
with a little wool or cotton. Some, inftead of oil,
put a fmall dice of the fat of bacon into each ear,
CINE. Part II.
which is faid to anfwer the purpofe very well.—When Practic*
the ears abpund-with mpifture, it. may be drained off
by an iffue or feton, which (hould be made as near the
affe&^d par^ as poffible.
Some, for the cure of deafnefs, recommend the gall
of an eel mixed with fpirit of wine, to be dropped in¬
to the ear; others, equal parts of Hungary-water and
fpirit of lavender. Etmuller extols amber and mufk ;
and Brookes fays, he has oftei> known hardnefs of
hearing cured by putting a grain or two of mu(k in-
to-the ear with cotton-wool. But thefe and other ap¬
plications muft be varied according to the caufe of the
difordeu
Though fuch applications may fometimes be of fer
vice, yet they much oftener fail, and frequently they
do hurt. Neither the eyes nor ears ought to be tam¬
pered with; they are tender organs, and require a very
delicate touch. For this reafon, what we would chief¬
ly recommend in deafnefs, is to keep the head warm.
From whatever caufe the diforder proceeds, this is al¬
ways proper ; and more benefit has often been derived
from it alone, in the mod obftinate cafes of deafnefs,
than from any medicines whatever.
CLXXXV. ANOSMIA, or Defefl */Smelling. .
Genus XCVIII. 46gk
Anofmia, Sauv. gen. 156. Lin. 113. Vog. 248;
Sag. 262.
Caufes. The fenfe of fmelling may be diminilhed or
deftroyed by difeafes; as, the moifture, drynefs, in¬
flammation or fuppuration of that membrane which
lines the infide of the nofe, commonly called the olfac¬
tory membrane; the compreflion of the nerves which
fupply this membrane, or fome fault in the brain it¬
felf at their qrigin. A defeift, or too great a degree
of folidity, of the fmall fpungy bones of the upper
jaw, the caverns of the forehead^ CsV. may likewife
impair the fenfe of fmelling. It may alfo be injured
by a colle&ion of fetid matter in thofe caverns, which
keeps conftantly exhaling from them. Few things are
more hurtful to the fenfe of fmelling than taking great
quantities of fnuff.
Cure. When the nofe abounds with moifture, after
gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to take off
irritation and coagulate the thin (harp ferum may
be applied ; as the oil of anife mixed with fine flour,
camphire diffolved in oil of almonds, fife. The va¬
pours of amber, frankincenfe, gum-maftic, and ben-,
jamin, may likewife be received into the nofe and
mouth. For moiftening the mucus when it is too dry,
fome recommend fnuff made of the leaves of marjoram,
mixed with oil of amber, marjoram, and anifeed; or
a (lernutatory of calcined white vitriol, 12 grains of
which may be mixed with two dunces of marjoram-
water and filtrated. The fleam or vapour of vine¬
gar upon hot iron received up the noftrils is like¬
wife of ufe for foftening the mucus, opening obftruc-
tions, &c.
If there be an ulcer in the nofe, it ought to be
dreffed with fome emollient ointment, to which, if the
pain be very great, a little laudanum, may be added.
If it be a venereal ulcer, it is not to be cured without
mercury. In that cafe, the folution of the corrofive
fublimate in brandy may be taken, as direfted in the
gutta ferena. The ulcer ought likewife to be wafhed
with
Art ir. M E D I
^*CTlcg with it ; and the fumes.of cinnabar may be received
up the noftrils.
If there be reafon to fufpeft that the nerves which
fitpply the organs of fmelling are inert or want fti*
mulating, volatile falls, ftrong fnuffs, and other things
which occafion fneezing, may be applied to the nofe.
The forehead may likewife be anointed with balfam
of Peru, to which may be added h little of the oil of
amber.
iIA6, CLXXXVI. A6HEUSTIA, orZty^/TASTiNG.
Genus XCIX.
CINE. 4833
Item, may be ufed. For this purpofe the fpirit of Practice
hartfhorn, fal volatile oleofum, horfe-radifh, itic. may-  —
be taken inwardly \ the difordered parts, at the fame
time, may be frequently rubbed with freih nettles
or fpirit of fal ammoniac. Blifters and ftnapifms ap¬
plied to the parts wilt likewife be of ufe; as alfo warm
bathing, efpecially in the natural hot baths.
Order II. DYSORE XI A.
Sect. I. AP PET ITUS ERRONEL
Ageuftia, Sauv. gen. 157. Sag. 263.
Ageuftia, Lin. 114.
Apogeufis, Vog. 449.
Caufe. The tafte may be diminilhed by crufts, filth,
mucus, aphthae, pellicles, warts, fsV. covering the tongue:
it may be depraved by a fault of the faliva, which, be¬
ing difcharged into the mouth, gives the fame'fenfa*
tion as if the food which the perfon takes had really a
bad tafte ; or it may be entirely deftroyed by injuries
done to the nerves of the tongue and palate. Few
things prove more hurtful either to the fenfe of tafting
or fmelling than obftinate colds, efpecially thofe which
afFe& the head.
Cure. When the t'afte is diminifhed by filth, mu-
hus, the tongue ought to be fcraped, and fre¬
quently walked with a mixture of water, vinegar, and
honey, or fome other detergent. When the faliva is
vitiated, which feldom happens unlefs in fevers or
other difeafes, the curing of the difordef is the cure
of this fymptom. To relieve it, however, in the mean
time, the following things may be of ufe': if there be
a bitter tafte, it may be taken away by vomits,
purges, and other things which evacuate bile: what
is called a nidorous tafle, arifing from putrid humours,
is correfted by the juice of citrons, oranges, and other
acids : a fait tafte is cured by plentiful dilution with
watery liquors: an acid tafte is deftroyed by abforbents
and alkaline falls, as powder of oyfter-fhells, fait of
wormwood, BV.
When the feiifibility of the nerves which fupply the
organs of tafte is diminilhed, the chewing of horfe-
radilh, or other ftimulating fubftances, will help to
recover it.
CLXXXVII. AN^STH^SIA, or Befetl of the
Senfe of Feeling. Genhs C.
Sauv. gen. 161. Lin. 218. Vog. 267.
Caufes, 8cc. This fenfe may be hurt by any thing
that obftrufts the nervous rnfluerice, or prevents its
being regularly conveyed to the prgans of touching,
as preffute, extreme cold, &c. It may likewife be
hurt by too great a degree of fenfibility, when the
nerve is not fufficiemly covered by the cuticle or fcarf-
Ikin, or Where there is too great a tenfion of it, or it
is too delicate. Whatever diforders the funftions of
the brain find nerves, hurts the fenfe of touching.
Hence it appears to proceed from the fame general
caufes as pa-lfy and apoplexy, and requires nearly the
fame method of treatment.
In a Jhtpor, or defedt of touching, which arifes
from an obftruftion of the cutaneous nerves, the pa¬
tient muft firft be purged s afterwards fuch medicines
as excite the adion of the nerves, or ftimulate the fy-
Morofitates, Sduv. Clafs VIII. Order II. Sag.
Clafs XIII. Order II.
Pathetici, Lin. Clafs V. Order II.
Hyperseftthefes, Vdg. Clafs VII.
CLXXXVI 11. BULIMIA, Insatiable Hunger, .fa
or Canine Appetite. Genus Cl.
Bulimia, Sauv. gen. 223. Lin.'jy. Sag. gen. 335.
Bulimus, Vog.'2^6.
Addephagia, Vog. 297.
Cynorexia, Vog. 298.
This difeafe is commonly owing to fome fault in
the ftomach or vifcera, by which the aliments are thrown
out too foon; and unlefs the perfon is indulged in his
defire for eating, he frequently falls into fainting fits.
Sometimes it is attended with fuch a ftate of the fto¬
mach that the aliment is rejeded by vomit almoft im¬
mediately after being fwallowed ; after which, the ap¬
petite for food returns as violent as ever. Such things
are proper for the cure as may enable the ftomach to
perforin its office: chalybeates and other tonics will
generally be proper. In fome, brandy drunk in a morn¬
ing hath been ufeful; and frequent fmoking tobacco
hath relieved fome. Oil, fat meat, pork, opiates, and
in Ihort every thing which in a found perfon would be
moft apt to pall the appetite, may alfo be ufed as tem¬
porary expedients, but cannot be expeded to perform
a cure. In fome the pylorus has been found too large ;
in which cafe the difeafe muft have been incurable.
CLXXXIX. POLYDIPSIA, Excessive Thirst.
Genus CII.
Polydipfia, Sauv. gen. 224. Lin. 80. Vog. 275.
Sag. 336.
This is almoft always fmptomatic; and occurs in
fever, dropfy, fluxes, &c.
CXC. PICA, Longing, or Eafe Appetite.
Genus CIII.
Pica, Sauv. gen. 222. Sag. 334.
Citta, Lin. 78.
Allotviophagia, Vog. 299.
Malacia, 'Vog. 306.
’Fhe pica is alfo fymptomatic of chlorofis, pregnan¬
cy, &c. See the article Longing in the order of the
Alphabet.
CXCI. SATYRIASIS. Genus CIV.
Satyriafis, Saurj. gen. 228. Lin. 81. Sag. 340.
Satyriajis is a violent defire. of venery in men,
even fo that reafon is depraved by it. The jiulfe is
quick, and the breathing Thort; the patient is fleeplefs,
27 H 2 thirfty.
4^4
4<$J
466
4834 MED
Practice thirfty, and loathes Ins food; the urine is evacuated
with difficulty, and a fever foon comes on. The na¬
ture and cure are much the fame as are thofe of the
following difeafe.
.67 CXCII. NYMPHOMANIA, or Furor Uferinus.
* / Genus CV.
Nymphomania, Sauv. gen. 229. Sag. 341.
Satyriafis, Lin. 81.
The furor uterinus is a fpecies of madnefs, or an
high degree of hyltefics. Its immediate caufe is a
preternatural irritability of the, uterus and pudenda of
women (to whom the diforder is proper), or an unufual
acrimony of the fluids in thefe parts. — Its prefence is
■ known by the wanton behaviour of the patient: fhe
fpeaks and ads with unreftrained obfcenity; and as the
diforder increafes, (he fcolds, cries, and laughs, by
turns. While reafon is retained fhe is filent, and
feems melancholy, but her eyes difcover an unufual
wantonnefs. The fymptoms are better and worfe, un¬
til the greatefl degree of the diforder approaches, and
then by every word and aftion her condition is too
manifeft.—In the beginning a cure may be hoped for;
but if it continues, it degenerates into a mania.—In
order to the cure, bleed in proportion to the patient’s
ftrength. Camphor in dofes of 15 or 20 grains, with
nitre, and fmall dofes of the tintt. Theb. fhould be
repeated at proper intervals. Some venture to give
the fac. faturn. in dofes of three to five grains. Be-
fides bleeding, cooling purges fhould alfo be repeated
in proportion to the violence of fymptoms, &c. What is
ufeful in maniacal and hypochondriac diforders, is alfo
nfeful here, regard being had to fanguine or phlegma¬
tic habits, &c. When delirium is at the height, give
opiates to compofe ; and ufe the fame method as in a
phrenitis or a mania. Injections of barley-water, with
a fmall quantity of hemlock-juice, according to Rive-
rius, may be frequently thrown up into the uterus:
this is called fpecific; but matrimony, if poffible, fhould
be preferred.
.gg CXCIII. NOSTALGIA, a Vehement Desire of
^ revisiting one’s Country. Genus CVL
Noflalgia, Sauv. gen. 226. Lin. 83. Sag. 338.
This is to be reckoned a fpecies of melancholy.
Sect. II. AP PET ITUS DEFICIENTES.
Anepithymiae. Sauv. ClafsVI. Ord. II. Sag. IX.
Ord. II.
Privativi, Lin. Clafs VI. Order III.
Adynamiae, Vog. Clafs VI.
A(5a CXCIV. ANOREXIA, WanfofAtvt-rnt.
* J Genus CVII.
Anorexia, Sauv. gen. 162. Lin. 116. Vog. 279.
Sag. 268.
The anorexia is fymptomatic of almofl all difeafes,
but feldom appears as a primary. See Anorexia in
the order of the alphabet.
CXCV. ADIPSIA, or Want o/Thirst.
Genus CVIII.
Adipfia, Sauv. gen. 163. Lin.w’j. Vog.z%\. Sag.
269.
I C I N E. Part II.
This by Dr Cullen is reckoned to be always fymp- Fhaci ie*
tomatic of fome diltemper alfedting the fenjhrium com- ’ ""
mune.
CXCVI. ANAPH R OD IS IA, Impotence to Ve n e r y. 47, I
Genus CIX.
Anaphrodifia, Sauv. gen. 164. Sag. 270.
Alechnia, Lin. 119.
Agenefia, Vog. 283.
For this, fee the article Impotence in the alphabe¬
tical order.
Order III. DYSCINESI^E.
CXCVII. APHONIA, or Lofs ofYoict.
Genus CX. 472 1
Aphonia, Sauv. gen. 166. Lin. 115. Vog. 253.
Sag. 272.
The lofs of voice may proceed from various caufes.
If one of the recurrent nerves, which are formed by
the par vagum and the nervus accejforius, and reach
the larynx, is cut, the perfon is capable of only as it
were a half-pronunciation ; but if both are cut, the
fpeech and voice are both loft. The lofs of fpeech
happening in hyfteric patients is alfo called aphonia ;
but more properly that lofs of fpeech is thus named
which depends on fome fault of the tongue.
Seeing that the motion of any part is deftroyed, or
leflened at lead, by the interception of the nervous
fluid in its paflage thither, and that the nerves deftined
for the motion of the tongue arife principally from
the fifth pair, it appears that the feat of this diforder
is in the {aid fifth pair of nerves, and that the imme¬
diate caufe is a diminution or total deftru&ion of
the nervous fluid through them. Hence a palfy of
the tongue, which is either antecedent or fubfequent
to hemipledic or apople&ic diforders, demand our ut-
molt attention.
If an aphonia appears alone, it generally befpeak*
an approaching hemiplexy or apoplexy ; but if it fuc-»
ceed thefe diforders, and is complicated with a weak
memory and a fluggifhnefs of the mental powers,
it threatens their return. That aphony ufually ter¬
minates the belt, which proceeds from a ftagnation of
ferous humours comprefling the branches of the fifth
pair of nerves, which run to the tongue ; but it is no
lefs afflictive to the patient, and is very obftinate of
Other caufes of this diforder are, the ftrifcing in of
eruptions on the fkin, a congettion of blood in the
fauces and tongue, obftrudled periodical evacuationa
in plethoric habits, fpafmodic affections, worms, a
crumb of bread falling into the larynx, fear, too free
a ufe of fpirituous liquors; alfo whatever deflroys the
ligaments which go from the arytaenoid to the thyroid
cartilages, will deftroy the voice.
The prognojiics vary according to the caufe or caufes.
That fpecies which is owing immediately to fpafms,
foon gives way on the removal of them. If a palfy of
the tongue is the caufe, it is very apt to return, if re¬
lieved, but often continues incurable.
In order to the cure, endeavour firft to remove
whatever obftruCls the influx of the nervous fluid in¬
to the tongue, and fecondly to ttrengthen the weak
parts.
iFart n. MED
r||ACTicE parts. Thefe general intentjons, in all cafes, being
  regarded, the particular caufes mu ft be removed as
follows.
If worms are fhe caufe, antifpafmodics give pre-
fent relief, but the cure depends on the deftru&ioh of
thefe vermin.—In cafe of a cortgeftion of blood about
the head, bleeding and nitrous antifpafmodics are to
be ufed.—That fpecies of aphony which remains after
the fhock of an hemiplexy or apoplexy, requires bli-
fters to be applied to the nape of the neck ; other
means are rarely effectual.-—If fpafmodfc Con-ftridtions
about the fauces and tongue are the caufe, external
paregorics are of the greateft fervice,- anodyne anti¬
fpafmodics may be laid under the tongue, and the feet
bathed in warm water ; carminative clylters alfo are
ufefuj.—When a palfy of the tongue produces this
complaint, evacuations, according to the patient’s
habit, muft be made, and warm rfervous medicines
muft be externally applied, and internally admiriiftfer-
ed ; bliifers alfo fhould be placed between the (boul¬
ders.—In cafe of repelled cuticular eruptions, fudo-
rifics fhould he given, and the patient’s’drink fhould
be warm. The fp. C- C. fuccin. or the vin. dntim.
may be mixed with half, iraumat. or with the half.
Peruv. and given, at proper diftances of time, in the
patient’s drink, or on a lamp of fugar.—•Sometimes
the ferum flows fo rapidly to the fauces and adjacent
parts, in a falivation, as to deprive the patient of all
power to fpeak; in this cafe diaphoretics and laxatives,
with a forbearance of all mercurials, are the fpeedieft
reniedies.
473 CXCVIII. MUTITAS, Dumbness. Genus CXI.
Mutitas, Scmv. \6$. Vtig. Sag. 271.
Dumb people are generally bprn deaf$ in whjch
cafe the diftemper is incurable by medicine : though
even fnch people may be taught not only to read and
write, but alfo to. fpeak and to underftand what others
See the fay tQ them *. When it proceeds from a defeat of any
)vmb- orRans neceflary for fpeech, the tongue for in-
ESS- fiance, it is alfo incurable; but if it arifes from a pal¬
fy, the medicines applicable in that cafe wilifointtiines
reftore the fpeech.
474 CXCIX. PAR APHONIA, or Change in the Sound
of the Voice. Genus CXII.
Paraphonia, Sauv. gen. 168.
Cacophonia, Sag. 274.
Raucedo, Lin. 146.
Raucitas, Vog. 252.
Afaphia, &c. Vog. 250, 251, 254, 255, 256.
The voice may be changed from various caufes. lit
males it becomes much more harfh about the time of pu¬
berty ; but this can by no means be reckoned a difeafe.
In others it proceeds from a catarrh, or what we call
a cold;'it arifes alfo from affections of the nofe and pa¬
late, as polypi, ulcers, See. in which cafe the cure be¬
longs properly to Surgery. In fome it arifesTroma
laxity of the velum pendulum palati, and glottis, which
makes a kind of fnoring noife during infpiration. The
cure of this laft cafe is to be attempted by tonics and
fuch other medicines as are of fervice in difeafes at-
ended with laxity.
I C I N E. 47W
CC. PSELLISMUS, or defect in pronunciation. LUlUl?
Genus CXI1I. 475
Pfellifmus, Sauv. gen. 167. Lin. 138. Sag. 273.
Traulotis, &c. Vog. 258, 259, 260, 261.
Of this difeafe (if fuch it may be called), there
are many different kinds. Some cannot pronounce
the letter S; others labour under the fame difficulty
with R, L, M, K, &c.; while fome who can with fuf-
ficient eafe pronounce all the letters, yet repeat their,
words, or the firft fyllables of them, in fuch a ftrange
manner, that they can fcarce be underftood. Very
frequently thefe defers arife entirely from habit, and
may then be got the better of by thofe who have the
refolution to attempt it; as we are told that De-
mofthenes the celebrated orator got the better of a
habit of Hammering, by declaiming with pebbles in
his mouth. Sometimes, however, pronunciation may¬
be impeded by a wrong conformation of the tongue,
or organs of fpeech; and then it cannot.by any pains
whatever be totally removed.
CCII. STRABISMUS, or Squinting. 4-5
Genus CX1V.
Strabifmus, Sativ. gen. 116. Lin. 304. Vog. 514.
Sag. 222.
Defcription. This difeafe flrews itfelf by an un¬
common contraftion of the mufcles of the eye; where¬
by the axis of the pupil is drawn towards the nofe,
temples, forehead, or cheeks, fo that the perfon can¬
not behold an objeft direflly.
Caufes-, Progncfit, &c. I. This difeafe may proceed
from cuftom and habit; while in the eye itfelf, or in
its mufcles, nothing is preternatural or defedfive.
Thus children, by imitating thole that fquint, and
infants, by having many agreeable objedts prefented
to them at once, which invite them to turn one eye to
one and the other eye to another, do frequently con-
tradl a habit of moving their eyes differently, which
afterwards they cannot fo eafily corredf- Infants
likewife get a cuftom of fquinting, by being placed
obliquely towards a candle, window, or any other
agreeable objedf capable of attradling their fight: for
though, to fee the objedt, they may at firft turn both,
eyes towards it; yet, becaufe fuch ah obliqueiituation
is painful ami laborious, efpeeially to the moft diftant
eye, they foon relax one of the eyes, and content
themfelves with examining it with the eye that is
next it; whence arrfes- a diverfity of fituation, and a
habit of moving the eyes differently.
In this cafe, which may admit of a cure if not to»
much confirmed, it is evident, that objedls will be feen
in the fame place by both eyes, and therefore muft
appear fingle as to other men ; but becaufe, in the eye
that fquints, the image of the object to which the
other eye is dire-dted falls not on the moft fenfible and
delicate part of the retina, which is naturally in the
axis of the eye, it is eafy to fee that it muft be but
faintly perceived by this eye. Hence it is, that while
they are attentive in viewing any objedt, if the hand
be brought before the other eye, this pbjedt will be
but obfeurely feen, till the eye change its fuuation,
and have its axis diredted to it; which change of fitu¬
ation is indeed very eafy for them, becaufe it depends
oa
4836 M E D I
Practice on the mufcles of the eyes, whofe funftions are entire;
' ^^but, by reafon of the habit they have contrafled of
moving their eyes differently, the other eye is at the
fame time frequently turned alide, fo that only one at
a time is direfted to the objeft.
That all this-may be the better perceived; for an ob-
jeft, caufethem to look at the image of the upper-part
of your nofe in a plain mirror, while you ftand di-
4-eclly behind them, to obferve the dire&ion of their
eyes.
II. r¥\\z jtrabifmus may proceed from a fault in the
firft conformation, by which the moft delicate and
fenlible part of the retina is removed from its natural
lituation, which is direflly oppofite to the pupil, and is
placed a little to a fide of the axis of the eye; which
obliges them to turn away the eye from the object
they would view, that its pidure may fall on this moft
fenfible part of the organ.
When this is the cafe, the difeafe is altogether in¬
curable, and the phsenomena that arife therefrom differ
' in nothing from the phsenomena of the former cafe,
excepting only that here, 1. The objeft to which the
eye is not dire&ed will be beft feen; which is the re-
*?rfe of what happens when this difeafe arifes barely
from habit and cuftom. 2. No objeft will appear
altogether clear and diftind : for all objeds to which
the eye is direded, by having their image painted on
the retina at the axis of the eye, where it is not very
fenfible, will be but obfcurely feen; and objeds that
are placed fo far to a fide of the optic axis as is ne-
ceffary for making their image fall on the moft fenfible
and delicate part of the retina, mull appear a little
confufed, becaufe the feveral pencils of rays that come
therefrom fall too obliquely on the cryilalline to be
accurately colleded in fo many ditlind points of the
retina; though it mull be acknowledged, that this
confufion will, for the moft part, be fo fmall as to efcape
unobferved.
III. This difeafe may proceed from an oblique po-
fition of the cryftalline, where the rays that come di-
redly to the eye from an objed, and that ought to
converge to the point of the retina, which is in the
axis of the eye, are, byreafon of the obliquity of the
cryftalline, made to converge to another point on that
fide of the vifual axis where the cryftalline is moft
elevated ; and therefore the objed is but obfcurely
feen, becaufe its image falls not on the retina at the
axis of the eye, where it is moft fenfible: But the
rays that fall obliquely on the eye, will, after refrac¬
tion, converge to this moft fenfible part off the re¬
tina ; and, by converging there, mull imprefs the
mind with a clearer idea of the objed from whence
they came. It is for this reafon that the eye ne¬
ver moves uniformly with the other, but turns away
from the objed it would view, being attentive to
the objed to which it is not direded. When this is
the cafe, it is in vain to exped any good from me¬
dicine.
The fy rap toms that naturally arife from it are,
1. The objed to which the eye is direded will be
but faintly feen, becaufe its image falls on the retina
where it is not very fenfible. 2. The objed to which
the eye is not direded, by having its image painted
on the retina at the axis of the eye, will be clearly
perceived. But, 3. This fame objed juuft appear
CINE. Part II.
fomewhat indiftind, becaufe the pencils of rays that Pr act id
flow from it are not accurately colleded in fo many §|
diltind points in the retina, by reafon of their oblique
incidence on the cryftalline. And, 4. It mud be feen,
not in its proper place, but thence trariflated to fome
other place fltuated in the axis of vifion. And, 5. Be¬
ing thus tranflated from its true place, where it is feen
by the other eye that does not fquint, it mull nectffa-
rily appear double; and the dillance between the
places of its appearance will be Hill greater, if the
cryftalline of the other eye incline to the contrary
fide.
IV. This difeafe may arife from an oblique pofi-
tion of the cornea ; which, in this cafe, is gene¬
rally more arched and prominent than what it is na¬
turally.
When the eye has this conformation, no objed to
which it is direded can be clearly feen, becaufe its
image falls not on the retina at the axis of the eye;
and therefore the eye turns afide from the objed it
would view, that its image may fall on the moil fen¬
fible part of the retina.
When the llrabifmus proceeds from this caufe, the
prognollic and the phenomena that attend it will be
much the lame as in the cafe immediately preceding ;
from which neverthelefs it may be diftinguifhed by
the obliquity of the cornea, which is manifeft to the
fenfes; and if the cornea be alfo more arched and
prominent than what it is naturally, which is common¬
ly the cafe, the eye will alfo be (hort-fighted.
V. This want of uniformity in the motions of our
eyes, may arife from a defed, or any great weaknefs
or imperfedion, in the light of both or either of thfe
eyes ; and this, according to Dr Porterfield, is the
molt common caufe of this difeafe. The prognoltic in
this cafe is the fame with that of the-difeafe from which
it proceeds.
VI. Another caufe from which the ftrabifmus may
proceed, lies in the mufcles that move the eye. When
any of thofe mufeles are too Ihort or too long, too
tenfe or too lax, or are feized with a fpafm or paralylis,
their equilibrium will be deftroyed, and the eye will
be turned towards or from that fide where the mufcles
are faulty.
In this cafe, the difeafe frequently yields to medi¬
cine, and therefore admits of a favourable prognollic;
excepting only when, by a fault in the firft confor¬
mation, any of the mufdes are longer or Ihorter than
their antagonift ; in which cafe, if ever it Ihould hap¬
pen, no medicine can be of any value.
As to what concerns the optical phenomena, they
are the fame here as in cafe firft ; only when the dif¬
eafe commences not till, by cuftom and habit, the
uniform motion of the eyes has been rendered ne-
ceffary, all objeds do for fome time appear double;
but in time they appear Angle.
Lajily, This want of uniformity in the motions of
our eyes, may proceed from a preternatural adhefion or
attachment to the eye-lids : of this we have an inftance
in Langius. And that the fame thing may alfo be oc-
cafioned by a tumour of any kind within the orbit,
prefling the eye alide, and reftraining it from follow¬
ing the motions of the other, is fo evident, that in-
ftances need not be brought to prove it. Here al¬
fo the cafe may admit of a favourable prognollic;
$Part H. M E D I
-MACTrcEand as for what concerns the optical phenomena,
  they muft be the fame as in the cafe immediately pre¬
ceding.
Cure. This-, in confirmed cafes, is to be effec¬
ted by mechanical contrivances, by which the per^-
fon may be obliged to look ftraight upon obje&s, or
not fee them at all; or at lead that he may fee with
uneafinefs and confufedly when he fquints. In the
68th volume of ths Philofophical Tranfa&ions we have
an account of a confirmed cafe of fquinting of a very
uncommon kind. The patient was a boy of five years
old, and viewed every object which-was prefented to
him with but one eye at a time. If the object was
prefented on his right fide, he viewed it with his left
eye; and if it was prefented onhis left fide, he viewed
it with Iris right eye. He turned-the pupil of. that
eye which was on the fame fide with the objeft in
fuch a direftion that the image of the objeft might
fall on that part of’the bottom of the eye where the
optic nerve enters it. When an objeft was held di-
reftly before him, he turned bis head a little to one
fide, and obferved it with but one eye, viz. that mod
didant from the obje&, turning away the-other in
the manner above defcribed ; and when he became
tired of obferving it with that eye, he turned his head
the contrary way, and obferved it with the other eye
alone, with equal facility; but never turned the axis
of both eyes on it at the fame time. He faw letters
which-were written on bits of paper, fo as to name
them with equal cafe, and at equal didances,-with one
eye as with the other. There was no perceptible dif¬
ference in the. diameters of the irifes, nor in the con-
traftility of them after having covered his eyes from
the light. Thefe ol^fervations were carefully mad* by
writing fingle letters on flireds of paper, and laying
wagers with the child that he could not read them
when they were prefented at certain didances and in
certain directions.
As from thefe circumdances it appeared that there
was no defeCt in either eye, which is frequently the
cafe with perfbns who fquint, and hence that the dif-
eaje was Amply a depraved habit of moving his eyes,
the difeafe feemed capable of a cure. A paper gno-
men was made for this purpofe, and fixed to a cap ;
and when this artificial nofe was placed over bis- real
nofe, fo as to projeCt an inch between his eyes, the
child rather than turn bis head fo far to look at oblique
objeCts, immediately began to view them with that eye
which was next to them. But, having the-misfortune
to lofe his father foon after this method was begun to be
followed, the child was neglected for fix years, during
which time the habit was,confirmed in fuch a manner
as feemed to leave little room to hope for a cure. The
fame phyfician, however; being again called, attempted
a fecond time to remove the deformity by a fimilar
contrivance. A gnomon of thin brafs was made to
ftand over his nofe, with a half circle of the fame me¬
tal to go round his temples: thefe were covered with
black filk, and by means of a buckle behind his head,
and a crofs-piece over the crown of his head, this gno¬
mon was worn without any inconvenience, and projec¬
ted before his nofe about two inches and a half. By
the ufe of this machine he foon found it lefs inconve¬
nient to view all oblique objefts with the eye next to
tbeoi inftead of the eye oppofite to them.
CINE. 4837
After this habit was weakened by a week’s ufe ofl’aAcxica
the gnomon, two bits of .wood, about the fize of a  
goofe-quill, were blackened all but a quarter of an inch
at their fummits; thefe were frequently prefented to
hijn to look at, one being held on one fide the extre¬
mity of his Mack gnomon, and the other on the-other
fide of it. As he viewed thefe, they were-gradually
brought forwards beyond the gnomon, and then one
was concealed behind the other : by thefe means, in
another week, he could bend bdth his eyes on the fame
objeft for half a minute together; and by continuing
the ufe of the fame machine, he was in a fair way of
being cured when the paper-was written.^
Dr Darwin, who writes the hiftory of the above cafe*
adds, that all the other fquinting people he had occa¬
sion to attend, had one eye much lefs-lefs perfect than
the other: thefe patients, fays he, are certainly cure-
able by covering the beft eye many hours in a day; as
by a more frequent ufe of the weak eye, it not only
acquires a habit of turning to the objetfs which the
patient wifiies to fee, but gains atthe fame time a more
diftinft vifien; and the better eye at the fame time
feems to lofe fomewhat in both thefe refpe&s, which
alfo facilitates the cure.
CCII. CONTRAGTURA, Contractions of the 477
Limbs, Genus CXV;
Contraftura, Sauv. gen. 119. Lin. 2^. Sag. 21$.
Obftipitas, Sauv. gen. 11.
Caput obftipum, Fog. 513--
Digitium,- Fog. 221.
The contraftion of various mufcles of the body is
generally the confequence of fome other difeafe, as
the rheumatifm, gout, feurvy, or palfy, cfpecially
that fpecies of the latter which follows the colica Pic-
temum. It is exceedingly difficult of cure; though
the warm medicinal waters are'much recommended,
and have fometimes done great fervice. Of late elec¬
tricity hath been found to perform furprifing cures
in this way.
Order IV. APOCENOSES.
Apocenofes, Fo.g. Clafs II. Ord. II.
Fluxus, Sauv. Clafs IX. Sag. Clafs V. .
Morbievacuatorii, Lin. Clals IX..
CCIII. PROFUSIO, or Flux of Blood. 4.73
Genus CXVI.
Profufio, Lin. 239.
Hasmorrhagia, Fog. %:\. Boerh. 218.
For the treatment of this genus, fee Menorrhagia,
HiEMOPTYsrs, &c. above.
CCIV. EPHIDROSIS, or Exceffive Sweating. 47q
Genus CXVII.
Ephidrofis, Sauv. gen. 238. Sag. gen. 194.
Sudor, Lin., 208.
Hydropedefis, 121.
Trtrs is generally fymptomatk ; and oceurs- in al-
moft all fevers, but efpecially in the latter ftages of
the heaic. Sometimes it is a primary difeafe, arifing
merely from weaknefs; and then eafily admits of a
cure by the ufe of the Peruvian bark, the cold bath,
*nd other tonics.
ccy,\
4838 M E D I
Practice CCV. EPIPHORA, or Ftux of the Lachrymal
Humour. Genus CXVIII.
Epiphora, Sauv. gen. 259. Lin. 172. Vog. 99.
Sag. 195. ,
This by Sauvages is defcribed as an involuntary
effufion of tears without any remarkable itching, heat,
or pain. It follows long-continued ophthalmias ; or
it may be occafioned by immoderate ftudy, or any
thing that weakens the eyes: hence it comes on about
the age of 50 years, when the eyelight naturally be¬
comes weak. It becomes worfe in the winter-time,
and is very hard to cure. Some authors recommend
purgatives, and blifters on the Tiape of the neck, in
order to draw off the abundant humours ; but as the
difeafe evidently proceeds from weaknefs, it would
rather feem proper to purfue a contrary method.
Sauvages recommends to the patients to abftain from
ftudy, wine, and failed meats; alfo to avoid fmoke or
wind, and at night to foment the eyes with an infufion
of four cloves in two ounces of proof-fpirit. Hun¬
gary water, rofe water with white vitriol difolved in
it, &c. have alfo been recommended.
4S1 CCVI. PTYALISMUS, Salivation.
Genus CXIX.
Ptyalifmus, Sauv. gen. 261. Lin. 176. Vog. 103.
Sag. 197?
A falivation is often fymptomatic, but rarely a pri¬
mary difeafe. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that when
the latter happens to be the cafe, it arifes from lax¬
ity; and then is to be cured by aftringents and to¬
nics. In the Medical Tranfadtions we have the fol¬
lowing account of a falivation brought on by a fo¬
reign fubftance irritating one of the parotid glands.
In the month of April 1751, a young lady about
the age of 16 years, of a delicate habit, but fubjedt
to no particular complaints, perceived the beginning
of a difeafe which afterwards proved moft obftinate
and loathfome, viz. an inceffant fpitting. The quan¬
tity of this difcharge was different at different times,
varying from one pint to two pints and an half in 24
hours. As to its quality, it feemed to be no other
than the ordinary fecretion of the falival glands. By
fo large and conftant an evacuation, her itrength be¬
came extremely impaired, and the molt efficacious
medicines had proved ufelefs. She had taken large
quantities of the Peruvian bark, both alone, and com¬
bined with preparations of iron : and afterwards the
fetid gums, opium, amber, alum, and the Neville-
Holt-water, had in fucceffion been given her. In the
mean time an exadl regimen had been prefcribed: fhe
had been ordered to ride conllantly; and to confine
herfelf to a mucilaginous diet, fuch as veal, calve s
feet, &c. Likewife a gently opening medicine had
now and then been interpofed. The difeafe ftill conti¬
nuing unaltered, {he had afterwards tried the tinttura
faturnina; and had, at the fame time, been encoura¬
ged to chew the Peruvian bark, and to fwallow the
faliva. But all thefe attempts had been vain; and af¬
ter that {he had taken fome or other of the medicines
abovementioned, until the end of September 1753,
namely, above two years, it appeared to her phyfician
(Dr Baker) unreafonable to expeft relief in fuch a
safe from any internal medicines whatever.
CINE. Part II
He now conceived a fufpicion, that fome extraneousPractic*
body having accidentally found its way into the mea-  
tus'auditorial, might poffibly be the caufe of this ex¬
traordinary fecretion, by keeping up a continued irri¬
tation in the parotid glands. With this view he exa¬
mined her ears, and extra&ed from them a quantity of
fetid wool. How, or when, it came thither, no account
could be given.
To this fubftance he attributed the beginning of
the falivation, notwithftanding that the difeafe did not
immediately abate on the removal of the wool; as it
appeared to be no improbable fuppofition that the dif¬
charge might be continued by the force of habit, tho’
the original caufe no longer remained.
It feemed therefore expedient to introduce fome
other habit, in the place of the increafed fecretion of
faliva; which habit might afterwards be gradually left
off. With this intention, he prevailed on the patient
to chew perpetually a little dry bread, and to fwallow
it with her fpittle. In a few weeks, it became necef-
fary for her to chew the bread only at certain hours in
the day; and thus, after two months, {he became en¬
tirely free from a moft difguftful and tedious dif-
order.
It is worthy of obfervation, that, at firft, the fwal-
lowing of fo much faliva frequently occafioned a nau-
fea ; and that then, for a few hours, fhe was obliged
to fpit it out as ufual; and that, during the greateft
part of the time, when fhe chewed the bread, fhe had a
ftool or two every day more than common.
CCVII. ENURESIS, an Involutary Flux of 482
Urine. Genus CXX.
Enurefis, Sauv. gen. 264. Lin. 195. Vog. 113.
Sag. 200.
This is a diftemper which frequently affe&s chil¬
dren, otherwife healthy, when aflecp; and is extreme¬
ly difagreeable. Often it is merely the effeift of lazi-
nefs, and may be driven off by proper corredion ; but
fometimes it proceeds from an atony or weaknefs of
the fphin&er of the bladder. Many ridiculous cures
have been prefcribed for it, and among the reft field-
mice dried and powdered. Tonics are frequently of
ufe; but fomelimes-the diftemper proves obliinate, in
fpite of every thing we can ufe. In the London Me¬
dical Obfervations we find blifters greatly recommend¬
ed in this difeafe, when applied to the region of the os
facrum. A girl of 13 years of age had been fubjed
to an enurefis for four years. She could retain her
water but a very little while in the day-time, but it
flowed continually in the night. She had taken bark
and elixir of vitriol in confiderable quantities, alfo Va¬
lerian and the volatile julep, without effect. She was
feverely threatened, as the phyfician fufpeded it might <
arife from a bad habit; but this producing no eifed,
a blifter was applied to the os facrum, which in 24
hours totally removed the difeafe.—A man aged 32,
having been feized with an incontinence of urine and
palfy of the lower extremities in confequence of taking
a quack medicine, was cured of the incontinence of
urine in 24 hours by one blifter, and of the palfy it-
felf by another. A woman of 50 having been feized
with an enurefis and paralytic affedign of the right
thigh and leg in confequence of a ftrain, was cured of
wart II. M E D I
rjkcTicE both by a {ingle blifter. Several other cafes are there
"p mentioned, by which the power of blifters in remo¬
ving this diftemper feems to exceed that of eyery other
medicine whatever.
H483 CCVIII. GONORRHOEA. Genus CXXI.
Gonorrhoea, Sauv.gzn. 208. Lin. 200. Vog. 118.
Sag. 204.
The gonorrhoea is a flux of vifcid matter of various
• colours, from the urethra in men, and the vagina in
women. It commonly proceeds from coition with a
perfon infedted with the venereal difeafe, and is the
firft fymptom by which that difeafe ufually (hews it-
felf.
Defcription. The firft fymptoms of the difeafe in
men, are commonly a fenfation at the end of the penis
not unlike a flea-bite, together with a fulnefs of the
lips of the urethra, and fome degree of tenfion in the
penis, the urinary canal feeling as if tightened, and
the urine flowing in a fmall and unequal ftream : a
little whitifti mucus is to be feen about the orifice of
the urethra, and oozing from it when (lightly prefled,
efpecially if the preffure is made on the fpot where the
forenefs is moft felt. The difcharge foon increafes in
quantity, and varies in its colour according to the
degree of inflammation. The patient feels a fenfation
of heat and pain in evacuating his urine, particularly
at certain fpots of the urethra, and above all towards
its orifice; and the involuntary ere&ions to which he
is fubjeft from the ftimulus, particularly when warm
in bed, occafion a diftortion or curvature of the penis,
attended with exquifite pain. When the inflammation
is violent, the glans appears tumid and tranfparent,
the tenfion extends through the whole of the penis,
the perinaeum is affe&ed with fwelling and rednefs, and
even the loins, buttocks, and anus, fympathize and
afford a very uneafy fenfation. Sometimes the prepuce
inflames about the end of the penis, and cannot be
drawn back, occafioning what is called a pbymofis ; at
others, as in the paraphymojis, it remains in an in¬
flamed ftate below the glans, fo that it cannot be
drawn forwards; and, if the ftri&ure and inflammation
are violent, may terminate in gangrene. Now and
then, efpecially when there is a phymofis, we may
perceive a hard chord extending along the back of the
penis. This is an inflamed lymphatic, and may be
confidered as a prelude to a bubo.
In mild cafes, the feat of the difeafe is in the urethra,
not far from its orifice; but it frequently happens that
the virus infinuates itfelf much higher up, fo as to af-
feft Cowper’s glands, the proftate, and parts very near
to the neck of the bladder.
In the generality of cafes, the inflammation goes
on increafing for feveral days, commonly for a week
or a fortnight; after which the fymptoms begin to
abate; and the running, when left to itfelf, gradually,
leflens in quantity, and becomes whiter and thicker,
till at length it totally flops. The colour of the mucus,
however, is by no means a certain guide in thefe cafes:
for in many patients it is of a yellowifh, and fome-
times of a greenifh hue to the very laft; but in gene¬
ral it becomes more confifterit towards the clofe of the
difeafe.
In women, the parts of generation being fewer and
more Ample, the difeafe is lefs complicated than in
VOL. VI. I
CINE. 4839
menN Sometimes the vagina only is afle&ed; and when Praci ice
this happens, the fymptoms are very trifling: but in
general it comes on with an itching and fenfation of
heat as in the other fex; and is attended with inflam¬
mation of the nymphse, infide of the labice, clitoris,
caruncuU myrtiformes, the orifice and fometimes the
whole of the meatus urinarius. Very often the deep-
feated glands of the vagina are affefted, and it is fome¬
times difficult to diftinguifh the difcharge of a go¬
norrhoea from that of the fluor albus.
Caufes, &c. Many ingenious arguments have of
late been advanced to prove, that the gonorrhoea and
the lues venerea are different affe&ions, originating
from two diftindt fpecies of virus. It would be happy
for mankind if this opinion were well founded ; but,
unfortunately, every day’s experience fhews it to be
erroneous. It has been proved, that the matter of a
chancre introduced into the urethra will generate a go¬
norrhoea ; and that the difcharge of a gonorrhoea will
produce a chancre, bubo, and lues.
The matter of a gonorrhoea itfelf, when abforbed in¬
to the patient’s own body, will alfo produce a lues,
but in order for it to do this, it is perhaps neceflary
(though this is by no means certain) that it fhould be
taken up from an ulcerated furface; and there are
many pradlitioners, of no inconfiderable eminence,
who deny that any fuch ulceration is ever produced in
the urethra by a gonorrhoea. They contend that the
increafed fecretion in thefe cafes is exadlly fimilar to.
what happens in the catarrh. But the comparifon
will by no means hold good : in the latter the whole
membrane of the nofe is equally irritated; where¬
as in the gonorrhoea, only particular parts of the ure¬
thra feem to be affefted. The difeafe, in the gene¬
rality of cafes, feldom extends more than an inch and
a half along that canal, and in many is confined (at
lead in the beginning) to a fmall fpot about an inch
from the extremity of the glans. The difcharge is
produced from that part of the urethra where the pain
is felt; and the patient, when he voids his urine, feels
no fmarting till it reaches the inflamed fpot, but as
the diforder increafes, the inflammation affefts a great¬
er number of points, juft in the fame manner as chan¬
cres affeft different parts of the glands. It might be
fuppofed that diffeftion would at once clear up this
matter, and put an end to the difpule; but this is far
from being the cafe. Dr Simmons has feen feveral
urethras opened in perfons who bad a gonorrhoea at
the time of their death : in three of them the furface
of the urethra, as in the cafes related by Morgagni,
appeared for fome way down of a flight red colour,
and in all of them was covered with mucus; but with¬
out any appearance of ulceration, except in two diffec-
tions at Paris, in which moft of the gentlemen prefent
were convinced that they faw evident marks of it;
but Dr Simmons fays that the appearances were to-
him not fufficiently fatisfaftory to enable him to decide
with certainty on the fubjeft. On the other hand,
when we confider that the difcharge in a gonorrhoea is
fometimes tinged with blood, and that when this hap¬
pens a little blood-veffel is no doubt ruptured, we
can have no reafon to doubt that an ulceration may,
and fometimes does, happen in thefe cafes; efpecially
as we often obferve an excoriation near the orifice of
the urethra. It is certain, that wherever there is con-
27 I fider-
4°
TirE fiderable inflammation-, there will be danger of ulcera-
cion. Befides, from a negle&ed or badly-treated go¬
norrhoea, we often fee iiflulas in perineot and other ul-
eers of the urethra penetrating through its fubftance,
and affording a paffage to the urine. And there can
be no doubt that flight ulcerations of this canal often
occur, ani are afterwards perfeftly obliterated, in a
fimilar manner to what happens in the papillse of the
tongue, the tonfils, &c. Such an obliteration will
the more readily take place in a part like the urethra,
defended with mucus, and not expofed to the air,
which is known to have no little effedt in hardening a
cicatrix.
Perhaps, all things confidered, the moH rational
idea we can form of the caufes and phenomena of this
difeafe, will be, that particles of the venereal virus be¬
ing blended with the femen, and with the mucus that
oozes from the urethra, during coition, may be drawn
up a certain way into that canal, where the irritation
they occafion will be in proportion to the virulence of
the infedling matter, and the irritability, habit of bo¬
dy, &c. of the patient. The eonfequences of this ir¬
ritation will be inflammation and an increafed fecre-
tion of mucus, and fo far the complaint will be local.
But now and then it will happen, as in other inflam¬
mations, that ulceration will take place, and expofe
the patient to the danger of a conftitutional infedtion.
Nay, we are not certain but this may happen without
ulceration. Draftic purges are known to be great pro¬
moters of abforption, and fome inftances of lues ve¬
nerea have been met with which feemed to be owing
to the imprudent ufe of fuch remedies in a previous
gonorrhoea.
Nothing can be more variable than the period at
which the difeafe makes its appearance after infe&ion.
Perhaps, at a medium, we may place it between the
4th and 14th day : but in fome cafes it happens within
24 hours; and in others, not before the end of five, or
even fix weeks : neither of thefe extremes, however,
are common.
Cure. From the foregoing defcription of the pro-
grefs of the difeafe, it will eafily be perceived that the
chief curative indications are to fubdue the inflamma¬
tion, and remove the virus that occafions it.
There are pradlitioners who, fuppofing that the body
poffeffes powers to expel the virus, and that the dif¬
eafe has a certain period to run through its feveral
ftages of progrefs, acme, and decline, are for leaving
the cure to nature; or at leaft content themfelves with
affifting her by an antiphlogiftic regimen, gentle eva¬
cuations, and the like.
That in many cafes ihe diforder admits- of a natural
cure, there can be no doubt; the increafed fecretion of
mucus carrying off the virus falter than it is formed,
till at length the infe&ion is wholly removed. But it
is equally certain, that in every cafe, by the applica¬
tion of fuitable remedies to the inflamed part, we may
fhorten the duration of the complaint, and abridge the
fufferings of the patient, with the fame certainty and
fafety as we are enabled to remove the effe&s of an
ophthalmia, or any other local inflammation, by proper
topical applications. General remedies, fuch as ccca^
fional blood-letting, a cooling diet, the liberal ufe of
diluting liquors, and mild purges, are by all allowed
to be ufeful and even ntceflary. Aftruc was of opiT
Part II.
nion that in thefe cafes blood-letting ought to be re- PractB
peated five or fix times; and there are Hill many prac- 
titioners who depend much on repeated evacuations of
this fort for a removal of the inflammation. But there
is, perhaps, not one cafe in ten in which it is at all re-
quifite; and this fmall number of cafes will confift only
of the ffrong and plethoric: in fuch, when the chordee
is frequent and painful, and the pulfe hard and full,
the lofs of from eight to twelve ounces of blood will be
beneficial, but it will be feldom neceffary to repeat the
operation. The inflammation in thefe cafes is kept up
by the local ftimulus of the virus and the urine; and
all that we can expedl from venefeftion is to moderate
the pain and the frequency of ereflion. In perfons of
a delicate habit, and of an irritable fibre, the evacua- - ||
tion will do no good ; but, if repeated, will certainly
be liable to do harm, by increafing irritability, and of
courfe rendering the patient more fufceptible of fti¬
mulus.
The utility, and even the neceffity of a cooling re¬
gimen are fufficiently obvious ; wine and fpirituou*
liquors, fpiceries, a fifh-diet, much animal-food, and
falted and high-feafoned difhes of every fort, will con-
ftantly add to the complaint. The patient fhould eat
meat only once a-day, and that fparingly. He fliould
abftain from hot fuppers. Milk, mild vegetables, and
fruit, (hould conftitute the principal part of his diet
while the inflammatory fymptoms continue. Every
thing that tends to excite the venereal imagination
fliould be ftudioufly avoided ; for whatever promotes
ereftions of the penis will increafe the inflammation,
and of courfe add fuel to the difeafe. For the fame
reafons much walking or riding on horfeback will be
hurtful, from the irritation kept up in the perinasum
by fuch means. Violent exercife of any kind, or any
thing that is liable to increafe the heat and momen¬
tum of the blood, will of courfe be improper.
The drinking freely of mild, cooling, mucilaginous
liquors, fuch as linfeed-tea, orgeat; whey, milk and
water, almond emidfion, and the like, will be ex¬
tremely ufeful, by diluting the urine, and preventing
its falls from ftimulating the urethra. When the heat
and pain in making water are very confiderable, muci¬
laginous fubftances are found to have the beft effeft,
particularly the gum tragacanth. It is a common
praftice to give equal dofes of this gum or gum-ara¬
bic, and nitre, and to diffolve nitre in the patient’s
drink, with a view to leffen the inflammation. But in
thefe cafes nitre is always improper: it is known to
be a powerful diuretic, its chief aftion being upon the
urinary paffages; fo that the ftimulus it occafions will
only ferve to increafe the evil it is intended to alleviate.
Cream of tartar, on account of its diuretic quality,
will be equally improper. Our view here is not to
promote a preternatural flow of urine; for the virus,
being infoluble in water, cannot be wafhed away by
fuch means: but our objedt ought to be, to render the
urine that is fecreted as mild and as little flimulating
as poflible.
Mild purges,.which conftitute another material part
of the general remedies, are no doubt extremely ufe¬
ful when exhibited with prudence; but it is well known
that the abufe of purgative medicines in this difeafe has
been produdVive of numerous evils. Formerly it was a
pretty general pradtice to give a large dofe of calomel.
at
MEDICINE.
I. MED]
at bed-time* three or four times a-weefe ; and to work
it off the next morning, with a ftrong dofe of the pi-
lulee coccia, or fome other draftic purge. This method
was perfevered in for feveral weeks: and as the con-
ftant effect of a violent draftic purge is to promote ab-
forption from every cavity, the venereal virus was fre¬
quently carried into the fyftem, and produced a con¬
firmed lues ; or, if the patient efcaped this evil, he at
leaft found himfelf troubled with an obftinate gleet,
and, perhaps, his conftitution materially injured : the
effcdt of fuch a method being (efpecially in irritable
habits) to weaken the ftomach and bowels, and lay
the foundation of hypochondrial complaints. Violent
purging likewife often occafions ftrangury, hernia hu-
moralis, and other troublefome fymptoms. Now that
we are well acquainted with the do&rine of abforp-
tion, this abfurd pradice is very defervedly fallen into
difrepute; for furely no man, who is converfant with
anatomy, will, at this time of day, attempt to dif-
charge the virus of a gonorrhoea by ftool, when he
knows that it muft firft be taken up by the lympha¬
tics, and carried into the circulation : and yet, ftrange
as it may feem, fuch is our attachment to old cu-
ftoms, that we ftill every now and then meet with
cafes in which this pernicious method has been adop¬
ted.
The purges employed in thefe cafes fiiould be
gentle ; fuch as Rochelle fait, manna, tartar, folub.
and the like. They ftiould be given only in a dofe
fufficient to procure two or three ftools, and be re¬
peated only every two or three days. The daily ufe
of the purgative ele&uaries that are ftill given by fome
praftitioners, ferves only to keep up a continual irrita¬
tion on the bladder, and of courfe to prolong the in¬
flammation.
The topical remedies that are ufed confift chiefly of
different forts of inje&ions, the ingredients of which
are extremely various; but their modes of operation
may in general be referred to their mucilaginous and
fedative, or to their detergent, flimulating, and aftrin-
gent qualities. In the hands of flcilful pra&itioners,
great advantages may doubtlefs be derived from the
ufe of thefe remedies; but, on the other hand, the
improper and unfeafonable adminiftration of them
may prove a fource of irreparable mifchief to the pa¬
tient.
We know that mucilaginous and oily injeftions will
tend to allay the local inflammation ; and that a feda¬
tive inje&ion, fuch as a folution of opium, will leffen
the irritability of the parts, and of courfe produce a
fimilar effeft : the utility of fuch applications is there¬
fore fufficiently obvious.
A detergent inje&ion, or one that will a& upon the
mucus of the urethra, increafe the difcharge of it, wafh
it away, and with it the venereal virus that is blended
with it, can only be ufed as a prophylactic before the
fymptoms of infedtion have made their appearance. A
folution of cauftic, properly diluted, will anfwer this
purpofe. But great circumfpe&ion is neceffary in the
life-of this kind of injeCtion. If it be too weak, it can
be of no efficacy ; and if it be too ftrong, it may prove
dangerous to the patient. A fuppreffion of urine
hath been brought on by the improper ufe of an in¬
jection of this kind. When the fymptoms of inflam-
itiation have once made their appearance^ the ftimulus
[CINE.
of fuch an injeCtion muft be extremely hazardous. Ex¬
coriation of the urethra has but too often been produ¬
ced by remedies of this fort in the hands of adventur¬
ous and unfkilful praCtuioners.
While the inflammation of the urethra continues,
every thing that ftimulates it muft’be hurtful. If the
injeCtion excites a painful fenfation in the urethra, as
is but too often the cafe, it will be liable to produce
fwelled tefticles, difficulty in making water, excoria¬
tion, and other effefts of increafed inflammation : if,
by its aftriagency, the running is checked before the
virus that excited the difcharge is properly fubdued,
the patient will be expofed to all the dangers of a con¬
firmed lues; and, perhaps, to a variety of local com¬
plaints, fuch as obftruftions in the urethra, and ab-
fceffes in perinea, which are well known to be fome-
times owing to applications of this fort improperly ma¬
naged.
When the inflammation has fubfided, gently ftimu-
lating and aftringent injections may be ufed with fafe-
ty, and with confiderable advantage: for as the in¬
flammation is at firft excited by the ftimulus of the ve¬
nereal virus, fo when the former begins to leffen, we
may be affured that the aflivity of the latter has abated
in proportion ; and, in general, when the inflamma¬
tory fymptoms are entirely removed, it will be found
that the mucus is no longer of an infeClious nature,
but is merely the eft'eft of an increafed fecretion, and
of relaxation. Mild aftringents will therefore ferve to
brace and ftrengthen the veffels fecreting mucus, and
in this way will leffen the difcharge, and greatly pro¬
mote the cure. It is certain, that in the greater num¬
ber of cafes, a gonorrhoea, which if treated by inter¬
nal remedies alone would continue for five or fix weeks,
or longer, may, when judicioufly treated with injec¬
tions, be cured in a fortnight, and very often in lefs
time. The great aim, therefore, of the pradliiioner
ought to be at firft to make ufe of fuch inje&ionsonly
as will tend to lubricate the furface of the urethra, and
to counteraft and deftroy the ftimulus of the virus: as
the inflammation abates, he may add fome gently aftrin¬
gent preparation to a mucilaginous and fedative injec¬
tion ; taking care that its aftringency be fuited to the
ftate of the difeafe, and to the irritability of the pa¬
tient. Amongft a great variety of fubftances, mercury
in different forms is one of thofe that is the moft: fre¬
quently employed in injtdions. All thefe mercurial
injeftions have more or lefs of aftringency ; and, ac¬
cording to Dr Simmons, it is folely to this property
that we are to afcribe their effefks; for the idea of their
corre&ing the venereal virus was originally introduced,
and has boen continued upon miftaken principles.
Calomel, mixed with the mucus difcharged in a go¬
norrhoea, has no more power in deftroying the infec¬
tious properties of that mucus than ceruffe or any other
preparation would have. A diluted folution of fubli-
mate injedted into the urethra will, like a felution of
verdigrife, or blue vitriol, or any other ftyptic, con-
ftringe the mouths of the lacunae; but this is all that
it will do, for it will never leffen the infedlious nature
of the virus. The fame thing may be obferved of
crude mercury extinguifhed by means of mucilage, or
of mercurial undtion, blended with the yolk of an
egg, and which, when thrown , up into the urethra,
will adl nearly in the fame manner as balfam of copaiva,
27 I 2 or
4841
Practics
4842
Practice 0r any other (liniulatlag injection. For the truth
‘ is, that mercury has no power over the venereal virus,
until it has been introduced into the body, and un¬
dergone certain changes, with which we are, and pro¬
bably (hall for ever remain, unacquainted The local
application of merfury can therefore have no other
effeds than what it derives from its ftimulating and
altringent properties : for the mercury not being ab-
forbed in the urethra, of courfe cannot be carried into
the fyftem ; and even if it could, the quantity that
would be introduced in this way would be too minute
to be of any efficacy. The ftimulus of calomel, how¬
ever, has often ’been found of confiderable efficacy;
and in women, when the vagina only was affeded, af¬
ter wafhing the parts well, the cure hath been ac-
complifhed by rubbing them repeatedly with mercurial
ointment.
As the gonorrhoea is often a local affedion, it may
be imagined, perhaps, that the internal ufe of mer¬
cury is unneceflary towards the cure. Very often in¬
deed this complaint may be removed without having
recourfe to mercurials. Sometimes patients have been
met with whofe general health has been greatly im¬
paired by a long continued ufe of mercury in fuch
cafes, w.iile the original difeafe, the gonorrhoea, was
rendered much worfe by it. In fome it degenerated
into a gleet, that was cured with extreme difficulty;
in others it brought on a variety of diftreffing fymp-
toms. In cafes of gonorrhoea, therefore, whenever
mercury is adminiftered, it ought not to be with a view
to expedite the cure, but merely to obviate the dan¬
gers of abforption. When the infedion is apparently
flight, and the inflammation and thefymptoms trifling,
we may proceed without the affiftance of mercury,
efpecially if the patient is of a weak, relaxed, and ir¬
ritable habit, likely to be injured by mercurial medi¬
cines. On the other hand, whenever the difeharge is
violent, the inflammation confiderable, or the feat of
the difeafe high up in the urethra, it is advifeable to
give mercurials in fmall dofes, and in fuch forms as
feem the bed adapted to the conftitution of the pa¬
tient.
The mercurial pill of the London Difpenfatory, on
account of the turpentine that enters into its compofi-
tion, will fometimes pafs through the body undiffol-
ved, and of courfe can then be of no ufe; but when
the mercury is extinguiflted by means of honey, and
made into pills, in the manner direded in the lad edi¬
tion of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, it becomes as
mild and perhaps as efficacious a preparation as any.
Its efficacy will depend on its not irritating the
bowels, and fo paffing off by dool; care mud likewife
be taken to prevent its affeding the mouth. Of the
chemical preparations of mercury the milded and lead
irritating is calomel. It may be given from gr. ifi.
to gr. iii. at bed-time, occafionally interpofing a mild
purgative to prevent it from falivating; but in gene¬
ral the mercurial pill jud mentioned is to be pre¬
ferred.
When there is no chancre or bubo, no appearance,
in (hort, that the infedion is likely to be carried into
the fyflem, it would be improper to adminifter cor.ro-
five fublimate, the mercurius calcinatus, or any other
of the more acrid preparations of mercury.
After a gonorrhoea proceeding from venereal caufes
Part II.
hath been removed, another kind of running without Practice
pain, called \\\z genorrhosa mucofa, ox gleet, (ometimes $
remains. Sometimes it arifes from a conftridion and
excoriation of the urethra, and frequently it is the ef-
fed of an enlargement and difeafed date of the pro¬
date. In each of thefe cafes, as the gleet is the effed
of irritation, the cure will depend on the removal of
the local difeafe that occafions it. But there is ano¬
ther fpecies of gleet that feems to depend chiefly on
relaxation. It is in general free from infedion, and
is mod common in thofe who have had long and fre¬
quent gonorrhoeas. It is likewife often the effedd of a
debilitated habit, from fevere purging, or a long con¬
tinued ufe of mercurials. A difeharge of this kind is
more frequent in women than in men ; or, at lead, the
fluot albus, after a gonorrhoea, will often be midaken
for a gleet.
When there is no reafon to fufped a venereal taint,
aftringent injedions will be of the greated fervice. It I
will be neceffary, at the fame time, to attend to the
health of the patient, by giving the bark, chalybeate
waters, cold bathing, and fuch other remedies as will
tend to drengthen the fydem. When there is no ten¬
dency to inflammation, the balfam of copaiva may be
preferibed with advantage in large dofes. Dr Sim¬
mons fays he once favv a complaint of this fort remo¬
ved by applying a blider to the perinasum, after it
had refided a variety of other remedies. In the Me¬
dical Obfervations alfo we have an account of a gleet
and incontinence of urine removed at once by ablifter
to the os facrum. In general, however, the other
methods abovementioned will be fufficient to remove
it, though fometimes it will continue for a long time
in fpite of all our endeavours to check it.—Other kinds
of gonorrhoea, in which the femen itfelf is ejeded, efpe¬
cially during deep, may be cured by tonics, and a mild
cooling regimen.
Order V. EPISCHESES.
CCIX. OBSTIPATIO ; Costiveness. 4§4
Genus CXXII.
Obdipatio, Lin, 166. Vog. 128. Sag. 221.
Costiveness is fometimes occafioned by debility in
dyfpeptic perfons, fometimes it is the effed of figi-
dity, and fometimes it is fymptomic of the colic. It
may proceed from an exceffive heat of the liver; drink¬
ing rough red wines, or other adringent liquors; too
much exercife, efpecially on horfeback: it may like¬
wife proceed from a long ufe of cold infipid food,
which d^es not fufficiently dimulate the intdlines.
Sometimes it is owing to the bile not defeending to
the intedines, as in the jaundice ; and at other times it
proceeds from difeafes of the intedines themfelves, as
a palfy, fpafms, tumors, a cold dry date of the in¬
tedines, &c.
Exceffive codivenefs is apt to occafion pains of the
head, vomiting, colics, and other complaint* of the
bowels. It is peculiarly hurtful to hypochondriacani
hyderic perfons, as it generates wind and other grie¬
vous fymptoms.
Perfons who are generally codive fhould live upon
a moidening and laxative diet; as roafled or boiled
apples, pears, dewed prunes, raifins, gruels with
currant*;,,
MEDICINE.
art II. M E D I
kcTiet currants, butter, honey, fugar, and fuch like. Broths
[■ ‘ with fpinage, leeks, and other foft pot herbs, are like-
vvife proper. Rye-bread, or that which is made of a
mixture of wheat and rye together, ought to be eat.
No perfon troubled with coftivenefs fiiould eat white
bread atone, efpecially that which is made-of fine
flower. The bell bread for keeping the belly fo-
luble is what in fome parts of England they call
viejlin. It is made of a mixture of wheat and rye,
and is very agreeable to thofe who are accuftomed
to it.
Coftivenefs is increafed by keeping the body,J£>o
warm, and by every thing that promotes the penpi-
ration ; as wearing flannel, lying too long a-bed, &c.
Intenfe thought, and a fcdentary life, are likewife
hurtful. All the fecretions and excretions are pro¬
moted by moderate exercife without doors, and by a
gay, cheerful, fprightly temper of mind.
The drink (hould be of an opening quality'. All ar¬
dent fpirits, auftere and aftringent wines, as port, cla¬
ret, &c. ought to be avoided. Malt-liquor that is fine
and of a moderate ftrengtb, is -very proper. Butter¬
milk, whey, and other watery liquors, are likewife
proper, and may be drank in turns, as the patient’s
inclination dire&s.
Thofe who are troubled with coflivenefs ought, if
poffible, to remedy it by diet, as the conftant ufe of
medicines for that purpofe is attended with many in-
conveniencies, and often with bad confequences. In
time the cuftom becomes neceflary, and generally ends
in a total relaxation of the bowels, indigeftion, lofsof
appetite, wafting of the ftrength, and death.
The learned Dr Arbuthnot advifes thofe who are
troubled with coftivefs to ufe animal-oils, as frefli-
butter, cream, marrow, fat broths, efpecially thofe
made of the internal parts of animals, as the liver,
heart, midriff, &c. He likewifewife recommends the
expreffed oils of mild vegetables, as olives, almonds,
piftaches, and the fruits themfelves; all oily and
mild fruits, as figs ; decodtions of mealy vegetables ;
thefe lubricate the inteftines; fome faponaceous fub-
ftances which ftimulate gently, as honey, hydromel, or
boiled honey and water, unrefined fugar, &c.
The dodtor obferves, that fuch lenitive fubftances
are proper for perfonsof dry atrabilarian conftitutions,
who are fubjedt to aftridtion of the belly and the piles,
and will operate when ftronger medicinal fubftances are
fometimes ineffedtual; but that fuch lenitive diet hurts
thofe whofe bowels are weak and lax. He likewife
obferves, that all watery fubftances are lenitive ; and
that even common water, whey, four milk, and butter¬
milk, have that effedt:—That new milk, elpecially affes-
milk, ftimulates ftill more when it fours on the fto-
mach; and that whey, turned four, will purge ftrong-
ly :•—That moft garden-fruits are likewife laxative 5
and that fome of them, as grapes, wlil throw fuch as
take them immoderately, into a cholera morbus, or in¬
curable diarrhoea.
When the body cannot be kept open without medi¬
cine, gentle dofes of rhubarb may be taken twice or
thrice a-week. This is not near fo injurious to the
ftomach as aloes, jalap, or the other draftic purga¬
tives fo much in ufe. Infufions of fenna and manna
may likewife be taken, or half an ounce of foluble tar¬
tar diffblved in water-gruel. About the fize of a nut-
C I N E.
meg of lenitive eledluary taken twice or thrice a-day,
generally anfwers the purpofe very well.
CCX. ISCHURIA, or Suppression of Urine.
Genus CXXIII.
Ifchuria, Sauv. gen. 293. Lin. 167. Vog. 129.
Sag. 212. Home's Clinical experimentspfedl.xv.
This diftemper is diftinguiflied into various fpecies,
according as the feat of is in the kidneys, the ureters,
the bladder, or the urethra; and hence thefe fpecies are
named renalis, ureterica, vejicalis, and urethralis.
1. Ifchuria renalis, or a fuppreffion of urine from an
affedtion of the kidneys, happens but rarely ; however.
Dr Home in his Clinical Experiment deferibes fuch
a cafe. In the end of December 1774, a man of a
full habit, aged 35, was feized with fhivering, cold-
nefs, and fevere cough. Three days after, his urine
appeared high-coloured, was paffed with pain, and
in fmall quantity. About the 8th of January 1775,
he was attacked with violent pains in the fmall of his
back, over the whole abdomen, and in the ankles,
with pain in the region of the liver when preffed. A
general fwelling was afterwards obferved all over the
body, but moltly in the ankles and abdomen, which
laft was tenfe and hard. Thefe were attended with
vomiting, bad appetite, and confiderable thirft. When
he entered the clinical ward, (January 21ft), the
cough, ficknefs, and vomiting, had gone off, but the
fuppreffion of urine remained. The little which he
made was paffed with his ftools, fo that Dr Home
faw it but once ; and then it was pale, and had a
white powder at bottom. The pains and fwellings,
which retained the impreffion of the finger, conti¬
nued ; he had a head-ach, and a very flow pulfe, beat¬
ing only 48 ftrokes in a minute. He had taken a
great many diuretic medicines before he came in. The
day after his reception, he was feized with a fpon-
taneous diarrhoea, which continued during the re¬
mainder of his life. Cream of Tartar was exhibited
in .dofes of half an ounce each morning ; at bed-time
he took 20 drops of laudanum with a fcruple of nitre,
and continued this courfe for eight days without any
increafe of urine. The ftronger and heating diuretics
were then tried, as Infuf. bacc. junip. and Pilul. ex
allio; but they were attended with no fenfible ad¬
vantage. Whenever the pulfe became fo ftrong that
he could bear bleeding, eight ounces of blood were
taken away, and which was fizy. This was thrice
repeated ; he appeared eafier after each bleeding, his
pulfe bore it well, and the fwellings and other fymptoms-
abated. The heating diuretics, in this ftate, were
given up ; and a mixture of vinegar and nitre Was
fubftituted in their place, in each dofe of which,,
taken every two hours, there was a fcruple of nitre.
Fomentations were applied to the region of the kid¬
neys, and camphorated oil was afterwards rubbed on
the part. He was ordered the femicupium, which
from a deficiency of water in the town he got only
once; and which then feemed to have a good effect,
as he paffed a gill of urine when he was in it. Not-
withftanding this, however, the djfeafe continually
gained' ground ; he became comatefe, delirious, and
died ten days after his admiffion.—On diffe&ion, the
kidneys were found of an irregular form ; fome watery
veficles appeared on their furface, containing black,
&r‘«F
4843'
Practice
485
4844
Practice
MEDICINE.
Part II.
gritty particles like fine fand ; and the lower part of
the right kidney was confiderably inflamed. The
pylorus, part of the duodenum, and a confiderable
part of the fmall inteftines were much inflamed. In
the abdomen were found about five pounds of fluid,
and in the cavities of the thorax about half a pound.
The lungs were a little inflamed, and full of fmall
tubercles on their furface and in their fubftance:
the heart was large, and a polypus in each ventricle.
About fix ounces of fluid were found in the pericar¬
dium : in the brain nothing preternatural appeared,
except about an ounce of water in each ventricle.
Dr Home feems to have been at a lofs for the re¬
mote caufe of this fuppreflion of urine, which mani-
feftly had its immediate orgin from the kidneys having
loft the power of performing their funftions. He
thinks the inflammation which appeared in the right
kidney was fcarce fufficient to have occafioned the
diftemper, as the other would have fupplied its place :
for which reafon alfo he thinks that the ifchuria was
owing to a general affe&ion of the fyftem; and that
it was of an arthritic nature, the patient having been
troubled with complaints of this Jkind for a long time
before.
2. The ifchuria ureterica is alfo a rare difeafe, un-
lefs the obftruftion proceeds from a ftone or clot of
blood flopping up the pafiage. Gravel or {tones, in¬
deed, are very frequently formed in the kidneys; and,
by falling into the ureters, occafion an ifchuria, with
violent pain, and fymptoms more or lefs urgent in
.proportion to the fize and fliape of the ftones. Some¬
times it is attended with coldnefs of the extremities,
naufea and vomiting., and fpaftic conftridtion of the
prsecordia, a difficulty of making water, conftipation
of the belly, difficulty of breathing, ftupor of the
thigh, retraftion of the tefticle to the os pubis, in¬
quietude, lofs of ftrength, fyncope, and conVulfton-
fits. When the violent pain has continued for feveral
days and nights without intermiffion, and has brought
the patient exceeding low, and the fuppreffion of
urine is complete, with coldnefs of the extremities
and convulfions of the tendons, death is at hand.
Nor is it a good fign when the ftone continues long
in the ureter; for then the appetite decays, a naufea
and retching to vomit fupervene, and the patient is con-
fumed with a heftic heat. Sometimes the pain is at¬
tended with an inflammation of the ftomach and in¬
teftines ; and fometimes the difeafe ends in a dropfy
of the breaft, or lethargy, which foon carry off the
patient.
The indications of cure are, to exclude the ftone as
eafily as poffible, and prevent the breeding of others.
If the patient is of a fanguineous temperament, Sy¬
denham recommends to take away ten ounces of blood
from the affe&ed fide; and then to give the patient a
gallon of poffet-drink in which two ounces of marlh-
mallow roots have been boiled, injefting at the fame
time an emollient clyfter. After the poflet-drink has
been vomited up, and the clyfter returned, give a
pretty large dofe of an opiate. But if the patient is
old or weak, or fubjeft to the vapours, bleeding may
be omitted, efpecially if his urine at the beginning of
the fit is coffee-coloured, and mixed with gravel; but
as to other things, the cure is the fame—Huxham
greatly recommends an emollient bath prepared of a
deco&ion of marfh-mallow root, linfeed, fcenugreek PrActiC!
feed, and flowers of chamomile, to which may be added
a few white-poppy feeds. By the ufe of this bath he
fays he has feen the moft cruel fit of the gravel fud-
denly ended, when neither copious bleeding nor
opiates had the leaft effeA. Mild diuretics are alfo
of fervice. Hoffman recommends dulcified fpirit of
nitre as proper to relax the fpaftic ftri&ure. It is to
be taken with fuitable diftilled waters, and fyrup of
poppies; or in broth, with a few fpoonfuls of oil of
fweet almonds. Turpentine glyftersare alfo account¬
ed very ferviceable; and may be prepared of ten ounces
deco&ion of chamomile, with half an ounce of turpen¬
tine diffolved in the yolk of an egg, with as much
honey. The fal diureticus, or terra foliata tart art, is
much efteemed by fome, when taken along with an
opiate. But when the ftone is too big to pafs, Ar-
buthnot recommends a cool and diluent diet to hinder
the further growth of it. Whey, linfeed, decoAion
of marftimallows, and gentlyrefolving diuretics, are alfo
proper. To put a flop to the vomiting, lalfamum
traumaticum maybe ufed with fuccefs when almoft
every other means have failed.
3. The ifchuria veficalis may arife from a ftone in
the bladder; and this indeed is the moft commoii
caufe of it: but there are certain cafes in which,
though the ufual quantity of urine, or perhaps more,
is pafled, the patient dies from the retention of a ftili
greater quantity in the bladder. Of this Dr Home
gives the following inftances. A man of 58 years of
age, of a ftrong fpare habit, and never fubjeA to the
gravel, had, during the winter of 1777, a cough
with expeAoration, which went off in the beginning
1778. About the 17th of February 1778 he felt
fome difficulty in paffing his urine, and much pain
about the region of the bladder. He continued in
this way for ten days, after which he became eafier on
application of fome medicines. The abdomen then
fwelled, and he had pains in his loins and thighs.
On the 3d of March he was admitted into the clinical
ward: his abdomen was then fwelled and tenfe; and
an evident fluAuation was felt, which fome that
touched him thought was fonorous and produced by
wind. A tumour was difeovered betwixt the navel and
fpine of the os ilium on the left fide, which gave him
much pain, efpecially when prefled. This tumour be¬
came more eafily felt after the fwelling of the abdo¬
men decreafed, feemed round, and very near as large
as the head of a child. It appeared very much on
the left fide, even when the patient lay on the right,
and the tumour then became dependent. He pafied
urine frequently, and rather more than in health, as
it was computed at four pints a-day. It was always
clear, and of a light colour. His body had a ftrong
difagreeable fmell; his fkin was dry, belly bound, and
his appetite entirely gone, fo that he had hardly taken
any food for 12 days. His legs fwelled {lightly for
fome days in the evening. His pulfe was generally
regular, fometimes flower than natural, and fome¬
times a little quicker; being once felt at 64, and
another time at 92. He was often feized, efpecially
after eating or drinking, with hickup, which in-
creafed and lafted till his death. On the 20th day of
his difeafe, after fome dofes of fquills, the general
fwelling of his abdomen fell, became much fofter and
more
bt. M E D I
move diftinAly difcovered the fwelling of the left fide.
The next day a vomiting came on ; he became more
delirious, and died the day following. The body be¬
ing opened, it appeared that the tumour which was
Ifo diitin&ly felt in the left fide of the abdomen, was
owing to a diftenfion of the bladder with urine. Its
fundus reached to about the divifion of the aorta into
the iliacs; it entirely filled the pelvis, and contained
between five and fix pounds of urine of a pale colour.
On examining the external furface, its neck, and the
beginning of the urethra, were found to be furrounded
with a fcirrhofity, which impeded the evacuation of
the urine. The bladder itfelf was much thickned,
but not more in one part than another. The ureters
entered naturally ; but were much thickened in their
upper half near the kidney. The kidneys were fome-
what enlarged; particularly the left, which had feveyal
watery veficles on its external furfacc. Thefe organs
were not in their ufual fituation ; but lay clofe on
each fide of the fpine, and very near the aorta; fo
that the renal vefiels were very fhort. What was very
Angular, the lower end of each rofe over the fpine,
and they were united together by their membranes
and fubftances, the aorta palling beneath the union.
The bladder had prefied confiderably on this part;
and the peritoneum covering them was confiderably
thicker than natural. The lungs adhered every-where
to the pleura, and in fome places very firmly ; they
were of a loole texture and black colour ; and the
veins of the lower extremities were turgid with blood.
It doth not appear that this patient got any medicines
farther than a few dried fquills, which climinilhed the
fwellings and brought off much wind. He alfo got
a mixture of mulk and afterwards of opium for his
hickup, but without fuecefs. His difeafe was mif-
taken for an afcites; and the catheter was not tried :
but in another cafe the ufe of this inftrument was
apparently of more fervice than any internal medicines.
This laft patient was about 60 years of age, and
laboured under fymptoms very fimiliar to thofe already
mentioned. When admitted into the clinical ward,
he had the the hypogaftric region fwelled, and dffi-
culty of palling his water; but without pain, vomiting,
or hickup. He had laft all all appetite; was thirfty,.
and coftive. His pulfe was i to, and weak. In the
evening about three Englilh pints of pale clear urine
were drawn off by means'of the catheter: the next
day all the fymptoms were gone off or abated. After
this he continued to pafs fome urine, Sometimes
voluntarily, fometimes involuntarily and infenfibly;
but fo much always remained behind, that his bladder
was conftantly full, unlefs when the urine was drawn
off, which was done twice every day- The urine was
fometimes pale, fometimes of a deep red colour; and
once there was fome blood mixed with it, which
perhaps might have been occafioned by the catheter.
About the fixth day the urine was very putrid, with
much purulent-like matter at the bottom, and was paffed
with more pain. About the nth, the putrid fmell
went off. The next day all the urine palled infenfibly
except what was drawn off; and an hickup, though
not very fevere, had come on. In this way he con¬
tinued without fever, though frequently troubled with
the hickup, efpecially during thofe nights in which
the urine had not been drawn off. A month after ad?
CINE. 4845
roittance, the bladder, with the afiiftance of the ca-PaAcrics
theter, was almoft entirely, though infenfibly evacu- "
ated, and the hicktip had left him ; he had no other
complaint but that of voiding his urine infenfibly, the
natural effetff of a fcirrhous bladder, and which was
probably incurable. With this patient the hot bath
and mercurials were tried, in order to foften the
fcirrhofity of the bladder, but without effeft.
4. The ifchuria ur.etbralis arifes from fome tumour
flopping up the paffage of the urethra, and thus hin¬
dering the flow of urine. It is an uncommon diftem-
per, and generally follows a gonorrhoea. Dr Home
gives us an example of this alfo.—The patient was a
man of 60 years of age, who had laboured under a
gonorrhoea fix months before, and which was flopped
by fome medicines in two or three days. He felt,,
foon afterwards, a difficulty in palling his urine, which
gradually increafed. About xo days before his ad-
miffion into the clinical ward, it was attended with
pains in the glands, and ardor urinx; he had paffed
only about eight ounces the day before his admiffion,
and that with very great difficulty; and the hypo¬
gaftric region was fwelled and pained. On introdu¬
cing the catheter, three pounds of urine were drawn
off, by which the pain and fwelling were removed.
The inftrument required force to make it pafs the
neck of the bladder, and blood followed the opera¬
tion ; and the finger, introduced1 into the anus, felt a
hard tumour about its neck. He was treated with
mercurial pills and ointment, by which the fwelling
about the neck of the bladder foon began to decreafe;
but at the fame time a fwelling of the right tefticle
appeared. He was vomited with four grains of
turbith-mineral, which operated gently; and here Dr
Home obferves, that, though thefe vomits are little
ufed, from a miftaken notion of their feverity, he
never faw them operate with more violence than other
vomits, or than he could have wiffied. The fwelling
diminilhed in confequence of the vomit and fome ex¬
ternal applications; and the cure was completed by
bleeding, and a deco&ion of mezereon-root.
CCXII. DYSUR1A, or Difficulty of making 486-
water. Genus CXXIV.
Dyfuria, Sauv, gen. 265. Lin. 57. Vog. 164.
Sag. 213.
Stranguria auftorum.
A difficulty of making water may arife front
many different caufes; as from fome acrid matter in
the blood, cantharides, for inftance: and hence a
ftrangury very often fucceeds the application of bli-
fters. In many cafes it arifes from a compreffion of
fome of the neighbouring parts; of the uterus, for
inftance, in a ftate of pregnancy. Or it may arife from,
a fpafmodic affe&ion of the bladder, or rather its
fphinfter; or from an inflammation of thefe parts, or
others, near them. Hence the difeafe is diftinguiftied
into fo many fpecies, the cure of which depends upon
the remedies indicated by their different caufes.
But the mod common, as well as the moft dangeroue
fpecies is that arifing from a calculous concretion, or
Stone in the Bladder.
Dyfuria calculofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
The figns of a ftone in the bladder are, Pain, efpe-
cialljy
4846
PrAciici
MEDICINE.
; cially about tbe fpbinfter; and bloody urine, incqnfe-
quence of riding or being jolted in a carriage; a fenfe
of weight in the perineum; an itchinefs of the glans
penis; flimy fediment in the urine; and frequent itop-
pages in making water; a tenefmus alfo comes on
while the urine is difcha/ged: but the moft certain
fign is, when the ftone is felt by the finger introduced
into the agus, or by the catheter.
Caufes, See. It is not eafy to fay what the parti¬
cular caufes are that occafion the earthy particles of
the fluids to run together, and form thofe calculous
concretions which are found in different parts of the
body, and efpecially in the organs for ft raining off and
difeharging the urine.
The gout and ftone are generally fuppofed to have
fome affinity, becaufe gouty people are for the moft
part affh’fted with the gravel. But perhaps this is
chiefly owing to their long confinement, and to the
lying on the back, which people who labour under
the gout are often obliged to fubmit to ; fince the
want of exercife, and this pofture, will naturally fa¬
vour the ftagnation of grofs matters in the kidneys:
befides, there are many inftances of people feverely
affli&ed with the ftone for the greateft part of a long
.life, who have never had the leaft attack of the
gout.
Whatever may be the particular caufe of the dif-
ipofition to lithiajis, the kidneys appear to be the moft
likely places for the earthy particles to concrete or
run together, becaufe of the great quantity of blood
which paffes through the renal arteries, and which
comes immediately from the heart, fraught with
various newly-received matters, that have not under¬
gone much of the adion of the vefiels, and there¬
fore cannot as yet be fuppofed to be thoroughly affi-
milated.
Anatomifts who have carefully examined the kid¬
neys in the human fubjed, particularly M. Bertin, in¬
form us, that there^are two fets of tubuli uriniferi;
the one continued diredly from the extremities of
the renal artery, and the other fpringing from that
vdicular texture which is confpicuous in the kid¬
ney.
It is in this veficular part of the kidney that we
prefume the earthy particles firft ftagnate and coalefce :
for it is hardly to be fuppofed, that fuch folid matters
could be allowed to ftep in the extremities of the
renal arteries, fince the blood, and the urine feparated
from it, muft flow through thefe veffels with great
degrees of force and velocity; but in the inter¬
mediate veficulse the earthy particles may lie, and
there attracting each other, foon come to acquire
fenfible degrees of magnitude, and thus become
fand or gravel. As long as this fand or gravel
formed in the veficular pan of the kidney lies quiet,
there will be no pain or uneafinefs, until the concre¬
tions become large enough to prefs either on the ad¬
joining tubuli, or on the blood-veffels; then a fenfe of
weight, and akindof obtufepain in theloins, will be felt.
But when the fmall pieces of earthy matter (hall be dif-
lodged and walked off by the force of the circulating
fluids, or loofened by fome fpafmodic aftion of the
motory fibres in thefe parts, they will in their paffage
create pain, raife different degrees of inflammation, or
perhaps lacerate fome blood-veffels, and caufe bloody
Part II.
urine. When thefe little earthy concretions happen Practi«|
to be detained in the pelvis of the kidney, or any"
other place where a flow of urine continually paffes,
they foon increafe in fize, and become calculi, from
the conftant acceffion of earthy particles, which are
attracted by the original bit of fand, which thus be¬
comes the nucleus of a ftone.
It is an opinion which Hippocrates firft; advanced,
and which has been almoft univerfally adopted by his
followers, and hath remained till lately uncontrovert¬
ed, that the ftone and gravel are generated by the ufe
of hard water. And from this quality, which the wa¬
ters of certain fprings poffefs, of depofiting a large
earthy fediment, either in the aqusedufts thro’ which
they are conveyed, or in the veffels in which they are
boiled or preferved, it was obvious to infer, that in
palling through the kidneys, and efpecially whilft re¬
tained in the bladder, they would let fall their groffer
particles, which by the continued appofition of frelh
matter, connected by the animal gluten, and compac¬
ted by the mufcular a&ion of that organ, would in
time form a calculus, fufficiently large to produce a
train of the moft excruciating fymptoms. And this
reafoning a priori has been fuppofed to be confirmed
by fafts and experience; for not to mention the au¬
thority of Hippocrates, Dr Lifter has obferved, that
the inhabitants of Paris are peculiarly fubjeft'to the
ftone in the bladder. Nicholas de Blegny has related
the hiftory of one who was diffefted at Paris, in whom
the pylorus, a great part of the duodenum, and the
ftomach itfelf, were found incruftated with a ftony
matter, to the thicknefs of a finger’s breadth. And it
is well known, that the water of the river Seine, with
which that city is fupplied, is fo impregnated with
calcareous matter, as to incruftate, and in a Ihort time
to choak up, the pipes through which it runs. But on
the other hand it is objefted, that the human calculus
is of animal origin, and by chemical analyfis appears
to bear very little analogy to the ftony concretions of
water: and though it is allowed, that more perfons
are cut for the ftone in the hofpitals at Paris, than in
moft other places; yet upon inquiry it is found, that
many of thofe patients come from different provin¬
ces, and from towns and villages far diftant from the
Seine.
Dr Percival conjeftures, that though this difeafe may
chiefly depend upon a peculiar difpofition to concrete
in the animal-fluids, which in many inftances is here¬
ditary, and in no inltance can with certainty be impu¬
ted to any particular caufe; yet, hard water is at leaft
negatively favourable to this diathefis, by having no
tendency to diminifh it. The urine of the moft healthy
perfon is generally loaded with terreous matter, ca¬
pable, in favourable circumftances, of forming a cal¬
culus $ as is evident from the thick cruft which it de-
pofits on the fides of the veffels in which it is contain¬
ed. And it feems as if nature intended by this excre¬
tion to difeharge all the fuperfluous falts of the blood,
together with thofe earthy particles, which are either
derived from our aliment, and fine enough to pafs thro*
the la&eals, though infuperable by the powers of cir¬
culation, or which arife from the abrafion of the folids,
or from the diffolution of the red globular part of our
fluids. Now water, whether ufed as nature prefents us
with it, or mixed with wine, or taken under the form
art II.
lctice <>f beer or ale, Is the great dlluter, vehicle, and men-
both of our food, and of the faline, earthy,
and recrementitious parts of the animal-juices. And it
is more or lefs adapted to the performance of thefe of¬
fices, in proportion to its degree of purity. For it
muft appear evident to the moft ordinary underftand-
ing, that a menftruum already loaded, and perhaps fa-
turated with different contents, cannot a& fo power¬
fully as one which is free from all fenfible impregna¬
tion. Nor is this reafoning founded upon theory alone;
for it is obferved, that Malvern water, which iffues
from a fpring in Worcefterfhire remarkable for its un¬
common purity, hath the property of diffolving the little
fabulous Hones which are often voided in nephritic
complaints. And the folution too, which is a proof
of its being complete, is perfeftly colourlefs. Hence
this water is drunk with great advantage in diforders
of the urinary paflages. And during the ufe of it, the
patient’s urine is generally limpid, and feldom depofits
any fandy fediment. Yet notwithftanding this appear¬
ance of tranfparency, it is certainly at fuch times load¬
ed with impurities, which, are fo diluted and diffolved
as not to be vifible. For it is attended with a ftrong
and fetid fmell, exaftly refembling that of afparagus.
Hoffman mentions apure,light,fimple water in the prin¬
cipality of Henneberg, in Germany, which is remark¬
able for its efficacy in the ftone and gravel; and a wa¬
ter of fimilar virtues was difcovered not many years
ago in the black foreft, near Ofterod, which upon exa¬
mination did not afford a fingle grain of mineral mat¬
ter. Indeed it is worthy of obfervation, that moft of
the fprings which were formerly held in great efteem,
and were called holy wells, are very pure, and yield little
or no fediment.
Dr Percival informs us that a gentleman of Man-
chefter, who had been long fubjeft to nephritic com¬
plaints, and often voided fmall ftones, was advifed
to refrain from his own pump-water, which is un¬
commonly hard, and to drink conftantly the fofter wa¬
ter of a neighbouring fpring; and that this change
alone, without the ufe of any medicine, hath ren¬
dered the returns of his diforder much lefs frequent
and painful- A lady alfo, much affe&ed with the gra¬
vel, was induced by the perufal of the firft edition of
Dr Percival’s Effay, to try the effedt of foft watdr;
and by the conftant ufe of it remained two years en¬
tirely free from her diforder.
In nephritic cafes, diftilled water would be an ex¬
cellent fubftitute for Malvern Water, as the following
experiment evinces.
Two fragments of the fame calculus, nearly of equal
weights, were immerfed,the one in three ounces ofdittil-
led water, the other in three ounces of hard pump-water.
The phials were hung up clofe together in a kitchen-
chimney, at a convenient diftance from the fire. After
14 days maceration, the calculi were taken out, and
carefully dried by a very gentle heat. The former, viz.
that which had been immerfed in diftilled water, was
dimmifhed in its weight a grain and half; the latter
had loft only half a grain.
It is the paffage of thefe calculi from the kidneys
down into the bladder, which occafions the pain, vo¬
miting, and other fymptoms, that conftitute what is
ufually termed a jit of the gravel or Jlorie.
When an inflammation is actually raifed, the dif-
Vot. VI. I
4S47
cafe is known by the name of nephritis, and has been ?KAC'.’ricE
already treated of.
As foon as the ftone paffes through the ureter, and
falls into the bladder, the pain and other nephritic
fymptoms ceafe ; and every thing will remain quiet,
either till the (tone is carried into the urethra, or until
it has remained long enough in the bladder to acquire
weight fufficient to create new diftrefs.
If a ftone happens to be fmooth and o¥ a roundiftt
form, it may lie in the bladder and acquire confide-
rable bulk before it can be perceived by the patient;
but when it is angular, or has a rugged furface, even
though it may be fmall in fize, yet it feldom fails to
raife pain, and occafion bloody urine, or the difcharge
of a flimy fluid, with tenefmus, and difficulty in making
water.
There have been various attempts and pretences
made to diffolve the ftone. The things which have
been found moft effeftual are thofe that powerfully
abforb the fixed air from bodies, and at the fame
time readily combining with oils, render them mifcible
with water. There is fcarce any earthy fubftance
that abounds more in oil, and alfo contains fuch a
quantity of fixed air as the human calculus; and hence
it is that the cauftic fixed alkaline fait is fuch a
powerful diffolvent of the ftone: but this being of a
very acrid nature, it requires to be well ffieathed by
means of fome gelatinous or mucilaginous vehicle.
Veal-broth is as convenient as any for this purpofe,
and accordingly it is ufed by thofe who make a fecret
of the cauftic alkali as a vehicle for the foap-lees.
Mr Blackrie, who has taken much pains in this in¬
quiry, has proved very fatisfaftorily, that Chittick’s
noftrum is no other than foap-lees given in veal-broth,
which the patients fend every day to theDo&or, who
returns it mixed up with the medicine, in a clofe veffel
fecured by a lock.
It is not every cafe, however, that either requires
or will bear a courfe of the cauftic alkali. Some cal¬
culi are of that foft and friable nature, that they will
diffolve even in common water; and there are cafes
wherein it appears that the conftant ufe of fome very
fimple decoftion or infufion of an infignificant vege¬
table, has brought away large quantities of earthy
matter, in flakes which apparently have been united
together in layers to form a ftone. Dr Macbride af-
fures us, that a decodtion of raw coffee, only 30 ber¬
ries in a quart of water, boiled till it acquired a deep
greeniih colour, taken morning and evening to the
quantity of eight or ten ounces, with ten drops of
fweet fpirit of nitre, had the powerful effeift of bring¬
ing away, in the courfe of about two months, as
much earthy matter in flakes as filled a large tea-cup.
The patient was far advanced in years; and, before he
began this decodtion, had been reduced to great ex¬
tremities by the continuance of pain and other di-
ftrelfing fymptoms: he was purged occafionally with
oleum ricini.
An infufion of the feeds of daucus fylveftris fvveetened
with honey, is another fimple and approved remedy;
and has been found to give,confiderable eafe in cafes
where.the ftomach could not bear any thing of an acrid
nature: the leaves of the uva urji were ftrongly recom¬
mended by tjre late very celebrated De Haen. But
where the ftomach will bear it, and there is no ulcera-
27 K tion
MEDICINE.
4S4S
Practice tion In the cafe, nor exceflivc ftnfibility in the uropoietic
'r' organF, either the foap^lees in new-milk or veal-broth,
or foap-pills and lime-water, will bid faired to do
effedlual fervice, either by diflblving the dony .concre¬
tions, cr at lead rendering the (harp points and
rugged furface lefs capable of injuring the fenfible
membranes of the parts where thefe hard bodies lodge,
or happen to pafs through.
In the Medical Commentaries, vol. 3. we have an
account of a method ufed by the inhabitants of Ara¬
bia Petnea for curing the done, to which they are
very much fubjedf, and which the author (an Eng-
hfh gentleman of experience and candour) allures
us he has feen frequently performed Vith never-failing
fnccefs. By means of a catheter they injeft into
the bladder a weak lee of alkali with the purified
fat of a fheep’s tail and a proper quantity of opium
all put together. Their catheters are made of gold,
and in performing the operation they introduce them
quite into the bladder ; fo that the compofition is fafe-
ly conveyed to the done without hurting any other
part. But when a done is fituated in the kidney, they
have no method of cure.
If this method of curing by injeftion could be fafe-
Jy pra&ifed, it would no doubt greatly have the ad¬
vantage over that of taking alkalies by the mouth,
where the medicine is not only much weakened, but
the conditution of the patient runs the rifk of being
greatly injured. But from fome experiments mention¬
ed in the fecond volume of the Medical Tranfa&ions,
it appears that the human calculi are very different
from one another in their natures. Some, for indance,
will eafily yield to an alkaline mendruum, and very
little to an acid ; while others are found to refill the
alkali, and yield to the acid; and fome are of fuch a
eompa& nature, that they yield neither to acids nor
alkalies. Dr Percival and others have fhewn by ex¬
periments, that fixed air will diflblve fome kinds of
calculi; but whether thefe would not more readily be
diffolved by alkalies or acids, hath not yet been difeo-
vered. This folvent, however, is much more fafe than
either of the other two, and ought always to be fird
employed ; as it may perhaps facilitate the aftion of
the others, though its own folvent powers fhould not
be fufficient. An attention, however, to the frag¬
ments, feales, or films, which the done may cad off, and
alfo to the contents and fediment of the urine, may
lead to the difeovery of what folvent is proper, or whe¬
ther the done can be diffolved by any. To ufe either
alkalies or acids improperly may be hurtful; though
there may be fuch kinds of calculi as demand the al¬
ternate ufe of acids and alkalies; nay, there may be
found calculi of oppofite kinds in the fame fubjeft.
In fuch cafes as will not allow us to think of diffol-
ving the dony concretions, and where the only fcheme
is to palliate and procure cafe from time to time,
little more can be done than to keep the bowels open
occafionally by fome gentle cathartic, and wa(h off as
much of the loofe gravelly matter and dime as can be
removed by fuch mild diuretic infufions and decoc¬
tions as fhall be found to pafs freely and fit well on
the domach. Perfons affii&ed with the done fhould be
careful in refpe& of their diet, and dudioufiy avoid all
heavy and flatulent food, as well as high fauces that
are apt to turarancid. For the fame reafon, butter and.
Part U.
acids are to be fliunned ; for thefe often create heart-Pr act reel
burning, and every thing that offends the ftomach' 1
raifes the nephritic pain ; fuch is the fympathy that
obtains between the digedive and the uropoietic or¬
gans.
There have been furgeons bold enough to entertain
an idea of cutting even into the kidney, in order to
extraft a done: this, however, except in cafes where
an abfeefs has been formed, and nature points out the
way, is merely chimerical. But cutting into the blad¬
der for the fame purpofe, is an ancient and well-known
operation, and often crowned with fuccefs. But a de-
feription of this operation belongs to the article Sur¬
gery, to which we refer; and here dial] only make this
remark, that a furgeon fhould never begin his opera¬
tion, until he and his affidants are perfectly iatisfied,
from aftually feeling the done, that there is one in the
bladder; becaufe it has fometimes happened, that when
the incifion has been made, no done could be found:
and the patient having died in confequence of the ope¬
ration, and the body being opened, it has appeared
that the fymptoms which occafioned the belief of a
done in the bladder arofe from fome other caufe.
When a dyfuria proceeds from anyacrimonious mat¬
ter thrown into the blood, it may be readily cured by
bleeding, emollient cly ders, cooling and diluting drinks
with gum arabic or gum tragacamh, linfeed tea, or
the warm bath. When it arifes from inflammations
of the bladder or parts adjoining to it, we are to re¬
gard it only as a fymptomatic affedlion; and the reme¬
dies ufed to remove the primary difeafe will alfo re¬
move the dyfuria. Sometimes it may arife from an ul¬
cer of the bladder, in which cafe it is generally incu¬
rable ; a mild nutritious diet will, however, protraft
the patient’s life.
CCXIII. DYSPERMATISMUS, or Dyfru/s 487
Emission o/'Semen. Genus CXXV.
Dyfpermatifmus, Sauv. gen. 260.
Sterilitas, Lin. 171. Sag. 211.
Agenefia, Fog. 283.
This impediment proceeds generally from obdruc-
tions in the urethra, either by tumours in itfelf, or in
the cavernous bodies of the penis; in which cafe the
treatment is the fame as in the ifehuria urethralis;
fometimes it is owing to a kind of epileptic fit which
feizes the man in the venereal aft ; and fometimes the
femen, when ejefted from the proper receptacles, is
again abforbed by them, or flows into the bladder, and
is expelled along with the urine. The lad cafe is very
difficult, or indeed impoffible to cure ; as proceeding
from feirrhi, or other indiffoluble tumours of the veru-
montanum, or the neighbouring parts. In fome it
proceeds merely from too violent an ereftion; in which
cafe emollient and relaxing medicines will be of fer¬
vice, and we have an example of a cure performed by
means of thefe in. the fird volume of the Edinburgh
Medical Effays^.
CCIV. AMENORRHOEA, Suppression 0/the 48S
Menses. Genus CXXVI.
Amenorrhcea, Vog. 130. '
Dyfmenorrhcea, Lin. 168. Sag. 218.
This, with fome other fymptoms, as dyfpepfia,.
yellowifh,
MEDICINE,
m
j^Part II.
3.1 r actici yellowifh or greenifh colour of the flan, unufual appe-
, tites, &c. conftitutes the chlorofu already treated off,
and which feldom or never appears without a fuppref-
fion of the menfes. In Dr Home’s Clinical Experi¬
ments we find the virtues of feveral emmenagogues fet
forth in the following manner. Chalybeates feldom or
never fucceeded: they were always found more nfeful
in diminiihing the evacuation when too violent, than in
reftoring it when deficient. The tin&ure of black
hellebore proved fuccefsful only in one of nine or ten
cafes, though given to the length of four tea-fpoonfuls
a-day, which is double the quantity recommended by
Dr Mead. Compreffion of the crural artery, recom¬
mended by Dr Hamilton in the Phyfical and Literary
Effays, Vol. II. proved fuccefsful only in one of fix
cafes. From the effedfs produced by this compreffion,
it has the Itrongeft appearance of loading the uterus
with blood; from the fenfations of the patient it pro¬
duces the fame effe&s as the approach of the menfes,
and has every appearance in its favour; yet does not fuc-
ceed. Dr Home fuppofes that the uterus is more fre¬
quently in too plethoric and inflammatory a ftate, when
this remedy will do hurt, than in a ftate of inanition;
however, he owns, that in the cafe in which it did fuc-
ceed, the patient was plethoric and inflammatory. Ve-
nefedfion is recommended as an excellent remedy; the
Dodfor gives three inftances of its fuccefs, and fays he
could give many more. It adfs by removing the ple¬
thoric ftate of the uterus, relaxing the fibres, and gi¬
ving the veflels full play; fo that their adtion over¬
comes all refiftance, and the evacuation takes place.
It is of no great moment from whence the blood is
taken: the laphasna vein will perhaps empty the uterus
moft; but it is difficult to get the proper quantity
from it, and it cannot be fo well meafured. The pow¬
der of favine is a powerful remedy; and proved fuc¬
cefsful in three cafes out of four in which it was tried.
It was given in the quantity of half a drachm twice a-
ciuy. It is a ftrong topical ftimulus, and feems impro¬
per in plethoric habits. Madder root is a very power¬
ful medicine in this difeafe; and proved fuccefsful in
14 out of 19 cafes in which it was tried, being fome-
times exhibited in the quantity of two fcruples, or a
drachm, four times a-day. It has fcarce any fenfible
effects; never quickens the pulfe, or excites inflamma¬
tory fymptoms: on the contray, the heat, thirft, and
other complaints abate; and fometimes thefe fymptoms
are removed, though the difeafe is not cured; but when
it fucceeds, the menfes appear from the third to the
12th day.—For other methods of curing the amenor-
bcea, fee Chlorosis.
We have now confidered all thofe difeafes enumera¬
ted in Dr Cullen’s Nofology, whofe cure is to be at¬
tempted chiefly by internal medicines. The other ge¬
nera either require particular manual operations, or a
very confiderable ufe of external applications; and
therefore properly fall under the article Surgery. It
now remains to treat of fome difeafes which are not yet
yet arranged in his fyftem.
CCXV. ANGINA PECTORIS.
Dr Heberden was the firft who deferibed this dif¬
eafe, though it is extremely dangerous, and, by his ac¬
count, not very rare. It feizes thofe who are fubjeft
4749
to it, when they are walking, and particularly whenPractic*
they walk foon after eating, with a moft difagreeable
and painful fenfation in the breaft, which feems to
threaten immediate deftru&ion: but the moment they
fland ftill, all the uneafinefs vanifhes. In all other re-
fpeds the patients at the beginning of this diforder are
well, and have no fhortnefs of breath; from which the
angina pettoris is totally different. After it has conti¬
nued fome months, the fits will not ceafe inftantaneoufly
on Handing ftill; and it will come on not only when
the patients are walking, but when they are lying down,
and oblige them to rife up out of their beds every night
for many months.together. In one or two very inve¬
terate cafes, it has been brought on by the motion of
a horfe or carriage; and even by fwallowing, cough¬
ing, going to ftool, fpeaking, or by any difturbance
of mind. The perfons affeded were all men, almoft
all of whom were above 50 years of age, and moft of
them with a fhort neck and inclining to be fat. Some¬
thing like it, however, was obferved in one woman,
who was paralytic; and one or two young men com¬
plained of it in a flight degree, and other praditioners
have obferved it in very young perfons.
When a fit of this fort comes on by walking, its du¬
ration is very fliort, as it goes oft' almoft immediately
upon flopping. If it come on in the night, it will la ft
an hour or two. Dr Heberden met with one in whom
it once continued for feveral days, during which time
the patient feemed to be in imminent danger of death.
Moft of thofe attacked with the diftemper died fud-
denly : though this rule was not without exceptions ;
and Dr Heberden obferved one who funk under a lin¬
gering illnefs of a different nature.
The osjlerni is ufually pointed to as the feat of this
malady; but it feems as if it was under the lower part
of that bone, and at other times under the middle or
upper part, but always inclining more to the left fide;
and fometimes there is joined with it a pain about the
middle of the left arm.
The appearance of Dr Heberden’s paper in the Me¬
dical Trrnfa&ions very foon raifed the attention of the
faculty, and produced other obfervations from phyfi-
cians of eminence ; namely, Dr Fothergill, Dr Wall
of Worcefter, Dr Haygarth of Chefter, and Dr Pcr-
cival of Manchefter. It alfo induced an unknown
fufferer under the difeafe to write the Doflor a very
fenfible letter, deferibing his feelings in the moft na¬
tural manner; which, unfortunately, in three weeks
after the date of this anonymous epiflle, terminated in
a fudden death, as the writer himfdf had apprehended.
The youngeft fubjed. that Dr Fothergill ever faw
affii&ed with this diforder, was about 30 years of age;
and this perfon was cured. The method that fucceeded
with him, was a courfe of pills, compofed of the mafs of
gum pill, foap, and native cinnabar; with a light chaly¬
beate bitter: this was continued for fome months, af¬
ter which he went to Bath feveral fucceffive fcafons,
and acquired his ufual health: he was ordered to be
very fparing in his diet; to keep the bowels open; and
to ufe moderate exercife on horfcback, but not to take
long or fatiguing walks.
The only fymptom in this patient that is mentioned,
was a ftridure about the cheft, which came on if he
was walking up hill or a little falter than ordinary,
or if he was riding a very brilk trot; for moderate ex-
27 K 2 ercife
MEDICINE.
4850 MEDICINE
Practice ercife of any kind did not affcft him: and this tineafy
" fenfation always obliged him to flop, as he felt himfelf
threatened with immediate death if he had been obli¬
ged to go forward.
It is the (harp conftriftive pain acrofs the cbeft, that
(according to Dr Fothergill’s obfervation) particular¬
ly marks this Angular difeafe; and which is apt to fu-
pervene a certain degree of mufcular motion, or what¬
ever agitates the nervous fyftem.
In fuch cafes as fell under the infpeftion of Dr Fo-
thergill, he very feldom met with one that was not at¬
tended with an irregular and intermitting pulfe ; not
only during the exacerbations, but often when the pa¬
tient was free from pain and at reftr but Dr Heber-
den obferves, that the pulfe is, at lead fometimes, not
dilturbed; and mentions his having once had an op¬
portunity of being convinced of this circumltance, by
feeling the pulfe during the paroxyfm.
But no doubt thefe varieties, as well as many other
little circumftances, will occur in this difeafe as they
do in every other, on account of the diverfity of the hu¬
man frame; and if thofe which in general are found
to predominate and give the diftinguilhing charafter
be prefent, they will always authorife us in giving the
name to the difeafe: thus, when we find the conftric-
tory pain acrofs the cheft, accompanied with a fenfe
of ftrangling or fuffocation; and dill more, if this pain
fhould drike acrofs the bread into one or both arms;
we Ihould not hefitate to pronounce the cafe an angina
pefioris.
As to the nature of this difeafe, it appears to be
purely fpafmodic: and this opinion will readily prefent
itfelf to any one who confiders the fudden manner of
its coming on and going off; the long intervals of per-
feft eafe; the relief afforded by wine, and fpirituous
'cordials; the influence which paflionate affcftions of
the mind have over it; the eafe which comes from
varying the podure of the head and Ihoulders, of
from remaining quite motionlefs; the number of years
which it will continue, without otherwife difordering
health; its bearing fo well the motion of a horfe or
carriage, which circumflance often didinguidres fpaf¬
modic pains from thofe which arife from ulcers; and
laflly, from its coming on for the mod part after a full
meal, and in certain patients at. night, jud after the
fird fleep, at which time the incubus, convulfive adhma,
and other ills, judly attributed to the difordered func¬
tions of the nerves, are peculiarly apt to return or to
be aggravated.
But though it fliould be admitted, that the whole
did refs in thefe cafes arifes from fpafm, it may not be
fo eafy to afcertain the particular mufcles which are
thus affefted.
The violent fenfe of ftrangling or choaking, which
fhews the circulation through the lungs to be inter¬
rupted during the height of the paroxyfm; and the pe¬
culiar condri&ive pain under the fternnm, always in¬
clining (according to Dr Heberden’s obfervation) to
the left-fide ; together with that mod didrefiing and
alarming fenfation, which, if it were to inereafe or con¬
tinue, threatens an immediate extin&ion of life; might
authorife us to conclude that the heart itfelf is the
mufcle affefted: the only objedion to this idea,, and,
if it had been conffan.tly obferved, it would be infur-
mountable, is, that the pulfe is not always interrupted
Part II.
during the paroxyfm. The appearances in two of the PRAciiJ
diffedions, favour the opinion that the fpafm affeds 1
the heart; as inonefubjed the left ventricle (and, tho’
it be not mentioned, we may prefume the right one
alfo), was found as empty of blood as if it had been
wafhed; and in another, the fubdance of the heart ap¬
peared whitilh, not unlike a ligament; as it Ihould
feem, in both cafes, from the force of the fpafm fquee-
zing the blood out from the vefltls and caviiies.
If this hypochefis be allowed, we mud conclude that
the fpafm can only take place in an inferior degree, as
long as the patient continues to furvive the paroxyfm;
fince an affedion of this fort, and in this part, of any
confiderable duration or violence, mud inevitably prove
fatal: and accordingly, as far as could be traced, the
perfons who have been known to labour under this dif¬
eafe have in general died fuddenly.
Tihe difledions alfo /hew, that whatever may be the
true feat of the fpafm, it is notneceffary for the bring¬
ing of it on, that the heart, or its immediate appen¬
dages, Ihould be in a morbid date; for in thiee out of
the fix that have as yet been made public, thefe parts
were found in a found date.
On opening the body of the poor gentleman who
wrote the letter to Dr Heberden, “ upon the mod
careful examination, no manifed caufe of his death
could be difcovered; the heart, in particular, with its
veffels and valves, were all found in a natural condi¬
tion.”
In the cafe communicated by DrPercival to the pub-
1 ifhers of the Medical Commentaries, “ the heart and
aorta defcendens were found in a found date.” And
in Dr Haygarth’s patient, “ on opening the tho¬
rax, the lungs, pericardium, and heart, appeared per¬
fectly found.” Not to mention Dr Fothergill’s pa¬
tient (R. M.), in whofe body the only morbid ap¬
pearance about the’heart was a fmall white fpot
near the apex. So that the caufe, whatever its na¬
ture might have been, was at too great a didance, or
of too fubtile a nature, to'come under the infpeCHoa
of the anatomid. But there was a circumdance in two
of the fubjefts that is worthy of remembrance ; and
which ffiews that the crafis of the blood, while they
were living, mud have been greatly injured, namely, its
not coagulating, but remaining of a cream-like con¬
fidence, without any feparation into ferum and crafla-
mentum.
From all that we have feen hitherto publiflied, it
does not appear that any confiderable advances have
been made towards the actual cure of this anomalous
fpafm.
The very judicious and attentive Dr Heberden (to
whom the public are highly obliged for fird making
the diforder known) confeffes, that bleeding, vomits,
and other evacuations, have not'appeared to do any
good: wine and cordials, taken at bed-time, will fome¬
times prevent or weaken the fits ; but nothing does
this fo effectually as opiates: in fliort, the medicines
ufually called nervous or cordial, fuch as relieve and
quiet convulfive motions, and invigorate the languiih-
ing principle of life, are what he recommends.
Dr Wall mentions one patient, out of the 12 or 13
that he had feen, who applied to him early in the dif¬
eafe, and was relieved confiderably by the ufe of anti-
monial medicines joined with the fetid gums: he was
ft ill
I
iiPart II. M E D I
oa sactice ftill livmg at the time the Do&or wrote his paper,
(November 1772), and goingabout with tolerable cafe.
Two were carried off by other diforders; all the reft
died fuddenly.
Dr Fothergill’s diredtions are chiefly calculated with
the view to prevent the diforder from gaining ground,
and to alleviate prefent diftrefs. Accordingly be en¬
joins fuch a kind of diet as may be moft likely to prevent
irritability : in particular, not to eat voracioufly: to be
particularly abftemious in refpedt to every thing heat¬
ing; fpices, fpirits, wines, and all fermented liquors: to
guard moft fcrupuloully againft paftion, or any vehe¬
ment emotions; and to make ufeof all theufual means
of eftablifhing and preferving general health: to mi¬
tigate exceffes of irritability by anodynes; or pains, if
they quicken the circulation : to difperfe flatulencies
when they diftend the ftomach, by moderate dofes of
carminatives; amongft which, perhaps, Ample pepper¬
mint water may be reckoned one of the fafeft. But
fince obeAty is juftly confidered as a principal predif-
poflng caufe, he infills ftrongly on the neceflity of pre¬
venting an increafe of fat, by a vegetable diet, and nAng
every other practicable method of augmenting the thin¬
ner fecretions.
Thefe were the only means which occurred to the
Englifh phyflciansof oppoAng this formidable difeafe:
but Dr Smyth of Ireland has Ance difcovered that it
may be certainly cured by iffues, of which Dr Mac-
bride gives the following inftance.
“ A. B. a tall, well-made man ; rather large than
otherwifc ; of healthy parents, except that there had
been a little gout in the family ; temperate ; being
very attentive to the bufinefs of his trade (that of a
watch-maker), led a life uncommonly fedentary ; had,
from his boyhood upwards, been remarkably fubjed
to alarming inflammations of his throat, which feized
him, at leaft, once in conrfe of the year ; in all other
refpefts well.
“ In 1767, (then 48 years of age), he was taken,
without any evident caufe, with a fudden and very
difpiriting throbbing under the fternum. It foon
afterwards increafed, and returned upon him every
third or fourth week, accompanied with great anxiety,
very laborious breathing, choaking, a fenfation of
fulnefs and diftenAon in the head, a bloated and
flufhed countenance, turgid and watery eyes, and a
very irregular and unequal pulfe. The paroxyfm in¬
vaded, almoft conftantly, while he was fitting after
dinner; now and then he was feized with it in the
morning, when walking a little fafter than ufual; and
was then obliged to flop, and reft on any objeCt at
hand. Once or twice it came on in bed; but did not
oblige him to At up, as it was then attended with no
great difficulty in breathing. In the afternoon ftts,
his greateft eafe was from a ftipine pofture ; in which
he ufed to continue motionlefs for fome hours, until,
quite fpent and worn out with anguifh, he dropt into
a flumber. In the intervals between thefe attacks,
which at length grew fo frequent as to return every
fourth or flfth day, he wds, to appearance, in perfeft
health.
“ Thus matters continued for more than two years;
and various antifpafmodics were ineffeftually tried for
his relief. In 1769, there fupervened a very {harp
conftriftory pain at the upper part of the fternum,
CINE. 4851
ftretching equally on each fide, attended with the for-P* acticb
mer fymptoms of anxiety, dyfpncca, ehoaking, &c.
and with an excruciating cramp, as he called it, that
could be covered with a crown-piece, in each of his
arms, between the elbow and the wrift, exadllyat the
infertion of the pronator teres ; the reft of the limb
was quite free. The ftts were fometimes brought on,
and always exafperated, by any agitation of mind or
body. He once attempted to ride o’horfeback during
the paroxyfm ; but the experiment was near proving
fatal to him. The difference of feafon or weather made
no impreffion upon him. Still, in the intervals, his
health was perfeftly good ; except that his eyes,
which before his illneis were remarkably ftrong and
clear, were now grown extremely tender ; and that his
Aght was much impaired. He had no Aatulency of
ftomach, and his bowels were regular.
“ In this Atuation, February 22. 1770, he applied
to me for affiftance. I had feen, I believe, eight or
ten of thefe frightful cafes before. Two of the patients
dropt dead fuddenly. They were men between 40 and
50 years of age, and of a make fomewhat fleftiy. The-
fate of the others I was not informed of; or, at leaft,
cannot now recoiled.
“ Hiving found the total inefficacy of blifters and
the whole clafs of nervous medicines in the treatment
of this anomalous fpafm, I thought it right to attempt
the correding or draining off of the irritating fluid
in the cafe now before us. To thispurpofe, I ordered
a mixture of aq. calc. mag. c. with a little of the aq.
junip. c. and an alterative proportion of Huxham’s
antimonial wine : I put the patient on a plain, light,,
perfpirable diet; and reftrained him from all vifcid,
flatulent, and acrimonious articles. By purfuing this
courfe, he was foon apparently mended ; but after he
had perfifted regularly in it for at leaft two months,
he kept for fome time at a ftand. I then ordered a
large iffue to be opened in each of his thighs. Only
one was made. However, as foon as it began to dif-
charge, his amendment manifeftly increafed. The fre¬
quency and feverity of the Ats abated conftderably ;
and he continued improving gradually, until, at the
end of 18 months, he was reftored to perfedt health
which he has enjoyed, without the leaft interruption,
till now, except when he has been tempted (perhaps
once in a twelvemonth) to tranfgrefs rules, by making
a large meal on faked meat, or indulging himfelf in
ale or rum-punch, each of which never failed to dif¬
order him from the beginning of his illnefs : and, even
on thefe occafions, he has felt no more than the flighteft
motion of his former fufftrings; infomuch that he
would defpife the attack, if it did not appear to be. of
the fame ftock with his old complaint. No other caufe
has had the leaft ill eft'edt on him.
“ Though rum was conftantly hurtful, yet punch
made with a maceration of black currants in our vul¬
gar corn-fpirit, is a liquor that agrees remarkably well
with him.
“ He never took any medicine after the iffue began
to difcharge ; and 1 have dirtdled that it (hall be
kept open as long as he lives. The inflammations of
his throat have difappeared for Ave years pad ; he
has recovered the ftrength and clearnefs of his Aght ;
and his health feems now to be entirely re-efta-
bliftied.”
D o (ft or-
4sj2 m**;'!) i
Practice Doftor Macbridc, in a letter to Dr Duncan, gives
* "the following additional obfervations on this difeafe.
“ Within thefe few weeks I have, at the defire of
Dr Smyth, vifited, three or four times, a very inge¬
nious man who keeps an academy in this city, of about
34. years of age, who applied to the Dodtor for his ad¬
vice in January laft.
“ I (hall give you his fymptoms as I had them from
his own mouth, which appear to me to mark his cafe
to be an angina pedloris, and as deplorable as any
that I have read of. It was ftrongly diftinguiihed by
the exquifite conftridtory pain of the fternum, extend¬
ing to each of his arms as far as the infertion of the
deltoid mufcle, extreme anxiety, laborious breathing,
ftrangling, and violent palpitation of the heart, with
a moft irregular pnlfe. The paroxyfms were fo fre¬
quent, that he fcarcely ever efcaped a day, for fix or
feven years, without one. They were ufually excited
by any agitation of mind or body, though flight. He
had clear intervals of health between the fits. The
ditlemper feemed hereditary in him, as he fays his fa¬
ther was affedled in the fame manner fome years pre¬
vious to his death. He has a ftrong gouty taint,
which never (hewed itfelf in his limbs; and he has led
a life of uncommon fedentarinefs, from intenfe appli¬
cation to mathematical (Indies, attention of mind,
•and paffion, even from his boyifh years. Thefe cir-
■ cumitances may, perhaps, account for his having
been taken with this difeafe at fo early an age as 17.
“ A large iffue was immediately opened in each of
his thighs. In a month afterwards he began to mend,
and has gone on improving gradually. He can now
run up (lairs briflcly, as I faw him do no later than
yefterday, without hurt; can bear agitation of mind ;
and has no complaint, excepting a flight opprelfion of
the breaft, under the fternum, which he feels fontw-
times in a morning, immediately after drefling him-
felf, and which he thinks is brought on by the motion
ufed in putting on his clothes; though for a complete
week preceding the day on which I faw him laft, he
told me that he had been entirely free from all un-
eafinefs, and was exulting that he had not had fuch an
interval of eafe for thefe laft feven years.
“ Doftor Smyth alfo (hewed me, in his adverfaria,
the cafe of a gentleman who had been under his care
in 1760, which he had forgotten when my book
went to the prefs, and which he was reminded of the
other day by a vifit from his patient. It was a
genuine angina pedloris, brought on by a very fe-
dentary life, and great vexation of mind, dearly
marked by the exquifite pain under the fternum, that
mended acutely to the upper extremities, particular¬
ly along the left arm, together with the other fymp¬
toms of dyfpnoea, anxiety, palpitation of the heart,
&c. recited in the cafe above. The diforder went off
in 1762, by large fpontaneous difcharges from the
piles, but returned upon him feverely in 1765. Iflbes
in his thighs were then recommended to him, but not
made. But, whether it was by the perfuafion of fame
friend, or of his own accord, he went into a courfe
of James’s powder, in fmall alterative dofes, com¬
bined with a little caftor and afa fcetida. This he
perfifted in for about fix weeks; in the meanwhile,
he had large acrimonious gleetings from the fcrotum,
and a plentiful difcharge of ichor from the anus.
CINE. Part If. ]
From this time he began to find his complaints growPEAcnc*
lefs and lefs diftrefling, and he has now been totally ^
free from them for fix years paft.”
CCXVII. The PUERPERAL or Child-bed 49*
Fever.
Tmsfpecies of fever, as its name imports, is pecu¬
liar to women in child-bed; and is ufually the moft fa¬
tal of all the difordCrs to which the fex is liable. But,
notwith(landing the prevalence of it in all ages, its
real nature has remained, to the prefent times, a fub-
jedt of much difpute and uncertainty. The critical pe¬
riod of its invafion, when febrile commotions are apt
to be excited by various accidents, and the equivocal
fymptoms which accompany it, have even afforded
room for queftioning whether it be a primary or a fe-
condary difeafe. Some writers have confidered it as
proceeding entirely from an inflammation of the uterus;
others have imagined it to be the confequence of an
obftruftion to the fecretion of the milk; while the
greater number has been inclined, for reafons equally
if not more plaufible, to impute it to a fuppreflisn of
the lochia. If we examine this fever attentively, how¬
ever, according to its natural courfe, and independently
of all the accidental concomitant fymptoms with which
ft is not eflentially connected, we may fafely pronounce
ft to be a primary dtfeafe of a particular characteriftic,
and perhaps not the neceflary confequence of any of
the caufes above-mentioned.
This fever is moft generally incident to women with¬
in 48 hours after delivery, though it may fupervene on
the fourth or fifth day, and fometimes confiderably
later. It is preceded, like other fevers, by a rigor,
which is commonly violent; and, when happening du¬
ring the time of labour, may be confounded with the
pains of parturicncy. In its earlier ftage it is attended
with the figns of inflammation. A great pain is felt
in the back, hips, and the region of the uterus; which,
in the pan laft mentioned, is accompanied with the
fenfe of heat and throbbing. A fudden change in the
quality or quantity of the lochia now alfo takes place;
the patient is frequently troubled with a tenefmus; and
the urine, which is very high coloured, is difcharged in
fmall quantity and with pain. At the firft attack of
the fever, the woman is generally feized with a vomit¬
ing of porracepus matter, as in the cholera morbus, to
which difeafe it then bears a ftrong refemblance. But
inftead of this fymptom, there is fometimes only a
naufea, or loathing of the ftomach, with a difagree-
able tafte in the mouth. The belly fwells to a confi-
derable bulk, and becomes fufceptible of painful fen-
fations from the flighted impreflion. The tongue is
generally dry, though fometimes moitt, and covered
with a thick brownfth fur. When the fever has con¬
tinued a few days, the fymptoms of inflammation
ufually fubfide, and the difeafe acquire* X more putrid
form. At this period, if not at the very beginning of
the diforder, a bilious or putrid diarrhoea, of a danger¬
ous and obftinate nature, fupervenes, and accompanies
it through all its future progrefs; each motion to (tool
being preceded by a temporary increafe, and followed
by an alleviation of pain. The patient ufually nau-
feates all kind of food and drink, except what is cold
and acidulated. A brown or blackifh fordt», the con¬
fequence of putrid exhalations, adheres to the edges.
iSPart II. M E D I
ta act ice of the teeth ; a troublefomehickup is at length produ-
~*"'i ce<5, which greatly exafperates the pains of the abdo¬
men } petechite or vtbices alf<? appear, with fometimes
a miliary eruption, but which produces no mitigation
of the difeafe. Thro’ the whole courfe of the fever, the
patient is affeAed with great anxiety and dcje£iion of
fpirits.
Such in general is the courfe of the puerperal fever;
the fymptoms of which, however, may be often varied,
according to the conftitution of the patient, the degree
of the difeafe, and its earlier or later invafion. When
the woman is naturally weak, or her ftr'ength has been
greatly reduced by immoderate evacuations after de¬
livery ; when the difeafe is violent, and immediately
follows that period; its progrefs and termination are
proportionably rapid and fatal. In fuch unfortunate
circumftances, many have been known to expire with¬
in 24 hours from the firft attack of the difeafe ; nay,
there are fome inftances where the rigor has concluded
the feene. The caiailrophe, however, is moft gene¬
rally fufpended for fome days; and the number of thefe
ia variable, though the nth from the commencement
of the fever, may juftly be fixed as the period which
ia ufually decifive. In whatever flage of the difeafe an
unfavourable termination may happen, it would feera
as if the commencement of the patient’s recovery were
not marked by any critical revolution of the fever, as
depending on an alteration of the humours ; but that
the cure is gradually effected, either by a fpontaueous
vomiting, or a long-continued difeharge by itool of
that porraceous matter, the exiltence of which in the
ftomach is ufually evinced at the firft attack of the
difeafe. The moft unfavourable prognoftic, there¬
fore, arifes from fuch a weaknefs of the patient as ren¬
ders her unable to fupport fo tedious an evacuation as
that by which the fever is overcome. When the lo¬
chia return to their former ftate, when the fwelling and
tendernefs of the abdomen abate, and there is a moi-
fture on the fkin, we have reafon to hope for a happy
termination of the difeafe.
Though the puerperal fever may generally be afeer-
tained from the defeription which has been given, and
chiefly by that remarkable tendernels of the abdomen,
which particularly diftinguifhes it ; yet, as fome of its
fymptoms may be confounded with thofe arifing from
other difeafes, and which require a different method
of cure, it will be proper to mention here the circum¬
ftances whereby it may be known with greater cer¬
tainty.
The pains of the abdomen, attending the child-bed
fever, may be diftinguifhed from thofe called after-
fains, by their uninterrupted continuance through the
courfe of the difeafe, though fometimes they fuffer
exacerbations ; whereas, in the latter, they often to¬
tally intermit. They are alfo diftinguifhable by the ab-
fence of fever with concomitant fymptoms in the one,
and their evident exiftence in the other.
Many circumftances evince a diflimilarity between
the puerperal and miliary fevers, notwithftanding the
fymptoms of anxiety and oppreffion are common to
both ; infomuch that the nature of the approaching
difeafe may be afeertained at tlie very commencement
of its attack. In the puerperal fever the rigor is more
violent, of longer duration, and not interrupted, as in
the other. The pulfe is fuller and ftronger; the fkin.
CINE.
4853
is more.hot; and the tongue, whether moift or dry,PRACT:
tho’ generally the latter, is not of a white, but brownilh
appearance; and the urine is alfo higher coloured. E-
ruptions, which are critical in miliary fevers, procure
no mitigation of the puerperal, and cordials generally
increafe it.
When the original attack of the puerperal fever hap¬
pens to coincide with the febrile commotion which
is excited in child-bed women by the milk, the na¬
ture of it may at firft be mifapprehended ; but the
concomitant fymptoms, and greater violence of the
difeafe, mud in a fhort time diflipate fuch an error, t
From all the moft accurate accounts of this drfeafe,
and from the period at which it generally commences,
there feems reafon to conclude, that it owes its rife
more immediately to accidents after delivery. For it
is allowed that it may follow a labour under the heft
and moft favourable circumftances, though endeavours
to dilate the os internum are fuppofed frequently to
produce it. The more immediate caufes generally af-
figned by authors are a ftoppage of perfpiration, the
too free ufe of fpices, and the negledl of procuring
ftools after delivery ; fudden frights, too hafty a fe-
paration of the placenta, and binding the abdomen too-
tight. The putrid appearance, however, which thi&
difeafe fo foon aflumes, affords ground to fufpetf that
the predifpofmg caufe of it is a vitiated ftate of the
humours; for it is generally obferved to be moft pre¬
valent in an unhealthy feafon, and among women of a
weakly and fcorbutic conftitution.
Within thefe few years this fever has been treated
of by feveral writers, moft of whom have differed from
each other in their fentiments of the nature of the dif~
eafe. The firft in the order of publication is Dr
Denman, who feems to be of opinion, that it may de¬
rive its origin either from a redundancy or too great
acrimony of the bile, the fecretion of which appears
to be much interrupted in the time of geftation. In
Dr Manning’s treatife on this fever, he mentions its
being highly probable that fuch a caufe contributes
greatly to produce the difeafe, efpecially where the.
putrid tendency of the humours is increafed by un-
wholefome air and diet.
It has likewife been the fate of the puerperal fever,
that no difeafe has more divided the fentiments ofphy-
ficians in regard to the method of cure. The appa¬
rent indications and contra-indications of bleeding,
and other remedies, arifing from the complication of
inflammatory and putrid fymptoms; the equivocal ap¬
pearance of the vomiting and purging, as whether
they are critical or fymptomatical; and the different
caufes whence fymptoms fimilar to each other may
arife in pregnant women ; all thefe circumftances con¬
cur to involve the fubjedl in great obfeurity and inde-
cifion. If we carefully attend to the fevcral charac-
teriftics of the difeafe, however, fo as to be able to di-
ftinguifh it from every other puerperal complaint, and
obferve at the fame time the ufual manner of its de-
clenfion, our judgment may be guided in the method
of cure by the falutary efforts of nature. But, in
order to obtain a clearer view of the genuine indica¬
tions, it will be proper to confider them under the fe¬
veral lights in which they have been generally agita¬
ted by authors.
One of the moft effential'points to be afeertained inn
the.
4854 M E D I
Practice the cure of the child bed fever, refpefts the pro-
 priety of bleeding. A free ufe of the lancet has been
generally regarded as the moll fuccefsful expedient
in pra&ice; and there are fome inftances of critical
haemorrhages which would feem to confirm its uti¬
lity. But Dr Denman thinks we may fafely affirm
from experience, that for one who will be benefited by
large bleeding, a much greater number will be inju¬
red, and that even almoft irretrievably. Nor can this
feem furprifing, when we confider the fituation of
child-bed women. In mod, the evacuations confe-
quent upon delivery are fufficient to diminifh any un¬
due fuperabundance of the fluids ; and if, as frequent¬
ly happens, the difeafe be produced by too hafty a re¬
paration of the placenta, the confequence of which is
generally a very copious difcharge of blood, can we
ever fuppofe that nature will be afiifted in overcoming
the febrile commotion, by the farther evacuation of
the vital fluid, through the defe£ of which flie is now
rendered unequal even to the ordinary fupport of the
animal ceconomy ? We may appeal to every pra&ical
phyfician, how much he has known the pulfe to fink,
and what a train of nervous fymptoms he has obferved
to fucceed an excefs of the difcharge abovementioned.
Befides, it is an axiom in phyfic, that a remedy which
cures any diforder, will always prove fufficient to pre¬
vent it; and therefore, if bleeding were the proper cure
in the child-bed fever, the difeafe ought to have been
prevented by a large evacuation of blood, when that
happened previous to its feizure. Experience, how¬
ever, in this, as in all other difeafes, is the only uner-
i-ing guide we can follow; and whoever regulates his
pradlice by faft and obfervation, will be convinced that
bleeding, efpecially in a larger quantity, is, in general,
very far from being attended with fuccefs. Bleeding
is feldom proper, except in women of plethoric confti-
tutions, and in whom the figns of inflammation rife
high. Nor even in fuch patients ought it to be re¬
peated without great caution, and the exiftence of
if rang indications. Bleeding, when ufed in proper cir-
cumftances, may unqueftionably palliate the fever; but
that it often fhortens the duration of it, appears to be
a matter of much doubt. On this account the prac¬
tice becomes ftill'more fufpicious and exceptionable,
when we confider that by venefe&ion improperly ufed
the perfon’s ftrength may be fo far reduced as not to
fupport the tedious loofenefs by which the difeafe is
generally carried off. Though bleeding, however,
ought in general to be ufed with great caution, there
are certainly many cafes in which it is both neceflary
and advantageous.
The genuine nature and effeiffs of the loofenefs, in
this difeafe, is another controverted point of the high-
eft importance, and which merits the moft attentive in¬
quiry. Phyficians, obferving that women who die of
the puerperal fever are generally molefted with that
■evacuation, have been induced to confider this fymp-
tom as of the moft dangerous and fatal tendency ; and
what, therefore, we fhould endeavour by every means
to reftrain. In this opinion, however, they would
feem to have been governed by too partial an obferva-
tion of fadls. For experience certainly authorifes the
affertion, that more women appear to have recovered
of the child-bed fever, through the intervention of a
•diarrhoea, titan have been deftroyed by that caufe. If
C I N E. Part II.
it alfo be confidered, that purging is ufually almoft the Practice
only fenfible evacuation in the more advanced ftate of 
the difeafe, and is that which accompanies it to its la»
left period, we fhall have the ftrongeft reafon to think
that it is critical rather than fymptomatical, and ought
therefore to be moderately fupported, inftead of being
unwarily reftrained. Nay, the advantage which is
found to attend vomiting as well as purging, in the
earlier ftage of the difeafe, would feem to evince that
the matter difcharged by thefe evacuations is what
chiefly foments the difeafe. Emetics and purga¬
tives, therefore, in the opinion of Dr Manning, are
the only medicines on which any rational depend-
ance is to be placed in this fever ; at leaft, they are
certainly fuch as are found the moft (pccefsful. It is
an eftablifhed rule in pra&ice, to preferibe a vomit at
the beginning of every fever attended with any nau-
fea or loathing of the ftomach, and where there is
not any reafon to apprehend an inflammation of that
organ. Nor does the ftate of child-bed women af¬
ford the fmalleft ground for prohibiting our recourfe
to the fame expedient in anfweting a fimilar indica¬
tion.
It is fo feldom a phyfician is called dnring the ri¬
gor preceding the puerperal fever, that he has few op¬
portunities of trying the effetls of remedies in that ear¬
ly ttate of the difeafe. When fuch occur, however,
we (hould endeavour as much as poffible to abate and
fhorten that period, as the fucceeding fever is general¬
ly found to bear a proportion to the violence and du¬
ration of it. For this purpofe warm diluting drinks
fhould be plentifully ufed, with a fmall quantity of vo¬
latile fpirits or brandy. When Dr Manning appre¬
hended fuch an accident, he fometimes ordered the
nurfe to give immediately a difh or two of warm fack-
whey ; taking care that it was not too ftrong, which
is a caution that ought always to be remembered. For
though a freer ufe of the more cordial and fpirituous
kinds of liquors might perhaps fooner abate the rigor,
there is danger to be feared from their influence on the
approaching fever, efpecially in women of a ftrong and
healthy conftitution. In all cafes, warm applications
to the extremities, fuch as heated bricks, towels, or
toafted grains in a linen bag, may be ufed with perfeft
fafety, and fome advantage.
When the hot fit is advanced, the firft thing Dr
Manning orders is fome emollient injeSion, as chicken-
water, or water and milk, which ought to be fre¬
quently repeated through the courfe of the difeafe.
Thefe prove beneficial, not only by promoting the dif¬
charge from the inteftines, which feems in fact to be
the folution of the difeafe; but alfo by aiding as a
kindly fomentation to the uterus and adjacent parts.
In this intention they are particularly ferviceable when
the lochia are fuppreffed. Great care, however,'is re-
quifite in adminiftering them, on account of the ten-
dernefs, and inflammatory difpofition, which at that
time render the parts in the pelvis extremely fufeeptible
of pain.
The next ftep in the method of cure ought.to he
to promote the difcharge of the morbid matter both by
the ftomach and inteftines. 'This intention is beft an-
fwered by the remedy preferibed by Dr Denman, of
which the following is the receipt.
&. Tar-
sfPart II. M E D I
a^kactics 5,. Tartar, emetic, gr. ii.
Ocul. cancror. praep. 9i. Intime mifceantur.
Of a powder thus prepared, Dr Denman gives from
two to fix grains, and repeats it as circumftanres re¬
quire. If the firft dofe does not procure any fen-
fible operation, he repeats it in an increafed quantity
at the end of two hours, and proceeds in that man¬
ner ; not expe&ing any benefit but from ita fenfible
evacuation.
Should the difeafe be abated, but not removed,
(which fometimes happens), by the effeft of the firft
dofe, the fame medicine muft be repeated, but in alefs
quantity, till all danger is over. But if any alarming
fymptoms remain, he does not hefitate one moment to
repeat the powder, in the fame quantity as firft given;
tho’ this is feldom neceflary, if the firft dofe operates
properly.
It is to be obferved, fays Dr Denman, that as the
certainty of cure depends upon the proper repetition
of the medicine, the method of giving it at ftated
hours does not appear eligible. If the firft dofe produ¬
ces any confiderable efiedt by vomiting, procuring
ftools, or plentifully fweating, a repetition of the me¬
dicine in a lefs quantity will feldom fail to anfwer our
expe&ations; but great judgment is required in adap¬
ting the quantity firft given to the ftrength of the pa¬
tient and other circumllances. We are not to expert
that a difeafe which from the firft; formation carries fo
evident marks of danger, Ihould inftantly ceafe, even
though a great part of the caufe be ,removed.
Frequent dofes of the faline draughts ought alfo to
be given, which not only promote the evacuation by
the inteftines, but likewife increafe the falutary dis¬
charges of urine and perfpiration. Thefe medicines
are particularly ferviceable in fubduing the remains of
the fever, after its violence has been broken by the
more efficacious remedies abovementioned; but when
they are ufed even in the decline of the difeafe, gentle
laxatives of rhubarb and magnefia, as advifed by Dr
Denman, ought to be frequently interpofed, fince,
as he juftly obferves, without ftools we can do little
fervice.
Notwithftanding the difcharge by the inteftices ap¬
pears to have the mod falutary effeil in this difeafe,
yet when the ftomach has not been properly unloaded
of offenfive matter, though a great naufea and fick-
nefs had indicated the expediency of fuch an evacua.
tion at the beginning of the fever, the continuance of
the loofenefs is fometimes fo long protradled as in the
end to prove fatal. In this alarming ftate of the dif¬
eafe, when the ftools are very frequent and involun¬
tary, and all appearances threaten danger, Dr Denman
fays, that a clyfter of chicken-water injefted every
one, two or three hours, or as often as poffible with¬
out fatiguing the patient too much, with the following
draught taken every fix hours, hks produced better ef-
fefts than could be expe&ed.
Pulv. rad. ipecacuan. gr. i.
Confeft. Damocrat, 9i.
Aq. alexiter. fimp. vel
Ciunamom. fimp. |ifs. M. f. Hauftus.
While thefe medicines are ufing, we Ihould endea¬
vour to mitigate the pains of the belly by relaxing ap¬
plications. During the courfe of the difeafe, the pa¬
tient ought to drink freely of diluting liquors, and ab-
Vol. VI, z
CINE. 4855
{lain from every thing of a heating quality} unlefsP *aci icr
great faintnefs ftiould indicate the ufe of a fmall quan-
tity of feme cordial medicine.
Such is the pra&ice recommended in this dif
eafe by Dr Denman. We {hall now take a curfory
view of the fentiments of fucceeding writers on this
fubje<3.
According to Dr Hulme, the proximate caufe of
the puerperal fever is an inflammation of the inteftines
and omentum ; for the confirmation of which opinion
he appeals to difleftions. He fuppofes the chief pre-
difponent caufe of the difeafe to be the prdTure of the
gravid uterus againft the parts abovementioned. The
omentum, fays he, in the latter ftage of pregnancy,
muft either be flat, which is its natural fituation, or be
rumpled or carried up by the gravid uterus in folds or
doublings. When the latter is the cafe, which he ob¬
ferves is probably not feldom, the danger of a ftran-
gulated circulation will be greater.
Mr White, who has alfo written on this difeafe, ju-
dicioufly remarks, that were Dr Hulme’s hypothefis
well founded, the diforder ought rather to take place
before delivery, and be immediately removed at that
period: That it would likewife moft generally happen
to women at their firft labour, when the abdominal
mufcles are lefs yielding, and the pains more violent;
the contrary of which is moft frequently experienced
to be the cafe.
It alfo deferves to be remarked, that, upon Dr
Hulme’s fuppofition, we cannot account for the dif¬
eafe being more common and fatal in large towns and
in hofpitals, than in the country and private pra&ice,
while other inflammatory diforders are more endemic
among thofe who live in the latter than the former fi¬
tuation. Even admitting the friflion of the inteftines
and omentum againft the uterus to be as violent as Dr
Hulme fuppofes, is it not highly improbable, that any
inflammation could be occafioned by the preffure of
fuch foft fubftances upon each other ? Or, were this
effe& really produced, ought not the puerperal fever
to be more common and fatal after the moft laborious
deliveries ? But this obfervation is not fupported by
experience.
Dr Hulme, in favour of his own hypothefis, alleges
that it gives a fatisfa&ory anfwer to the queftion,
“ Why all lying-in women have been, and ever will
be, fubjedt to this difeafe?” In this propofition, how¬
ever, the Dodlor fuppofes fuch an univerfality of the
difeafe as is not confirmed by obfervation. It is af¬
firmed upon undoubted authority, that in many parts
of Britain the puerperal fever is hardly known; where¬
as, were it really produced by the caufes he affigns, it
would be equally general and unavoidable.
But how peculiar foever this author’s fentiments are
in refpeft of the proximate caufe of the difeafe, they
have not led him to any method of cure different from
the eftablffhed praftice. On this fubjeft Dr Hulme
divides his obfervations into two parts, comprehending
under the former the more Ample method of treatment,
and under the latter the more complex. He fets out
with remarking, that the patient being generally co-
ftive at the beginning of the difeafe, an emollient open¬
ing clyfter will often give immediate relief; but if
this fhould not prove effe&ual, recourfe muft be had to
cathartics. Thofe which he found anfwer his purpofe
27 L belt.
4856 M E D I
Practice heft-, were the fal catharthiciis amarus, the oleum rici-
ni, emetic tartar, and antimonial wine. When the
bowels have been fufficiently cleared and the pain a-
bates, he advifes encouraging a gentle diaphorefis by
medicines which neither bind the body nor are heat¬
ing, fuch as fmall dofes of ipecacuan, emetic tartar, and
antimonial wine, combined with an opiate in a mode¬
rate dofe,1 and given once or twice in the courfe of 24.
hours ; adminiftering the faline draughts in the inter¬
mediate fpaces. If, preceding or during this courfe, a
ilcknefs of the ftomach or vomiting attend, he advifes
nffifting the efforts of nature, by drinking plentifully
of camomile tea, warm water, or any other diluting
liquor. He concludes with recommending a cooling
regimen, reft of body, and tranquillity of mind ; pro¬
hibiting all kinds of bandage upon the abdomen, and
enjoining particular attention to the ftate of the bowels,
which ought to be kept gently open for fome time,
even after the diforder teems to be gone off, till the-
patient be quite out of danger.
So much for the Ample treatment: we now proceed
to the fecond part, where he defcribes the method of
pra&ice when the difeafe is in its more irregular and
complicated ftate.
When a diarrhoea accompanies the difeafe, he ob-
ferves that it ought by no means to be checked, but
fupported, by ordering the patient to drink plentiful¬
ly of mild aperient liquors. If the pain of the hypo-
gaftric region be attended with flitches in the fides or
ever the pit of the ftomach, and a pulfe that refills
the finger pretty flrongly, he remarks that bleeding
would then be highly neceffary : declaring, however,
bis opinion, that, in the puerperal fever, bleeding is
to be confidered only as a fecondary means of relief,
though the firft in point of time ; that it ought to
be advifed with great caution ; and that the greatefl
dependence is always to be placed upon evacuations by
ftool.
Mr White, abovementioned, imputes the purperal
fever to a putrefcent difpofition of the humours, con-
tra&ed during pregnancy, and fomented by the hot
regimen commonly ufed by women in child-bed. In
conformity to this opinion, the chief means which he
recommends for preventing the difeafe is a cool regi¬
men and free circulation of air, which he evinces to
be of the greattfl importance. In refpeft of bleed¬
ing, he informs us, that, upon the flridleft inquiry, he
cannot find that thofe who have bled the moft copiouf-
ly have had the greateft fuccefs, either in private or
bofpital pra&ice. He even feems to queftron the pro¬
priety of this evacuation in any cafe ; but approves of
emetics, cathartics, and clyflers, for cleanfing the
prwiee via, and likewife of fuch medicines and diet as
will corredl the putrid humours: adding, that an up¬
right poflure and free ventilation are at all times ufe-
ful, and abfolutely neceffary, both for the prevention
and cure of the dileafe.
The next writer that treats of the child-bed fever is
Dr Leake, who made obfervations on this difeafe in
the interval from April 1768 to the autumn , of the
year 1770 ; but chiefly from December 1769 to May
1770, during which period the child-bed fever pre¬
vailed much about London.
Dr Leake tells us that this fever generally commen¬
ced the evening of the fecond, or morning of the third
CINE. Part II.
day after delivery, with a rigor, or fliivering fit. Some- Practic* I
times it invaded foon after delivery; and at other times, '
though rarely, it has feized fo late as the fifth or fixth
day. Now and then it feemed to be occafioned by
catching cold, or by errors in diet; but oftener by an¬
xiety of mind. Sometimes the thirft was great; tho’
the tongue had, in general, a better appearance at the
beginning than is common in other fevers. It wasfel-
dom ever black or very foul; but, as the difeafe advan¬
ced, became white and dry, with an increafe of thirft;
and at laft was of a brownifh colour towards the root,
where it was flightly covered with an infpiffated mu¬
cus. The lofs of ftrength was fo great and fudden,
that few of the patients could turn in bed without af*
fiftance, even fo early as the firft or fecond day after • |
the attack. The lochia, from firft to laft, were not
obftrudled, nor deficient in quantity ; neither did the
quality of this difcharge feem to be in the leaft alter¬
ed from its natural ftate ; a prefumption, fays the au¬
thor, that the uterus was not at all aifedted. Of this
he was convinced by making a confiderable preffure
above the pubes with the hand, which did not occa-
fion pain ; but when the fame degree of preffure was
applied higher, between the ftomach and umbilical re¬
gion, it became almoft intolerable. A perfedl crifis
feldom ever happened in this fever, which he imputes
to the great oppreffion of the vital powers, whereby
they were rendered unable to produce fuch an event*
When, the difeafe proved mortal, the patient general¬
ly died on the 10th or 1 ith day from the firft attack.
In thofe who died of the fever, the omentum was found
fuppurated ; an inflammation of which part, or of the
inteftines, Dr Leake concludes to be the proximate
caufe of the difeafe.
In confequence of this idea of the caufe of the dif¬
eafe, Dr Leake affirms that venefedlion is the only re¬
medy which can give the patient a chance for life. But,
tho’ it is the principal refource to be depended upon
at the beginning of the fever, he obferves that it will
feldom prove of fervice after the fecond or third day ;
and, if directed yet later, will only weaken and ex-
hauft the patient; when, matter having begun to form
in the omentum, the progrefs of the difeafe can no
longer be prevented by that evacuation. At this period
the blood begins to be tainted by the abforptian of the
purulent fluid; and the fever, from being inflammatory,
is changed into a putrid nature.
After bleeding in fuch a quantity as the fymptoms
require, he advifes that the corrupted bile be evacua¬
ted and corre&ed as foon as pofiible 5 that the diar¬
rhoea, when exceffive, be reftrained by emollient ano¬
dyne clyfters and gentle fudorifics, or even by opiates
and mild aflringents, when the patient’s' ftrength be¬
gins to fink under the difcharge ; and, laftly, that
where the figns of the putrefaction or intermifiion take
place, antifeptics and the Peruvian bark may be ad-
miniftered.
The great uniformity of the fymptoms in all Dr
Leake’s patients might authorize an opinion, that the
fever which he defcribes was in a great meafure a dif¬
eafe fat generis, and depended much upon the confti-
tution of the air preceding and during the period in
which the fever prevailed.
Dr Kirkland has alfo made judicious obfervations on
this fubjedt.. He rejetts the opinion that the puerpe¬
ral.
Tart II.
M E D I
ctice ral fever is a difeafe fuigenerist and arifes always from
the fame caufe. The particular fituation of child-bed
women, he acknowledges, occafions a fimilarity in the
appearance of all the febrile fymptoms: but he af¬
firms that the fame kind of fever may be produced by
various caufes ; for inftance, by an inflammation of the
uterus or abdomen, by putrid blood or other matter,
and putrid miafms. The fymptoms, he obferves, will
vary according to the time of feizure. If the fever
happens in three or four days after delivery, all the
fymptoms ufual to the fituation of the patient will
make their appearance ; but if it does not invade till
the milk ha> been fecreted, and the lochial difeharge is
nearly finifhed, the fymptoms, if the breads are proper¬
ly drawn, will, for the moft part,be thofe only which
are common to that kind of diforder by which the fe¬
ver has been produced.
With refpeS to the cure of puerperal fevers, Dr
Kirkland advifes the antiphlogiftic method when they
nrife from inflammation ; but when this method fails
of fuccefs, and a diarrhoea fupervenes, the difeafe has
changed its nature, having become more or lefs pu¬
trid, and requires a very different treatment.
His obfervations relative to the management of the
diarrhoea are extremely judicious. No one, fays he,
would purge and bleed to cure the colliquative fever
arifing from the abforption of matter in large wounds;
and yet the only difference is, that in the puerperal fe¬
ver the matter abforbed from the uterus, &c. afts
with, more violence, becaufe the blood is commonly
thinner and the habit in a more irritable ftate. We
fee, continues he, that abforbed matter purges as ef-
fe&ually as if any purging medicine had been given
by the mouth ; and may we not therefore do harm by
additional purging, when there has been a large eva¬
cuation, efpecially as purges in this cafe are incapable
of entirely removing \\it fomes morbi ?
He confiders the Peruvian bark as the principal re¬
medy, as foon as the pulfe finks, the heat is leffened,
and the ftomach will bear it. If the bark increafesthe
diarrhoea beyond moderation, he joins with it final!
dofes of laudanum ; but if the diarrhoea were entirely
to flop without the fever going off, in place of lauda-
, num he advifes a proper quantity of rhubarb. Should
the diarrhoea, notwithftanding the ufe of the me¬
dicines propofed, become fo violent as to endanger the
patient, he joins Mr White in recommending the Co¬
lombo root, which is a warm cordial, and removes the
irritability of the ftomach and inteftines more power¬
fully than any other bitter he knows.
Of this difeafe alfo, as it appears in Derbyfhire and
fome of the adjacent provinces, an account has been
publifhed by Dr Butter. Concerning the caufes and
nature of the difeafe, he obferves, that pregnancy
feems to add much to the natural fenfibility of the fe¬
male conftitution ; becaufe at this period women are
often fubjedl to a train of nervous fymptoms, which ne¬
ver moleft them at other times. During geftation,
likewife, the appetite is for the moft part keen, while
the digeftion appears to be impaired ; and this weak-
nefs is increafed not only by improper food, of which
the woman is frequently defirous, but alfo by the in-
aAivity attending her fitnation. To thefe circumftan-
ces, it is added, that the inteftinal paffage being inter¬
rupted by the uterine preffure, coftivenef* generally
CINE. 4857
prevails. From the fevefal obfervations here enume-Practtcs
rated. Dr Butter concludes, that the proximate caufe-" “
of the puerperal fever is a fpafmodic affe&ion of the
firft paffages, with a morbid accumulation in their ca¬
vity ; and upon this fuppofition he endeavours to ac¬
count for the various fymptoms of the difeafe.
In treating of the method of cure, the author lays
down two indications ; the former of which is to pro¬
mote two, three, or four ftools daily, in a manner fuit-
ed to the ftrength of the patient, till fuch time as they
refume a natural appearance. The fecond indication is
to relieve all uneafy fymptoms, fuch as heat, thirft*
head-ach, &c.
With refpeft to the opinion entertained by Dr But¬
ter of the caufe of the puerperal fever, it nearly coin¬
cides with that of Mr White. But however plaufible
it may appear, we are not entirely fatisfied that a dif¬
eafe attended with fo peculiar fymptoms as the puer¬
peral fever can depend principally upon an irritability,
which is not reftrifted either to the pregnant or puer¬
peral ftate.
It deferves to be remarked, that though the feveral
writers who treat of this fubjeeff have conduced their
method of cure conformably to their particular idea of
the caufe of the difeafe, refpefting which their fenti-
ments are very different, they feem to have been equal¬
ly fuccefsful in the treatment of their patients. Indeed
the feveral writers differ lefs from each other in their
method of cure, than might be expefted where fo great
an oppofition of theoretical fentiments prevails. For
after endeavouring to eftablilh indications correfpon-
dent to their particular fyftems, thofe who contend for
the expediency of promoting the inteftinal difeharge,
diffuade not from a recourfe to phlebotomy when the
difeafe is attended with inflammatory fymptoms; while,
on the other hand, the moft ftrenuous advocates for
bleeding admit the utility of the former evacuation. It
appears, therefore, that a due regulation of the alvine
difeharge is neccffary through the whole courfe of the
fever, but venefeftion only fometimes.
CCXVIII. CEPHALALGIA, the Head-Ach.' 49!
The headach is fymptomatic of very many diftem-
pers, but is rarely an original difeafe itfelf. Dr Home
acquaints us that his report-books only furnifli four in-
ftances of it; and of thefe four, three were women.
The difeafe proved fatal to the man; and after death,
a.confiderable effufion of blood was found on the brain,
together with fome hydatids, and water in the ven¬
tricles.
Headachs appear frequently to be occafioned by ef-
fufions of blood and ferum; as well as by ulcers, and
abfceffes.of the brain, dura and pia mater. Accretions
and offifications of different parts of the dura mater,
falx, and brain, are alfo frequently difeovered. Anoffi-
fication of the falx, however, does not always produce
headach : for Dr Home mentions a patient who had
the falx oflified without headach; but he had beenob-
ferved to be very furious when drunk. Congeftions of
blood in the veffels of the brain are alfo difeovered from
diffe&ions to be a frequent caufe of the headach; and
nervous irritation alone will frequently produce it, as
we fee in the clavus hyjlericus.
In the cure of this difeafe we have little or no power
over olfincations, effufians, or ulcerations; and hence
27 L 2 the
48j8
Practice the headach is frequently incurable. In congeftions,
*~and nervous affe£Hons, medicines may indeed be of
feme fervice. Congeftion may be relieved by an eva¬
cuation of blood, either general or topical; as venefec-
tion, cupping, or leeches: by errhines; which, how¬
ever, Dr Home thinks are little to be depended upon:
by topical evacuations near the head by blifters, iffues,
or fetons; by purgatives; or by determining the fluids
to other parts* by rubefacients applied to the temples,
pediluvia, &c.
Nervous irritation may be diminilhed, I. By a
great quantity of cold water drunk every irorning.
This is recommended by Hoffman ; and will wafh off
all acrid particles from the ftomach, while the cold
ftrengthens and diminifhes the fenfibility of the part.
This remedy was tried for a confiderable time in one of
Dr Home’s patients, without any effed. 2. Nervous
and tonic medicines; as the bark, valerian, &c. Thefe
were tried in two of Dr Home's patients, but alfo
without fuccefs. In a third the valerian fucceeded.
3. By cold water applied to the head, immerfion, or
the fhower-bath. 4. Cacuphse of cephalics; as laven¬
der, rofemary, &c. In flight cafes, the fmell of eau
de luce, or any flrong volatile alkali, will generally
prove a cure.
.Q2 CCXIX. A Dangerous Affection of the
^ OESOPHAGUS.
This diflemper has Only been treated of by Dr
Munckley, who reckons it one of the moft deplorable
difeafes of the human body. Its beginning is in ge¬
neral fo flight as to be fcarce worth notice, the pa¬
tients perceiving only a fmall impediment to the fwal-
lowing of folid food: they ufually continue in this ftate
for many months; during which, all liquid foods, and
even folids themfelves, when cut fmall and fwallowed
leifurely, are got down without much difficulty: by
degrees the evil increafes, and the paflage through the
cefophagus becomes fo narrow, that not the fmalleft fo¬
lid whatever can pafs through it; but, after having
been detained for fome time at the part where the ob-
ftacle is formed, is returned again with a hollow noife
of a very peculiar kind, and with the appearance of
convulfion.
The feat of this malady is fometimes near the top of
the oefophagus, and at other times farther down, nearer
the fuperior orifice of the ftomach. In this laft cafe,
the part of the alimentary tube which is above the ob-
ftru&ion, is frequently fo dilated by the food which is
detained in it as to be capable of containing a large
quantity; and the kind of vomiting, by which it is
again returned through the mouth, comes on fooner or
later after the attempt to fwallow, in proportion to
the nearnefs or remotenefs of the part affe&ed. In the
laft ftage of this difeafe, not even liquids themfelves
can be fwallowed fo as to pafs into the ftomach, and
the patient dies literally ftarved to death.
On the difleftion of fuch as have died in this man¬
ner, the cefophagus is found to be canfiderably thick¬
ened; and in frime fo contrafted within at the difeafed
part, as fcarcely to admit the palling of a common
probe ; in others, to adhere together in fuch a manner
as entirely to clofe up the paflage, and not to be fepa-
rated without great difficulty.
He comes nest to Ihew what he has found to be the
Part II.
moft efficacious method of treating this difeafe, which. Practice
though hot uncommon, yet in general has been confi- ~
dcred as incurable.
He claims not the merit of having difeovered the
method of cure, but hopes that fome fervice may arife
from pnblifhing what his experience has confirmed to
him; having firft received the hint from another emi¬
nent phyfician.
The only medicine, then, from the ufe of which he
has^ter found any fervice, is mercury ; and in cafes
which are recent^ and where the fymptoms have not
rifen to any great height, fmall doles of mercury gi¬
ven every night, and prevented, by purgative medi¬
cines, from affedting the mouth, have accomplifhed the
cure.
But where the complaint has been of long Handing,
and the fymptom has come on of the food’s being re¬
turned through the mouth, a more powerful method of
treatment becomes neceffary. In this cafe he has ne¬
ver found any thing of the lead avail in removing any
of the fymptoms, but mercury, ufed in a fuch a man¬
ner as to raife a gentle, but conftant fpitting; and this
method he has purfued with the happieft fuccefs. If
this method be commenced before the complaint has
gained too much ground upon the conftitution, the
cafe is not to be defpaired of; and of thofe who have
come under his care in this ftate, by much the greater
part have received confiderable benefit from it, and
many been entirely cured.
The complaint itfelf, he obferves, is not very un¬
common ; but there is no inftance, to his knowledge,
recorded, of fuccefs from any other manner of treating
it, than that he has recommended.
CCXX. WORMS. 423
Those infefting the human body are chiefly of three
kinds: the afearides, or round and Ihort white worm;
the terest or round and long worm; and the ttenia, or
tape-worm.
The afearides have ufually their feat in the return.
—The round worms are about a fpan long, round and
fmooth: they are feated for the moft part in the upper
fmall inteftines; but fometimes they are lodged alfo in
the ftomach, and in any piart of the inteftines, even to
the reftum.—The tape-worms are from two to forty
feet long, according to the teftinjony of Platerus; they
generally poflefs the whole traft of the inteftines, but
efpecially the ileum: they very much refemble a tape
in their appearance, whence the name of tape worm.
In the Medical Tranfadlions, Vol. I, Dr Heberden
gives a very accurate account of the fymptoms produ¬
ced by the afearides, from an eminent phyfician who
was troubled with them all his life. They brought on
an uneafinefs in the reftum, and an almoft intolerable
itching in the anus; which fenfations moft ufually
came on in the evening, and prevented fleep for feveral
hours. They were attended with heat, fometimes fo
confiderable as to produce a fwelling in the rectum
both internally and externally; and if thefe fymptoms
were not foon relieved, a tenefmus was brought on,
with a mucous deje&ion. Sometimes there was a gri¬
ping pain in the lower part of the abdomen, a little
above the os pubis. If this pain was very fevere, a
bloody mucus followed, in which there were often found
afearides alive. They were alfo fometimes fufpe&ed
MEDICINE.
J Part II. M E D I
A^RAcricEof occafioning difturbed fleep, and fome degree of
headach.
On this cafe Dr Heberden obferves, that the gene¬
ral health of the patient did not feem to have fnffered
from the long continuance of the difeafe, nor the im¬
mediate inconveniencies of the diforder itfelf to have
increafed. “ It is, (fays he), perhaps univerfally true,
that this kind of worms, though as difficult to be cu¬
red as any, yet is the lead dangerous of all. They
have been known to accompany a perfon through the
whole of a long life, without any reafon to fufpeft that
they had haftened its end. As in this cafe there was no
remarkable ficknefs, ihdigeftion, giddinefs, pain of the
ftomach, nor itching of the nofe, poffibly thefe fymp-
toms where they have happened to be joined with the
afcarides did not properly belong to them, but arofe
from fome other caufes. There is indeed no one fign
of thefe worms, but what in fome patients will be
wanting.”
The abovementioned patient ufed purging and irri¬
tating clyfters with very little fuccefs. One drachm
and an half of tobacco was infuled in fix ounces of
boiling water; and the drained liquor being given as
a clylter, occafioned a violent pain in the lower part
of the abdomen, with faintnefs and a cold fweat:
this injeftion, though retained only one minute, a&ed
as a fmart purge, but did little or no good. Lime-
water was alfo ufed as a clyfter; which brought on a
coftivenefs, but had no good effedl. Six grams of
fait of fleel were diffolved in fix ounces of water, and
injefted. This clyfter in a few minutes occafioned an
aching in the reftum, griped a little without purging,
and excited a tenefmus. Some few afcarides were
brought off with it; but all of them were alive. The
nneafy fenfation in the reftum did not abate till fome
warm milk was thrown up. Whenever the tenefmus
or mucons (tools were thought worth the taking no¬
tice of, warm milk and oil generally gave immediate
relief. If purging was neceffary, the lenient purges,
fuch as manna with oil, were, in this particular cafe,
made ufe of: rhubarb was found too ftimulating.—
But, in general, the moft ufeful purge, and which
therefore was moft ufually taken, was cinnabar and
rhubarb, of each half a drachm : this powder feldom
failed to bring away a mucus as tranfparent as the
white of an egg, and in this many afearides were
moving about. 'The cinnabar frequently adhered to
this mucus, which did not come off in large quanti¬
ties when a purge was taken without cinnabar.
Calomel did no more than any other purge which
operates brifkly would have done; that is, it brought
away afcarides,. with a great deal of mucus. Oil
given as a clyfter fometimes brought off thefe ani¬
malcules : the oil fwam on the furface of the mucus,
! and the afcarides were alive and moving in the mucus
itfelf, which probably hindered the oil from coming
in contaft with them and killing them.
The Doftor alfo obferves, that mucus or (lime is
the proper neft of the afcarides, in which they live,
and is perhaps the food by which they are nourilhed;
and it is this mucus which preferves them unhurt*
though furrounded with many other liquors the im¬
mediate touch of which would be fatal. It is hard to
fatisfy ourfelves by what inftindt they find it out in
the human body, and by what means they get at it;
CINE. 4859
but it is obfervable in many other parts of nature, as^RAc-rics
well as here, that where there is a fit foil for the
hatching and growth of animals and vegetables, na¬
ture has taken fulficient care that their feeds ftunild
find the way thither. Worms are faid to have been
found in the inteftines of infants born dead. Purges,
by leflening this (lime, never fail to relieve the pa¬
tient : and it is not unlikely, that the worms which
are not forced away by this quickened motion of the
inteftines, may, for want of a proper quantity of it,
languifh, and at lad die; for if the afeardies are taken
out of their mucus, and expofed to the open air, they
become motionlefs, and apparently die in a very (hort
time. Dr Heberden fuppofes that the kind of purge
made ufe of is of little confequence in the cure of all
other worms as well as afcarides; the infe&s being
always defended by the mucus from the immediate
a&ion of medicines; and that therefore thofe purges
are the bed which a£l brificly, and of which a repe¬
tition can be mod eafily born. Purging waters are
of this fort, and jalap efpecially for children; two or
more grains of which, mixed with fugar, aare mod ea¬
fily taken, and may be repeated daily.
From the cafe above-mentioned, and from Dr He-
berden’s obfervations, we may eafily fee why it is fo
difficult to dellroy thefe infe&s; and why anthelmin-
tics, greatly celebrated for fome cures, are yet fo far
from being fpecifics in the difeafe. As the worms
which refide in the cavities of the human body are
never expofed to the air, by which all living creatures
are invigorated it is evident, that in themfelves they
mud be the mod tender and eafily dedruftible crea¬
tures imaginable, and much lefs will be requifite to
kill them than any of our common infers. The
mod pernicious fubdances to any of the common in¬
fers are oil, caudic fixed alkali, lime, and lime-water.
The oil operates upon them by (hutting up the pores
of their bodies; the lime-water, lime, and candic al¬
kali, by difiblving their very fubdance. In the cafe
of intedinal worms, however, the oil can have very
little effeft upon them, as they are defended from it
by the moifture and mucus of the intedines; the like
happens with lime-water: and therefore it is neceffary
that the medicine (hould be of fuch a nature as to
dedroy both mucus and infe&s together; for which
purpoie the caudic fixed alkali is at once fafe and ef¬
ficacious, nor is it probable that any cafe of worms
whatever could refid the proper ufe of this medicine.
A very large dofe of any fait indeed will alfo dedroy
the mucus, and dedroy the worms; but it is apt to
inflame and excoriate the domach and intedines,s and
thus- to produce worfe didempers than that which it
was intended to cure. Dr Heberden gives the fol¬
lowing remarkable cafe of a patient cured of worms
by enormous dofes of common fait, after, trying many
other remedies in vain. In February 1757, the pa¬
tient was feized with uncommon pains in his domacb,
attended with naufea, vomiting, condipation of his
bowels, and an almort total lofs of deep and appetite;
He foon became greatly emaciated, and could neither
ftand nor walk upright; his belly grew fmall and
hard, and clofely retraded, infomuch that thedernum
covered the navel, and the latter could fcarce be dis¬
covered or felt by the finger: his urine was always
milky, and foon depofited a thick white fediment; his
excrements
486o M E D I
Practicf excrements were very hard and lumpy, refembling
thofe of Iheep, cmly of a brown colour; nor bad he
ever a ftool without fome medicine or other to pro¬
cure it. In this fituation he continued four years;
during which time he had been in an infirmary, at¬
tended by eminent phyficians, but was difmified as in¬
curable. At laft he was advifed by a neighbour to
drink fait and water, as he faid he knew one cured
by it who had for many years been afflifted with the
fame kind of pains in the belly and ftomach. As his
diftemper was now almoft infupportable, he willingly
tried the experiment. Two pounds of common fait
were diffolved in as little water as poflible, all which
he drank in lefs than an hour. Soon afterwards he
found himfelf greatly opprefied at his ftomach, grew
extremely fick, and vomited violently; on the fourth
itraining he brought up about half a pint of fmall
worms, part afcarides, and the reft refembling thofe
worms which are called the botts, and frequently met
with in the ftomach of horfes, but much fmaller, and
about the fize of a grain of wheat. The fait foon
began to operate downwards, and he had five or fix
very copious fetid ftools tinged with blood ; and in
them difcharged near an equal quantity of the fame
kind of worms he had vomited. Being greatly fa¬
tigued with the violence of the operations, he fell into
a calm fleep, which lafted two hours, during which
lie fweated profufely, and awoke much refrelhed.
Inftead of his ufual pains, he now only complained of
a rawnefs and forenefs of his gullet, ftomach, and
bowels, with an almoft unquenchable third; to allay
which, he drank large quantities of cold water, whey,
butter-milk, or whatever he could get. The urine he
now pafled was fmall in quantity, and rendered with
very great difficulty, being highly faturated with the
fait, from whence arofe a moft troublefome dyfuria
and ftrangury. However, thefe fymptoms gradually
abated by a free ufe of the liquors above-mentioned;
and on the third morning he was fo well recovered,
that he took two pounds more of fait, diflblved in the
like quantity of water. The effe&s were nearly fimi-
lar to the former; only that moft of the worms were
now burft, and came away with a confiderable quan¬
tity of flime and mucus. The drought, ftrangury, &c.
returned with their former violence; but foon yielded
to the old treatment. He fweated very copioufly for
three days, flept eafily, and by that time could ex¬
tend his body freely: on the fifth day he left his bed,
and, though very weak, could walk upright ; his
ftrength and appetite foon returned, and he became
robuft and well.
The anthelmintic medicines which have been recom¬
mended by one perfon or other, are in a manner innu¬
merable ; but the principal are,
1. Quickfilver. This is very efficacious in all kinds
of worms, either taken in the form of calomel, cor-
rofive fublimate, or even the crude metal boiled In
water and the water drunk. There can be no poffi-
ble objetfion to it, but only that it is not endowed
with any attenuating quality whereby the mucus in
which thefe infers refides can be diflblved. It there¬
fore fails in many cafes, though it will moft certainly
deftroy worms where it can get at them.
2. Powder of tin. This was for fome time cele¬
brated as a fpecific, and indeed we may reafonably
CINE. Part II.
expe& good effe&s from it; as by its weight andPRAcncs
grittinefs it rubs off the mucus and worms it con-
tains from the coats of the inteftinal canal, in which
cafe they are eafily evacuated by purgatives. In
order to produce any confiderable effcdts, it muft be
given in a large dofe.
3. Cabbage-tree bark. This remedy is ufed by the
inhabitants of Jamaica. The firft account of it which
appeared in this country was publilhed in the Phyfical
and Literary Effays, vol. ii. by Mr Duguid furgeon
in that ifland. He acquaints us that the inhabitants
of Jamaica, young and old, white and black, arc
much infefted with worms, efpecially the long round
fort; the reafon of which, he thinks, is the quantity
of fweet vifcid vegetables which they eat. On diffec-
ting a child of feven months old, who died of vomiting
and convulfions, twelve large worms were found ; one
of them filled the appendix vermiformis, and three of
them were entwifted in fuch a manner as to block up
the valvula Tulpii, fo that nothing could pafs from the
fmall to the great guts.—The bark of the cabbage-
tree, however, he tell us is a fafe and effedfual re¬
medy, and the moft powerful vermifuge yet known ;
and that it frequently brings away as many worms by
ftool as would fill a large hat. He owns that it has
fometimes violent effefts ; but this he afcribes to the
negroes who make the deco&ion, (in which form the
bark is ufed), and not to the remedy itfelf.
Mr Anderfon, furgeon in Edinburgh, hath alfo given
an account of this bark and its operation, in a letter
to Dr Duncan, Med. Com. volume iv. p. 84. From
this account it appears, that there are two different
kinds of bark; the one much paler than the other :
the pale kind operates much more violent than the
other. It often occafions loofe ftools, great naufea,
and fuch like fymptoms, attended with great uneafi-
nefs in the belly : in one or two inftances it was fuf-
peffed of inducing fyncope. The darker coloured
kind refembles the caffia lignea, though it is of a
much coarfer texture. This kind, Mr Anderfon
thinks, may be exhibited in any cafe’ where an an¬
thelmintic is neceffary; the dangerous fymptoms might
have followed either from the ufe of the firft kind, or
from an over-dofe. The ufual method of preparing the
medicine is by boiling two ounces and a half of the
bark in two quarts of water to a pint and a half.
Of this a tea-fpoonful may be given at firft in the
morning, gradually increafing the quantity till we
come to four or five table-fpoonfuls in a day. When
exhibited in this manner, Mr Anderfon informs us,
that he never faw it produce any violent fymptoms,
and has experienced the heft effefts from it as an an¬
thelmintic. After the ufe of this decoftion for eight
or nine mornings fucceffively, a dofe of jalap with
calomel muft be given, which feldom fails to bring
away the worms, ibme dead, fome alive. If at any
time the decoftion produced more than one or two
loofe ftools, a few drops of liquid laudanum may be
given ; and, in general, Mr Anderfon gave fifteen
or twenty drops of the fpirit of lavender with each
dofe.
In a letter from Dr Rufh, profeffor of chemiftry
at Philadelphia, to Dr Duncan of Edinburgh, the
following account is given of another preparation of
this medicine. “ It has long (fays he) been a com¬
plaint
' Part II. M E D I
^i bactice plaint among phyficians, that we have no vermifuge
"F" medicine which can be depended up. Even calomel
fails in many cafes where there are the molt pathog-
Bomonic figns of worms in the bowels. But this com¬
plaint, it is hoped, is now at an end. The phyficians
of Jamaica have lately found, that the bark of the
fummits of the cabbage-tree, made into a fyrup with
brown fugar, is an infallible antidote to them. I
have ufed above 30 pounds of it, and have never found
it fail in one inftance. The fyrup is pleafant; it
fometimes pukes, and always purges, the firft or fe-
cond time it is given.”
Notwithftanding thefe encomiums, howevers, the
cabbage-tree bark hath not come-into general ufe ; fo
that we can only look upon at as a draftic purgative,
the effefts of which mull neceffarily be as precarious
as thofe of others.
4. Couhage, or cow-itch. This is the Dolickos uretis
or pruriens of Linnaeus ; and the principles on which
it ads have been already explained under the ar¬
ticle Dolichos. It is fomewhat fimilar to the
powder of tin, but bids fair for being more effica¬
cious. The only obje&ion to its ufe is, that by the
hairs of it entangling themfelves with one another,
calculi might be formed in the inteftines, or obftruc-
tions equally bad ; or if the lharp points and hooks
with which it abounds were to adhere to the nervous
coats of the inteftines themfelves, they might occafion
a fatal irritation, which could not be removed by any
means whatever.
5. Indian pink. This is alfo an American plant,
and was firft; recommended in the Edinburgh Phyfical
jji _ and Literary Eftays by Dr Garden of Charleftown in
South Carolina. He is of opinion that a vomit ought
always to precede the ufe of it; and informs us, that
half a drachm of it purges as brilkly as the fame
quantity of rhubarb. At other times he has known
it produce no effeft on the belly though given in
very large quantity: In fuch cafes it becomes ne-
cefiary to add a grain or two of fweet mercury, or
fome grains of rhubarb; but then it is lefs effica¬
cious than when it proves purgative without addition.
This ufe of it, however, in fmall dofes, is by no
means fafe ; as it frequently produces giddinefs, dim-
nefs of fight, convulfions, &c. The addition of a
purgative, indeed, prevents thefe effedls; but at the
fame time, as already obferved, it diminilhes the vir¬
tue of the medicine. The do&or therefore recom¬
mends large dofes, as from them he never knew any
other effeft than the medicine’s proving emetic or vio¬
lently cathartic. The dofe is from 12 to 60 or 70
grains of the root in fubftance, or two, three, or four
drachms of the infufion, twice a-day.
This medicine hath alfo had its day, and is now
very far from being confidered as a fpecific. From
what hath been already obferved, it mull pretty
-elearly appear, that powder of tin, cow-itch, or fixed
alkaline falls, bid fairell for deftroying worms in all
the variety of cafes in which they can occur. Alka¬
lies indeed have been but little tried. We have
known one cafe in which all the complaints have
been removed by a (ingle dofe : we have alfo an in¬
ftance of their efficacy, in an extraordinary cafe
of a worm bred in the liver, mentioned in the 2d
volume of the Medical Obfervations. The patient
CINE. 486*
had a violent pain in the fide, and fonaetimes in the PRAc-nrs
fhoulder, asithe worm Ihifted its place; hut, on the
application of a lixivia! poultice, the pain went out of
the fide entirely, and kept in the fhoulder for fome
weeks; and had a fimilar poultice been applied there,
it is probable the animal would have died.
The long round worms feem to be the mod dan¬
gerous which infeft the human body, as they often
pierce through the ftomach and inteftines, and thus
bring on a miferable death. The common fymptoms of
them are naufea, vomiting, loofenefs, fainting, /lender
intermitting pulfe, itching of the nofe, and epileptic
fits. By the confumption of the chyle they produce
hunger, palenefs, weaknefs, coftivenefs, tumour of the
abdomen, erudlations, and rumbling of the inteftines
but it is from the perforation of the inteftines that
the difeafe proves fo frequently fatal. A child may
be known to have worms, from his cold tempera¬
ment, palenefs of the countenance, livid eye-lids,
hollow eyes, itching of the nofe, voracity, ftartings,
and grinding of the teeth in fleep ; and more Special¬
ly by a very foetid breath. Very frequently, how¬
ever, they are voided by the mouth and anus, in which
cafe there is no room for doubt. In the Medical
Commentaries, Vol. II. we have an account of the in¬
teftines being perforated by a worm, and yet the pa¬
tient recovered. The patient was a woman troubled
with an inflammation in the lower part of the abdo¬
men. The pain was fo violent, that for fix days fhe
flept none at all; the tumour then broke, difeharged
upwards of a pound of thin watery fanies, immediately
after which the excrements followed. The next day
(he was extremely low ; her pulfe could fcarcely be-
felt; the extremities were cold ; and there was a con-,
fiderable difeharge from the wound, which had alrea¬
dy begun to mortify. She got a deco£lion of the bark
with wine, which alleviated the fymptoms ; but in
removing the mortified parts a worm was found among
them nine inches long, and as thick as an eagle’s quill.
By proper applications, the difeharge of excrements,
ceafed, and (he recovered perfedl health. She was
fenfible of no accident giving rife to the inflammation;
fo that in all probability it arofe entirely from the
worm itfelf.
The tania-y or tape-worm, as it is called, is one
of thofe mod difficult to be cured. It is of two
kinds, iania folium and taenia lata; for a deferip-
tion of which, fee the article Tjenia., The reafon
of its being fo difficult to cure, is, that though por¬
tions of it are apt to break off and be difeharged, it is
endowed with a power of reprodu<ffion,fo that the pa¬
tient is little or nothing better. The fymptoms occa-
fioned by it are not different from thofe above deferi-
bed. A fpecific againft the tamia lata hath been
lately fo much celebrated in France, that the king
thought proper to purchafe it from the proprietor
(Madam Nouffer), and the account of it hath been
tranflated into Engliffi by Dr Simmons. The patients
are required to obferve no particular regimen till the
day before they take the fpecific. That day they are
to take nothing after dinner till about 7 o’clock; after
which, they are to take the following foup : “ Take
a pint and an half of water, two or three ounces of
good frelh-butter, and two ounces of bread cut into,
thin fiices: add to this, fait enough to feafon it, and
then
M E D I
then boil it to the confiftence of panada.” About a
quarter of an hour after this, they take a bifcuit and a
glufs of white-wine, either pure or mixed with water;
or even water alone, if they have not been accuftomed
to wine. If the patient has not been to ftool that day,
(which, however, is not ufual with patients in this
way), the following clyfter is to be injefted. “ Take
a fmall quantity of the leaves of mallows, and boil them
in a fufficient quantity of water, mixing with it a little
fait, and when ftrained off add two ounces of oil
olive.” Next morning, about eight or nine hours after
the fupper abovementioned, the fpecific is to be taken.
This is no other than two or three drachms of the root
of male fern gathered in autumn, and reduced to fine
powder. It is to be taken in any diftilled water, or
in common water. This medicine is apt to occafion a
naufea: to avoid which, Madam Nouffer allows her pa¬
tients to chew any thing that is agreeable, but forbids
any thing to be fwallowed ; or they may fmell to vi¬
negar, to check the ficknefs: but if, notwithftanding
this, the fpecific is thrown up, a frefh dofe mull be
fwallowed as foon as the ficknefs is gone off, and then
they muft try to fleep: About two hours after this the
following bolus is to be taken. “ Take of the pa¬
nacea of mercury 14 times fublimed, and feledt refin
of fcammony, each ten grains; of frefh and good gam¬
boge, fix or feven grains : reduce each of thefe fub-
ftances feparately into powder, and then mix them with
feme conferve into a bolus.” This compofition is to
be fwallowed at two different times, wafhing it down
with one or two difhes of weak green-tea, after which
the patient muft walk about his chamber. When the
bolus begins to operate, he is to take a difh of the
fame teaoccafionally, until the worm is expelled; then,
and not before, Madame Nouffer gives him broth or
foup, and he is directed to dine as is ufual after taking
phyfic. After dinner he may either lie down or walk
out, taking care to condudl himfelf difcreetly, to eat
but little fupper, and to avoid every thing that is not
of eafy digeftion.
The cure then is complete; but it is not always effec¬
ted with the fame quicknefs in every fubjeft. He who
has not kept down the whole bolus, or who is not fuf-
ficienfly purged by it, ought to take, four hours after
it, from two to eight drachms of Epfom fait diffolved
in boiling water. The dofe of this fait may be varied
according to the temperament and other circumftances
of the patient.
If the worm fhould not come away in a bundle, but
in the form of a thread (which particularly happens
when the worm is involved in much tenacious mucus),
the patient muft continue to fit upon the clofe-ftool
without attempting to draw it away, drinking at the
fa ne time warm weak tea: fometimes this alone is not
fufficient, and the patient is obliged to take another
dole of purging fait, but without varying his pofition
till the worm is wholly expelled.
It is unufual for patients who have kept down both
the fpecific and purging dofe, not to difeharge the
worm before dinner-time. This, however, fometimes
happens when the dead worm remains in large bundles
in the inteftines, fo that the fseces becoming more
limpid towards the end of the purging, pafs by it
without drawing it with them. The patient may in
this cafe eat his dinner; and it has been obferved, that
CINE. Part II.
the food, joined to the ufe of a clyfter, has brought Practice
about^the expulfion of the worm. ———
Sometimes the worm is brought away by the aflion
of the fpecifice alon, before the patient has taken the
purging bolus: when this happens, Madame Nouf¬
fer gives only two thirds of it, or fubftitutes the fait in
its ftead.
Patients muft not be alarmed by any fenfation of
heat or uneafinefs they may feel during the attion of
the remedy, either before or after a copious*evacua¬
tion, or juft as they are about to void the worm. Thefe
fenfations are tranfitory, and go off of their own ac¬
cord, or by the afliftance of the vapour of vinegar
drawn in at the nofe.
They who have vomited both the fpecific and bolus,
or who have kept down only a part of them, fome¬
times do not void the worm that day. Madame Nouf¬
fer therefore direfts them to take again that night the
foup, the wine and bifeuit, and if circumftances re¬
quire it the clyfter. If the worm does not come away
during the night, (he gives them early the next morn¬
ing another dofe of the fpecific, and, two hours after
wards, fix drachms or an ounce of purging fait, re¬
peating the whole procefs of the preceding day; ex¬
cepting the bolus, which (he fupprefles.
. She obferves, that very hot weather diminiflies in
fome degree the adfion of her remedy; (he therefore
prefers the month of September for adminiftering it :
but as (he has not been always able to choofe fhe fea-
fon, and has been fometimes obliged to undertake the
care of patients in the hotted days of fummer, (he
then gave her fpecific very early in the morning;
and with this precaution (he faw no difference in its
effects.
On the day appointed for the trial of this medicine,
it was exhibited to five different perfons ; but only one
of them was certainly known to have the tcenia lata by
having difeharged parts of it before. That perfon
was cured ; the fecond voided a portion of the tania
folium; the third fome afearides, with a part of the
tania folium; the fourth and fifth voided no worms;
but the lad confidered much of the vifeid fllme he
voided to be worms in a diffolved date.
This trial was thought fufficient to afeertain the ef¬
ficacy of the medicine, and further trials were mad*
by thofe to whom the fecret was communicated. The
firft voided two taenia, after much vomiting and t8jor
20 (tools ; the fecond had no vomiting, but was as
violently purged, and difeharged two worms; the third
had 20 copious (tools during the night, and difeharged
the worm in the morning; and the fifth was effec¬
ted in much the fame manner. Some others who
were not relieved, were fuppofed not to have a tatnia.
This fpecilic, however, is not to be conlidered as a
new difeovery; the efficacy of fern in cafes of tenia
having been known long ago. Theophraftus preferibes
its root, in dofes of four drams, given in water fweet-
ened with honey, as ufeful in expelling flat worms.
Diofcorides orders it in the fame dofe, and adds, that
its effedts are more certain when it is mixed with four
oboli (40 grains) of fcammony or black hellebore; he
particularly requires that garlic fhould be taken be¬
fore-hand. Pliny, Galen, Oribafius, and Aetiue, a-
feribe this fame virtue to fern; and are followed in this
by Avicenna, and the other Arabian phyficians. Dor-
ftennius,
ir. M E D I
ce ftenius, Valerius Cordus, Dodonaeus, Mathiolus, Da-
lechampius, who commented on Diofcorides, or co¬
pied him in many things, all mention the fern-root
as a fpecific aganii the tsenia. Sennertus, and Burnet
after him, recommended in fimilar cafes an infufion of
this plant, or a dram of its powder for young perfons,
and three drams for adults. Simon Paulus, quoted by
Ray and Geoffrey, confiders it as the mofl: efficacious
of all poifons againft the flat worm, and as being the
bafis of all the fecret remedies extolled by empirics in
that difeafe. Andry (gener. des Ftrs, p. 246, 249)
prefers dittilled fern-water to the root in powder, or he
employs it only in the form of an opiate, or mixed with
other fubftances.
Thefe are not the only authors who have mention¬
ed the tenia ; many others have deferibed this worm,
the fymptoms it excites, and the treatment proper to
expel it. Almoft all of them mention the fern-root,
but at the fame time they point out other remedies as
pofleffing equal efficacy. Amongft thefe we find the
bark of the root of the mulberry-tree, the juice of the
auricula muris, the roots of cb am a Icon niger, ginger,
zedoary; deco&ions of mugwort, fouthernwood, worm¬
wood, penny-royal, origanum, hyffop, ancj in gene¬
ral of all bitter and aromatic plants, &c. Some of
them direft the fpecific to be fimply mixed and taken
in wine or honey and water; others join to it the ufe
of fome purgative remedy, which they fay adds to its
efficacy. Oribafius, Sylvius, &c. diftinguifh the fpe-
eific that kills the worm, from the purgative that eva¬
cuates it, and direft them to be given at different
times. Sennertus gives a very fatisfa&ory reafon for
adopting this method. If we give, fays he, the pur¬
gative medicine and the fpeciftc at the fame time, the
latter will be haflily carried off before it can have ex¬
erted its powers on the worm : whereas, if we give
the fpecific firft, and thus weaken the worm, it will
collect itfelf into a bundle, and, being brought away
by means of the purge, the patient will be cured. The
cure will be more fpeedy if the priirne vice have been
previoufly lubricated. Thefe precautions are all of
them effential to the fuccefs of the remedy, nor are
they neglefted by Madame Nouffer in her method of
treatment. The panada and injection fhe preferibes
the night before, to lubricate the inteflines, and pre¬
pare the primx vice. The fern-root taken in the
morning, kills and detaches the worm : of this the
patients are fenfible by the ceffation of the pain in the
ftomach, and by the weight that is felt in the lower
belly. The purgative bolus adminiftered two hours
after this, procures a complete evacuation ; it is com-
pofed of fubftances that are at once purgative and ver¬
mifuge, and which, even when adminiftered alone, by
different phyficians, fometimes fucceeded in expelling
the worm. If this purgative appear to be too ftrong,
the reader is defired to recolledl, that it produced no
ill effe&s in either of the cafes that came under the
obfervation of the phyficians appointed to make the
trials ; and that in one of thofe cafes, by diminifhing the
dofe, they evidently retarded the evacuations. Regard
however, they obferve, is to be had both to the age and
the temperament of the patient, and the treatment
fhould always be diredled by a prudent and experien¬
ced phyfician, who may know how to vary the pro-
portions. of .the dofe as circumftanees may require. If
Vol. VI. 1
CINE.
the purgative is not of fufficient flrength, the worm,
after being detached by the fpecific, remains too long
a time itythe inteftines, and becoming foon corrupted
is brought away only in detached portions : 5on the
other hand, if the purgative is too ftrong, it occafions
too much irritation, and evacuations that cannot fail to
be inconvenient.
Madame Nouffer’s long experience has taught her
to diftinguifh all thefe circumftances with lingular
adroitnefs.
This method of cure is, as we have feen, copied in
a great meafure from the ancients : it may be poffible
to produce the fame effe&s by varying the remedies ;
but the manner of applying them is by no means in¬
different : we fhall be always more certain of fuccefs,
if the inteftines are previoufly evacuated, and if the
fpecific is given fome time before the purgative bolus,
It is to this method that Madame Nouffer’s conftant
fuccefs is attributed.
Her remedy has likewife fome power over the tcenia
folium; but as the rings of this worm feparate from
each other more eafily than thofe of the tcenia lata, it
is almoft impoffible for it to be expelled entire. It
will be neceffary therefore to repeat the treatment fe-
veral times, till the patient ceafes to void any portions
of worms. It muft likewife be repeated, if, after the
expulfion of one tania folium, another (hould be gene¬
rated in the inteftinal canal. This laft cafe is fo rare,
that it has been fuppofed that no perfon can have
more than one of thefe worms; and for this reafon it
has been named folitary 'worm, which being once re¬
moved, could never be renewed or replaced by a fe-
cond : but experience has proved, that this notion is
an ill founded prejudice, and we know that fometimes
thefe worms fucceed each other, and that fometimes
many of them exift together. Two living tsenia: have
frequently been expelled from the fame patient. M.
de Haen [Rat. Med. tom. viii. p. 157.) relates an in-
ftance of a woman who voided 18 taeniae at once. In
thefe cafes the fymptoms are ufually more alarming;
and the appetite becomes excelfive, becaufe thefe
worms derive all their nourilhment from the chyle. If
too auftere and ill-judged a regimen deprives them of
this, they may be expe&ed to attack even the mem¬
branes of the intettines themfelves. This evil is to be
avoided by eating frequently.
Such are the precautions indicated in this diieafe.
The ordinary vermifuge remedies commonly procured
only a palliative cure, perhaps becaufe they were too
often improperly adminiftered. But the efficacy of
the prefent remedy, in the opinion of the French
phyficians, feem to be fufficiently confirmed by expe¬
rience. To the above account, however, it feems
proper to fubjoin the following obfervations by Hr
Simmons.
“ A Swifs phyfician, of the name of 'Uerrenfchnnand,
more than 20 years ago, acquired no little celebrity
by diftributing a compofition of which he ftyled him-
felf the inventor, and which was probably of the fame
nature as Madame Nouffer’s. Several very eminent
men, as Tronchin, Hovius, Bonnet, Cramer, and o-
thers, have written concerning the effedts of this re¬
medy. It feems that Dr Herrenfcbwand ufed to give
a powder by way of prepaiation, the night before he
adminiftered his fpecific. Nothing could be. laid with
27 M cer-
4863
Practice
4S64 MEDICINE. Part ir_
Pk act ice certainty concerning the compofition either of one or over like the fldn of the ferpent; and that it has fuch Practic
_ tjie ot}jer> treatment was faid fometimes to a motion as if there were innumerable living ferpents —-
produce moft violent effefls, and to leave the patients below it. But this is probably nothing more than
in a valetudinary ftate. Dr De Haen was diffuaded a diffolution of the blood, by which the fkin becomes
by his friends from ufing it, becaufe it difordered the fpotted as in petechial fevers, at the fame time that
patients too much. It will be readily conceived, now the mufcles may be convulfed as in the diftemper called
that we are acquainted with Madame Nouffer’s me- bieranofos, which was formerly thought to be the effedl
thod, that thefe effefts were occafioned wholly by the of evil fpirits.
purgative bolus. It is not ftrange, that refin of fcam- It hath juftly appeared furprifing to philofophers,
mony or jalap, combined with mercurius dulcis and how fuch an inconfiderable quantity of matter as the
gamboge, all of them in ftrong dofes, fhould in many poifon emitted by a viper at the time of biting fhould
fubjefts occafion the greateft diforders. It feems produce fuch violent effedls. But all inquiries into this
likely, however, that much of the fuccefs of the re- matter mud neceflarily be uncertain; neither can they
medy depends on the ufe of a draftic purge. Some of contribute any thing towards the cure. It is certain that
the ancients who were acquainted with the virtues of the poifon produces a gangrenous difpofition of the part
the fern-root, obferved that its efficacy was increafed itfelf, and likewifefeeminglyof the reft of the body; and
by fcammony. Refinous purges, efpecially when that the original quantity of poifon continues fome time
combined with mercury, have often been given with before it exerts all its power on the patient, as it is
fuccefs in cafes of txnia. Dr De Haen faw a worm known that removing part of the poifonous matter by
of this fort five ells long expelled by the refin of jalap fuftion will alleviate the fymptoms. The indications
alone. Dr Gaubius knew a woman who had taken a of cure then are three, i. To remove the poifonous
variety of antihelmintic remedies without any effed, matter from the body: Or, 2. If this cannot be done,
though ffie had voided a portion of tienia an ell and a to change its deftrudftive nature by fome powerful and
half long, previous to the ufe of thefe medicines: but penetrating application to the wound: And, 3. To
at length, after taking a purge of Angular ftrength, counteract the effedts of that portion already received
''r 1 n r into the fyftem.
The poifonous matter can only be removed from
the body by fucking the wound either by the mouth,
or by means of a cupping-glafs ; but the former is
probably the more efficacious, as the faliva will in
fome meafure dilute and perhaps obtund the poifon.
Ihe voYded the worm entire. Many other inftances of
the fame kind are to be met with in authors. Other
remedies have occafionally been given with fuccefs.
In Sweden, it has been a praftice to drink feveral
gallons of cold water, and then to take fome draftic
purge. Boerhaave fays, that he himfelf faw a txnia
meafuring 300 ells expelled from a Ruffian by means ot Mead direfts the perfon who fucks the wound to hold
the vitriolum martis. All thefe methods, however, have warm oil in his mouth, to prevent inflammation of the
been too often ineffectual.’
On the fubjeift of worms, fee further below, under
the Difeafcs of Children.
Of POISONS.
and tongue: but as bites of this kind are moft
likely to happen in the fields, and at a diftance from
houfes, the want of oil ought by no means to retard
the operation, as the delay of a few minutes might
prove of the moft fatal confequence ; and it appears
These have all been treated of already, except the from Dr Mead’s experiments, that the taking the
bites and ftings of ferpents, fcorpions, &c. Ac- poifon of a viper into the mouth undiluted, is attended
cording to Dr Mead, the fymptoms which follow the with no worfe confequences than that of raifinga flight
bite of a viper are, an acute pain in the place wound¬
ed, with a fwelling, at firft red, but afterwards livid,
which by degrees fpreads farther to the neighbouring
parts; with great faintnefs, and a quick, low, and
fometimes interrupted pulfe ; great ficknefs at fto-
mach, with bilious convulfive vomitings, cold fweats,
and fometimes pains about the navel. Frequently a
famous liquor runs from the fmall wound, and little
puftules are raifed about it: the colour of the whole
fkin, in lefs than an hour, is changed yellow, as if the
patient had the jaundice. Thefe fymptoms are very
inflammation. A quick excifion of the part might alfo-
be of very great fervice.
The only way of anfwering the fecond indication
is, by deftroying the poifoned part by a red-hot iron,
or the application of alkaline falts, which have the
power of immediately altering the texture of all ani-
mal-fubftances to which they are applied, provided
they are not covered by the fkin;. and as long as the
poifon is not totally abforbed into the fyftem, thefe
muft certainly be of ufe.
To anfwer the third indication, Dr Mead reeom-
frequently followed by death, efpecially if the climate mends a vomit of ipecacuanha, encouraged in the
is hot, and the animal of a large fize. This is not, working with oil and warm water. The good ef-
however, the cafe with all kinds of ferpents. Some, fe&s of this, he fays, are owing to the {hake which
we are affured, kill by a fatal fleep; others are faid to it gives to the nerves, whereby the irregular fpafms
produce an univerfal haemorrhage and diffolutiou of into which their whole fyftem might be drawn are
the blood; and others an unquenchable thirft. But prevented. After this the patient muft go to bed,
of all the fpecies of ferpents hitherto known, there is and a fweat muft be procured by cordial medicines;
none whofe bite is more expeditioufly fatal than that by which the remaining effeds of the poifon will be
of the rattle-fnake. Dr Mead tells us, that the bite carried off.
of a large ferpent of this kind killed a dog in a quar- It hath been confidently afferted by many, that the
ter of a minute; and to the human fpecies they are American Indians arepoffeffed of fomefpecific remedy
almoft equally fatal. Of this ferpent it is faid, that by which they can eafily cure the bite of a rattle-fnake..
the bite makes the perfon’s fkin become fpotted all But Mr Catefby, who muft have had many opportu¬
nities
mart IT. M E D I
tract ice nitles of knowing this, pofitively denies that they have
~| any fuch medicine. They make applications indeed,
and fometimes the patient recovers; • but thefe reco¬
veries he afcribes to the ftrength of nature overcoming
the poifon, more than to the remedies made ufe of.
He fays, they are very acute in their prognoftics whe¬
ther a perfon that is bit will die or not; and when
they happen to receive a bite in certain parts of the
body, when the teeth of the animal enter a large vein,
for inftance, they quietly refign themfelves to their
fate, without attempting any tiling for their own re¬
lief. Indeed, fo violent and quick is the operation of
this poifon, that unlefs the antidote is inftantly ap¬
plied, the perfon will die before he can get to a houfe.
It would feem therefore eligible for thofe who are in
danger of fuch bites, to carry along with them fome
ftrong alkaline ley, or dry alkaline fait, or both,
which could be inttantly clapt on the wound, and by
-its diffolving power would deftroy both the poifon
and the infeded parts. Strong cordials alfo, fuch as
ardent fpirits, volatile alkali, &c. might poffibly ex¬
cite the languid powers of nature, and enable her to
expel the enemy, which would otherwife prove too
powerful. This feems to be fomewhat confirmed from
the account we have in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
of a gentleman bit by a rattle-fnake, who was more
relieved by a poultice of vinegar and vine-aihes put to
his wound than any thing elfe. The vine-alhes being
of an alkaline nature, mull have faturated the vinegar,
fo that no part of the cure could be attributed to
them: on the other hand, the afhes themfelves could
not have been faturated by the fmall quantity of acid
neceflary to form them into a poultice; of confequence
they mull have operated by their alkaline quality.—
Soap-ley therefore, or very ftrong fait of tartar, may
reafonably be thought to be the beft external appli¬
cation, not only for the bites of vipers, but of every
venomous creature; and in fad we find dry fait uni-
verfally recommended both in the bites of ferpents and
of mad dogs. Dr Mead recommends the fat of vipers
prefently rubbed into the wound; but owns that it is
not fafe to truft to this remedy alone.
M E L iE N E.
495
This is a diftemper not very common, but which
has been obferved by the ancient phyficians, and is
defcribed by Hippocrates under the name of viorbus
niger. It fhews itfelf by a vomiting and purging of
black tar-like matter; which Hippocrates, Boer-
haave, and Van Swieten, fuppofed to be occafioned by
atra bilis. But Dr Home, in his Clinical Experi¬
ments, fhews that it is owing to an effufion of blood
from the meferaic veflels, which by its ftagnation and
corruption aflumes that ftrange appearance. The
difeafe, he fays, frequently follows hasmorrhagy ; and
thofe of a fcorbutic habit are moft fubjed to it. It
is an acute difeafe, and terminates foon; yet is not
attended with any great degree of fever. In one of
Dr Home’s patient’s the crifis happened on the eighth
day by diarrhoea; in another, on the 14th, by
fweat and urine; and a third had no evident critical
evacuation.
As to the cure, Dr Home obferves, that bleeding
is always neceflary where the pulfe can bear it ; nor
are we to be deterred from it by a little weaknefs of
CINE. 4865
the pulfe, more than in the enteritis. Emetics are hurt- Pa actice
ful, but purgatives are ufeful. But the moft power-
ful medicine for checking this hsemorrhage is the
vitrolic acid: and, that this might be given in greater
quantity, he mixed it with mucilage of gum arabic;
by which means he was enabled to give double the
quantity he could otherwife have done. The cold
bath was tried in one inftance, but he could not de¬
termine whether it was of any fervice or not. The
cure was completed by exercife and the bark.
Of the DISEASES of CHILDREN. 497
Dr Buchan obferves, that from the annual regifters
of the dead it appears, that about one half of the
children born in Great Britain die under twelve years
of age ; and this very great mortality he attributes
in a great meafure to wrong management. The
particulars of this wrong management enumerated by
him are,
1. Mothers not fuckiling their own children. This,
he owns, it is fometimes impofiible for them to do;
but where it can be done, he affirms that it ought
never be omitted. This he fays would prevent the
unnatural cuftom of mothers leaving their own children
to fuckle thofe of others; on which he paffes a moft
fevere cenfure, and indeed fcarce any cenfure can be
fevere enough upon upon fuch inhumanity. Dr Bu¬
chan informs us, “ He is fure he fpeaks within bounds,
when he fays not one in a hundred of thefe children
live who are thus abandoned by their mothers.” For
this reafon he adds, that no mother fhould be allowed
to fuckle another’s child till her own is fit to be
weaned. A regulation of this kind would fave many
lives among the poorer fort, and would do no harm
to the rich ; as moft; women who make good nurfes
are able to fuckle two children in fucceffion upon
the fame milk.
2. Another fource of the difeafes of children is the
unhealthinefs of parents; and our author infifts that
no perfon who labours under an incurable malady ought
to marry.
3. The manner of clothing children tends to pro¬
duce difeafes. All that is neceflary here, he fays, is
to wrap the child in a foft loofe covering; and the
foftnefs of every part of the infant’s body fufficiently
fhews the injury which mull neceffarily enfue by pur-
fuing a contrary method.
4. Anew-born infant, inftead of being treated with
fyrups, oils, &c. ought to be allowed to fuck the iSee thear-
mother’s milk as foon as it comes into the breaftf. tide isffa*
He condemns the pradlice of giving wines and fpiri./ie#.
tuous liquors along with the food foon after birth;
and fays, that, if the mother of nurfe has a fufficient
quantity of milk, the child will need little or no other
food before the third or fourth month. But to this it
may reafonably be obje&ed, not only that the nurfing
would thus be very fevere on the mother ; but if the
child is left thus long without food, it will not eafily
relifh it for fome time, and its ftomach is apt to be
eafily hurt by a flight change of diet after it has been
long accuttomed to one thing. Neither can it be
fhewn, that the ftrongeft and moft healthy infants are
thofe which get no other food but the mother’s milk
during the firft months of their life. In fad, children
are evidently of a weak and lax habit of body, fo
27 M 2 that
4§66
Practice that many of their difeafes muft arife from that
  caufe ; all dire&ions which indifcriminately advife an
antiphlogiftic regimen for infants as foon as they
come into the world, muft of neceflhy be wrong.
Many inltances in fact might be brought to fhew,
that by this prepofterous method of ftarving infants,
and at the fame time treating them with vomits and
purges, they are often hurried out of the world.
Animal-food indeed is exceffively agreeable to chil¬
dren, and they ought to be indulged with it in mo¬
deration ; and this will prove a much better remedy
for thofe acidities with which children are often trou¬
bled, than magnefia alba, crab’s eyes, or other abfor-
bents, which have the moll pernicious effefils on the
ftomachs of thefe tender creatures, and pall the ap¬
petite to a furprifing degree. The natural appe¬
tites of children are indeed the beft rule by which we
can judge of what is proper or improper for them.
They muft no doubt be regulated as to the quantity;
but we may be allured that what a child is very fond
of will not hurt it if taken in moderation. When
children are fick, they refufe every thing but the
bread; add, if their dillemper be very fevere, they will
refufe it alfo ; and in this cafe they ought not to be
prefied to take food of any kind : but when the fick-
nefs goes off, their appetite alfo returns, and they will
require the ufual quantity of food.
According to Dr Armftrong, inward Jits, as they
are called, are in general the firft complaint that ap¬
pears in children; and as far as he has obferved, moft,
if not all infants, during the firft months, are more or
lefs liable to them. The fymptoms are thefe. The
child appears as if it was afleep, only the eyelids are
not quite clofed ; and if you obferve them narrowly,
you will fee the eyes frequently twinkle, with the white
of them turned up. There is a kind of tremulous mo¬
tion in the mufcles of the face and lips, which produces
fomething like a fimper or a fmile, and fometimes al-
moft the appearance of a laugh.. As the diforder in-
creafes, the infant’s breath feems now and then to Hop
for a little; the nofe becomes pinched ; there is a pale
circle about the eyes and mouth, which fometimes
changes to livid, and comes and goes by turns ; the
child ftarts, efpecially if you go to ftir it though ever
fo gently, or if you make any noife near it. Thus di¬
ll urbed, it fighs, or breaks wind, which gives relief for
a little, but prefently it relapfes into the dozing. Some¬
times it ftruggles hard before it can break wind, and
feems as if falling into convulfions; but a violent burft
of wind from the ftomach, or vomiting, or a loud fit of
crying, fets all to rights again. As the child increa’fesin
ftrength, thefe fits are the more apt to go off fpontane-
oufly and by degrees; but in cafe they do not, and if
there is nothing done to remove them, they either dege¬
nerate into an almoft conftant drowfinefs, (which is fuc-
ceeded by a fever and the thrulh), or elfe they terminate
in vomitings, four, curdled, or green ftools, the watery-
gripes, and convulfions. The thrufh indeed very often
terminates in thefe laft fymptoms. Wherefore, as thefe
complaints naturally run into one another, or fucceed
each other, they may be confidered, in a manner, as
only different ftages of the fame difeafe, and which de¬
rive their origin from the fame caufe. Thus, the in¬
ward fits may be looked upon as the firft ftage of the
diforder; the fever, and thrulh (when it happens), as
Part IT.
the fecond; the vomitings, four, curdled, green or wa- Practicb
tery ftools, as the third; and convulfions, as the laft. ~
’ As to the caufe of thefe complaints, he obferves,
that in infants the glandular fecretions, which are all
more or lefs glutinous, are much more copious than in
adults. During the time of fucking, the glands of the
mouth and fauces being fqueezed by the contra&ion \
of the mufcles, fpue out their contents plentifully,
■which afterwards mixing with the mucus of the gullet
and ftomach, render the milk of a flimy confiftence, by
which means it is not fo readily abforbed into the iac-
teals; and as in moft infants there is too great an aci¬
dity in the ftomach, the milk is thereby curdled, which
adds to the load; hence ficknefs and fpalms, which,
being communicated by fympathy to the nerves of the
gullet and fauces, produce the convullive motions above
defcribed, which go commonly by the name of inward
fits. The air, likewife, which is drawn in during fac¬
tion, mixing with the milk, &c. in the ftomach, per¬
haps contributes towards increafing the fpafms above-
mentioned. He is the more induced to attribute thefe
fits to the caufes now affigned, that they always ap¬
pear immediately after fucking or feeding; efpecially
if the child has been long at the breaft, or fed heartily,
and has been laid down to fleep without having firft
broken wind, which ought never to be done. Another
reafon is, that nothing relieves them fo foon as belch¬
ing or vomiting; and the milk or food they throw up
is generally either curdled, or mixed with a large quan¬
tity of heavy phlegm. In cafe they are not relieved
by belching or vomiting, the fits fometimes continue a
good while, and gradually abate, according as the con¬
tents of the ftomach are pufhed into the inteftines; and
as foon as the former is pretty well emptied, the child
is waked by hunger, cries, and wants the breaft; he
fucks, and the fame procefs is repeated. Thus, fome
children for the firft weeks are kept almoft always in a
dole, or feemingly fo; el’pecially if the nurfes, either
through lazinefs or want of (kill, do not take care to
roufe them when they perceive that it is not a right
fleep, and keep them awake at proper intervals. This
dozing is reckoned a bad fign ambngft experienced
nurfes ; who look upon it as a forerunner of the thrufti,
as indeed it often is ; and therefore, when it happens,
we ought to be upon our guard to ufe the nectifary
precautions for preventing that difdrder.
For thefe diforders, the only remedy recommended
by Dr Armftrong is antimonial wine, given in a few
drops, according to the age of the infant. By this
means the fuperabundant mucus will no doubt be eva¬
cuated; but at the fame time we muft remember, that
this evacuation can only palliate, and not cure the dif¬
eafe. This, can only be effedled by tonics ; and a de-
codlion of the Peruvian bark, made into a fyrup, will
readily be taken by infants, and may be fafely exhi¬
bited from the very day they come into the world, or
as foon as their bowels are emptied of the meconium
by the mother’s milk or any other means,.
Dr Clarke obferveg, that frattures of the limbs, and
comprejfions of the brain, often happen in difficult la¬
bours ; and that the latter are often followed by con¬
vulfions foon after delivery. In thefe cafes, he fays, it
will be advifeable to let the navel-ftring bleed two or
three fpoonfuls before it is tied. Thus the oppreffion
of the brain will be relieved, and the difagreeable con-
fequences
MEDICINE.
isPart II. M E D I
iJiACTicE fequences juft mentioned will be prevented. But if
this has been negle&ed, and fits have actually come
on, we muft endeavour to make a revulfion by all the
means in our power ; as by opening the jugular vein,
procuring an immediate difcharge of the urine and me¬
conium, and applying fmall blilters to the back, legs,
or behind the ears. The femicupium, too, would feem
to be ufeful in this cafe, by deriving the oppreffive load
| of fluids from the head and upper parts.
It fometimes happens after a tedious labour, that
the child is fo faint and weak as to difcover little or no
figns of life.- In fuch a cafe, after the ufual cleanfing,
the body ftiould be immediately wrapped in warm flan¬
nel, and briflely tofled about in the nurfe’s arms, in
order, if poflible, to excite the languid circulation.
If this fails, the bread and temples may be rubbed with
brandy or other fpirits; or the child may be provoked
to cry, by whipping, or other ftimulating methods, as
the application of onion, or fait and fpirit of hartfliorn,
to the mouth and noflrils. But after all thefe expe¬
dients have been tried in vain, and the recovery of the
I child abfolutely defpaired of, it has fometimes been
happily revived by introducing a ftiort catheter, or
blow-pipe, into the mouth, and gently blowing into
1 the lungs at different intervals. Such children, how¬
ever, are apt to remain weak for a confiderable time,
fo that it is often no eafy matter to rear them ; and there¬
fore particular care and tendernefs will be required in
their management, that nothing may be omitted which
can contribute either to their prefervation, or the im¬
provement of their ftrength and vigour.
All the diforders which arife from a retention of the
meconium^ fuch as the red gum, may eafilybe removed
by the ufe of gentle laxatives; but the great fource of
mortality among children is (kc breeding of their teeth.
The ufual fymptoms produced by this are fretting ;
reftleflhefs; frequent and fudden ftartings, efpecially in
fleep; coftivenefs; and fometimes a violent diarrhoea,
fever, or convulfions. In general, thofe children breed
their teeth with the greateft eafe, who have a moderate
laxity of the bowels, or a plentiful flow of faliva during
that time.
In mild cafes, we need only, when neceflary, endeal-
vour to promote the means by which nature is obferved
to carry on the bufinefs of dentition in the eafieft manner.
For this purpofe, if a coftivenefs is threatened, it muft
be prevented, and the body kept always gently open ;
and the gums ftiould be relaxed by rubbing them fre¬
quently with fweet oils, or other foftening remedies of
that kind, which will greatly diminifh the tenfion and
pain. At the fame time, as children about this period
are generally difpofed to chew whatever they get into
their hands, they ought never to be without fomething
that will yield a little to the prefiure of their gums, as a
cruft of bread, a wax-eandle, a bit of liquorice-root, or
fuch like ; for the repeated mufcular aftion, occafioned
by the conftant biting and gnawing at fuch a fubftance,
will increafe the difcharge of the falivary glands, while
the gums will be fo forcibly prefled againft the advan¬
cing teeth, as to make them break out much fooner,
and with lefe uneafinefs, than would otherwife hap¬
pen. Some likewife recommend a (lice of the rind of
frelh bacon, as a proper mafticatory for the child, in
order to bring moifture into its mouth, and facilitate
the eruption of the teeth by exercifing the gums. If
CINE. 4857
thefe means, however, prove ineffeftual, and bad Practice
fymptoms begin to appear, the patient will often be
relieved immediately, by cutting the inflamed gum
down to the tooth, where a fmall white point ftiews
the latter to be coming forw-ard. When the pulfe is
quick, the Ikin hot and dry, and the child of a fuffi-
cient age and ftrength, emptying the veffels by bleed¬
ing, eipecialiy at the jugular, will frequently be ne-
cefl’ary here, as well as in all other inflammatory cafes;
and the belly ftiould be opened from time to time, by
emollient oily or mucilaginous glyfters. But, on the
contrary, if the child is low, funk, and much wea¬
kened, repeated dofes of the fpirit of hartfhorn, tinc-
tura fuliginis, and the like reviving medicines, ought to
be prefcribed. Blifters applied to the back, or behind
the ears, will often be proper in both cafes. A pru¬
dent adroiniftration of opiates, when their ufe is not
forbid by coftivenefs or otherwife, is fometimes of
great fervice in difficult teething, as, by mitigating
pain, they have a tendency to prevent its bad effects,
as a fever, convulfions, or other violent fymptoms ;
and often they are abfolutely neceffary, along with the
teftaceous powders, for checking an immoderate diar¬
rhoea.
When cathartics are neCeffary, but the child feems
too tender and weak to bear their immediate opera¬
tion, they ftiould be given to the nurfe; in which
cafe they will communicate fo much of their vir¬
tues to the milk as will be fufficient to purge the in¬
fant.
As moft young children, if in health, naturally fleep
much, and pretty foundly, we may always be apt to
fufpedt that fomething is amifs when they begin to be
fubjedt to 'watching send.frights; fymptoms which fel-
dom or never occur but either in confequence of fome
prefent diforder not yet taken notice of, or as the cer¬
tain forerunners of an approaching indifpofition. We
fhould immediately, therefox-e, endeavour to find out
their caufe, that we may ufe every poffible means to
remove or prevent it ; otherwife the want of natural
reft, which is fo very prejudicial to perfons of all ages,
will foon reduce the infant to a low and emaciated
ftate, which may be followed by an hedtic fever, diar¬
rhoea, and all the other confequences of weaknefs and
debility. Thefe fymptoms, being always the effedts
of irritation and pain, may proceed, in very young
infants, from crudities or other aftedtions of the prim a:
vice producing flatulencies or gripes; about the fixth
or feventh month, they may be owing to that uneafi¬
nefs which commonly accompanies the breeding of the
teeth; and after a child is weaned, and begins to ufe a
different kind of food, worms become frequently an
additional caufe of watchings and difturbed fleep.
Hence, to give the neceflary relief on thefe occafions^
the original complaint muft firft be afeertained from
the child's age and other concomitant circumftances,
and afterwards treated according to the nature of the
cafe. Women and nurfes are too apt to have recourfe
to opiates in the watchings of children, efpecially when
their own reft happens to be much difturbed by their
continual noife and clamour. But this pradlice is often
prejudicial, and never ought to have place when the
belly is in the lead obftrudted.
There is no complaint more frequent among chil¬
dren than that of 'worms, the general fymptoms of
which
486$ M E D I
Practice which have been already enumerated; but it mtift be
"obferved, that all the fymptoms commonly attributed
to worms alone, maybe produced by a foulnefsof the
bowels. Hence practitioners ought never to reft fa-
tisfied with adminiftering to their patients fuch medi¬
cines as are pofftfied only of an anthelmintic quality,
but to join them with thofe which are particularly ad¬
apted for cleanfing the prim# vix; as it is uncertain
whether a foulnefs of the bowels may not be the caufe
of all the complaints. This praCtice is ftill the more
advifeable, on account of vifcid humours in the inte-
ftines affording lodgment to the ova of worms ; which,
without the convenience of fuch a receptacle, would be
more fpeedily difcharged from the body.
The difficulty of curing what is called a worm fever,
arifes, according to Dr Mufgrave, from its being fre¬
quently attributed to worms, when the caufe of the
diforder is of a quite different nature. He does not
mean to deny that worms do fometimes abound in the
human body, nor that the irritation caufed by them
does fometimes produce a fever; but he apprehends
thefe cafes to be much more uncommon than is gene¬
rally imagined, and that great mifchief is done by treat¬
ing fome of the diforders of children as worm cafes,
which really are not fo. Dr Hunter, it is obferved, is
of the fame opinion on this point; and he has, we are
told, differed great numbers of children who have
been fuppofed to die of worm-fevers, and whofe com¬
plaints were of courfe treated as proceeding from worms,
in whom, however, there appeared, upon diffe&ion, to
be not only no worms, but evident proofs of the dif¬
orders having been of very different natures.
The fpurious worm-fever, as Dr Mufgrave terms it,
has, in all the inftances he has feen of it, arifen evi¬
dently from the children having been indulged with
too great quantities of fruit; though a poor cold diet
may, he thinks, occafionally give birth to it. Every
fort of fruit eaten in excefs will probably produce it;
but an immoderate ufe of cherries fieems to be the moft
common caufe of it. The approach of this diforder has a
different appearance, according as it arifes from a habit
of eating fruit in rather too large quantities, or from
an exceffive quantity eaten at one time. In the former
cafe, the patient gradually grows weak and languid ;
his colour becomes pale and livid ; his belly fwells
and g^ows hard; his appetite and digeftion are de-
(Iroyed; his nights grow reftlefs, or at lead his deep
is much difturbed with ftartings, and then the fever
foon follows; in the progrefs of which, the patient
grows comatofe, and at times convulfed; in which ftate,
when the event is fatal, he dies. The pulfe at the wrift,
though quick, is never ftrong or hard; the carotids,
however, beat with great violence, and elevate the fkin
fo as to be diftindtly feen at a diftance. The heat is
at times confiderable, efpecially in the trunk; though
at other times, when the brain is much oppreffed, it is
little more than natural. It is fometimes accompanied
by a violent pain of the epigaftric region, though more
commonly the pain is flight, and terminates in a coma;
fome degree of pain, however, feems to be infeparable
from it, fo as clearly to diftinguifh this diforder from
other comatofe affections.
When a large quantity of fruit has been eaten at
once, the attack of the diforder is inftantaneous, and
4ts progrefs rapid ; the patient often paffing, in the
CINE. Part II.
fpace of a few hours, from apparently perfeA health, Practice
to a ftupid, comatofe, and almoft dying ftate. The
fymptoms of the fever, when formed, are in both cafes
nearly the fame; except that, in this latter fort,a little
purulent matter is fometimes difcharged, both by vo¬
mit and ftool, from the very firft day. The ftools, in
both cafes, exhibit fometimes a kind of curd refembling
curdled milk, at other times a floating fubftance is ob¬
ferved in them; and fometimes a number of little threads
and pellicles, and now and then a fingle worm.
Strong purgatives, or purges frequently repeated, in
this diforder, are greatly condemned by our author, as
they in general not only aggravate the fymptoms al¬
ready prefent, but are fometimes the origin of convul-
fions. Bloodletting is not to be thought of in any ftage
of the diforder.
Although frequent purging, however, is not recom¬
mended, yet a fingle vomit and purge are advifed in
the beginning of the diforder, with a view to evacuate
fuch indigefted matter and mucus as happens to remain
in the ftomach and bowels. Thefe having operated
properly, there is feldom occalion for repeating them;
and it is fufficient, if the body be coftive, to throw yp,
every fecond or third day, a clyfter, compofed of half
a dram of aloes, diffolved in five ounces of infufion of
chamomile.
The principal part of the cure, however, depends
upon external applications to the bowels and ftomach;
and, as the caufe of the diforder is of a cold nature,
the applications muft be warm, cordial, and invigora¬
ting; and their a&ion muft be promoted by conftant
a&ual heat.
The following is the form recommended.
“ Take of leaves of wormwood and rue, each equal
parts: make a faturated dcco&ion in a fufficient quan¬
tity of water, with which foment the region of the
ftomach and abdom n for a quarter of an hour, repeat¬
ing the fomentation every three or four hours. A poul¬
tice of the boiled herbs is to be applied after the fo¬
mentation, and conftantly renewed as it cools.” For
internal ufe, the following is all that has been found
neceffary. “ Take of fpirituous and Ample cinnamon-
water, each half an ounce; oil of almonds, an ounce
and an half; ballamic fyrup, three drachms. Mix, and
(hake the vial when ufed.” From two to fix drachms
are given every third hour.
When any nervous fymptoms come on, or remain
after the diforder is abated, they are eafily removed by
giving a pill of four grains of afafoetida once or twice
a-day.
The diagnoftics of worms are very uncertain ; but,
even in real worm cafes, the treatment above recom¬
mended would, it is imagined, be much more effica¬
cious than the praftice commonly had recourfe to. As
worms either find the conftitution weakly, or very foon
make it fo, the frequent repetition of purges, parti¬
cularly mercurials, cannot but have a pernicious effedt.
Bares-foot is ftill more exceptionable, being in truth
to be ranked rather among poifons than medicines.
Worm-feed and bitters are too offenfive to the palate
and ftomach to be long perfifted in. The powder of
coralline creates difguft by its quantity; and the infu-
lion of pink-root is well known to occafion now and
then vertiginous complaints and fits.
Fomenting the belly night and morning with a
ftrong
rfart II. M E D I
rJjAcTicE ftrong deco&ion of rue and wormwood, is much re-
 commended. It is a perfectly fafe remedy, and, by
invigorating the bowels, has thereby a eonfiderable
influence in rendering them capable of expelling fuch
worms as they happen to contain. After the fomen¬
tation, it is advifed to anoint the belly with a lini¬
ment, compofed of one part of eflential oil of rue, and
two parts of a decoftion of rue in fweet oil. Of inter¬
nal medicines, the beft is afafcetida, with an aloetic
pill or two at proper intervals. '
.The diet of children difpofed to worms, fhould be
warm and nourifhing, confifting in part at leaft of ani¬
mal food, which is not the worfe for being a little fea-
foned. Their drink may be any kind of beer that is
well hopped, with now and then a fmall draught of
porter or negus. A total abftinence from butter is
not fo nectffary, perhaps, as is generally imagined.
Poor cheefe muft by all means be avoided; but fuch
as is rich and pungent, in a moderate quantity, is
| particularly ferviceable. In the fpurious worm-fever,
the patient fhould be fupported occafionally by fmall
quantities of broth ; and, at the clofe of it, when the
appetite returns, the fifft food given fhould be of the
kinds above recommended.
The diet here recommended will, perhaps, be
thought extraordinary, as the general idea is at pre-
fent, that, in the management of children, nothing
is fo much to be avoided as repletion and rich food. It
is no doubt an error to feed children too well, or to
indulge them with wine and rich fauces ; but it is
equally an error to confine them to too ftrift or too
poor a diet, which weakens their digeftion, and ren¬
ders them much more fubjeft to diforders of every
kind, but particularly to dilorders of the bowels. In
regard to the fpurious worm-fever, if it be true that
acid fruits too plentifully eaten are the general caufe
of it, it follows as a confequence, that a warm nutri¬
tious diet, moderately ufed, will moft efFeftually coun-
Iteraft the mifchief, and fooneft reftore the natural
powers of the (tomach. Befides, if the diforder does
not readily yield to the methods here direded, as there
■ are many examples, and fome have happened to our
author, of its terminating by an inflammation and
fuppuration of the navel, it is highly advifeable to
keep this probability in view, and, by a moderate al¬
lowance of animal-food, to fupport thofe powers of
nature, from which only fuch a happy crifis is to be
expe&ed.
Of MEDICAL ELECTRICITY,
j 407 J
I The application of this fubtile fluid to medicinal
purpofes was thought of foon after the difcovery of the
eleftric (hock ; and after various turns of reputation,
its medical virtues feem now to be pretty well efta-
blifhed. After giving fo particular a defcription of the
eledrical apparatus under the proper article, it would
here be fuperfluous to fay any thing farther on that
head. We fliall only obferve, that Mr Cavallo, who
hath publifhed the lateft and the belt treatife on Me¬
dical Eledricity, entirely difapproves of giving violent
fhocks, and finds it moft efficacious to expofe the pa¬
tient to the eledrical aura difcharged from an iron or
a wooden point; or if fhocks are given, they fhculd be
very flight, and not exceed 12 or 14 at a time. In
this way he recommends it as effedual in a great nunt-
C I N E, 4869
ber of diforders. The patient may be eledrified fromPRAcncg
three to ten minutes ; hut if fparks are drawn, they‘—  
fhould not exceed the number of fhocks abovemen-
tioned.
Rheumatic diforders, even of long Handing, are re¬
lieved, and generally quite cured, by only drawing tiie
cledric fluid with a wooden point from the part, or by
drawing fparks thro’ flannel. The operation fhould
be continued for about four or five minutes, repeating
it once or twice every day.
Deafnefs, except when it is occafioned by oblitera¬
tion, or other improper configuration of the parts, is
either entirely or partly cured by drawing the fparks
from the ear with the glafs-tube diredor, or by draw¬
ing the fluid with a wooden point. Sometimes it is’
not improper to fend exceedingly fmall fhocks (for in-
ftance, of one-thirtieth of an inch) from one ear to-
the other.—It has been conftantly obferved, that when--
ever the ear is eledrified, the difcharge of the wax is
confiderably promoted.
‘the toothach, occafioned by cold, rheumatifm, or
inflammation, is generally relieved by drawing the e-
ledric fluid with a point, immediately from the party
and alfo externally from the face. But when the body
of the tooth is affeded, eledrization is of no ufe ; for
it feldom or never relieves the diforder, and fometime^
increafes the pain to a prodigious degree.
Swellings in general, which do not contain any mat¬
ter, are generally cured by drawing the eledric fluid
with a wooden point. The operation fhould be con- •
tinned for three or four minutes every day.—It is very
remarkable, that in fome cafes of white fwellings, quite
cured by means of eledricity, the bones and cartilages
were in fome meafure disfigured.
Inflammations of every fort are generally relieved by-
a very gentle eledrization.
In inflammations of the eyes, the throwing of the
eledric fluid by means of a wooden point is con-
flantly attended with great benefit ; the pain being
quickly abated, and the inflammation being generallyr
diffipated in a few days. In thefe cafes, tire eye of
the patient muft be kept open; and care fhould be ta¬
ken not to bring the wooden point very near it, for
fear of caufing any fpark. Sometimes it is fufficient
to throw the fluid with a metal point; for in thefe
cafes, too great an irritation fhould be always avoided.
It is not neceflary to continue this operation for three
or four minutes without intermiffion; but, after throw¬
ing the fluid for about half a minute, a fhort time mayr
be allowed to the patient to reft and to wipe his tears,
which generally flow very copioufly ; then the opera¬
tion may be continued again for another half minute,,
and fo on for four or five times every day.
The gutta ferena has been often cured by eledriza¬
tion ; but at the fame time it muft be confefled, it has
proved ineffedual in many fuch cafes, in which it was
admjniftered for a long time and with all poffible at¬
tention. However, it hath never been known that any
body was made worfe by it. The beft method of ad-
miniftering eledricity in fuch cafes, is firft to draw
the eledric fluid with a wooden point for a fhort time,,
and then to fend about half a dozen of fbocks of one-
twentieth of an inch from the back and lower part of
the head to the fore head, very little above the eye,
A remarkable difeafe of the eye was fome time ago
perfedly
4870 M E D I
Practice perfe&ly cured by e)e<?lr!zation; it was an opacity of
" "the vitreous humour of the eyes. This feems to be
the only cafe of the kind to which ele&ricity was ap¬
plied.
All the cafes of fijlula lacrymalis which Mr Cavallo
hath known to have been electrified by perfons of
ability for a fufficient time, have been entirely cured.
The method generally praftifed, has been that of
drawing the fluid with a wooden point, and to take
very fmall fparks from the part. The operation may
be continued for about three or four minutes every day.
It is remarkable, that in thofe cafes, after curing the
fiilula lacrymalis, no other difeafe was occafioned by it,
as blindnefs, inflammations, &c. by fupprefiing that
difcharge.
Palftes are feldom perfe&ly cured by means of elec¬
tricity, efpecially when they are of long (landing; but
they are generally relieved to a certain degree. The
method of eledfrifying in thofe cafes, is to draw the
fluid with the wooden point, and to draw fparks thro’
flannel, or though the ufual coverings of the part if
they are not too thick. The operation may be conti¬
nued for about five minutes per day.
Ulcers, or open fores of every kind, even of a long
Handing, are generally difpofed to heal by ele&riza-
tion. The general effedls are a diminution of the in¬
flammation, and at firfl; a promotion of the difcharge
of properly formed matter; which difcharge gradually
Icflens, according as the limits of the fore contradt,
till it is quite cured. In thefe cafes the gentled elec¬
trization mud be ufed, in order to avoid too great an
irritation, which is generally hurtful. To draw or
throw the fluid with a wooden or even with a metal
point, for three or four minutes per day, is abfolutely
fufficient.
Cutaneous eruptions have been fuccefsfully treated
with eledlrization : but in thefe cafes it mud be ob-
ferved, that if the wooden point is kept too near the
fkin, fo as to caufe any confiderable irritation, the
eruption will be caufed to fpread more ; but if the
point be kept at about fix inches didance, or farther,
if the eledlrical machine is very powerful, the erup¬
tions will be gradually diminiflied, till they are quite
cured. In this kind of difeafe, the immediate and ge¬
neral effedf of the wooden point is to occafion a
warmth about the eledlrified part, which is always a
fignthat the eledtrization is rightly adminiflered.
The application of eledfricity has perfedHy cured
various cafes of &t Vitus's dance, or of that difeafe
which is commonly called fo ; for it is the opinion of
fume very learijed phyficians, that the real difeafe'call-.
ed St Vitus’s dance, which formerly was more frequent
than it is at prefent, is different from that which now
goes under that name. In this difeafe, (hocks of about
one-tenth of an inch maybe fent through the body in
various directions, and alfo fparks may be taken. But
if this treatment proves very difagreeable to the patient,
then the (hocks muft be leffened, and even omitted; in-
ftead of which, fome other more gentle applications
mull be fubdituted.
Scrophulous tumours, when they are juft beginning,,
are generally cured by drawing the elediric fluid with
a wooden or metal point from the part. This is one
©f thofe kinds of difeafes in which the adtion of elec¬
tricity requires particularly the aid of other medicines
CINE, Part II.
in order to effedt a cure more eafily; for fcrophulous Practic*
affedfions generally accompany a great laxity of the ~~ "I
habit, and a general cachexy, which muft be obviated
by proper remedies.
In cancers, the pains only are moftly alleviated by
drawing the eledtric fluid with a wooden or metal point.
Mr Cavallo, however, mentions one cafe in which a molt
confirmed cancer of very long Handing, on the bread of
a woman, has been much reduced in fize. It is remark¬
able, that this patient was fo far relieved by drawing
the fluid with a metal point from the part, that the ex¬
cruciating pains (he had fuffered for many years did
almoft entirely difappear; and alfo, that when the
eledlric fluid was drawn by means of a wooden point, ^
the pains did rather increafe. This perfon is ftitl un-^ ' “
der the application of eledtrjcity ; and the cancer feems.
not unlikely to be perfedlly 'eured, altho* contrary to
the expedfations even of the judicious phyfician who
eledlrifies her, and who knows too well the nature
that dangerous difeafe.
Abfcejfes, when they are in their beginning, and in
general whenever there is any tendency to form mat¬
ter, eledtrization difperfes them. Lately, in a cafe
in which matter was formed upon the hip, called the
lumbar abfeefs, the difeafe was perfedtly cured by
means of eledtricity. The fciatica has alfo been often
cured by it. In all fuch cafes, the eledtric fluid muft
be fent jthrough the part by means of two diredtors
applied to oppofite parts, and in immediate contadt
either with the (kin or with the coverings, when thefe
are very thin. It is very remarkable, that the mere
paffage of the eledlric fluid in this manner, is general¬
ly felt by the patients afflidted with thofe diforders,
nearly as much as a fmall (hock is felt by a perfon in
good health. Sometimes a few (hocks have been alfo
given, but it feems more proper to omit them; be-
caufe fometimes, inftead of difperfing, they rather ac¬
celerate the formation of matter.
In cafes of pidnionary inflammations, when they are
in the beginning, eledtrization has been fometimes be¬
neficial; but in confirmed difeafes of the lungs, it does
not feem to have ever afforded any unqueftionable be¬
nefit; however, it feems that in fuch cafes the power
of eledtricity has been but feldom tried.
Nervous head-acks, even of a long (landing, are ge¬
nerally cured by eledtrizat^op. For this difeafe, the
eledtric fluid muft be thnjjvft a wooden, and fome¬
times even with a metal p©i5t* .all round the head fuc-
ceffively. Sometimes exceedingly fmall (hocks have
been adminifteredT Sii? t£e3e,can Celdom be ufed, be-
qaqfejtljejnerves of perfons ^ubjedl^to this difeafe 5re fo
vej that the flipcks, the fparks, and fometimes
even the throwing -the .eledtric fluid with a wooden
point kept very near ike. head, throw them into con-
vulfipps,; ;
The,'ap^lieatio^ of.-ele^ucity has often been found
beneficipl ,1^ {jje when juft beginning, or ra-
ther-in th§ .tendency to a dropfy ; but it has never
been of any..uj« in advanced .dropfies. In fuch cafes,
t(he el^dtric fluid is fent through the part, in various
dirj?dtions, by means of two diredtors, and fparks are
alfo drawn acrofs the flannel or the cloaths; keeping
the metal rod in contadt with them, and drifting it con¬
tinually from place to place. This operation (hould
be continued at leaft ten minutes, and Humid be re¬
peated
CINE. 487i
In refpeft to unnatural difcharges and fluxes In ge-Practice
neral, it may be obferved, that fome difcharges are
quite unnatural or adventitious, as the fiftula lacryma-
li's, and fome fpecies of the venereal difeafe; but o*
thers are only increafed natural difcharges, fuch as the
menfes, perfpiration, Sec. Now the power of ele&ri-
eity in general, has been found more beneficial for the
firft, than for the fecond fort of difcharges, which are
moftly increafed by it.
In the venereal dijeafe, eleftrization has been gene¬
rally forbidden; having moftly increafed the pains, and
other fymptoms, rather than diminifhed them. Indeed,
confidering that any fort of ftimulus has been found
hurtful to perfons afflifted with that diforder, it is no
wonder that eleftricity has produded fome bad effe&s,
efpecially in the manner it was adminiftered fome time
ago, viz. by giving ftrong {hocks. However, it has
been lately obferved, that a very gentle application of
ele&ricity, as drawing the fluid by means of a wooden
or metal point, is peculiarly beneficial in various cafes
of this kind, even when the difeafe has been of long
{landing. Having remarked above, that tumours,
when juft beginning, are difperfed, and that unnatu¬
ral difcharges are gradually fupprefled by a judicious
eledlrization, it is fuperfluous to defcribe particularly
thofe ftates of the venereal difeafe in which ele&ri-
city may be applied; it is only neceflary to remind
the operator to avoid any confiderable ftimulus in cafes
of this fort.
The application of ele&ricity has been found alfo
beneficial in other difeafes befides thofe mentioned a-
bove ; but as the fails are not fufficiently numerous, fo
as to afford the dedu&ion of any general rules, we have
not thought proper to take any particular notice of
them.
We may laftly obferve, that, in many cafes, the help
of other remedies to be prefcribed by the gentlemen
of the faculty is required to aflift the ailion of elec¬
tricity, which by itfelf would perhaps be ufelefs; and,
on the other hand, eleilrization may often be applied
to affift the ailion of other remedies, as of fudorifics,
flrengthening medicines, &c.
II. M E D I
ck peated once or twice a-day.—Perhaps in thofe cafes, a
Ample eledlrization, (viz. to infulate the patient, and
to connect it with the prime conduilor whilft the
machine is in atftion) continued for a confiderable time,
as an hour or two, would be more beneficial.
The gout, extraordinary as it may appear, has cer¬
tainly been cured by means of ele&ricity, in various
inftances. The pain has been generally mitigated, and
fcmetimes the difeafe has been removed fo well as not
to return again. In thofe cafes, the ele&ric fluid has
been thrown by means of a wooden point, altho’ fome-
times, when the pain was too great, a metal point only
has been ufed.
jigues very feldom fail of being cured by ele&rici-
ty, fo that fometimes one ele&rization or two have
been fufficient. The mod effe&ual and fure method
has been that of drawing fparks through flannel, or
the cloaths, for about ten minutes or a quarter of an
hour. The patients may be electrified either at the
time of the fit, or a (hort while before the time in
which it is expected.
The fuppreffion of the menfes, which is a difeafe of
the female fex that often occafions the moft difa-
greeable and alarming fymptoms, is fuccefsfully and
fpeedily cured by means of eleftricity, even when the
difeafe is of long (landing, and after that the moft
powerful medicines ufed for it have proved ineffectual.
The cafes of this fort in which eleftrization has pro¬
ved ufelefs are fo few, and the fuccefsful ones fo nume¬
rous, that the application of eleClricity for this difeafe
maybe juftly confidered as an efficacious and certain re¬
medy. Great attention and knowledge is required, in
order to diftinguifh the arreft of the menfes from a
(late of pregnancy. In the former, the application of
eleClricity, as we obferved above, is very beneficial;
whereas, in the latter, it may be attended with very
difagreeable effeCts : it is therefore a matter of great
importance to afcertain the real caufe of the difeafe,
before the eleClricity be applied in thofe cafes. Preg¬
nant women may be eleClrified for other difeafes, but
always ufing very gentle means, and direCling the e-
leClric fluid through other parts of the body diftant
from thofe fubfervient to generation. In the real fup¬
preffion of the menfes, fmall (hocks, i. e. of about
one-twentieth of an inch, may be fent thro’ the pel-.
vis; fparks may be taken through the cloaths from
the parts adjacent to the feat of the difeafe ; and alfo
the eleClric fluid may be tranfmitted by applying the
metallic or wooden extremities of two directors to the
hips, in contaCl with the clothes ; part of which may
be removed in cafe they are too thick. Thofe various
applications of eleCtricity (hould be regulated accord¬
ing to the conftitution of the patient. The number of
(hocks may be about 12 or 14. The other applica¬
tions may be continued for two or three minutes ; re¬
peating the operation every day. But either ftrong
(hocks, or a ftronger application of eleClricity than the
-patient can conveniently bear, (hould be carefully
avoided ; for by thofe means, fometimes more than a
fufficient difcharge is occafioned, which is not eafily
cured. In cafes of uterine haemorrhages, it is not
known that the application of eleClricity was ever be¬
neficial, neither that it has been often tried. Perhaps
a very gentle eleClrization, as to keep the patient in-
fulated and connected with the prime condu<$or, whilft
the eledrical machine is in aCtion, may be fome be¬
nefit.
Vot. VI. , l
CJ/'FIXED AIK as a Medicine. 49S
The antifeptic qualities of fixed air have of late in¬
troduced it as a medicine in cafes of putrid diforders.
Dr Percival obferves, that, though fatal if infpired in
a very lage quantity, it may in fmaller quantities be
breathed without danger or uneafinefs. And it is a
confirmation of this conclufion, that at Bath, where
the waters copioufly exhale this mineral fpirit, the ba¬
thers infpire it with impunity. At Buxton alfo, where
the bath is in a clofe vault, the effeds of fuch effluvia,
if noxious, mud certainly be perceived.
Encouraged by thefe and fome other confiderations,
he has adminiftered fixed air in more than 36 cafes of
the phthiflspulmonalis, by direCling his patients to in¬
fpire the (teams of an effervefcing mixture of chalk and
vinegar through the fpout of a coffee-pot. The hec¬
tic fever has in feveral inftances been confiderably a-
bated, and the matter expectorated has become lefs of-
fenfive and better digefted. He hath not yet, however,
been fo fortunate in any once cafe as to effeCt a cure ;
although the ufe of mephitic air has been accompanied
with proper internal medicines. But Dr Withering
has been more fuccefsful. One phthifical patient un¬
der his care, by a fimilar courfe entirely recovered; an-
27 N other
M E D I
other was rendered much better; and a third, whofe
cafe was truly deplorable, Teemed to be kept alive by
it more than two months. It may be proper to ob-
ferve, that fixed air can only be employed with any
profpedl of fuccefs in the latter ftages of the phthifn
puhnonalis, when a purulent expe&oration takes place.
After the rupture and difeharge of a vomica, alfo, fuch
a remedy promifes to be a powerful palliative. Anti-
feptic fumigations and vapours have been long em¬
ployed, and much extolled, in cafes of this kind. The
following experiment was made to determine whether
their efficacy in any degree depends on the reparation
of fixed air from their fubftance.
One end of a bent tube was fixed in a phial full of
lime-water; the other end in a bottle of the tin&ure
of myrrh. The junftures were carefully luted; and
the phial containing the tin&ure of myrrh was placed
in water, heated almoft to the boiling point, by the
lamp of a tea-kettle- A number of air-bubbles were
feparated, but probably not of the mephitic kind; for
no precipitation enfued in the lime-water. This ex¬
periment was repeated with the tin ft. Tolid at: a Ph. Ed.
and with fp. vinof. camph. and the refult was entirely
the fame. The medicinal adlion therefore of the va¬
pours raifed from fuch tinftures, cannot be aferibed
to the extrication of fixed air ; of which it is pro¬
bable bodies are deprived by chemical folution as well
as by mixture.
If mephitic air be thus capable of corre&ing puru¬
lent matter in the lungs, we may reafonably infer it
will be equally ufeful when applied externally to foul
ulcers; and experience confirms the conclufion. Even
the fanies of a cancer, when the carrot-poultice failed,
has been fweetened by it, the pain mitigated, and a
better digeftion produced- But though the progrefs
of the cancers feems to be checked by the fixed air,
it is to be feared that a cure will not be effefted. A
palliative remedy, however, in a difeafe fo defperate
and lothfome, may be confidered as a very valuable
acquifition. Perhaps nitrous air might be ftill more
efficacious. This fpecies of fa&itious air is obtained
from all the metals, except zinc, by means of the ni¬
trous acid; as a fweetener and antifeptic, it far fur-
paffes fixed air.
In the ulcerous fore throat, much advantage has
been experienced from the vapours of effervefeing
mixtures drawn into the fauces. But this remedy
Ihould not fuperfede the ufe of other antifeptic appli¬
cations.
In maligt}unt fevers, wines abounding with fixed
air may be adminiftered to check the feptic ferment,
and fvveeten the putrid colluvies in the prim a via. If
the laxative quality of fuch liquors be thought an
objection to the ufe of them, wines of a greater
age may be given, impregnated with mephitic air.
—The patient’s common drink might alfo be me¬
dicated in the fame way. A putrid diarrhoea fre¬
quently occurs in the latter ftage of fuch diforders ;
and it is a moft alarming and dangerous fymptom.
If the difeharge be flopped by aftringents, a putrid
forties is retained in the body, which aggravates the
delirium, and increafes the fever. On the contrary,
if it be fuffered to take its courfe, the ftrength of the
patient muft foon be exhaufted, and death unavoid¬
ably enfue. The injeflion of mephitic air into the
inteftines, under thefe circumftances, bids fair to be
highly ferviceable. And in fome cafes of this kind,
CINE. Part II.
the vapour of chalk and oil of vitriol conveyed into thePKACTicii
body by the machine employed for tobacco-clyfters,
quickly reftrained the diarrhoea, corredled the heat and
fetor of the ftools, and in a fhort time removed every
fymptom of danger.
As a folvent of the calculus, its virtues have been
already mentioned; but the experiments made on that
fubjedt have been too few to determine the matter with
fufficient accuracy.
CONCLUSION;
Being a D if courfe on the Hygeine, or Method of 499 \
Preferving Health.
I. Ruies for the Management a/" Valetudinarians.
That part of the medical fyftem which lays down
rules for the prefervation of health, and prevention of
difeafes, termed Hygeine, is not to be ftridlly underftood
as if it refpefled only thofe people who enjoy perfedl
health, and who are under no apprehenfions of difeafe,
for fuch feldom either defire or attend to medical ad¬
vice; but ffiould rather be confidered as relating to va¬
letudinarians, or to fuch as, though not a&ually fick,
may yet have fufficient reafons to fear that they will
foon become fo: hence it is that the rules muft be ap¬
plied to correA morbific difpofitions, and to obviate
the various things that were fhewn to be the remote
or poffible caufes of difeafes.
From the way in which the feveral temperaments
are ufually mentioned by fyftematic writers, it Ihould
feem as if they meant that every particular conftitution
muft be referred to one or other of the four; but this
is far from being reducible to pra&ice, fince by much
the greater number of people have jeonftitutions fo in-
diftinftly marked, that it is hard to fay to which of
the temperaments they belong.
When we a&ually meet with particular perfons who
have evidently either,
1. Too much ftrength and rigidity of fibre, and too
much fenfibility;
2. Too little ftrength, and yet too much fenfibility;
3. Too much ftrength, and but little fenfibility;
or»
4. But little fenfibility, joined to weaknefs;
we Ihould look on fuch perfons as more or lefs in the
valetudinary ftate, who require that thefe morbific dif¬
pofitions be particularly watched, left they fall into
thofe difeafes which are allied to the different tempera¬
ments.
People of the firft-mentioned temperament being
liable to fuffer from continued fevers, efpecially of the
inflammatory fpecies, their fcheme of preferving health
Ihould confift in temperate living, with refpeA both to
diet and exercife; they fhould Itudioufly avoid immo¬
derate drinking, and be remarkably cautious left any
of the natural difeharges be checked. People of this
habit bear evacuations well, efpecially bleeding: they
ought not, however, to lofe blood but when they really
require to haveahe quantity leffened; becaufe too much
of this evacuation would be apt to reduce the conftitu¬
tion to the fecond-mentioned temperamertt, wherein
ftrength is deficient, but fenfibility redundant.
Perfons of the fecond temperament are remarkably
prone to fuffer from painful and fpafmodic difeafes, and
are eafily ruffled; and thofe of the fofter fex who have
this delicacy of habit, are very much difpofed to hyfte-
rical
fart II. M E D I
bAcTicErical complaints. The Fcheme here (hould be, to
J ' ftrengthen the folids by moderate exercife, cold bath¬
ing, the cortex, and chalybeate waters ; particular at¬
tention fhould conftantly be had to the ftate of the di-
geftive organs, to prevent them from being overloaded
with any fpecies of faburra which might engender fla¬
tus, or irritate the fenfible membranes of the ftomach
and inteftines, from whence the diforder would foon
be communicated to the whole nervous fyftem. Per-
fons of this conftitution (hould never take any of the
draftic purges, nor ftronger emetics ; neither fhould
they lofe blood but in cafes of urgent neceflity. But a
principal (hare of management, in thefe extremely ir¬
ritable conftitutions, confifts in avoiding all fudden
changes of every fort, efpecially thofe with refpeft to
diet and cloathing, and in keeping the mind as much
as poffible in a ftate of tranquillity : hence the great
advantages which people of this frame derive from the
ufe of medicinal waters drunk on the foot, becaufe of
that freedom from care and ferious bufinefs of every
kind, which generally obtains in all the places laid out
for the reception of valetudinarians.
The third-mentioned temperament, where there is
an excefs of ftrength and but little fenfibility, does not
feem remarkably prone to any diftrefling or dangerous
fpecies of difeafe ; and therefore it can hardly be fup-
pofed that perfons fo circumftanced will either of them-
felves think of any particular feheme of management,
or have recourfe to the faculty for their inftrudf ious:
fuch conftitutions, however, we may obferve, bear
all kinds of evacuations well, and fometimes require
them to prevent an over-fulnefs, which might end in
an oppreflion of the brain or fome other organ of
importance.
But the fourth temperament, where we have weak-
nefs joined to want of fenfibility, is exceedingly apt to
fall into tedious and dangerous difeafes, arifing from a
defeft of abforbent power in the proper fets of velfels,
and from remiflhefs of the circulation in general:
whence corpulency, dropfy, jaundice, and different
degrees of fcorbutic affection. In order to prevent
thefe, or any other fpecies of accumulation and depra¬
vation of the animal-fluids, the people of this confti¬
tution ftiould ufe a generous courfe of diet, with briftc
exercife, and be careful that none of the fecretions be
interrupted, nor any of the natural difcharges fup-
preffed. Thefe conftitutions bear purging well, and of¬
ten require it; as alfo the ufe of emetics, which are
frequently found neceffary to fupply the place of ex¬
ercife, by agitating the abdominal vifcera, and are of
fervice to prevent the ftagnation of bile, or the accu¬
mulation of mucous humours, which hinder digeftion,
and clog the firft paffages. • The free ufe of muftard,
horfe-radifti, and the like fort of ftimulating dietetics,
is ferviceable in thefe torpid habits.
When the general mafs of fluids is accumulated be¬
yond what is conducive to the perfefb’on of health,
there arifes what the writers term a plethora, which may
prove the fource of different difeafes; and therefore,
when this overfulnefs begins to produce languor and
oppreflion, care fhould be taken in time to reduce the
body to a proper ftandard, by abridging the food and
increafing the natural d’fcharges, uftng more exercife,
and indulging lefs in fleep.
But in oppofite circumftances, where the fluids have
been exhaufted, we are to endeavour the prevention of
further wafte by the ufe of ftrengthening ftomachics,
2
CINE. 4873
nourifhing diet, and indulgence from fatigue of body Practice
or mind. '
Vitiated fluids are to be confidered as affefted either
with the different kinds of general acrimony, or as be¬
traying figns of fome of the fpecies of morbific matter
which give rife to particular difeafes, fuch as gout,
rheumatifm, ftone, feurvy, &c.
During the ftate of infancy, we may fometimes ob¬
ferve a remarkable acidity, which not only fhews itfelf
in the firft paffages, but alfo feems to contaminate the
general mafs of fluids. As it takes its rife, however,
from weak bowels, our views, when we mean to-pre¬
vent the ill confequences, muft be chiefly dire&ed to
ftrengthen the digeftive organs, as on their foundnefs
the preparation of good chyle depends; and hence
fmall dofes of rhubarb and chalybeates (either the na¬
tural chalybeate waters mixed with milk, or the fiorts
martiales in dofes of a few grains, according to the age
of the child), are to be adminiftered ; and the diet is
to be fo regulated as not to add to this acid tendency:
brifk exercife is likewife to be enjoined, with friction*
on the ftomach, belly, and lower extremities.
Where the fluids tend to the putrefa&ive ftate, which
ftiews itfelf by rottennefs of the teeth, fponginefs and
bleeding of the gums, a bloated look and livid call; the
diet then Ihould be chiefly of frefh vegetables and ripe
fruits, with wine in moderation, briik exercife, and
ftrengthening bitters.
Where acrimony (hews itfelf by itching eruptions,
uncommon thirft, and fiufhing heats, nothing will an-
fwer better than fuch fulphureous waters as the Har-
rowgate and Moffat in Britain, or the Ltican and Swad-
linbar in Ireland ; at the fame time ufing a courfe of
diet that (hall be neither acrid nor heating.
So far with refpeft to thofe kinds of morbific mat¬
ter which do not invariably produce a particular fpe-
ci'es of difeafe: but there are others of a fpeciftc nature,
fome of which are generated in the body fpontaneouf-
ly, and feem to arife from errors in diet, or other cir¬
cumftances of ill management with refpeft to the ani¬
mal oeconomy; and hence it is fometimes poffible, in
fome degree, if not altogether, to prevent the ill con¬
fequences. Thus, there are inftances where returns of
the gout have been prevented by adhering ftri&ly to a
milk diet.
The rheumatifm has alfo been fometimee warded off
by wearing a flannel Hurt, or by ufing the cold bath
without interruption.
The ftone may be retarded in its progrefs, and pre¬
vented from creating much diftrefs, by the internal ufe
of foap and lime-water, or by foap-lees taken in milk
or in veal-broth.
The putrid feurvy may be prevented by warta clo¬
thing and perfeverance in bride exercife, by drinking
wine or cyder, and eating freely of fuch vegetable fub-
ftances as can be had in thofe fuuations where this dif¬
eafe is moft apt to (hew itfelf.
In conftitutions where there is an hereditary difpo-
fition to the fcrophula, if early precautions be taken to
ftrengthen the folids by cold bathing, a nouriftring
courfe of diet, and moderate ufe of wine, the acrimony
which gives rife to the difeafe will probably be pre¬
vented from producing any very bad effedts.
The other kinds of morbific matter, which are of
the fpecific nature, are received into the body by in-
fedlion or contagion.
The infection of a putrid fever or dyfentery, is bed
27 N -2 . pre-
4874 M E D I
Practice prevetrted by immediately taking an emetic on the firft
attack of the ficknefs or {hivering; and if that does not
completely anfwer, let a large blifter be applied be¬
tween the fhoulders: by this method the nurfes and
other attendants on the tick in the naval hofpitals have
often been preferved.—As to other infedious morbific
matter, fee the Hydrophobia, Poisons, &c.
The ill effedts that may arife from the different fpe-
cies of faburra are to be obviated, in general, by the
prudent adminifiration of emetics, and carefully ab-
ftaining from fuch kinds of food as are known to caufe
the accumulation of noxious matters in the firft paffages.
Crude vegetables, milk, butter, and other oily fub-
ftances, are to be avoided by perfons troubled with a
fournefs in the ftomach ; briflc exercife, efpecially ri¬
ding, is to be ufed, and they are to refrain from fer¬
mented liquors: the common drink ftiould be pure wa¬
ter; or water with a very little of fome ardent fpirit,
fuch as rum or brandy. Sellers and Vahls water are to
be drunk medicinally; and aromatic bitters, infufions,
or tin&ures, with the acid elixir of vitriol, from ten to
twenty drops, will be found ferviceable, in order to
ftrengthen the fibres of the ftomach, and promote the
expulfion of its contents, thereby preventing the too
hafty fermentation of the alimentary mixture. In or¬
der to procure immediate relief, the magnefia alba, or
Creta prxparata, will feldom fail ; and the magnefia,
as well as the other, may be made into lozenges, with
a little fugar and mucilage; and in that form may be
carried about and taken occafionally by people affiicT
ted with the acid faburra.
In conftitutions where there is an exuberance or ftag-
nation of bile, and a troublefome bitternefs in the
mouth, it is neceffary to keep the bowels always free,
by taking occafionally fmall dofes of pure aloes, oleum
riciniy cream of tartar, fome of the common purging
falts, or the natural purging waters.
When there is a tendency to the empyreumatic and
rancid faburra, people fhould carefully avoid all the va¬
rious kinds of thofe oily and high-feafoned things ge¬
nerally termed made-dijhes, and eat fparingly of plain
meat, without rich fauces or much gravy; and in thefe
cafes the propereft drink is pure water.
5°° II. Rules for thofe mho enjoy perfeft Health.
There can be no doubt that, in general, tempe¬
rance is the true foundation of health ; and yet the
ancient phyficians, as we may fee in the rules laid
down by Celfus, did not fcruple to recommend in¬
dulgence now and then, and allowed people to ex¬
ceed both in eating and drinking : but it is fafer to
proceed to excels in drink than in meat; and if the
debauch ftiould create any extraordinary or diftreffing
degree of pain or ficknefs, and a temporary fever
fhould enfue, there are two ways of {baking it off,
either to lie in bed and encourage perfpiration, or to
et on horfe-back and by briflc exercife reftore the
ody to its natural ftate. The choice of thefe two
methods muft always be determined by the peculiar
circumftances of the parties concerned, and from the
experience which they may have had which agrees
belt with them.
If a perfon fhould commit excels in eating, efpe¬
cially of high-feafoned things, with rich fauces, a
draught of cold water, acidulated with fpirit of vitriol.
CINE. Par
will take off the fenfe of weight at the ftomach,Pa
and affift digeftion, by moderating and keeping with¬
in bounds the alimentary fermentation, and thus pre¬
venting the generation of too much flatus. The lux¬
ury offices may be here of real fervice at the tables of
the great, as producing fimilar effefts with the cold
water acidulated. Perfons in thefe circumftances ought
not to lay themfelves down to fleep, but ftiould keep
up and exercife until they are fenfible that the ftomach
is unloaded, and that they no Ibnger feel any opprefixve
weight about the prsecordia.
If a man is obliged to faft, he ought, if poffible,
during the time, to avoid laborious work.: after
fuffering fevere hunger, people ought not at once to
gorge and fill themfelves ; nor it is proper, after being
overfilled, to enjoin an abfolute faft : neither is it fafe
to reft totally immediately after exceffive labour,
nor fuddenly fall hard to work after having been long
without motion : in a word, all changes ftiould be
made by gentle degrees ; for though the conftitution
of the human body be fuch that it can bear many al¬
terations and irregularities without much danger, yet,
when the tranfitions are extremely fudden, they can¬
not fail of producing fome kind or degree of diforder.
It is alfo the advice of Celfus to vary the feenes of
life, and not confine ourfelves to any fettled rules:
but as inaftion renders the body weak and liftlefs, and
exercife gives vigour nd ftrength, people {hould ne¬
ver long omit riding, walking, or going abroad in a
carriage; fencing, playing at tennis, or dancing, as
each fhall be found moft agreeable or convenient, are
to be ufed in their turns, according to the circumftances
and tendency to any particular fpecies of difeafe. But
when the weaknefs of old age {hall have rendered the
body incapable of all thefe, then dry fridtions with
the flelh-brufh will be extremely requifite to preferve
health, by accelerating the flow of humours through
the fmalleft orders of veffels, and preventing the fluids
from ftagnating too long in the cellular interftices of
the flelhy parts.
Sleep is the great reftorer of ftrength ; for, during
this time, the nutritious particles appear to be chiefly
applied to repair the wafte, and replace thofe that
have been abraded and waftied off by the labour and
exercife of the day : but too much indulgence in fleep
has many inconveniences, both with regard to body
and mind, as it blunts the fenfes, and encourages the
fluids to ftagnate in the cellular fyftems; whence cor¬
pulency, and its neceffary confequences languor and
weaknefs.
The proper time for fleep is the night feafon, when
darknefs and filence naturally brings it on : therefore
day-fleep in general is not fo refreftiing; and to fome
people is really diftrefsful, as creating an unufual gid-
dinefs and languor, efpecially in perfons addidted to
literary purfuits. Cuftom, however, frequently ren¬
ders fleep in the day neceffary ; and in thofe conftitu¬
tions where it is found to give real refreflrment, it ought
to be indulged.
With regard to the general regimen of diet, it has
always been held as a rule, that the fofter and milder
kinds of aliment are moft proper for children and
younger fubjedls ; that grown perfons {hould eat what
is more fubftantial; and old people leffen their quan*
tity of folid food, and increafe that of their drink.
INDEX.
I
[ 4875 ]
ABORTION, n° 361
ytjljj-Qrfojjt vejjels, the fame
w| with lymphatics. Their aclion
:3‘j exemplified under Jaundice
'll n° 453' o , •
a Ahforient medicines. See their
:«! ufe under the Difeafes of
Children and Dyfpepfia.
''■\Abfiinence, 43
imAcrirnenyof the fluids, 215-217
wLAftions, corporeal, are confider-
J |j ed by medical authors as vo-
11 luntary, or fuch as are the ef-
1 If fed of reafon and will; fpon-
» | taneouf, or fuch as are the ef-
t fed of inftind ; and mixed,
or thofe where it is difficult
to fay whether reafon or in¬
ftind have the greateft ffiare.
All the adions of the human
I body are much influenced by
I changes in the ftate of the fy-
ftem itfelf, as has been feen in
I the preceding treatife; alfo
by cuftom, &c. See the ar¬
ticle Custom and Habit.
A dip ft a, 470
JEtiology, that part of patholo¬
gy which treats of the caufes
of difeafes. See the Theory,
paffim.
Aetiusy his.dodrines, 87
AgheuJUa, 461
u Ague. See Intermittents,
[ infra; and p. 4871
Albugo. See Surgery.
Alexander, his tenets, 88
Alterants. Thofe medicines
which produce an alteration
in the body without any re¬
markable evacuation.
Amaurofs, 455
Amenorrhcea, 488
Amentia, 427
Aviphimerina cardiac a, 261.
Paludofa, or remitting fever,
262
Aneejlhefia, 462
Anaphredifia, 471
Anafarca, 437
Angina Pefloris, 70, 480
Anorexia, 469
Anofmia, 460
Anxiety, 110, 172
Aphonia, 472
Aphtha, 342
Apoplexy, 368, 373—376
Appetite, want of, 469
Arabian phyficians, 90
Arthrodynia, 313
N D E X.
Arthryopofis, 321
Afcarides, 493
Afcites, 441
Afclepiades, 75—77
AJlhma, 396—398
Atrophy, 432
Bathing, 4;
Bleeding, 56
Bleeding at the nofe, 344
Blindnefs. See Dysopia.
Blijlers, p. 4669
Blood. See Fever, pajfm; and
n® 197—213
Blood-vejfels, 131, 195, 196
Boerhaave's theory, 1 o 1 —122.
Oppofed by Hoffman, 123
Boil. See Phlogosis, infra.
Bubo. See Surgery.
Bulitnia, 463
C.
Calculi, 235
Caligo, 454
Crf«c<?r,226,and p.4870,4872;
and fee Surgery.
Canine madnefs, 425
Carditis, 293
Catalepfy, 375
Cataratt, 454
Catarrh, 365, 366
Caufes, predifponent, exciting,
and proximate, 161, 162
Caufus, or burning fever, 250
Cellular texture, 167
Celfus, 81, 82
Cephalalgia, 491
Charcoal {umzs, 373
Chemifry, when introduced into
medicine, 95
Chicken-pox, 329
Child-bed fever, 490
Childrens difeafes, 497
Chincough, 405
Chlorofis, 386
Cholera, 229, 414, 415
Chorea, 391, and p. 4870
Chryfppus, 64
Circulation of the blood, 98
Coeliacpaflion, 224, 419
Cohefion, 128, 165
Cold, 141
Cold fit of fevers, 109
Colic, 407—413
Coma, 116
Confumption of the lungs, 351
—353. and p. 4870, 4871
Contagions, 140
Continent fever, 137
Continued fever, 134, 273
ContraUions of the limbs, 477
Convulfions, llS, 390
Corns. See Surgery.
Corpulency, 404, 433
Cofivenefs, 222, 484
Cough, 219
Crifis, 23
Critical days, 24, 146
Croup, 286, and p. 4701
Cullen’s theory, fed. ii. p.4599
Cynanche tonftllaris, 285. Ma¬
ligna, 286. Trachealis, 286,
and p. 4701. Pharyngea,
287, Parotidsea, 288
Cyftitis, 305, 306
D.
Damp linen : Heberden’s opi¬
nion of the dangers arifing
from fleeping in it, p. 4656,
col. 2.
Deafnefs, 45 8,459, and p.4870
Death, 126, 131, 142
Debility, 135, 144
Delirium, 115, 135,184
Dentition, p. 4867
Diabetes, 422, 423
Diarrhoea, 120,223,416—418
Diathefis phlogi/lica, 152, 188
Diet, 19, 42, 44, and p. 4874
Digcftion, 221
Dogmatifls, 63, 74
Dropfy of the breaft, 430. Of
various other parts of the
body, 370, 431—444. See
alfo p. 4870, col. 2.
Dumbnefs, 473
Dyfscoea, 408
Dyfentery, 225, 367
Dyfopia, 456
Dyfpepfia, 384
Dyfpermatifmus, 487
Dyfpncea, 399—404
Dyfuria, 233, 486
E.
Effluvia of charcoal. SeeCnAR-
coal, fupra.
Eggs. The fliells of eggs are
prepared by boiling them in
water, to feparate the mem¬
brane which lines their inner
furface, and then powdering
them by levigation. They
bind the belly the lead of all
the teftaceous abforbents.
Eggs are nutritious, but if
hard boiled are difficultly di-
gefted. The yolk is ufed as
a medium for uniting balfams
with water; but the white is
preferable, as it is lefs dif-
guftfiil to many ftomachs.
Weak ftomachs digeft the
white more 'eafily than the
yolk. Betwixt the ferum of
the blood and the white of
egg there is great analogy.
Elajlicity, 165
Elettricity, 497
Elephantiafis, 449
Empirics, 63, 72, 73
Empyema, 55, 292
Enteritis, 299, 300
Eneurefs, 482
Ephidrofis, 479
Eptlfpfy, 393—395
Epiphora, 480
Epijlaxis, 344
Erafijlratus, 65—69
Eryfipelas, 322—324
Erythema, 282
Exanthemata, 281
F.
Fatnefs. See Corpulency,
fupra.
Feeling, 170. Lofs of it, 462
Fever: Boerhaave’s theory of it,
ig6—122. Cullen’s account
of the phenomena, 133, 134*
Explication of their caufes,.
J35> Different kinds of
fevers, 134. Erroneous opi¬
nions refuted, 136
E£/?«/tzlacrymalis,p.4870; and
fee Surgery.
Fixed air, 498
Flexibility, 165
Fluor alb us, 364
Flux of blood, 478
Fog, p. 4657, col. 2.
Frambo’fta, 451
Fritiion. See Rheumatis-
mus, infra.
Frojl-bitten. See Qangrene,
infra.
Funtiions of the body, 158
Furor uterinus, 467
Furunculus. See Phlogosis,
infra.
G.
Galen, 83, 84
Gallficknefs, p. 4655, cof. I.
Gangrene, 155, 281
Gaflritis, 297, 298
Genus nervofum, 169
Glaucoma, 454
Gonorrhoea, 483
Gout, 315—319, and p. 487 s
Gregory's theory, fed. in.
p. 4611.
Growth of the body, 125
Gutta rofacea. See Phlqg©»
4876
infra.
Gutta ferena, 455, and p. 4869
H.
H.rmoptyfu, 345—350
Htmorrhagia, 343
Hxmorrhois, or Haemorrhoids,
354—358
Headacb, 491, and p. 4870
Health ; on preferring it, 499,
500
Hearing, 176
Heart-hum, 406
Heat, 115
Hectic fever, 280
Hemiplegia. See Palsy, infra.
Hepatic Rux, 421
Hepatitis, 301
Herophilusy 70
Heraclitus, 11
Herpes. See Surgery
Hickup, 1J3, 393—395
Hieranofus, p. 4787, col. 2.
Hippocrates; the books he wrote,
13. His account of the hu
mours of the human body
health, ficknefs, and different
difeafes, 14—18. Dire&ions
with regard to diet, 19. Me^
thod of clafling difteinpers
21. Definition of a crifis, 23
His prognoftics, 26—34
Method of preferving health,
27. General maxims of his
pra6Vice,40. Dire&ionscon
cerning bathing, 45. con
cerning purgatives, 47—50
Do&rine with regard to vo
mits, clyfters, &c. 52—54
Remedy for an empyema, 55
Rules concerning bleeding,
•56. Diuretic and fudoriiic
medicines, 57. Hypnotics
and fpecifics, 58, 59. Ex¬
ternal applications, 60. His
compound medicines, 61
Hooping-cough, 405
Hunger, immoderate, 463
Hydrocephalus, 370, 438
Hydrophobia, 425, 426
Hydrorachitis, 439
Hydrothorax, 430
Hypochondriajis, 385
Hygiene, 499
Hyjleria, 424
Hyjleritis, 307
yaundice, or Idler us, 453
Idiotifm, 427
Iliac pajjion, 228
Inflammation, 105, 148
Incubus, 430
Infants, 497
Inhaler, p. 4763.
Plate CLXXIV. fig. 5.
fhews \\\e.Inkcier as conit rue-
I N D
tedby MrMudge. The gra¬
ting turned back, to fhew the
opening into the valve.' The
adjoining fig. is a fedtion of
the cover, b. The conftruc-
tion of the cork valve; c, the
conical part into which the
flexible tube d is fixed. The
flexible part of the tube is
about fix inches long, and
may be made by winding a
long flip of filk oil-fkin over
a fpiral brafs wire. ,
Some little inconvenience
is fuppofed to attend the ufe
of this machine, as the empty
part of the inhaler muil con¬
tain part of the air which the
perfon has already breathed.
Mr Aitken furgeon in Edin¬
burgh hath contrived the
inhaler fig. 6. where this
inconvenience is avoided.
The machine is fupplied with
heated water at the fcrewed
junfture of the flexible pipe
marked A, which precludes
the entrance of the air by a
fold of foft leather interpo-
fed. The exfpired air is e-
mitted by the corner of the
mouth, as in fmoaking to¬
bacco ; fo that there is no
occafion for any other hole
or valve in the machine.
Inoculation, p. 4769.
Internalfenfes, their diforders,
*83
Intermittents, 122,-136, 148,
~,56;
hitemperies, a Sardinian dif-
eafe, p. 4656, col. 1.
Intumefcentise, 432
Involuntary laughter, the fame
with rifus cynicus or fardo-
nicus; a fymptom of many
nervous difeafes, and like-
wife of fome inflammatory
ones. See Hydrophobia,
Pleuritis, idle.
Innnardfits of children, p. 4866
Joy. All the depreffing paf-
fions of the mind are hurtful
to a fick perfon ; but excefs
of joy is no lefs prejudicial
on account of the vehement
commotion it occafions. See
the pra&ical part of this
treatife, pajflm; and the ar¬
ticle Passions.
Ifchuria, 232
Itch. See Surgery.
Itching, 173
Lepra, or Leprojy, 450
E X.
Lachrymal humour, flux of, 480
Leeches, 281
Leucorrhcea, 364
Lientery, 420
Loathing, 112
Lochia, immoderate flux 01,362
Longing, 465
Long-Jlgktednefi, 465
Lumbago, 310
Lumbricus; a name for the
long round worms, which
fometimes infeft the human
body. See Worms, in¬
fra.
Lunacy. See Mania, itfra.
Lycanthropia, a newdiftemper,
86
M.
Mathematical or Mechanital
theory, 99
Mania, and Melancholy, 18 5,
428, 429
Meafles, 330,-335
MeUne, 495
Menorrhagia, 359
Menfes, fuppreffion of, 488,
and p. 4871. Immoderate
flow of, n° 359—264
Mrthodijls, 78—80
Miafmata, 139
Miliary fever, 336
Mobility, 187, 189
Moles, 209
Morbus niger, the fame with
Melane.
Morbus veficularis, the fame
with Pemphigus.
Mufcles, a part of the nervous
fyftem, 127
Mtfcular power, diforders in
it, 186.
Mutitas, 473.
R _
Naufea and vomiting, 227
Nephritis, 304
NervesznA nervous power, 129,
130, 132
Nervous fever, 275
Nervous fyjlem, 169
Nervous confimption, 432
Nettle-rajh, 340
Night-mare, 430
Nofology, fedt. iv. p. 4631.
Nojialgia, 4.68
Nutrition by the nerves, 130
Nymphomania, 467
O.
Odontalgia, 314
Oefophagus, a dangerous affec¬
tion of it, 492
Oneirodynia, 430
Ophthalmia, 283
Qribafius, 85
P.
Pain, 171
Palpitation of the heart, 206,
395
Palfy, 190, 377—380, and
p.4870
Paroxyfms of fever accounted
for, 137
Paulas Mgineta, 89
Pemphigus, 431
Peritonitis, 294—296
Perfpiration, 230, 231
Pertujfls, 405
Pejlis, the plague, 325
Phlogojjs, 28)
Phrenitis, 284
Phthifis, 351—353. &P-48701 1
487*
Phyficians : their origin, theo-fl
ries, methods ©f cure, &c. |I
among different nations, till l
the time of Pythagoras, t—9 |
Divided into dogmatifts and )
empirics, 63
Phyfometra, 436
Pica, 465
Plethora, 210
Pleurify, baftard, 312
Pleuritis, 290
Plica polonica, 452
Pneutnonia, 289
Pneumatojis, 434
Podagra, 31c
Poifons, 373, 494
Polydipfia, 464
Polypi, 209
Polyfarcia, 433
Praxagoras, 62
Prognojlics of Hippocrates, 26
—34
Pfellifmus, 475
Pfeudoblepfis, 457
Ptyalfmus, 481
Puerperal fever, 490
Ptdfe, 198—203.
Pujlules, 12 1
Putrid malignant fever, 277,
and p. 4872
—— fore throat, 286, and
p- 4872
Putrefcency, 145, 216
Pyrofis, 406
Quartan fever, 134, 263. Du¬
plicated, 264. Triplicated,
265. Double, 266. Tri¬
ple, 267. Accompanied
with fymptoms of other dif¬
eafes, 268. Complicated
with other difeafes, 269. Re¬
mitting, 270
genuine, 271. Par¬
tial, 272. Remitting, 273
Quotidiana deceptiva, 260
R.
Rachitis, 445
Raphania, 392
INDEX.
I eaflm of the fyflem, 136
« emitting fever, 262
V of inflammation, 153
u efpiration, 218
a heumatifmus, 308, 309, and
.(1 p. 4869
: tickets, 445
S.
s’ 'akrnum; a college founded
rf; there, 93
Salivation, 481
Satyriafu, 466
u Scarlatina, or Scarlet-fever,
\ 337—339
1 Scirrhus, 156
I Sciatica, 311, and p. 4870
(S Scorbutus, 448
s Scrophula, 446, and p. 4870
Scurvy, 97, 448
Shortfightednefs, 178
Sleep, 192—194, and p.4874
Small-pox, 326—328
Smell, 175. DefeA of it, 460
Sneezing, 220
Solids, 165, 166, 169
Spafn, 135, 191.
Sphacelus, 155
Spina bifida, 439
Spitting of blood, 345—350
Splenitis, 303
Squinting, 181, 476
Stahl’s theory, 100
Stammering, 475
Stone, 486
Strangury', 234
Strabifnus, 476
Sweating, 1x9. Excefs of,
479
Sweatingficknefs, 94
Syncope, 207, 382, 383
Synocha, 274
Synochus, 279
Syphilis, 447
T.
Tabes, 431. Dorfalis, 432
Tania, or Tape-worm, 493
Tafie, 174. Want of, 461
Teething, p. 4867
Tenefmus, n° 226
Tertian fever, 134, & p.4643.
Irregular, n° 237. Double,
238. Duplicated, 239.
Triple, 240. Semitertian,
241. Sleepy tertian, 242.
Convulfive, 243. Eruptive.
244. Inflammatory, 245,
Complicated with other dif-
orders, 246. Arifing from
various caufes, 247. With
only a remiflion between the
fits, 248
Tertiana fubcontinua, 259
Tetanus, 387, 389
Thirjl exceffive, 464. Want
of it, 470
Thrujh, 342
Tooth-ach, 314, and p. 4869
Torpor, 189
Tremor, 381
Trichoma, 452
Trifmus, 388
Tritaophya Jyncopalis, 249.
Caufus, 250. Vraliflavien-
fis, 251. Typhodes, 252.
Elodes, 253. Carotica, 255.
Leipyria, 256. Deceptiva,
257. Americana, 258.
Tympanites, 435.
Typhus, 275
Valetudinarians, rules for .them,
499
Varicella, 329
Variola, 326—328
END OF THE SIXTH VOLUM
4877
Venereal difeafe, 96, 447, and
p.4871.
Venery, impotence of, 4 71
Vertigo, 182 ’
Vifania, 426
Vis medicatrix natura, 136
Vifion, 177—180
Vitus’s Dance, 391, & p. 4870
Vorsiica, 231
Vomiting, 113
Voice, lofs of, 472. Sound of
it changed, 474
Ulcers, p. 4870, 4872 ; and
fee Surgery.
Urine, involuntary flux of,482,,
Suppreflion of, 232. Dif¬
ficulty of making, 233, 486
Urticaria, 340
W.
Watchfidnefs, 11-7
IVeaknefs, 114
Whites, 364
Worms, 493
Worm-fever, p. 4868
Y.
Yaws, 451
Yellow-fever, 278..
*E.
Directions for placing the Plates in this Volume.
Number of
Plates.
175, or Plate CLVIII.
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
CLIX.
CLX.
CLX1.
CLXIT.
CLXIII.
CLXIV.
CLXV.
CLXVI.
To face Page 4061^} 184 or Plate CLXVII.
CLXVIII.
CLXIX.
CLXX.
CLXXI.
CLXII.
CLXXIII. ?
CLXXIV. 5
Table ^Measures
To face Page 4528
4534 '
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N. B.
Errata, Omissions, &c. noticed and fupplied in the APPENDIX at the end of the Work.